1.

INTRODUCTION
Many methods are available at present for the design optimization of
structural systems and these methods based on mathematical programming
techniques involving gradient search and direct search. These methods assume
that the design variables are continuous. Advanced composite materials are
ideally suited for long, power drive shaft applications. Their elastic properties can
be tailored to increase the torque and the rotational speed at which they operate.
The advanced composite materials such as Boron, Graphite, Carbon, Kevlar and
Glass with suitable resins are widely used because of their high specific strength
(strength/density) and high specific modulus (modulus/density). Polymer matrix
composites were proposed for light weight shafts in drivelines for automobiles. A
Genetic Algorithm based on natural genetics has been used for this project.
Most of the automobiles weight reduction of drive shaft by optimization of
design parameters is highly desirable if it can be achieved without cost increase
and loss of quality and reliability. In the project work the use of S2-glass/epoxy
and High strength carbon/Epoxy composites for automotive drive shafts and a
single piece composite drive shaft for rear wheel drive automobile was optimally
designed with composites using Genetic Algorithm with weight reduction as the
objective and keeping torque transmission, torsional buckling strength capabilities
and natural bending frequency as constraints. Composite driveshaft is also
lightweight, requiring less energy to spin, effectively increasing the amount of
power that the engine can transmit to the wheels. They have reduced noise and
vibration properties. Composites have inherently better damping and compliance
than metallic structures.
They also have the potential to be adapted into smart structures, i.e.
structures that can monitor and/or alter their properties in service. The designer
has increased flexibility to tailor the composite structure to the particular need.
Complex geometries can be designed to optimize the strength, stiffness, or to
enhance reducibility by minimizing the number or location of joints. Composites
have lower life cycle maintenance costs than steel structures. Composite
structural elements have better dimensional stability than steel elements.
In modern machine constructions, apart from new technologies having
been introduced in their design and manufacture, demand application of new

1
materials that may have higher specific strength and hardness compared to
traditional materials. Composite materials meet these criteria. Their values of
impact tenacity, strength and hardness and especially of resistance to fatigue and
vibratory and acoustical loads may be enhanced in relation to known metals and
alloys. Distinctiveness of composite materials is in conjunction with different
features in order to gain materials with better characteristics in relation to
components. These features may be varied, according to needs, by selection of
components, their quantity, allocation and orientation within the material. Due to
their good characteristics, composite materials are increasingly used for
manufacture of transmission shafts today.

1.1 BASIC CONCEPTS OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS:

Composite materials are basically hybrid materials formed of multiple
materials in order to utilize their individual structural advantages in a single
structural material. Various scientific definitions for composite materials can be
expresses as follows,
The word composite means made up of two or more parts. A composite
material is one made of two other materials. The composite material then has
the properties of the two materials that have been combined.

The word composite in the term composite material signifies that two or more
materials are combined on a macroscopic scale to form a useful third
material. The key is the macroscopic examination of a material wherein the
components can be identified by the naked eye. Different materials can be
combined on a microscopic scale, such as in alloying of metals, but the
resulting material is, for all practical purposes, macroscopically homogeneous,
i.e., the components cannot be distinguished by the naked eye and essentially
act together

2
 Fig.1.1 sequence of fiber orientation.
The most important composites are those in which the dispersed phase is
in the form of a fiber. The design of fiber-reinforced composites is based on the
high strength and stiffness on a weight basis.
Specific strength is the ratio between strength and density. Specific modulus is
the ratio between modulus and density. Fiber length has a great influence on the
mechanical characteristics of a material. The fibers can be either long or short.
Long continuous fibers are easy to orient and process, while short fibers cannot
be controlled fully for proper orientation.
Long fibers provide many benefits over short fibers. These include impact
resistance, low shrinkage, improved surface finish, and dimensional stability.
However, short fibers provide low cost, are easy to work with, and have fast cycle
time fabrication procedures. The characteristics of the fiber reinforced composites
depend not only on the properties of the fiber, but also on the degree to which an
applied load is transmitted to the fibers by the matrix phase.
The principal fibers in commercial use are various types of glass, carbon,
graphite and Kevlar. All these fibers can be incorporated into a matrix either in
continuous lengths or in discontinuous lengths as shown in the Fig. The matrix
material may be a plastic or rubber polymer, metal or ceramic. Laminate is
obtained by stacking a number of thin layers of fibers and matrix consolidating
them to the desired thickness. Fiber orientation in each layer can be controlled to
generate a wide range of physical and mechanical properties for the composite
laminate.

