CHAPTER 1

ORIGIN OF LIFE

1.1 THE ORIGIN OF LIFE

(Campbell page 513)

1.1.1 EPISTEMOLOGY FROM THE

SECULAR AND ISLAMIC
PERSPECTIVE

• Epistemology (theory of
knowledge) - branch of philosophy
that studies nature, methods,
limitations, and validity of knowledge
and belief.

• Biology
 Study of life.

 “Bios” – “life”; “logos” – “knowledge”.

 Definition - a science devoted to

study of all living organism.

• Present scenario: sciences studied &

approached from secular point of view.
• That is, knowledge is presented
without attributing it to ultimate
creator - Allah SWT.

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• As Muslims, ultimate source of
knowledge is from Allah SWT.
• Knowledge leads us to know our
creator better.
• Makes us men and women of taqwa
and submit ourselves to the will of
Allah SWT.

• First surah revealed to mankind - Surah

96: AL `ALAQ.
• “Read, in the name of thy God and
cherisher, Who created”.
• Philosophy behind revelation - mankind
is knowledge-based (Read )
• Separates us from animal kingdom
• Knowledge enables us to eventually
know:
(i) who our creator is, and
(ii) the purpose of our
creation.

Knowledge taught from secular

perspective

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• Individual become knowledgeable but
rejects God as source of knowledge
& creator of universe.
• Knowledge is just information/data -
can be verified through scientific
experiments.
• Laws of physics, biology, chemistry,
etc. - Law of Nature.
• Laws governing the universe happen
by coincidence.
• Formation of the universe, life, etc is a
product of pure chance of random
cosmic activity - coincidental
without any purpose, happens by its
own self.

• Science - from Latin word scientia: “to

know”.
• Definition - systematic knowledge
that can be observed,
experimented, and repeated.
• Science - study of the natural
world through observation,
identification, description,
experimental investigation and
theoretical explanations.

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• It attempts to describe and understand
the nature of the universe in whole
or part.
• Secular perspective of science - study
of the phenomena of nature that deny
God as the Creator.
• Biology - science devoted to study of
living organism.

• Any scientific discoveries and findings

are solely attributed to the scientist
who makes the discovery by his own
effort and intellect.

Knowledge taught from the Islamic

perspective

• Universe and all living things

created by Allah SWT and with a
purpose.
• All thing created will bow and
submit themselves to the ultimate
creator and eventually they will
return to Allah SWT to be judged
and rewarded.

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• Knowledge is information - leads
us to understanding Allah as our
creator.
• Islamic science - study of the
phenomena of God’s creations that
proof the existence of a creator,
Allah SWT.
• Thus, science is the study of
tauhid, the study of the magnificent
power of Allah and his 99 attributes.
• Biology - study of life created by
Allah SWT.
• Any scientific discovery by man is
attributed to guidance/ilham from
Allah SWT for the scientists’ efforts.
• Allah through his revelations has
asked mankind to ponder the
creations of the universe as proof
of the existence of an absolute
creator.

[http://quran.al-islam.com/Index/indexe1.asp]

Do they not reflect within themselves:

God did not create the skies and the
earth and that which is between them but
with truth, and (for) an appointed term?."

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(Quran 30:8)

• Two forms of proof to guide mankind to

existence of absolute creator.
1) Dalil Naqli (revealed knowledge)

2) Dalil Aqli (reasoning)

• Man through his reasoning, intellect,

scientific inquiries, and findings will
eventually discover his creator and
submit himself to Him.

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1.1.2 PROPERTIES OF LIFE

Life = living things/organisms sharing the

following fundamental properties:

1. Cellular organization
2. Sensitivity
3. Growth
4. Development
5. Reproduction
6. Regulation
7. Homeostasis
8. Heredity

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1.1.3 HYPOTHESIS ABOUT THE
ORIGIN OF LIFE (Raven 8 edition)
th

• Three theories to explain origin of life

on Earth.

(1) SPECIAL CREATION

• Life-forms put on earth by

supernatural or divine forces
(God).
• Core of most major religion.
• Oldest hypothesis about life’s origin.

