An object at rest, remains at rest.

An object
in motion, stays in motion.

UP K E M No change in speed or direction (non-accelerating

frame).

No gravitational force is felt (Earth cannot

be a true IRF, but is approximated as such)

1.2 Newtonian Relativity

Laws of mechanics are preserved in all IRFs.

MEMBERSHIP ACADEMIC DEVELOPMENT This is familiar to you already, recall relative

velocities from Physics 71.

Invalid for speeds near the speed of light.

Physics 73
1.3 Special Relativity
2nd Long Exam Reviewer
1.3.1 First Postulate

Heavily based on Arciaga Notes

All laws (their forms, not values of parameters)
of Physics are the same in every inertial reference
frame.

Preface
1.3.2 Second Postulate
This handout is intended as a reviewer only and
should not be substituted for a complete lecture, The speed of light in a vacuum is constant in
or used as a reference material. The goal of this all inertial frame of reference and is independent
reviewer is to refresh the student on the concepts of the motion of the source.
and techniques in one reading. But this is more
than enough to replace your notes :) Examples. Fixed quantities

Numerical value of the speed of light in a

1 Principle of Relativity vacuum

Value of the charge on the electron

1.1 Reference Frames Order of the elements in the Periodic Table

Newtons First Law of Motion

Definition (Reference frame). A reference frame
is simply a coordinate system attached to a par-
ticular observer. Examples. Examples of variable quantities

Definition (Inertial frame of reference). An in-

ertial frame of reference is a reference frame in Speed
which Newtons 1st law is valid Time between two events

1
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Kinetic energy 2.1 Invariance of the Interval

Force
Definition (Spacetime Interval). The interval be-
Electric field tween two events happening at some points (ta , xa )
and (tb , xb ). The interval, s, is defined by
Magnetic field
s2 = t2 x2 = (t0 )2 (x0 )2 (1)

1.4 Natural Units x = xb xa

To elegantly simplify particular algebraic expres-
sions appearing in the laws of physics (particularly
relativity here), we deal with natural units.
Same unit for space and time
t = tb ta
With the 0 denoting an observation made in an-
other frame of reference. Spacetime interval is in-
variant, i.e. observations in two different IRFs
has the same spacetime interval.

Conversion factor : c = 299 798 482 m/s

Table 2.1: Comparison of two spaces
In natural units, c = 1
Xnat 1X Flat spacetime vs Euclidean space
vnat = =
tnat c t
Events Places
tnat = ct
(t, x, y, z) (x, y, z)
Speed is unitless invariant interval invariant distance

s2 = c2 t2 x2 d2 = x2 + y 2



7
Example. Convert 6.21 10 m/s to natural units

6.21 1017 m/s

= 0.207 2.2 Spacetime Diagrams
3 108 m/s

Example. Convert 20 min to meters

A spacetime diagram is a helpful visual represen-
tation of events in spacetime. Note the following:
 
60 s  m
20 min 3 108 = 3.6 1011 m
1 min s
In one spatial dimension, the vertical axis is
t while the horizontal is x.
Remark. From here on, all quantities will be An event is a point, with coordinates (t, x).
in natural units.
A worldline is a curve on the diagram. This
represents the history of events (refer to fig-
ure 2.1).
2 Events and Measurements
Classifications of spacetime intervals:
Definition (Event). An event is an object that Timelike : t2 x2 > 0
has spacetime coordinates (t, x).
Spacellike : t2 x2 < 0
Remark. In three spatial dimensions, it is (t, x, y, z) Light-like : t2 x2 = 0

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event Example. Two firecrackers : one blows up 2

t
years after the other.

t
3
firecracker 2

worldline
1
x firecracker 1
x
Figure 2.1: An example of a spacetime diagram

Figure 2.3: Spacetime diagram for the two firecrackers

No particle can travel at and exceed the speed on a Lab frame. Note that in this refer-
of light light. That is: ence frame, the two events happened at same
v place, x = 0.
 <1
 
c
Denote this ratio . It is related to the in- Example. Previous firecrackers on a rocket frame
verse of the slope of the worldline in a space- whose speed with respect to laboratory is RL = 35
time diagram. (or the angle between the t
and t0 axis is tan1 )
t0
3
Particles should have timelike worldlines.

The locus of all event points for a given in-

terval is a hyperbola (figure 2.2). 2
5
t 3
1

x0

Figure 2.4: Plot of the two events on a Rocket frame mov-

ing to the left. Notice that in the lab frame,
the two firecrackers happened in one place.
k While in this rocket frame, there is a positive
directed distance from x0 = 0.
x

Figure 2.2: Locus of events for an invariant interval = k2

One unit of time in the t and t0 axes are

connected by a horizontal parabola.

