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Summary
Introduction
1
buckling modes, large deformations and tearing of material. The
industry driven requirement for adequate computational tools
capable of capturing all the above phenomena triggered the
development of a number of dedicated tools and techniques. In the
early days of crashworthiness experimentation was the main design
tools in the automotive industry. At the same time numerical
techniques, especially FE methods were progressing rapidly
towards highly reliable simulation tools. However, it has been
soon recognized that precise numerical analysis is not always the
only thing the engineer needs. In many cases less accurate,
qualitative answers might suffice or at least help in better
understanding of a given crash phenomenon and assist in planning
of simulation and experimental program.
2
This chapter focuses on the basic formulation and example
applications of the macro element method. Short literature review
pertinent to subjects not covered in this chapter is given in the last
section.
4
inextensibleso that any deformed pattern that can be made out of a
flat paper by means of local bend lines and without cutting the
paper involves only bending deformations of the shell. Such a
deformation is refereed in the literature to as quasi-isometric
deformation, [6]. On the other hand all the cutouts and openings
that must be made in the paper model to reproduce an actual
folding pattern correspond to localized membrane deformations. It
transpires form the Figure 3b that natural folding mode of an X
element involves both bending as well as membrane deformations.
S t
Y
C C
5
length of a plastic hinge), t is the material thickness and o is the
level of plastic flow stress. The doted parameters, & and u& , denote
rates of rotation and tension/compression, respectively. Since the
bending and membrane plastic deformations are now assigned to
separate regions there is no interaction of generalized forces. In
addition it follows from the kinematics of the computational model
that loadings in horizontal bending hinge lines and localized tensile
zones are proportional, refer to Figure 3a. Consequently, the rate
equations, Eq. 1, can be effectively integrated over the complete
crushing process.
The bending angle in upper and lower hinge lines in Figure 3a is
/ 2 while the corresponding angle in the middle hinge is . The
total length of each hinge is 2C, so that, the total dissipation due to
bending is
Eq. 2 Eb = 8CM o
6
eff eff
Eext
Eq. 4 Eext = P( ) d = Pm d = Pm eff Pm =
0 0
eff
7
2H H 4 c M o
Eq. 5 Pm ( H ) = 2 M o +
eff t H t
Pm 4 2 C
=
Mo 0.73 t
Eq. 6
H C
= 2
t t
1.4 Conclusions
8
2 General formulation of the Macro Element approach
2.1 Prerequisites
Eq. 7 x = ( X, ) [t o ,t f ]
1
The term continuously differentiable which will be used
frequently in this chapter should be understood, unless otherwise
stated, as: continuously differentiable as many times as required
except at some surfaces, lines or points.
9
normal in any other configuration. Another example is the problem
of plane deformations. In the formulation of any problem in the
field of structural mechanics it is assumed, as a rule, that the region
V and the set K(V) are known a priori.
2
In the following considerations it is assumed that such a solution
exists and is unique.
10
Macro Elements are thin-walled prismatic members (such as the
cruciform sections discussed in the preceding section).
Furthermore, the class of boundary, loading and initial conditions,
for which a given method is designed, is also restricted and in
several cases applies to only one type of boundary conditions. For
example, a macro element that models axial crushing response of
an X section will typically require that one end of the section is
clamped while the opposite end moves with a constant velocity and
remains parallel to the clamped end throughout the entire
deformation. In terms of boundary conditions it means that the
spatial position x u = ( X, ); X S u , [t o ,t f ] of the surface Su
S on which displacements are prescribed is known for each time
instant. Also, the velocity of each point on the surface Su is known
a priori (kinematic loading). When the boundary conditions are
changed usually another version of macro element must be
formulated.
Eq. 8 { x * K (V ) : x * = * (V , , ); [t o , t f ]; R 3 }
v * = G ( X, ) g[x( X, ), ] where G ( X, ) ( X, ); [t o ,t f ]
11
gradient of deformation, F * = x * , and its rate, F& * , are determined
from the admissible deformation fields, Eq. 8, by time and spatial
differentiation, respectively. Therefore, the compatibility
conditions are also automatically satisfied.
All that remains to be done is to solve the equations of equilibrium.