• Sura 41, Verses 9 -12: Describes the

Creation, by juxtaposing (to place side
by side especially for comparison or
contrast) an account of earthly
events and one of celestial events

(God is speaking to the Prophet)

[41:9]

"Say. Do you disbelieve Him Who created

the earth in two periods? Do you ascribe
equals to Him. He is the Lord of the
Worlds.

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[41:10]

"He set in the (earth) mountains standing

firm. He blessed it. He measured therein
its sustenance in four periods, in due
proportion, in accordance with the needs
of those who ask for (sustenance? or
information?).

[41:11]

"Moreover (tumma) He turned to heaven

when it was smoke and said to it and to
the earth: come willingly or unwillingly!
They said: we come in willing obedience

[41:12]

"Then He ordained them seven heavens

in two periods, and He assigned to each
heaven its mandate by Revelation. And
We adorned the lower heaven with
luminaries and provided it a guard. Such
is the decree of the All Mighty, the Full of
Knowledge."

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[41:9]

Say, "You disbelieve in the One who

created the earth in two days, and you
set up idols to rank with Him, though He
is Lord of the universe."*

[41:10]

He placed on it stabilizers (mountains),

made it productive, and He calculated its
provisions in four days, to satisfy the
needs of all its inhabitants.*

[41:11]

Then He turned to the sky, when it was

still gas, and said to it, and to the earth,
"Come into existence, willingly or
unwillingly." They said, "We come
willingly."

[41:12]

Thus, He completed the seven universes

in two days, and set up the laws for every
universe. And we adorned the lowest
universe with lamps, and placed guards
around it. Such is the design of the
Almighty, the Omniscient.

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 (2) EXTRATERRESTRIAL ORIGIN
(Campbell page 514)

 Panspermia Theory.
 Life may not have originated on
earth at all. Life may have infected
earth from some other planet.
• Some organic compounds from
which the first life on Earth arose may
have come from space from
meteorites.
• Certain meteorite that bombarded
Earth are carbonaceous chondrites -
rocks containing 1-2% carbon
compounds.
• Fragments of a 4.5 billion year old
chondrite collected in southern
Australia (1969) contained more than
80 amino acids.
• So it is believed that amino acids
reached planet Earth on chondrites and
may have added certain amino acids
into the primordial soup.

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(3) SPONTANEOUS ORIGIN
(Campbell page 514)

• Life may have evolved from inanimate

matter as associations among
molecules became more and more
complex (abiogenesis).

1.1.4 BIG BANG THEORY

• Dominant scientific theory about origin

of universe.
• Universe created 15 billion years
ago from a cosmic explosion that
hurled matter and in all directions.
• Before creation of Universe by Allah
SWT, matter, time and space does not
exist.
• Formation of universe started with
creation of a very small particle
(matter) which we call the
singularity.
• From this single particle of matter, a
huge explosion occurred.
• From onset of explosion, space, time,
matter and all laws governing the
universe came to exist.

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• From there on, the universe is
continuously expanding till
kiamah where it will collapse.

• Four passages in Qur’an summarize the

universe - the beginning, the present,
and how the universe will end.
• Allah SWT also mentions in Al Anbiya
verse 30, the beginning/creation of
the universe and the prerequisite of
any biological life must have the
element of WATER.
• Allah states that all biological life is
made of water. Life can only exist if
there is water [the liquid phase] on the
surface of any planet.

• Other life forms are non biological - the

angels are made from light while the
Jinns from fire.

• Only the Al-Qur’an mentions in a

scientific manner the formation of the
universe, the early universe when it is
made of matter and gasses, the
expanding universe, and how it will
end.

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• The 4 passages are listed below.

THE CREATION OF THE UNIVERSE.

ALL BIOLOGICAL LIFE FORMS ARE
MADE FROM WATER.

