Locomotion and Support System

5.Locomotion and Support System

 Locomotion = active
movement from one place to another.
 Swimming, crawling,
running, hopping, and flying all result from
muscles working against some type of skeleton.

5.1 Types of Skeletons

A. Hydrostatic skeletons
 Definition : A
hydrostatic skeleton consists of fluid held under
pressure in a closed body compartment.
 Form and movement is controlled by changing the
shape of this compartment.
 Main type of skeleton in cnidarians, flatworms,
nematods and annelids.

(i) Hydra
Q : Describe the mechanism of constriction and
elongation of the body wall in cnidarians (hydra)?
 Hydra can elongate by closing its mouth and
using contractile cells in the body wall to
constrict the central gastrovascular cavity.
 Since water cannot be compressed decreasing
the diameter of the cavity forces it to increase
in length.(Refer figure 39.2, Solomon 8th Edition, pg 830)
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Q : Discuss the hydro skeleton of annelids

Annelids : The coelomic fluid acts as a
hydrostatic skeleton which caused peristalsis
movement.
 The coelomic cavity is divided into
segments by septa.
 The animal able to change the
shape of each segment individually, by using
both circular and longitudinal muscles
(peristalsis). (Refer figure 49.25, pg 1064)

Q : What are the advantages of

hydroskeleton?
 Cushion internal organs from shock
 Provide support for crawling and burrowing in
terrestrial animal.

B. Exoskeleton
Q: What is an exoskeleton?
 An exoskeleton is a
hard encasement deposited on the surface of an
animal.
 Lifeless shell
 Many molluscs are
enclosed in a calcareous exoskeleton secreted by
the mantle.

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 The jointed exoskeleton of arthropods is

composed of a cuticle.
 Muscles attach to the interior surface of the
cuticle.
 Regions of the cuticle vary in hardness and
degree of flexibility.
 About 30–50% of the cuticle consists of chitin.

Q : List down the characteristics of chitin.

Chitin - tough, light, flexible, and waterproof.

Q : What are the disadvantages of

exoskeleton ?
 Organism has to molt to allow growth to occur
 Efficient for small animals - loses efficiency
as organisms become bigger and heavier.
Molt : shed its exosketelon and replace it with a
new, larger one.

Endoskeletons
 Definition : Endoskeletons consist of hard
supporting elements which are either bone or
cartilage within the soft tissues of the animal.
 Endoskeleton grows along with the animal as a
whole.

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Q: What is the function of the endoskeleton?

Muscles attachment.
 The internal vertebrate skeleton provides support
and protection, and transmits muscle forces.
Q : Briefly describe the endoskeleton of chordate.
Chordate : Endoskeletons are composed of
cartilage, bone, or some combination of the two.
 Sharks and rays have skeletons of cartilage.
 Mammalian skeleton is built from more than
200 bones, some fused together and others
connected at the joints by ligaments that allow
freedom of movements

Q: Distinguish between hydrostatic skeletons,

exoskeletons and endoskeletons, and give examples
of each type.
Hydroskeleto Exoskeleto Endoskeleto
n n n
Componen Fluid Cuticle Bone @
t cartilage
Location Inside the Surface of Within soft
body body tissue
Example Hydra Arthropod mammal

5.1.1 Functions of skeletal system

Q: List the functions of the skeletons

 Support and protection.
 Support:
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o Rigid framework for body.

o Maintain body shape.
o Supports body weight against
gravitational force.
o Organs - attached to/ suspended from
skeleton.
Protection:
Protects delicate internal organ:
(a) Cranium – brain and sense organs.
Vertebral column – spinal cord.
(c ) Ribs and sternum – heart, lungs, &
blood vessels.
 Locomotion
 Attachment of muscles.
 Part of skeleton act as lever → enables
muscle to pull → movement.

 Formation of blood cells – bone marrow

 Bone matrix - reservoir of Ca and PO4 .
++ 3-

 Maintains constant Ca and PO43- level in

++

blood.