One unit of position in the x and x0 axes are

connected by a vertical parabola.

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Example. Previous firecrackers on a rocket frame the lab frame, RL . Note that RL = LR
whose speed with respect to laboratory this time
is RL = + 53
2.3 Relativity of Simultaneity
0
t
3 Definition (Simultaneous events). Simultaneous
events are events having the same t-coordinate.

2
Events that are simultaneous in one IRF
53 may not be simultaneous in another IRF.
1 A special case is a set simultaneous events
having the same position. These will always
x0 be simultaneous.

Pairs of events occurring at the same place

(x = 0) should be timelike.
Figure 2.5: Similar to the previous example but this time
the rocket is moving to the right so the di-
Pairs of events occurring at the same time
rected distance from the rocket to firecracker
2 is to the left. (t = 0) should be spacelike.

Example. Consider two simultaneous events, A

Example. A proton initially at the origin moving
and B
with velocity 4/5 wrt lab. Plot the worldline in
the labframe. t
A B
t x

(a) Lab frame

t0 B
5
A
4 x0

x
(b) Rocket frame, RL < 0
Figure 2.6: Worldline of the proton
t0
A
Remark. You may have noticed that in the pro- x0
ton example, the slope is equal to 1 while in the
two previous rocket examples, the slope is 1 .
Dont be confused. B
(c) Rocket frame, RL > 0
The reason the slope is positive inverse for the
proton is that we were asked to plot in the lab Figure 2.7: Events A and B are simultaneous in the Lab
frame. In the two previous rockets, we plotted in frame but not in the Rocket frame.
the rocket frame given its own relative speed to

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Remark. Suppose youre in a Lab frame and your Lightlike - on the surface of the cone (can
friend is in a rocket frame similar to figure 2.7c. affect using light)
Considering what he saw in the past (event C),
you just saw in the present, what defines past,
present, and future? The next subsection clarifies 2.5 Lorentz Transformation
the concept of causality.
Weve studied so far the geometric nature of space-
time and the spacetime interval. Now we proceed
2.4 Light Cones with the algebraic treatment.

A light cone is the path that a flash of light, em- Given (t0 , x0 , y 0 , z 0 ) on a rocket frame, (t, x, y, z)
anating from a single event (localised to a sin- on the lab frame is:
gle point in space and a single moment in time)
t = t0 + RL x0 (2)
and traveling in all directions, would take through
spacetime. x = x0 + RL t0 (3)

t y = y0 (4)

future z = z0 (5)

where

RL : speed of rocket wrt lab (6)

sent
A of the pre
plane
: Lorentz factor
hy p e r
x 1
y =p
1 2
(7)

For velocities,
past
vx0 +
vx = (8)
1 + vx0

vy0
Figure 2.8: A light cone vy = (9)
1 + vx0

vz0
Light cones plays an essential role in defining the vz = (10)
1 + vx0
concept of causality, summarised below:
Again, use natural units for the equations
Event A can affect other events inside the above.
future light cone.
The origin of both frames are coincident.
Event A can be affected by other events in-
For the inverse Lorentz transformation, re-
side the past light cone
place the primed variables with unprimed
Timelike - inside the cones (can affect using and vice versa, and note RL = LR
a particle)
At non-relativistic speeds, the transforma-
Spacelike - outside the cones (not causally tion reduces to a Galilean transformation.
related)

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2.6 Synchronisation of Clocks Definition (Proper time). The time as measured

by a clock following a world line. The proper time
Imagine spacetime to be a grid of clocks (and interval between two events on a world line is the
rulers), measuring time (and position). (unsigned) change in proper time. The proper
time interval is defined by:
p
= t2 x2 (12)

With the proper time defined, the formula for time

dilation is:

tdilated = p
1 2

= (13)

Example. A House and a Church is 43 L-min

Figure 2.9: Spacetime as a grid of clocks [1]. In one frame
it is synchronised, in another it isnt
away from each other. You are travelling at
= +0.866 from the House to the Church. Your
bestfriend is situated in the house and is observing
your watch using a telescope. How many minutes
has elapsed in your watch (as seen by your best-
friend) when his has elapsed 50 min?

Using equation (12)

Synchronisation of clocks (the grid) in a reference p
frame requires knowledge of the distance, D of the = (50)2 (43.31)2
clock from the reference clock, usually the clock
25 min
at the origin.
D
tset = (11)
c Using equation (13)
where

tset : time to set the clock tdilated

=

D : distance of the clock from the reference
50
=
1.9982
c : speed of light
25 min

2.7 Time Dilation

Time dilation is a difference of elapsed time be-
tween two events as measured by observers mov-
ing relative to each other.
Clocks moving at relativistic speeds appear
to run slower than a stationary clock.
Time dilation is not limited to clocks. Age-
ing and other biological events dilate too!
2.8 Lorentz Contraction
Lorentz contraction is the phenomenon of a de-
crease in length measured by the observer, of an
object which is traveling at any non-zero velocity
relative to the observer.
Objects moving at relativistic speeds appear
shorter along the direction of its motion
compared to its stationary state.