1. Some modern Islamic scholars believe

that the Qur'an parallels the Big
Bang in its account of creation,
described as follows:

"Do not the unbelievers see that the

heavens and the earth were joined
together as one unit of creation, before
We clove them asunder. We made every
living thing of water .Will they not then
believe?”

(Ch:21,Ver:30).

EARLY UNIVERSE IS MADE UP OF

GASSES BEFORE THE FORMATION
OF GALAXIES, STARS, AND
PLANETS, ETC.

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 2. The Quran mentions that at a
stage in its origin, the universe
was ‘gaseous’:

‘An also, turned He to the sky when it

was as smoke’.

The Qur’an 41:11

THE EXPANDING UNIVERSE, A FACT

ONLY TO BE DISCOVERED BY
SCIENCE 50 YEARS AGO.

3. The claim has also been made that

the Qur'an describes an expanding
universe:

"The heaven, We have built it with power.

And verily, We are expanding it."
(Ch:51,Ver:47).
HOW THE UNIVERSE WILL END. THE
BIG CRUNCH. THE CONTRACTION
OR THE COLLAPSE OF THE
UNIVERSE ON DOOMSDAY.

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4. Parallels with the Big Crunch and an
oscillating universe have also been
suggested:

(The Big Crunch is the hypothesis that

the universe will collapse upon itself after
its expansion eventually stops — a
counterpart to the Big Bang. This
hypothesis is the subject of much heated
discussion.)

"The day when We shall roll back the

skies, like a scribe rolls up a written
document. As We began the first creation,
We shall surely repeat it. It is a promise
(binding) upon us. Indeed it will happen.”
(Ch:21,Ver:104).

• Man with all knowledge of science will

NEVER ever be able to predict the
end of the universe.
• End will come suddenly, to the
bewilderment of mankind.
• But clues about when it is due can
be found in the Quran and Hadiths. .

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"The Hour (End of the World) is surely
coming, I will keep it almost hidden. For
each soul must be paid for its works."

Surah :Ta- Ha Chapter 20 Verse : 15

THE PURPOSE OF THE CREATION OF

MAN

• Man is a special creation as in

revealed in the Quran.

And (remember) when thy Lord said unto

the angels: Lo! I am creating a mortal out
of potter's clay of black mud altered.

So, when I have made him and have

breathed into him of My spirit, do ye fall
down, prostrating yourselves unto him.

SURAH 15, AYAT 28-29:

THE DUTY AND PURPOSE OF MAN

1. To worship Allah.

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I created the jinn and humankind only
that they might worship Me.

SURAH AZ-ZARIYAT (51), AYAH 56:

2. Khalifah on Earth

And when thy Lord said unto the angels:

Lo! I am about to place a vicegerent in
the earth, they said: wilt Thou place
therein one who will do harm therein and
will shed blood, while we, we hymn Thy
praise and sanctify Thee? He said: Surely
I know that which ye know not.

SURAH 2, AYAT 30

HIS ENEMY

• Enemy of mankind is Iblis.

• The devil has vowed to lead mankind
away from the righteous path. So
beware of the evil whisperer!!!

And (remember) when We said unto the

angels: Fall prostrate before Adam, and
they fell prostrate, all save Iblis. He was

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of the Jinn, so he rebelled against his
Lord's command. Will ye choose him and
his seed for your protecting friends
instead of Me, when they are an enemy
unto you? Calamitous is the exchange for
evil doers!

SURAH AL-KAHF (18), AYAH 50:

HIS ACCOUNTABILITY

• Man will be held accountable for his

actions and will be judged and
rewarded.

Whoever has done an atom’s weight of

good shall get its reward and whoever
has done an atom’s weight of evil shall
meet with its consequences

(Az-Zalzalah 99:7-8).

WHERE ARE WE HEADING?

• Paradise, Insya Allah.

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FORMATION OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM AND PLANET
EARTH

• Billions of years ago, our solar system was part of a massive

cloud of interstellar gasses and cosmic dust (Quran 41:11).
• As particles of matter were pulled together by gravitational
attraction, the vast cloud condensed into a gigantic,
spinning disc.
• Nearly 90% of the matter gravitated to the centre, causing
temperatures to rise high enough to ignite thermonuclear
reactions.
• It was in this scorching centre that the sun began to shine.