3
1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPOSITES
Composites materials can be classified as
1. polymer matrix composites,
2. metal matrix composites,
3. Ceramic matrix.

1.2.1 Polymer-Matrix Composites:

Polymer-Matrix Composites are the most developed class of composite
materials in that they have found widespread application, can be fabricated into
large, complex shapes, and have been accepted in a variety of aerospace and
commercial applications. They are constructed of components such as carbon,
boron, graphite, aramid fibers bound together by an organic polymer matrix such
as epoxy, polyester, and urethane. These reinforced plastics are a synergistic
combination of high-performance fibers and matrices. The fiber provides the high
strengths and modulus, whereas the matrix spreads the load as well as offering
resistance to weathering and corrosion.

1.2.2 Metal- Matrix Composites:

These composites consist of metal alloys reinforced with continuous fibers,
whiskers (A version of short fibers that are in the form of single crystals), or
particulates (fine particles, as distinct from fibers). Because of their use of metals
as matrix materials, they have a higher temperature resistance than PMCs but in
general are heavier. They are not use as widely used as PMCs but are finding
increasing application in many areas. Further development of manufacturing and
processing techniques is essential to bringing down product costs and
accelerating the uses of MMCs.

1.2.3 Ceramic-Matrix Composites:

Monolithic ceramic materials have a natural high temperature resistance
but also have fundamental limitations in structural applications owing to their
propensity for brittle fracture. The incorporation of reinforcement, for example,
ceramic fiber reinforcement, into the ceramic matrix can improve the formidability
of the material by allowing cracking to be retarded by the fiber matrix interfaces.

4
CMCs are a class of structural materials with reinforcement such as SiC fibers
embedded in a ceramic matrix such as Al2O3, Si3N4 or SiC. The reinforcements
can be continuous fibers, chopped Fibers, small discontinuous whisker platelets,
or particulates.

1.3 SELECTION OF REINFORCEMENT FIBER

Fibers are available with widely differing properties. Review of the design
and performance requirements usually dictate the fiber/fibers to be used.

1.3.1Carbon/Graphite fibers:
Its advantages include high specific strength and modulus, low coefficient
of thermal expansion, and high fatigue strength. Graphite, when used alone has
low impact resistance. Its drawbacks include high cost, low impact resistance,
and high electrical conductivity.

1.3.2 S2-Glass fibers:

Its advantages include its low cost, high strength, high chemical
resistance, and good insulating properties. The disadvantages are low elastic
modulus, poor adhesion to polymers, low fatigue strength, and high density,
which increase shaft size and weight. Also crack detection becomes difficult.

1.3.3 Kevlar fibers:

Its advantages are low density, high tensile strength, low cost, and higher
impact resistance. The disadvantages are very low compressive strength,
marginal shear strength, and high water absorption. Kevlar is not recommended
for use in torque carrying application because of its low strength in compression
and shear. Here, both glass and carbon fibers are selected as potential materials
for the design of shaft.