5.1.2 Vertebrate and Human Skeleton

 Two main divisions – axial and appendicular

skeletons.
Q : List the components of Axial skeleton
 Axial – skull, vertebral column, ribs,
and sternum (breastbone)

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Q : List the components of Appendicular skeleton

(i) Bones of the limbs (arms and legs)
- consists of 30 bones and terminates in five digits,
the fingers and toes
(ii) The pectoral girdle
consists of two collarbones or clavicle
two shoulder blades, or scapulas.
(iii) The pelvic (hip) girdle ; a pair of large bone
 these girdles connect the limbs to the axial
skeleton. each composed of three fused
hipbones.
(Refer Figure 49.26, pg 1065)

Q: What are the functions of rib cage?

 Protects the internal organs of the chest (eg. heart
and lung)
 Also, supports the chest wall, preventing it
from collapsing as the diaphragm contracts with each
breath.

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Human Skeleton

Axial Skeleton

1.1 Skull 1.1.1 Cranium (+ upper jaw)

1.1.2 Lower jaw
1.2 Vertebral 1.2.1 Cervical vertebrae (7)
Column 1.2.2 Thoracic vertebrae (12)
1.2.3 Lumbar vertebrae (5)
1.2.4 Sacral vertebrae (5)
1.2.5 Caudal vertebrae (4)
1.3 Ribs (24)
1.4 Sternum

Appendicular Skeleton
2.1 Pectoral girdle 2.1.1 Scapula
2.1.2 Clavicle
2.2 Fore Limbs 2.2.1 Humerus
2.2.2 Radius
2.2.3 Ulna
2.2.4 Carpals
2.2.5 Metacarpals
2.2.6 Digits (fingers)
2.3 Pelvic Girdle 2.3.1 Ilium
2.3.2 Ischium
2.3.3 Pubis
2.4 Hind Limbs 2.4.1 Femur
2.4.2 Tibia
2.4.3 Fibula
2.4.4 Tarsals
2.4.5 Metatarsals
2.4.6 Digits (toes)

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5.1.3 Type of Joints

A. Immovable joints
Q : What is Immovable joints?
 Joints that do not allow any movement

 Function? allows bones to flex when fetus moves

during birth.

 Examples: Sutures – join bones of skull.

“Soft spots”/fontanels
fontanels between skull bones of
fetus

B. Slightly movable joints

Q : What is slightly movable joints?
 Joints that allow a slight movement.
 Example : Cartilaginous joints between vertebrae
in intervertebral disc
disc.
 Give two functions
(i) Allows some movement.
(ii) Also act as shock absorber.

C. Freely movable joints (synovial

synovial joint
joint)
Q : What is freely movable joints?
 Joints that allow movements
 Example : Articulating ends of bones in synovial
capsule (contains *lubricating fluid)

Q : What is the function of the lubricating fluid*?

 reduces friction during movement and also
absorbs shock
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Ends of bones covered with

cartilage.
 Synovial capsule strengthened/reinforced by
ligaments

Q : What is ligaments?
 bands of fibrous connective tissue that connect
bones and limit movement at the joint.

Q : Name the type of sinovial joint at the following

locations and state their functions.
Location Joint Function
between femur Ball-and- allow variety of
and pelvis(Hip socket joint movements
joint)
between the Hinge joint restrict movement to
humerus and a single plane
the head of the
ulna and at the
Knee joint
Between Pivot joint allow the rotation of
forearm and the forearm at the
the elbow, elbow and to move
between atlas our head from side to
and axis side

5.1.4 Organization of Skeletal muscle

 Muscles come in antagonistic pairs.
(Refer figure 49.27,
pg.1066)
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 Humans flex the arm by contracting the biceps,

and extend it by contracting the triceps and
relaxing the biceps.
Q : What is the function of vertebrate skeletal
muscle?
 Vertebrate skeletal muscle is responsible for
voluntary muscle movement in the body.
Q : Describe the
structure of skeletal
muscle.
 A skeletal muscle consists of a bundle of long
fibers running parallel to the length of the muscle.
 Each fiber is a single cell with multiple nuclei.
 A fiber is a bundle of smaller myofibrils
arranged longitudinally.
 The myofibrils are composed of two kinds of
myofilaments: thin and thick filaments.