• At the same time the sun was forming, nearly 5 billion years ago,
smaller eddies of leftover gasses and dust were condensing
into the planets of our solar system.
• Heavier elements such as iron (refer to Surah Al Hadid),
nickel sank inward to form the cores of the planet, while
light gasses floated near the surface.
• Most of the lighter gasses were blasted away when the sun’s
thermonuclear reactions began, leaving shrunken, dense
planets with virtually no gaseous atmosphere.
• At this juncture Earth is dead (non living) and Allah will make it
living later in time.
• Age of Earth ≈ 4.6 billion years old.

• Immense quantities of thermal energy from gravitational

contraction, radioactive decay, meteorite impacts and solar
radiation turned the primitive Earth into a red hot molted orb
(sphere).
• As time passed, collisions with meteorite became less
frequent and the heat from radioactive decay and the
Earth’s contraction lessened.

• The Earth’s surface slowly cooled and a thin crust of

crystalline rock formed.
• Below the crust, the enormous heat of Earth’s interior
produces massive buildups of hot gasses, sparking violent
volcanic eruptions that thrust molten rock and gasses out
through the crust.
• Repeated eruptions gradually built the Earth’s rugged land
masses and filled the once empty atmosphere with clouds of
hot gasses and steam.
• Steam condensed into clouds and falls onto Earth as rain
water. With the creation of water by Allah, planet Earth became
living (Surah 41:19).

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And among His Signs in this: You see the earth barren and
desolate; but when We send down rain to it, it is stirred to
life and yields increase. Truly, He Who gives life to the
dead earth can surely give life to men who are dead, for
He has power over all things.

Surah 41 Ha-Mim : Verse 39

Behold! In the creation of the heavens and the earth; in

the alternation of the night and the day; in the sailing of
the ships through the ocean for the profit of mankind; in
the rain which God Sends down from the skies, and the
life which He gives therewith to an earth that is dead; in
the beasts of all kinds that He scatters through the earth;
in the change of the winds, and the clouds which they Trail
like their slaves between the sky and the earth; Here
indeed are Signs for a people that are wise.

Surah 2 The Heifer : Verse 164

• First collecting in small ponds and later forming the Earth’s

oceans, lakes, streams, rivers and ocean. In these bodies of
water, life emerged.

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 The Miraculous Planet Earth

• Secular perspective:
 Sudden appearance of life on Earth due to random acts of
nature.
 Formation of the universe: Occurred by chance, and
suddenly, defying any possible scientific explanation.
• Islamic perspective:
 Formation of universe attributed to the pleasure of Allah
SWT.
 Universe and its content, and life created for a purpose.
 We, the created, will bow and submit to Him after
witnessing the magnificent grandeur of his creation.
 Man need to study the universe and look within himself in
order to know his creator, as these are clear proof of the existence
of a supreme and ultimate creator full of wisdom.

• Conditions that make it possible for life to thrive on Earth:

1) SIZE OF EARTH
• If Earth was smaller, it would lack the
mass necessary to generate enough gravitational force
to hold onto its atmospheric gasses.
 Thus it will be devoid of the
atmosphere.
• If the mass was bigger, the gravitational force might
make the atmosphere too thick for light to pass through
 Thus, impossible for
photosynthesis to occur.

2) EARTH’S RELATIVE POSITION TO SUN

• If closer to sun, the high temperatures on Earth’s
surface would have prevented the condensation of steam
into liquid.
• If too far from sun, the freezing temperatures would
have kept water in the solid phase.
 Life, as stated in Qur’an, requires
liquid phase of water.
 Only on Earth does water exist in the
three phases: gas, liquid, and solid.

• In Surah Al Hadid Allah mentions iron.

• Molten iron forms the major component of the Earth’s core
→ generates magnetic fields surrounding Earth.
• Function of magnetic field - shields Earth from harmful solar
radiation (solar winds).