5
1.4 SELECTION OF RESIN SYSTEM
The important considerations in selecting resin are cost, temperature
capability, elongation to failure and resistance to impact (a function of modulus of
elongation). The resins selected for most of the drive shafts are either epoxies or
vinyl esters. Here, epoxy resin was selected due to its high strength, good wetting
of fibers, lower curing shrinkage, and better dimensional stability. Epoxy or
polyepoxide is a thermosetting polymer formed from reaction of an epoxide
"resin" with polyamine "hardener". Epoxy has a wide range of applications,
including fiber-reinforced plastic materials and general purpose adhesives. Epoxy
is a copolymer; that is, it is formed from two different chemicals. These are
referred to as the "resin" and the "hardener". The resin consists of monomers or
short chain polymers with an epoxide group at either end. Most common epoxy
resins are produced from a reaction between epichlorohydrin and bisphenol-A,
though the latter may be replaced by similar chemicals. The hardener consists of
polyamine monomers, for example Triethylenetetramine (TETA). When these
compounds are mixed together, the amine groups react with the epoxide groups
to form a covalent bond. Each NH group can react with an epoxide group, so that
the resulting polymer is heavily cross linked, and is thus rigid and strong.
The applications for epoxy-based materials are extensive and include
coatings, adhesives and composite materials such as those using carbon fiber
and fiberglass reinforcements (although polyester, vinyl ester, and other
thermosetting resins are also used for glass-reinforced plastic). The chemistry of
epoxies and the range of commercially available variations allow cure polymers
to be produced with a very broad range of properties. In general, epoxies are
known for their excellent adhesion, chemical and heat resistance, good-to-
excellent mechanical properties and very good electrical insulating properties.
Finally epoxy was selected as a resin for this project.

6
 2. AIM AND SCOPE OF THE PROJECT
This project deals with replacement of a two piece conventional steel drive
shafts with a single piece of S2-glass/epoxy and high strength carbon / epoxy
composite drive shafts for an automobile application.

2.1 SPECIFICATION OF THE PROBLEM:

The weight reduction of the drive shaft can have a certain role in the
general weight reduction of the vehicles and is a highly desirable goal. It can be
achieved without increase in cost and decrease in quality and reliability. And
increase the natural frequency of the shaft and to decrease the bending stresses
using stacking sequences. By doing the same, maximize the torque transmission
and torsional buckling. The torque transmission capability of the drive shaft for
passenger cars, small trucks, and vans should be larger than 3,500 Nm and
fundamental natural bending frequency of the shaft should be higher than 6,500
rpm to avoid whirling vibration.

2.2 OPTIMUM DESIGN USING GENETIC ALGORITHM:

The design parameters are to be optimized for S2-Glass/ Epoxy and High
Strength Carbon/Epoxy composite drive shafts of an automobile using Genetic
Algorithm. The purpose of using Genetic Algorithm is to minimize the weight of
the shaft, which is subjected to the constraints such as torque transmission,
torsional buckling capacities and fundamental lateral natural frequency.
The design parameters to be optimized are,
1. Ply thickness
2. Number of plies required
3. Stacking sequence of Laminate.

2.3 PURPOSE OF THE DRIVE SHAFT:

The torque that is produced from the engine and transmission must be
transferred to the rear wheels to push the vehicle forward and reverse. The drive

7
shaft must provide a smooth, uninterrupted flow of power to the axles. The drive
shaft and differential are used to transfer this torque.

Figure.2.1 Two piece conventional steel drive shaft arrangement in a vehicle.

2.4 FUNCTIONS OF THE DRIVE SHAFT:

1. First, it must transmit torque from the transmission to the differential gear
box.
2. During the operation, it is necessary to transmit maximum low-gear torque
developed by the engine.
3. The drive shafts must also be capable of rotating at the very fast speeds
required by the vehicle.
4. The drive shaft must also operate through constantly changing angles
between the transmission, the differential and the axles. As the rear
wheels roll over bumps in the road, the differential and axles move up and
down. This movement changes the angle between the transmission and
the differential.

8
 5. The length of the drive shaft must also be capable of changing while
transmitting torque. Length changes are caused by axle movement due to
torque reaction, road deflections, braking loads and so on. A slip joint is
used to compensate for this motion. The slip joint is usually made of an
internal and external spline. It is located on the front end of the drive shaft
and is connected to the transmission.