Q : What is the component of thick and thin

filaments?
 Thin filaments consist of two strands of actin
and one strand of tropomyosin.
 Thick filaments consist of myosin molecules.
(Refer figure 49.28 & F 49.29, pg.1067)
 The sarcomere is the functional unit of muscle
contraction.

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 The borders of the sarcomere, the Z lines, are

lined up in adjacent myofibrils and form the
striations.
 Thin filaments are attached to the Z lines and
project toward the center of the sarcomere, while
the thick filaments are centered in the
sarcomere.
 In a muscle fiber at rest, thick and thin filaments
do not overlap completely, and the area near
the edge of the sarcomere where there are
only thin filaments is called the I band.
 The A band is the broad region that corresponds
to the length of the thick filaments.
 The thin filaments do not extend completely
across the sarcomere, so the H zone in the
center of the A band contains only thick
filaments.
Q : Complete the
labeled for the following
figure.
….band ….band

….line ….line
….zone

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….filament ….filament
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Q: Compare the structures and functions of

actin and myosin.

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5.2 The sliding Filament Mechanism of Contraction

 According to the sliding-filament model of
muscle contraction, neither the thin nor the
thick filaments change in length when the
sarcomere shortens.
 Instead, the filaments slide past each other
longitudinally, producing more overlap
between the thick and thin filaments.
 As a result, both regions occupied only by thin
filaments (the I band) and the region occupied
only by thick filaments (the H band) shrinks.
 The sliding is based on the interaction between
the actin and myosin. (Refer figure 49.30,pg
1068)
Q : Briefly explain the mechanism of muscle
contraction using the ‘sliding filament model’
 myosin head contains ATP – no cross-bridge.
 Myosin head acts as ATPase: ATP → ADP + Pi
 Myosin activated → undergoes change in shape →
becomes bent.
 binds to actin → cross-bridge formed.
 ADP & Pi released
 Myosin pulls thin myofilament to centre of
sarcomere = power stroke
stroke.
 ATP binds to myosin head → detaches from actin.
 ATP splits ADP + PI - cycle repeated.
 Death: cell can’t produce ATP – cross-bridges intact
→ muscle stiffness = Rigor mortis .
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5.3 The Role of Ca++ in Contraction

Calcium ions and regulatory proteins control muscle
contraction. (Refer figure 49.31 & 49.32, pg 1069)
Q: Name the protein that can be found on actin’s
filament.
 Troponin and tropomyosin

Q: State the condition

of thin filament when
muscle
fiber is at rest.
 In relaxed muscles, no cross-bridges formed
 binding sites on actin are blocked by tropomyosin.
 Tropomyosin must be moved aside first to expose
binding site.
 This requires the role of troponin.

Q : Explain the role of

calcium in muscle
contraction
 Ca++ are stored in the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) –
its release is stimulated by neurons.
 When calcium binds to the troponin complex, a
conformational change results in the movement
of the tropomyosin-troponin complex

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 this exposes the actin binding sites and leads to

formation of cross-bridges
 the thick and thin filaments slide by each other,
and the muscle fiber contracts.

5.4 Neural control of muscle tension

 An action potential in a motor neuron that makes
a synapse with a muscle fiber is the initial stimulus
for muscle contraction
Q : Name the neuron and the synapse involved in
skeletal muscle contraction
 Skeletal muscle contraction stimulated by somatic
motor neurons
 axon branches and form synapses called
neuromuscular junctions with muscle fibers.

Q : Complete the sequence of events in muscle

contraction.
 Contraction
Contraction: (Refer figure 49.33, pg 1070)
1. Somatic motor neuron produces nerve
impulses.
2. Neuron releases acetylcholine (ACh) into
neuromuscular junction.
3. ACh combines with receptors on muscle fiber
causing depolarization and action potential.
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4. Impulse/action potential spreads along

muscle membrane & into T tubules.
5. Function of T tubules:
 T tubules conduct impulse towards
sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR).
6. SR is stimulated and releases Ca++.
 Ca++ diffuses into cytoplasm and binds to
troponin. Troponin undergoes conformational
change. Troponin-tropomyosin complex moves
aside. It causes active sites on actin filaments
to be exposed.
7. ATP (attached to myosin) is split and the
energized myosin head is cocked; it binds to
active site on actin filament, forming a cross
bridge.
 ADP + Pi is released, The power stroke
occurs as the actin filament is pulled toward
center of sarcomere.
8. The myosin head binds ATP and detaches from
actin. If sufficient Ca2+ is present, the sequence
repeats from step (6).
 Muscle contracts.
Q : Discuss the molecular mechanism of muscle
relaxation
 Relaxation
Relaxation:
 Impulse along neuron stop.
 Neuron stops releasing ACh.
 T tubules stop producing impulse – muscle
membrane is repolarized.
 Ca actively transported back into SR.
++

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 Ca++ no longer bound to troponin.