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• Solar winds can destroy the atmosphere which is so important
for life on Earth.
• Planet Mars has lost its magnetic field, and as a result, the solar
winds have stripped it of its precious atmosphere.
GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE
(Campbell page 518)

• Geologic record of Earth’s history - divided into three eons:

(Refer Table 26.1, Campbell, page 519).

• Boundaries between eras → times of Mass Extinctions - many

life forms suddenly disappear from Earth and replaced by new
life forms:

1. The Permian mass extension

 Marks the boundary between Paleozoic-Mesozoic era →
Extinction of 96% marine.
 8 out of 27 orders of insect were wiped out.
 Occurred in less than 5 million years.
 Occurred during the time when Earth was undergoing
massive volcanic eruption.

2. The Cretaceous mass extinction

 Occurred 65 million years ago
 Marks the boundary between the Mesozoic-Cenozoic era.
 Many species of dinosaurs, marine organism and ancient
plants disappeared.

• Eras divided in Periods.

 During the Periods, we also find evidences of smaller
incidences of extinction.
• Periods are subdivided into intervals called Epochs.

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1.1.5 CHEMICAL EVOLUTION: MILLER–UREY
EXPERIMENT
(Refer to Campbell page 513)

• Building blocks of macromolecules are readily formed abiotically

both in laboratory and on extraterrestrial bodies (meteorites).

• No human or scientist has demonstrated that these simpler

molecules can spontaneously assemble into reaction-
catalyzing proteins or information-containing nucleic acid
by the process of Chemical Evolution as outlined by Oparin
and others.

• Since it is impossible to recreate the origin of life in the

laboratory, many different hypothesis have been offered to
explain the course of events that created life.
• Hypotheses - controversial and met with skepticism by some
members of the “Origin of Life” scientific community.

Conditions On Early Earth Made The Origin Of Life Possible

Secular view: Four stages in the evolution of life on Earth -

approach used by the Spontaneous Origin Hypothesis.

STAGE 1

The abiotic (non living) synthesis of small organic molecules -

amino acids and nucleotides.

STAGE 2

The joining of these molecules (monomers) into polymers -

proteins and nucleic acids.

STAGE 3

The packaging of these molecules into protobionts or droplets

surrounded with a membrane that can maintain an internal
chemistry different from that of their surroundings.

STAGE 4

The origin of self replicating molecules - made inheritance

possible.

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Synthesis of Organic compounds on Early Earth / Chemical
Evolution

• Early Earth atmosphere - thick with water vapor together

with various compounds released by volcanic eruptions.
• Components of early Earth atmosphere - nitrogen, and its
oxides, carbon dioxide, methane, ammonia, hydrogen and
hydrogen sulfide.
• As Earth cooled, water vapor condensed into oceans, and much
H2 escaped into space.

• 1920s: A.I. Oparin and J.B.S. Haldane independently

postulated that early Earth’s atmosphere was a reducing
atmosphere (electron-adding) by which simple organic
compounds were formed from simple molecules.
• Energy for this organic synthesis - from lightning and intense
UV radiation.

• 1953: Stanley Miller and Harold Urey tested the Oparin-

Haldane hypothesis by creating laboratory conditions
comparable to those of early Earth.
• Both were not 100% sure of the gasses and conditions that
existed on early Earth.

• Miller and Urey set up a closed system in their laboratory. They

tried to simulate conditions thought to have existed on early
Earth. (See Figure 26.2, Campbell, page 513)

1. A warmed flask of water - the primeval sea.

2. The reducing atmosphere - consists of hydrogen, methane,
ammonia and water vapor.
3. Electrical sparks - lightning.
4. Condenser – cooled the atmosphere, raining water and
dissolved compounds into the “sea”.

Results

• As materials circulated through the apparatus, they collected

samples for analysis. Identified several organic molecules:

 Amino acids: alanine and glutamic acid

 Complex oily hydrocarbons

Conclusions

• Organic molecules can be formed in a strong reducing

atmosphere.