2.5 LIMITATIONS OF STEEL DRIVE SHAFT:

1. They have less specific modulus and strength.

2. More weight.

3. Conventional steel drive shafts are usually manufactured in two pieces to

increase the fundamental bending natural frequency because the bending
natural frequency of the shaft is inversely proportional to the square of
beam length and proportional to the square root of specific modulus. The
steel shaft is made in two sections connected by a supported structure,
bearing and U-joints and overall weight of the assembly will be more.

4. Steel drive shafts have less damping capacity.

5. Less corrosion resistance.

2.6 ADVANTAGES OF COMPOSITES DRIVE SHAFTS:

1. High specific strength and modulus.
2. High stiffness to weight ratio,
3. The fundamental natural frequency of the carbon fiber composite drive can
be twice as high as steel. A one piece composite shaft can be
manufactured to satisfy the vibrations requirements. This eliminates all the
assembly, connecting the two piece steel shafts and thus minimizes the
overall weight, vibrations and total coast.
4. Due to the weight reduction fuel consumption will be reduced.
5. Good corrosion resistance,
6. Good thermal conductivity,
7. High damping capacity,

9
 8. Low coefficient of thermal expansion.
9. Composite drive shafts are also lightweight, requiring less energy to spin,
effectively increasing the amount of power that the engine can transmit to the
wheels.

2.7 DISADVANTAGES OF COMPOSITES DRIVE SHAFTS:

1. Rework and repairing are difficult.
2. They do not necessarily give higher performance in all properties used for
material selection.
3. Mechanical characterization of a composite structure is more complex
than that of a metallic structure.
4. The design of fiber reinforced structure is difficult compared to a metallic
structure, mainly due to the difference in properties in directions

10
 3. LITERATURE REVIEW

Studies on composite shafts started in 1970s. The most important

development of composite shafts has taken place in aerospace (helicopter)
industry [Kraus and Darlow, 1987 and Bielefield, 1994], and automotive
applications [Kliger and Yates, 1980, Golding, 1982 and Hoffmann et al., 1994].
Fromknecht [1992] highlighted the possible benefits accruing from the use of
composite shaft in mechanical power transmission. W. Weeton et al. briefly
described the application possibilities of composites in the field of automotive
industry to manufacture composite elliptic springs, drive shafts and leaf springs.
Beard more and Johnson discussed the potential for composites in
structural automotive applications from a structural point of view. The biggest
advantage of composites in comparison to traditional isotropic materials is their
designable material properties. The orientation of the constituents of a composite
material, the fiber and the matrix, can be engineered to give best performance in
a specific application, which is also referred to as elastic tailoring (Smith et. al.
[1991], Rehfield [1985].)
Tetsuyuki Kyono described as use of fiber reinforced composite tube as
drive shafts have been well known and considered to be one of the promising
solutions to reduce vehicle weight and NVH (noise, vibration and harshness). A
lot of research and development have been carried out and it has been already
proved that carbon fiber composite tube made by filament winding technology
can meet basic requirements of drive shaft such as torque capability and natural
frequency (critical rotational speed). In order to make composite tube into drive
shaft, a couple of issues should be taken into account in terms of fiber winding
angle against longitudinal axis of the tube. Carbon fiber wound at 45degree
works most effectively works in terms of torsional strength. 90 degree works in
terms of torsional buckling strength and 0 degree does in terms of critical
rotational speed most effectively though both angles can not be exactly achieved
by filament winding.
The problem of general instability under torsional load has been studied by
many investigators. Greenhill obtained a solution for the torsional stability of a
long shaft. The first analysis of buckling of thin-walled tubes under torsion made