In the remaining of this section we shall consider only quasi-static
deformations. In this case the equilibrium of a macro element, v, at
a time instant t, t [t o , t f ] , can be conveniently expressed via the
following form of the principle of virtual velocities (weak
formulation)
E& int
o
= d dv is the stress power (rate of total internal dissipation
v
in the case of plastic solids) corresponding to a fundamental
solution. In the preceding expressions T denotes surface traction,
is the Cauchy stress tensor while d is the rate of deformation tensor
(symmetric part of the deformation gradient). In following
calculations the spatial description is used consistently, so that, the
integration in expressions for the total rate of internal and external
work is performed over the current configuration x = (V , t ) . In
the next step of the solution procedure a set of trial functions for
the stress power is established.
&* 1 * *
Eint ( , ) : E& int = v* d dv ; d ij = ( v i, j + v j,i )
* * * *
Eq. 10
2
{E *
int ( , ) : Eint
*
( , ) = E& int
to
*
( , )d ; [t o ,t f ], R 3 }
13
define a set of curves referred to as trial trajectories. All
trajectories start from a common origin, corresponding to the
reference configuration o = (V , t o ) , Figure 5. Typically, the
reference configuration is identified with the initiation of the
crushing process.
*
Eint ( , ")
*
E int ( , 2 ) E o ( ) o
Eint ( )
int
E&int
*
( ,2 )
*
E int ( , 1 )
E&int
*
( , 1 )
E&int
o
()
E&int
o
( )
= to = to
Eq. 13
*
Eint (t o + t ) = Eint
*
(t o ) + E& int
*
(t o )t + O(t 2 )
14
accuracy to at least first order terms3. In other words the upper
bound theorem defines certain property of the state of the system at
the reference configuration and does not provide any definite clues
as to the impending deformation process. In particular the
principle of minimum work cannot be derived from the upper
bound theorem, at least in the general case. This conclusion is
illustrated schematically in Figure 5, which shows that a trial
trajectory that coincides with the fundamental trajectory at the
reference configuration can intersect other trajectories later in the
deformation process. Thus, the total expenditure of work predicted
by the corresponding solution might be larger or smaller then an
actual work input. Furthermore, a trajectory that is optimal within
the immediate vicinity of a reference configuration may diverge
from the fundamental solution and vice versa a trajectory, which
overestimates an incremental response, may constitute a better
approximation later in the process or may be an optimal
approximation in an average sense.
There are, however, certain sets of trial trajectories for which the
upper bound theorem can still be used as an effective tool in
selecting optimal solution. These are the non-intersecting sets of
trial trajectories illustrated schematically in Figure 5 b. In this case
a trajectory selected on the basis of a minimum slope condition at
the reference configuration remains the best solution later in the
deformation process. The necessary condition for a local minimum
of the slope is
E& int
*
( , )
= 0
=to
3
It can be shown that for a stable deformation process the
curvature of the trajectory at the reference configuration is also
positive.
15
An example of non-intersecting trajectories is a set of straight lines
with a common origin, which describes trial solutions for steady-
state deformations. Typical example of a steady-state deformation
is propagation of a buckle in pipeline or flow of the material over a
toroidal surface during plastic inversion of a cylinder. In steady
deformation, all the process parameters are constant in time at each
spatial location. Therefore, the rate of internal dissipation
calculated, as a volume integral over the instantaneous
configuration of the body, is also constant in time and the
corresponding energy trajectory is a straight line.
Eint
Eint
[ ]
* *
o = min or o
= min lim = min E& int
*
0
Eq. 15
*
E int ( ", )
o
Eint ( )
E
= To
E
= to tg ( ) =
To
16
In Figure 6 the period of oscillations is denoted as To. The optimal
solution to the quasi-steady deformation is found in a
straightforward way by minimizing the slope at the reference
configuration, Figure 6. In practical calculations, however, the
optimal solution o is usually determined from an average slope
for the full cycle of oscillations
Eint
*
Eq. 16 o = min
To
17
coordinate by a constant velocity, & , does the transition from the
energy/time space {E, } to the energy/time-like parameter space
{E, }. This transformation changes the shape of trajectories in
Figure 6 but does not affect relations between their average slopes.