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Problems with the Reducing Atmosphere Hypothesis

• Doubts about early Earth having a truly reducing atmosphere.

• New evidence - early atmosphere was made primarily of
nitrogen and carbon dioxide - both non-reducing nor
oxidizing (electron-removing).
• Scientist using experiment similar to Miller–Urey experiment
unable to synthesize any organic compound using this type of
atmosphere.
• Speculate that perhaps small pockets of atmosphere near
volcanic openings were reducing, thus facilitating formation of
simple organic molecules.

• To counter problems with the Reducing Atmosphere Hypothesis

scientist has came up with new theory:
 First organic compounds on Earth may be synthesized near
submerged volcanoes and deep sea vents which are weak
points in Earth’s crust where hot water and mineral gushes
into ocean.
 These regions are also rich in inorganic sulfur and iron
compounds which are important in ATP synthesis.

(See Figure 26.3, Campbell, page 514 – A window to early life?

Conclusion

• Scientist still speculating components of early Earth

atmosphere – unsure whether reducing or non-reducing.

• Reaction of gasses in atmosphere produces simple organic

compounds which fell and accumulate in early oceans.
• Early ocean = primitive soup → contains many simple organic
compound.
• In the primitive soup, simple organic compounds began to form
associations which results in the formation of complex
macromolecules.
• Examples: amino acids, nucleotides, lipids, and simple
carbohydrates.

• Scientist has also shown that amino acid polymers could be

formed by dripping amino acid solution to hot sand, clay or
rock.

• Thus, polymers can form spontaneously without help of

enzymes or ribosomes.

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• Life is defined by two properties:

1. Ability to replicate accurately/to produce exact copies of its

self.
2. Metabolism.

• Replication can only be successful if instructions to replicate

available in form of DNA and specific enzymes present, as well
as nucleotides (building blocks).
• Energy for process - from metabolism.

• Results from a Miller- Urey like experiment: only nitrogenous

bases of DNA and RNA present, but no nucleotides.
• Postulation: Building blocks of RNA or DNA not available in
organic soup but exist as “self replicating molecule”.

• So, scientist proposed that the first step to formation of living

cell is by

1. formation of a self replicating molecules

2. and presence of metabolism-like source

• Both 1 and 2 must exist together in primordial soup

• The next crucial step will be formation of protobionts.
 Aggregates of abiotically produced molecules surrounded
by membrane or membrane-like structures.
• Protobionts shows some properties associated with life - simple
reproduction (budding), metabolism, and maintenance of
internal environment different from their surroundings.

Figure 26.4, Campbell, page 515 – simple reproduction of liposome

• Laboratory experiments - protobionts can be formed

spontaneously from abiotically produced organic compound.
• Example, small membrane-bound droplets, liposomes, can
form when lipids/other organic molecules are placed in water.
 Hydrophobic molecules in the mixture will organize into a
bilayer similar to lipid bilayer of plasma membrane.
 Bilayer is selectively permeable - can undergo osmotic
swelling or shrinking when placed in solutions of different
concentration.
 Some can store energy in the form of a membrane
potential.
• However liposomes are still not a living entity
 Pose problems to proponents of Spontaneous Origin
Hypothesis.

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• Scientists speculate that the first genetic material was probably
RNA and not DNA.
• Thomas Cech showed that certain RNA has ability to act as
enzyme = ribozymes.
 This type RNA was probably present in the primitive soup
of early Earth.
• Thus, when RNA, amino acids, and carbohydrates were
incorporated into protobionts, and with generation of energy
from metabolism, the protobionts suddenly became alive/living
and forms the first prokaryotic living organism.

• But, link from non-living to living has never been proved

scientifically.
 These are just hypothesis by those who deny Allah as the
supreme creator of living life forms.
• As Muslims we know only Allah has the ability to create life
from non living matter.

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1.1.6 IDEAS ABOUT THE ORIGIN OF CELL- 515

The fact that advanced prokaryotic cells had already appeared

3.5 billion years ago suggests that the process of chemical
evolution that led to the first life forms took place relatively rapidly
probably within the Earth’s first 600 million years. For the first 2
billion years only prokaryotes populated the primitive Earth.