11
by Schwerin, but his analysis did not agree with his experimental data. However,
all these papers were limited to isotropic materials.
As far as orthotropic materials are concerned, general theories of
orthotropic shells were developed by Ambartsumyan and Dong et al. Cheng and
Ho analyzed more generally, the buckling problems of non-homogeneous
anisotropic cylindrical shells under combined axial, radial and torsional loads with
all four boundary conditions at each end of the cylinder.
Lien-Wen Chen et.al. Analyzed the stability behaviour of rotating
composite shafts under axial compressive loads. A theoretic analysis was
presented for determining the buckling torque of a cylindrical hollow shaft with
layers of arbitrarily laminated composite materials by means of various thin-shell
theories. Bauchau et al., measured the torsional buckling loads of graphite/epoxy
shafts, which were in good agreement with theoretical predictions based on a
general shell theory including elastic coupling effects and transverse shearing
deformations.
The optimum design of laminated plates and shells subjected to
constraints on strength, stiffness, buckling loads, and fundamental natural
frequencies were examined. Methods were proposed for the determination of the
optimal ply angle variation through the thickness of symmetric angle-ply shells of
uniform thickness. The use of GAs for the optimal design of symmetric composite
laminates subject to various loading and boundary conditions were explained.
Kim, et.al. Minimized the weight of composite laminates with ply drop under a
strength constraint. The working of Simple Genetic Algorithm was explained by
Goldberg. Rajeev and Krishnamurthy proposed a method for converting a
constrained optimization problem into an unconstrained optimization problem.

12
 4.DESIGN OF STEEL DRIVE SHAFT

4.1 DRIVE SHAFT ARRANGEMENT IN LMV

Conventional two-piece drive shaft arrangement for rear wheel vehicle
driving system is shown in figure below,

Figure.4.1 drive shaft arrangement in lmv.

The shaft rotates at a constant speed about its longitudinal axis. The shaft
has a uniform, circular cross section. The shaft is perfectly balanced, i.e., at every
cross section, the mass center coincides with the geometric center. All damping
and nonlinear effects are excluded. The stress-strain relationship for composite
material is linear & elastic.

13
4.2 DRIVE SHAFT VIBRATION
Vibration is the most common drive shaft problem. Small cars and short
vans and trucks (LMV) are able to use a single drive shaft with a slip joint at the
front end without experiencing any undue vibration. However, with vehicles of
longer wheel base, the longer drive shaft required would tend to sag and under
certain operating conditions would tend to whirl and then setup resonant
vibrations in the body of the vehicle, which will cause the body to vibrate as the
shaft whirls.

Vibration can be either transverse or torsional. Transverse vibration is the

result of unbalanced condition acting on the shaft. This condition is usually by dirt
or foreign material on the shaft, and it can cause a rather noticeable vibration in
the vehicle. Torsional vibration occurs from the power impulses of the engine or
from improper universal join angles. It causes a noticeable sound disturbance
and can cause a mechanical shaking.

In excess, both types of vibration can cause damage to the universal joints
and bearings. Whirling of a rotating shaft happens when the centre of gravity of
the shaft mass is eccentric and so is acted upon by a centrifugal force which
tends to bend or bow the shaft so that it orbits about the shaft longitudinal axis
like a rotating skipping rope. As the speed rises, the eccentric deflection of the
shaft increases, with the result that the centrifugal force also will increase. The
effect is therefore cumulative and will continue until the whirling become critical,
at which point the shaft will vibrate violently.

From the theory of whirling, it has been found that the critical whirling
speed of the shaft is inversely proportional to the square of the shaft length. If,
therefore, a shaft having, for example, a critical whirling speed of 6000 rev/min is
doubled in length, the critical whirling of the new shaft will be reduced to a quarter
of this, The vibration problem could solve by increasing the diameter of the its
strength beyond its torque carrying requirements and at the same time increase

14
its inertia, which would oppose the vehicles acceleration and deceleration.
Another alternative solution frequently adopted by car, van, and commercial
vehicle manufacturers is the use of two-piece drive shafts supported by
intermediate or centre bearings. But this will increase shaft, but this would
increase the cost considerably.
In currently Steel (SM45C) used for automotive drive shaft applications.
The material properties of the steel (SM45C) is shown in table1. The steel drive
shaft should satisfy three design specifications such as torque transmission
capability, buckling torque capability and bending natural frequency.