So that, the minimum condition, Eq. 16, can be rewritten in the
form
Eint
*
Eq. 18 = min
o
Eint
*
Eq. 19 o = min = min[Pm ]
18
into this problem is obtained from the analysis of the straining
history of a representative material point.
19
Even more importantly the above conclusion remains valid for a
strain-hardening materials as well as for a purely geometrical state
variable.
t
Eq. 21
0
&12 + &22 + &32 dt
20
folding lobe. A single Superfolding Element (SE) models the
crushing behavior of such a lobe. This section provides for an
overview of underlying concepts of the Superfolding Element
method. The presentation starts from general formulation of the SE
used in computerized applications. Then, detailed discussions of
possible simplifications to the general solution are presented. All
results of this section are valid for shells made of plastic isotropic
strain hardening materials with the convex yield surface and an
associated flow rule.
3.1.1 Dimensions of a SE
22
Figure 9 A deformable cell represents a single layer of active plastic
folds in a progressively crushed prismatic column, [8].
23
3.2 Folding modes of a SE
24
asymmetric mixed mode. A progress of the deformation process in
each mode is controlled by a single process parameter ,
0 f , which defines the rotation of a side face of an element
from the initial upright position, Figure 11. At the initiation of the
folding process = 0. The process terminates when = f =/2.
The asymmetric deformation mode is characterized by the lack of a
conical surface 4 in Figure 11. Consequently, the propagating
hinge line, 3, controls the entire folding process. The symmetric
deformation mode, on the other hand, lacks the propagating hinge
line 3 in Figure 11. In this case local extensional plastic
deformations are confined to the conical surface 4 as discussed in
section 1.
25
An actual value of the switching parameter, *, depends on
both the input parameters, {C, t, }, and constraints imposed onto
deforming faces of a SE. In the case of an unconstrained or
standing alone SE the asymmetric mode of deformation, * = 0, is
predominant for right angle and acute elements, / 2 , while
the symmetric mode controls the folding process of obtuse
elements with the central angle, larger then 120 degrees,
approximately. In the intermediate range of central angles both
modes coexist while the fractional contribution of each mode to the
total energy dissipation depends on the central angle, , and the
width to thickness aspect ratio, C/t. The folding modes of a
standing alone SE are referred to as natural folding modes.
Eq. 22 o = {r , H , * , eff }
26
switching parameter, *
effective crushing distance, eff.
It has been shown in section 1 that eff / 2H = 0.73, approximately,
for all progressive crushing processes of practical importance.
Consequently, the effective number of free parameters of the
process is reduced to three, = {r, H, *}. The velocity field, v*,
and the corresponding rate of deformation tensor, d*, in Eq. 10 can
now be calculated on from the postulated deformation,
x * = * (V , , ); [t o , t f ] , by an appropriate spatial and time
differentiation. The calculated trial fields are then used to construct
*
trial solutions Eint discussed in section 2.2. In the next section the
*
trial dissipation Eint for a SE will be expressed in terms of the rate
of curvature and rate of extensions defined at the middle surface of
the element. Particulars of the transition from a three-dimensional
description of continuum to a two-dimensional formulation of a
shell element (in Eulerian description) are not discussed here.
Eq. 23
S L
[ ]
E& int = (M & + N & )dS + i =1 i M oi &i dl i
n
27
the shell mid surface, the expression for (trial) rate of internal
energy dissipation, Eq. 23, reduces to
Eq. 24
S L
[ ]
E& int = N o &1 dS + i =1 i M oi &i dl i
n
Two integrals on the r.h.s. of Eq. 25, defined through the switching
parameter *, correspond to the contribution of asymmetric and
symmetric mode, respectively.