The evolutionary leap from prokaryotes to eukaryotic cell took much

longer than the formation of the first prokaryotic cell. The evolution
of the first unicellular eukaryotic cell took place 2.1 billion years ago
and the first multicellular eukaryotes occurred a billion years later.

THE EVOLUTION OF EARLIEST CELL- PROKARYOTE- 521

The oldest known fossil is dated 3.5 billion years old .These are
stromatolites . They are rock like structures composed of many
layers of bacteria and sediment. Scientist have speculated that life
might have originated as early as 3.9 billion years ago.

Prokaryotes are simple single celled organism that do have any

nuclear membrane or membrane enclosed organelles such as
endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus and cytoskeleton .
Since they do not have any cytoskeleton they are unable to
undergo the process of mitosis and meiosis. Their genetic material
are dispersed in the cytoplasm and are usually circular in structure.

Prokaryotes are divided into two different domains which is:-

a. Domain Bacteria

The vast majority of prokaryotes are bacteria. Some are

pathogenic but others are beneficial. Eg ; Nitrosomonas,
Bacillus, Staphylococcus etc.

b. Domain Archaeabacteria

Archaea bacteria are a type of prokaryotes that lives in

very extreme environments where few organisms can
survive. They are also known as extremopiles. They
are further subdivided into 3 groups:-

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 1 Extreme thermophiles : They thrive in very hot
environment such as sulphur rich volcanic springs.
E.g Sulfolobus

2 Extreme Halophiles : They live in highly saline

environment.

3 Methanogens : They produce energy by using O2

to oxidize H2 and releasing methane as a by
product.

THE EVOLUTION OF THE EUKARYOTIC CELL:523-524

The evolution of the eukaryotic cell from prokaryotes can be

explained by two theories :-
Figure 26.13

1 Membrane Invagination Theory

This theory tries to explain the formation of the

endoplasmic reticulum and the nuclear membrane by
the process of plasma membrane in folding. This will
produce a cell with a nucleus and an endomembrane
system.

2 The Serial Endosymbiosis Hypothesis

Subsequently the new organism will engage in a

symbiotic relationship with an energy producing aerobic
heterotrophic prokaryote. This is achieved by engulfing
the aerobic heterotrophic prokaryote. The aerobic
heterotrophic prokaryote will eventually evolved to form
the mitochondrion. At this point this organism will be
known as an ancestral heterotrophic eukaryote. Some
of this ancestral heterotrophic eukaryote will engulf a
photosynthetic prokaryote and again forms a symbiotic
relationship with the engulfed prokaryote. This
photosynthetic prokaryote will eventually evolved to
become the plastid which is found in plants.

Present day plastids and mitochondria have their own

circular DNA which is not associated with histones or
other proteins just like the bacteria.

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 Plastid and mitochondria have their own tRNA’s, and
ribosomes . The ribosomes of plastids and mitochondria
are more similar to prokaryotic ribosomes than they are
to the cytoplasmic ribosomes of eukaryotic cells.

Thse evidences gives strength to the serial

edosymbiosis theory.

1.1.7 THE DIVERSITY OF LIFE- 13

Living things are classified into six kingdoms:

1. Kingdom Bacteria.
2. Kingdom Archaebacteria.
3. Kingdom Protista
• Eukaryotic
• primarily unicellular (although some algae are
multicellular)
• photosynthetic or heterotrophic organisms
2. Kingdom Fungi
• Eukaryotic
• mostly multicellular (although yeasts are unicellular)
• heterotrophic
3. Kingdom Plantae
• Eukaryotic
• multicellular
• usually terrestrial
• photosynthetic organisms

4. Kingdom Animalia
• Eukaryotic
• multicellular
• heterotrophic organisms

From perspective of Islamic Science, humans are not classified

under Kingdom Animalia . Man is created by Allah as a Khalifah.
Man is ranked above all these Kingdoms of living organism.

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