Table 4.1: MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF THE STEEL:

Mechanical properties Units Steel

Youngs modulus GPa 207.0

Yield strength MPa 370

Shear strength MPa -----

Shear modulus GPa 80.0

Poissons ratio ------ 0.3

density Kg/m3 7600

15
 5. MANUFACTURING PROCESS OF THE COMPOSITE DRIVE
SHAFT
The selection of a fabrication process obviously depends on the
constituent materials in the composite, with the matrix material being the key. The
composite shaft was manufactured by filament winding process. The process
consists of winding continuous-fiber tow around a mandrel to form the structure.
Reinforcement fiber and epoxy matrix material were used in the manufacturing of
the composite material. The matrix may be added to the fiber by running the fiber
tow through a matrix bath at the time of placement, in a process called wet
winding, or the tows may be prepregged prior to winding .
In a filament winding process, a band of continuous resin impregnated
rovings or monofilaments is wrapped around a rotating mandrel and then cured
either at room temperature or in an oven to produce the final product. The
technique offers high speed and precise method for placing many composite
layers. The mandrel can be cylindrical, round or any shape that does not have re-
entrant curvature. Among the applications of filament winding are cylindrical and
spherical pressure vessels, pipe lines, oxygen & other gas cylinders, rocket motor
casings, helicopter blades, large underground storage tanks (for gasoline, oil,
salts, acids, alkalies, water etc.).
The process is not limited to axis-symmetric structures: prismatic shapes
and more complex parts such as tee-joints, elbows may be wound on machines
equipped with the appropriate number of degrees of freedom. Modern winding
machines are numerically controlled with higher degrees of freedom for laying
exact number of layers of reinforcement. Mechanical strength of the filament
wound parts not only depends on composition of component material but also on
process parameters like winding angle, fibre tension, resin chemistry and curing
cycle.
To begin with, a large number of fibre rovings is pulled from series of
creels into bath containing liquid resin, catalyst and other ingredients such as
pigments and UV retardants. Fibre tension is controlled by the guides or scissor
bars located between each creel and resin bath. Just before entering the resin
bath, the rovings are usually gathered into a band by passing them through a
textile thread board or stainless steel comb. At the end of the resin tank, the

16
resin-impregnated rovings are pulled through a wiping device that removes the
excess resin from the rovings and controls the resin coating thickness around
each roving.

Fig
.5.1

Schematic representation of the filament winding process.

The most commonly used wiping device is a set of squeeze rollers in
which the position of the top roller is adjusted to control the resin content as well
as the tension in fibre rovings. Another technique for wiping the resin-
impregnated rovings is to pull each roving separately through an orifice. The
latter method results in better control of resin content. Once the rovings have
been thoroughly impregnated and wiped, they are gathered together in a flat
band and positioned on the mandrel. Band formation can be achieved by passing
through a stainless steel comb and later through the collecting eye. The
transverse speed of the carriage and the winding speed of the mandrel are
controlled to create the desired winding angle patterns.
After winding, the filament wound mandrel is subjected to curing and post
curing operations during which the mandrel is continuously rotated to maintain
uniformity of resin content around the circumference. After curing, product is
removed from the mandrel, either by hydraulic or mechanical extractor.

The composite bar used in the test was manufactured by wet filament
winding manufacturing process by IZOREEL Company. Carbon, glass, aramid
and etc. materials are wound on the mandrel, after epoxy, polyster, etc. resin

17
bath. After placing the mandrel to winding machine, the caddy moves back and
forth with arranged speeds in order to wind fibers at the requested orientations.

The filament winding precision is provided by computer control system at

the CNC winding machines. After winding operation, furnacing operation is starts.
The oven heat is 150 C and the mandrel holds approximately 3 hours inside the
Owen. The mandrel must be rotated inside the oven in order to prevent unwanted
accumulation of resin. And after these operations, the mandrel is taken out of the
oven. A filament angle of the composite test bar is 45.Required wall thickness is
provided by repeating the winding operation until the desired wall thickness is
achieved. After these operations, the mandrel is taken out of with the press.