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Stressing this point again, the dimensions t t0

perpendicular to the direction of motion are

e
lin
not contracted.

ht
ig
l
Definition (Proper length). It is the distance be-

45
tween the two spacelike events, as measured in an x0
inertial frame of reference in which the events are
simultaneous. It is given by:
x
p
= x2 t2 (14)

The formula for length contraction is then,

(a) RL > 0
p
L = 1 2 (15)
0 t
t

= (16)

e
lin

ht
ig
Where L : contracted length.

l
45
Example. A 1 m sword is moving at = 0.866.
What is the contracted length as observed by a
stationary alien. x
p
L = 1 2
p
= (1) 1 0.8662 x0
0.5 m (b) RL < 0

Figure 2.10: Two-observer spacetime diagrams

2.9 Two-observer Spacetime dia-

frame, the velocity of the observer with respect to
grams
lab is:
OR + RL
We construct the rocket frame axes superimposed OL = (17)
1 + OR RL
on the lab frame (figure 2.10).
This is called the velocity-addition formula for rel-
ativistic speeds.
Draw the t0 axis with an angle = tan1
away from from the t axis.
2.10.1 The Velocity Parameter (Rapidity)
Draw the x0 axis with an angle = tan1
away from from the x axis.
Define the s in equation (17) in terms of the
If < 0, these axes lie on the 2nd and 4th hyperbolic tangent function,
quadrant respectively (same angle). tanh OR = OR

tanh RL = RL

2.10 Velocity Transformation tanh OL = OL

Equation (17) becomes

Given an observer in a rocket frame (moving inside
tanh OR + tanh RL
that rocket) that is also moving relative to the lab tan OL =
1 + (tanh OR )(tanh RL )

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Which is similar to the relation (from Math 17): Note that fapproach > f0 , referred to as blue
shift.
tanh(x) + tanh(y)
tanh(x + y) =
1 + tanh(x) tanh(y) Also note that frecede < f0 , referred to as
So we conclude that: red shift.

Useful identities are

OL = OR + RL (18)
f02 = fapproach frecede (23)
Where : velocity parameter (rapidity).
 2
fapproach
This greatly simplifies the math, as compared to f0 1
= 2 (24)
the velocity-addition formula by Equation (17). fapproach
f0 +1
By first getting the velocity parameters in each
reference frames, we just add the two and find
Recall c = f
the inverse hyperbolic tangent to get the relative
velocity required.

Other useful identities: 4 Relativistic Momentum

cosh RL = (19)
In all IRF,s the principle of conservation of mo-
sinh RL = Rl (20) mentum is valid.

Remark. If you are interested, this is hyperbolic The generalisation of momentum is:
stuff. Lol.
p = m (25)

3 Energy, Mass, Momentum m is rest mass.

The above equation is applied only to ob-

3.1 Relativistic Doppler Effect jects with nonzero mass.
dp
Generalising Newtons Second law, use .
The apparent change in the frequency of a wave dt
Not F = ma
when there is a relative motion between the source
(of the wave) and the observer.

Electromagnetic waves travel at c, so we must ac- 5 Relativistic energy

count for relativistic effects.
In all IRFs, the work energy principle and the
principle of conservation of energy are valid.
3.1.1 Source moving toward the observer

s The generalisation of kinetic energy is:

1+
fapproach = f0 (21) K = ( 1)mc2 (26)
1

m is rest mass.
3.1.2 Source moving away from the ob-
server Applicable only to objects with nonzero
mass.
s
1
frecede = f0 (22) Lorentz factor should use the velocity of
1+
the object.

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If velocity of the object is zero, K = 0.

As the velocity approaches infinity, K .

The generalisation of the total energy is then:

E = K + mc2

= mc2 (27)

The total energy is related to the momentum by:

E 2 = (mc2 )2 + (pc)2 (28)

in natural units,

E 2 = m2 + p2 (29)

5.1 Invariance of Mass

From equation (29),

m2 = E 2 p2

This mass is invariant, so for any frame of refer-

ence, we have the equation

E 2 p2 = (E 0 )2 (p0 )2 (30)

References
[1] Tatsu Takechi. Synchronization of clocks. on-
line.

[2] Wikipedia. Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia,

2004.

[3] H.D. Young, R.A. Freedman, and A.L. Ford.

Sears and Zemanskys University Physics:
With Modern Physics. Addison-Wesley, 2012.

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