 Troponin-tropomyosin complex returns to
original position.
 Binding sites are blocked.
 No cross-bridges formed.
 Muscles relax.

5.
5.5 Muscle Fiber Twitches
 An individual muscle cell either contracts
completely or not all.

Q : What is twitch?

 Twitch is a brief contraction of muscle fiber

(Muscle contracts & relaxes)
 Contractile nature of skeletal muscles studied by
using a kymograph.
 Muscles stimulated using electric shock.

Q : What is a myogram?
 Contraction recorded as a myogram.
 Using single stimulus
Amplitude of
muscle contraction Contraction Relaxation

Stimulus

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Time
 Using two stimulus:

 If 2nd stimulus applied immediately after the 1st → the

2nd contraction is superimposed on the 1st =
summation. (Refer figure 49.35, pg 1071)

Using frequent stimulations:

 If frequency is increased - relaxation time
between successive twitches get shorter and
shorter.
 At a particular frequency, relaxation between
successive twitches not visible – contraction is
smooth and sustained = tetanus.
 Tetanus = normal type of muscle contraction →
the maximum tension the muscle can produce.
During tetanus, elastic structures (tendons and

connective tissue) are fully stretched and all
the tension generated by the muscle fiber is
transmitted to the bones.
Tetany cannot continue indefinitely → fatigue.
 A whole muscle, composed of many individual
muscle fibers, can contract to varying degrees.
 Contraction is graded; we can voluntarily alter
the extent and strength of a contraction.
 This is due to variation in the number of muscle
fibers that contract and variation in the rate at
which muscle fibers are stimulated.
 Each motor neuron may synapse with many motor
fibers.
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 Hundreds of motor neurons control a muscle,

each with its own pool of muscle fibers
scattered throughout the muscle.

Q: What is motor unit?

 A motor unit consists of a single motor neuron
and all the muscle fibers it controls.( Refer
Figure 49.34, pg 1071)
 When a motor neuron produces an action
potential, all the muscle fibers in its motor unit
contract as a group.
 Smaller motor unit - fewer fibers per neuron
(require more precise control)
Example: Eyeball → 10 muscles.
 Larger motor unit -more fibers per neuron
(require less precise control)
Example: Biceps → over 1,000 muscles.

Q : How does nervous system regulates the strength

of muscle contraction?
 Nervous system regulates the strength of
contraction in muscle by:
 Determining the numbers of motor units
activated at a given time.
 Selecting the size (large or small) of motor
units activated.
 As more and more of the motor neurons
controlling the muscle are activated, a process of

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recruitment increases the force developed by

the muscle.

Q : What is recruitment?
 Recruitment = process of the progressive
increase of muscle tension by the activation of
many motor neurons.

Q : List the factors that may result in muscle

fatique
 Prolonged contraction of muscles can result in
fatigue, caused by depletion of ATP, dissipation
of ion gradients, and accumulation of lactate.

 The nervous system may alternate activation

among the motor units in a muscle, allowing
different motor units to take turns maintaining a
prolonged contraction.