5.1 Advantages
1. Excellent mechanical properties due to use of continuous fibres.
2. High degree of design flexibility due to controlled fibre orientation and lower
cost of large number of composites.
3. This is a very fast and economic method of laying down material.
4. Resin content can be controlled by metering the resin onto each fibre tow
through nips or dies.

5.2 Disadvantages
1. Difficulty to wind complex shapes, which may require complex equipment.
2. The process is limited to convex shaped components.
3. Fiber cannot easily be laid exactly along the length of a component.
4. Mandrel costs for large components can be high.
5. Low viscosity resins usually need to be used with lower mechanical
properties.

18
 6. DESIGN OF COMPOSITE DRIVE SHAFT

The fundamental natural bending frequency for passenger cars, small

trucks, and vans of the propeller shaft should be higher than 6,500 rpm to avoid
whirling vibration and the torque transmission capability of the drive shaft should
be larger than 3,500 Nm. The drive shaft outer diameter should not exceed 100
mm due to space limitations. Here outer diameter of the shaft is taken as 90 mm.
The drive shaft of transmission system is to be designed optimally for following
specified design requirements as shown in

Name Unit Value

1. Ultimate Torque Tmax 3500 Nm.

2. Max. Speed of shaft Nmax 6500 rpm.
3. Length of shaft L 1250 mm.
4. Diameter of the shaft D 90 mm.

6.1Selection of Cross-Section.
The drive shaft can be solid circular or hollow circular. Here hollow circular
cross-section was chosen because the hollow circular shafts are stronger in per
kg weight than solid circular. The stress distribution in case of solid shaft is zero
at the center and maximum at the outer surface while in hollow shaft stress
variation is smaller. In solid shafts the material close to the center are not fully
utilized.

19
Table 6.1: PROPERTIES OF THE S2-GLASS/ EPOXY AND HIGH STRENGTH
CARBON/EPOXY:

S2-
HS carbon/
S.No properties units glass
epoxy
/epoxy
1. Longitudinal elastic modulus GPa 89.0 134

2. Transverse elastic modulus GPa 11.0 7.0

3. Shear modulus GPa 5.6 5.8

4. Major Poissons ratio 0.3 0.3

5. Ultimate longitudinal tensile MPa 800 880

strength
6. Ultimate transverse tensile MPa 40 60
strength.

7. Ultimate in plane shear MPa 72 97

strength
8. Density of the shaft material. Kg/m3 2000 1600

20
FIGURE 6.1: DESIGN OF COMPOSITE DRIVE SHAFT

6.2 ASSUMPTIONS OF THE SHAFT

1. The shaft rotates at a constant speed about its longitudinal axis.
2. The shaft has a uniform, circular cross section.
3. The shaft is perfectly balanced, i.e., at every cross section, the mass center
coincides with the geometric center.
4. All damping and nonlinear effects are excluded.
5. The stress-strain relationship for composite material is linear & elastic; hence,
Hookes law is applicable for composite materials.
6. Acoustical fluid interactions are neglected, i.e., the shaft is assumed to be
acting in a vacuum.
7. Since lamina is thin and no out-of-plane loads are applied, it is considered as
under the plane stress.
8. The designer must take into account the factor of safety when designing a
structure. Since, composites are highly orthotropic and their fractures were not
fully studied the factor of safety was taken as 2.

21
 7. TORQUE TRANSMISSION CAPACITY OF THE SHAFT

7.1Stress-Strain Relationship for Unidirectional Lamina

The lamina is thin and if no out-of-plane loads are applied, it is considered
as the plane stress problem. Hence, it is possible to reduce the 3-D problem into
2-D problem.
For unidirectional 2-D lamina, the stress-strain relationship is given by,

-----------------7.1

---------7.2

7.2 Stress-Strain Relationship for Angle-ply Lamina

The relation between material coordinate system and X-Y-Z coordinate
system is shown in Fig 7.1Coordinates 1, 2, 3 are principal material directions
and coordinates X, Y, Z are transformed or laminate axes.