Eq. 26
EintN d N 0&dS = 0N ( ) d t&dS
0 S 0 S
M
Eint
L
[ ] n t
i =1 i M oi &i dl i = i =1 ( i ) 0M ( ) d i &i dl i
n
40 L
[ ]
28
3.5 The energy equivalent stress measure
1
0 N ( ) =
( )d
0
Eq. 27
1
0 M ( ) = ( ) d
N
2 0
0
29
where v () corresponds to the standard quasi-static tensile
characteristic of a given material, determined at the constant strain
rate, &v , (10-3 [1/s] &v 10-4 [1/s]) while the dynamic
factor () describes strain rate effects. As usual the stress and
strain measures, used in the Eq. 27 and Eq. 28, correspond,
respectively; to the Cauchy stress and logarithmic strain .
n
( )
Eq. 29 =
y o
Eq. 31 e= ( ) or e = ( )
n +1
In Eq. 31 the energy equivalent flow stress ( ) is defined as
30
n
1
Eq. 32 ( ) = y = ( )
n + 1 o n + 1
1/ p
e d ( , &) &
Eq. 33 e d ( , &) = e( ) f (&) or = 1+
e( ) D
e( ) & & 1 / p
1/ p
Eq. 34 ( , &) =
d
1 + = ( ) 1 +
D D
32
So that the definition energy equivalent flow stress relations, Eq.
27, and material constants D and p in Eq. 34 is done in three steps:
First, the energy density functions are calculated for all
experimental dynamic and quasi-static tensile curves.
Second, the linear approximations to these curves are defined
by means of linear regression method. An example of the
corresponding procedure is shown in Figure 14.
Finally the D and p values are calculated by applying the linear
regression method to the slopes of energy density functions at
various deformation rates. This procedure is illustrated in
Figure 15 for the reference strain equal to 20%.
33
4 Crushing response of simple structures
t2 r C H
{ o N ( 1 ) A1 + o ( 2 ) A2 + o ( 3 ) A3 +
M M
Pm =
4 t H r
H 2 H
+ o ( 4 ) A4 + o ( 5 ) A5}
M N
Eq. 36
t eff
where Ai = Ai (, * ), i = 1, 2 ...5
Pm Pm Pm
=0 ; =0 ; =0
Eq. 37 H r *
34
4.1 Single Superfolding Element
Eq. 38
1 2 N r at a2 bt b2
Pm = {t1 o ( 1 ) A1 + A2 ( o ( 2 ) + o ( 2 ) )+
M M
4 t1 H H
H 2 M H 2H
t 32 o ( 3 ) A3 + t 4 o ( 4 ) A4 + t 52 o ( 5 ) A5}
M N
r t4 eff
35
4.2 Crushing response of an assemblage of Superfolding
elements
Eq. 39
J
ti2 N r C H
Pm = { 0 ( 1 ) A1i + o M ( 2 ) A2i i + o M ( 3 ) A3i +
i =1 4 ti H r
H 2H
+ o M ( 4 ) A4i + o N ( 5 ) A5i }
ti eff
where the summation is extended over the J contributing SE. It is
assumed here that the column is made of one material, so that, all
average stresses are calculated on the basis of a single constitutive
relation. Each element, however, may have different geometrical
dimensions: Ci, i and ti, i = 1, 2, .....J.
36
Figure 16 Cross-sectional dimensions of a rectangular column.
t2 1 r C H 2H
Eq. 40 Pm = (o A1 + o2 A2 + o3 A3 )
4 t H r eff
n
o M ( ) 2
Eq. 41 =
y (n + 1)(n + 2) 0
37
t
1 = ln(1 + )
Eq. 42 2r
t t t
1 2 0. 93 3
Eq. 45 2r H 2r
where only the linear terms are retained. Substituting Eq. 45 back
into the expressions for energy equivalent flow stresses, Eq. 41,
finally yields
n
1 0.5
n
t
1 o N
( 1 ) = y a1 a1
r n + 1 y
38
n
t
2 o M ( 2 ) = y a 2
H
n
2 0.93
a2
(n + 1)(n + 2) y
n
t
n
2 0 .5
Eq. 46 3 o M
( 3 ) = y a3 a3
r (n + 1)(n + 2) y
t y
2
r 1n C t
1+ n
H t 2 H
1+ n
Pm = A1 + A2 + A3
4 t t H t r eff
Eq. 47 Ai A a
i i
2
H
1+ n 2
1 n
C 3+ n
= A 1
3+ n
A A
3+ n
2 3
3+ n
K 2 t ;
t
1+ n
Eq. 49 K 2
= (1 + n)(1 n) 3+ n
39
Substituting Eq. 49 back into Eq. 47 renders the closed-form
solution for the average crushing force Pm.