5.6 Type of Muscle Fibers

Q : Give two main types of skeletal muscle fibers
based on energy metabolism.

 oxidative, : fibers that rely mostly on aerobic

respiration. ( fast oxidative and slow oxidative)
 glycolytic. : primarily used glycolisis (mostly fast)

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 Muscle fibers are also classified based on

contraction speed (slow fibers and fast fibers)

 Considering on both classification, skeletal

muscle can be categorized to slow oxidative, fast
oxidative and fast glicolytic (refer table 49.1, pg
1072)

Slow oxidative
also called slow twitch or fatigue resistant fibers
Red fibers/ Type I fibers.
Contain:
a. Large amounts of myoglobin.
b. Many mitochondria.
c. Many blood capillaries.
d. Generate ATP by the aerobic system, hence
the term oxidative fibers.
e. Split ATP at a slow rate.
f. Slow contraction velocity.
g. Resistant to fatigue.
h. Found in large numbers in postural muscles.
i. Needed for aerobic activities like long
distance running.
 Fast oxidative
 also called fast twitch A or fatigue
resistant fibers
Red fibers / Type IIa
Contain:
a. Large amounts of myoglobin.
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b. Many mitochondria.
c. Many blood capillaries.
d. High capacity for generating ATP by
oxidation.
e. Split ATP at a very rapid rate and, hence, high
contraction velocity.
f. Resistant to fatigue but not as much as slow
oxidative fibers.
g. Needed for sports such as middle distance
running and swimming.

 Fast glycolytic
 also called fast twitch B or fatigable fibers
 White/ Type IIb
Contain:
a. Low myoglobin content.
b. Few mitochondria.
c. Few blood capillaries.
d. Large amount of glycogen.
e. Split ATP very quickly.
f. Fatigue easily.
g. Needed for sports like sprinting.

 Individual muscles are a mixture of 3 types of muscle

fibers (type 1 and type 2a and b), proportions vary
depending on the action of that muscle.
 skeletal muscles can only have one type of muscle
fiber within a motor unit.
 This is demonstrated if we look at contractions.

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 E.g. A weak contraction needed type 1 motor

units.
 used mainly for endurance activities.
 stronger contraction required type 2a fibers,
assist the type 1 fibers.
 Maximal contractions use type 2b fibers which
are always activated last.
 These fibers are used during ballistic activities
but tire easily.

 With advanced EMG (Electromyography involves

testing the electrical activity of muscles)
techniques it is possible to look at which muscle
fibers are recruited when performing an
exercise/test.
 The total number of skeletal muscle fibers has
traditionally been thought not to change.
 It is believed there are no sex or age differences
in fiber distribution.

 Relative fiber types vary considerably from

muscle to muscle and person to person.
 Sedentary men and women have 45% type 2
(as well as young children) and
55% type 1 fibers
 endurance athletes - higher level of type 1
fibers.
 Sprint athletes - large numbers of type 2 b
fibers.

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 Middle distance athletes, throwers and jumpers

- equal distribution of the 2 types.

Source
:http://www.isokinetics.net/advanced/musclefibertype
s.htm
Q : Differentiate between Slow oxidative and fast
oxidative fibers.
Fibers Slow oxidative Fast glycolytic
example Endurance Sprinting, weight
activity lifting
Type of respiration aerobic glycolysis
occur
Contraction speed slow short
Rate of fatique Slow fast
Presence of high low
myoglobin
 The muscle of the eyes and hand lack slow
oxidative fibers.

5.6.1 Muscle Metabolism during Rest and Exercise

Source of energy for skeletal muscle:

 At rest : Fatty acids
 During exercise: Muscle glycogen and blood
glucose.
 Energy is used to make ATP.

Q : What are the functions of ATP?

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 Active transport.
 Pumping Ca into SR – relaxation.
++

 Detachment of cross bridge.

 ATP formed when ADP combines with Pi from

creatine phosphate.
 A typical muscle fiber at rest contains only enough
ATP for a few contractions.

Q : How do muscle
obtain enough energy to
sustain
contraction?
 Obtain energy from (i) creatine phosphate
(ii) Breakdown of
glycogen (glycolysis or
aerobic
respiration)
Q : How do muscle
obtain ATP from
creatine
phosphate?
 Creatine phosphate can transfer its phosphate
group to ADP to make ATP.
 The resting supply of creatine phosphate is
sufficient to sustain contractions for about
15 seconds.

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ADP Creatine ∼ P ADP

ATP Creatine ATP

 Glycogen is broken down to glucose, which can
generate ATP via glycolysis or aerobic
respiration.

 Duration of sustained muscle contraction

 Through glycolysis : about 1 minute
 Aerobic respiration can power contractions for
nearly an hour.

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