1 n
(1+ n ) 2 1 n 2
Pm (1 n )
C 3+ n
= A 1
3+ n
A2
3+ n
A 3
3+ n *
Eq. 50
My t
* [K 1 n
1
+ K2
(1+ n )
+ K 2 K1
(1+ n )
]2H
eff
()
2
H 3 A2 3 C 2
= ; C = (a + b)
t A1 A3 t
r A A C
= 3 2 2 33
t A1 t
Pm C 2H
= 3 3 A1 A2 A3 3
Eq. 51 My t eff
which for given values of constants Ai, Eq. 48, and a given
non-dimensional ratio of the length of the plastic folding wave to
the effective crushing distance, 2H/eff 1.37, finally yields.
H 3 C
t
t
() 2
;
C = (a + b)
r C
= 0. 715 3
Eq. 52 t t
Pm C
= 13. 052 3
My t
while the length of the plastic folding wave, 2H, and the magnitude
of rolling radius, r, are the same as in the case of a standing alone
element
0 N ( , &) = ( ) (&)d = (&) N
0 ( )
0
Eq. 54
1
0 M ( , &) = ( , &)d = (&) 0M ( )
N
2 0
0
41
&
& 0.33
C
&
Eq. 55 & 0.43
C
&
& 0.25
C
for the asymmetric, mixed and symmetric modes, respectively
(details of the derivation procedure are given in [5]). In Eq. 55 the
velocity of axial compression & must be given in meters per
second, [m/s], while C (the total cross-sectional length of a
representative SE) is given in meters, [m]. For a cross-section
composed of more then one SE the representative length, C, should
be calculated by dividing the entire cross-sectional length, L, by the
number of contributing elements, J.
& 1 / p
Eq. 56 P = Pm 1 +
d
m
D
(a). (b).
4
CRASH CAD is a highly interactive CAD/CAE software based on
the macro element approach introduced in the preceding sections.
43
5.1 Crash analysis at the level of a cross - section.
44
Geometry
2 mm AA5754-O
Spot-Welded
45
Spot welds (rivets or laser weld - line) must not interfere
with the local plastic deformation of a section,
46
Figure 20 Initial (bad) and final (correct) topologies of a
corrugated panel optimized fro axial crash through a proper
selection of central angles and widths of side faces, [8].
47
Introduction of triggering dents in members designed for
axial crash is necessary in order to promote a desired progressive
folding pattern and reduce the peak force below the level, which is
likely to induce a global, Euler - type buckling of a column. A
triggering of columns is especially important for complex
cross - sections that develop a large number of natural folding
modes. Usually only few of these modes are likely to converge to
the desired progressive folding pattern while other modes lead to a
premature bending of a column.
(a).
(b).
Figure 22 Progressive collapse of a properly triggered long square
column, top, and global bending or irregular folding of
untriggered columns, bottom.
48
carefully controlled loading and boundary conditions at both ends
of a column.
49
Figure 23 The input template of 'S' frame model. The whole frame is
discretized into four Superbeam Elements. The user is
asked to specify the dimensions shown in the figure.
The 'S' frame module calculates the peak force, energy absorption,
as well as the whole force - deflection characteristic for a given
frame. An example of calculations is shown in Figure 24 together
with corresponding experimental data taken from the SAE paper by
Y. Ohkami et al, [14].
50
6 Conclusions
51
7 References.
52
[12] L. E. Malvern, Introduction to the Mechanics of a
Continuous Medium, Prentice-Hall, New Jersey (1969).
[13] R. Hill, Extremal paths of plastic work and deformation, J.
Mech. Phys. Solids, 34, 5, 511-523 (1986).
[14] Ohkami, Y., et al., Collapse of Thin - Walled Curved Beam
with Closed - Hat Section - Part. 1: Study on Collapse
Characteristic, SAE paper 900460, (1990).
[15] Kleiber, M., Kulpa, Z., Computer-assisted hybrid reasoning
and physical systems., Computer Assisted Mechanics and
Engineering Sciences, 2, 165-186, (1995).
53