22
 Figure No. 7.1. Relation between material coordinate system and X-Y
coordinate system
For an angle-ply lamina where fibers are oriented at an angle with the
positive X-axis (Longitudinal axis of shaft), the effective elastic properties are
given by,

-----------7.3

----------7.4

-----------------7.5
The variation of the Exlamina, Eylamina and Gxylamina with ply
orientation is shown in Fig 7.2 and 7.3 respectively.

23
Figure No.7.2. The variation of the Exlamina and Eylamina with ply orientation for
HS Carbon/Epoxy.

Figure No.7.3. The variation of the Gxylamina with ply orientation for HS
Carbon/Epoxy.

24
 The stress strain relationship for an angle-ply lamina is given by,

-----------------------------7.6

--------------------7.7

------------------7.8

----------7.9

--------------------7.10

------7.11

-------7.12

---------------------------------------------------7.13

--------------------------------7.14

---------------------------------7.15
Where i, j = 1, 2, 6.
[A], [B], [D] matrices are called the extensional, coupling, and bending
Stiffness matrices respectively,

25
 ------7.16
For symmetric laminates, the B matrix vanishes and the in plane and bending
stiffness are uncoupled. For a symmetric laminate,

-------------------------7.17

------------------------7.18

---------------------------7.19

-------------------------7.20
Where

26
 ---------------7.21

---------------7.21

-------------------------------------7.22
When a shaft is subjected to torque T, the resultant forces in the laminate
by considering the effect of centrifugal forces are

------------------------------------------------------7.23
Stresses in the Kth ply are given by,

----------------------7.24

27
 ------------------7.25
Knowing the stresses in each ply, the failure of the laminate is determined
by using the First Ply Failure criteria. That is, the laminate is assumed to fail
when the first ply fails. Here maximum stress theory is used to find the torque
transmitting capacity.

7.3 Torsional Buckling Capacity (Tcr)

Since long thin hollow shafts are vulnerable to torsional buckling, the
possibility of the torsional buckling of the composite shaft was checked by the
expression for the torsional buckling load T cr of a thin walled orthotropic tube,
which was expressed below

------------------7.26
This equation has been generated from the equation of isotropic cylindrical
shell and has been used for the design of drive shafts. From the equation, the
torsional buckling capability of composite shaft is strongly dependent on the
thickness of composite shaft and the average modulus in the hoop direction.

7.4 Lateral or Bending Vibration

The shaft is considered as simply supported beam undergoing transverse
vibration or can be idealized as a pinned-pinned beam. Natural frequency can be
found using the following two theories.

7.4.1 Bernoulli-Euler Beam Theory-Ncrbe

It neglects the both transverse shear deformation as well as rotary inertia
effects. Natural frequency based on the Bernoulli-Euler beam theory is given by,

28
 Where p=1, 2... ------------------------------------------------7.27

---------------------------------------------------7.28

7.4.2 Timoshenko Beam Theory-Ncrt

It considers both transverse shear deformation as well as rotary inertia
effects. Natural frequency based on the Timoshenko beam theory is given by,

----------------------------------------7.29

-------------------------------------------------------7.30
Where Ks =shear coefficient of the lateral natural frequency (<1)

------------------------------7.31

fs= 2 for hollow circular cross-sections

7.4.3 The relation between Timoshenko and Bernoulli-Euler

Beam Theories
The relation between Timoshenko and Bernoulli-Euler beam theories is
Given by,

---------------------------------------7.32

29
 8. DESIGN OPTIMIZATION
Optimization of an engineering design is an improvement of a proposed
design that results in the best properties for minimum cost. Most of the methods
used for design optimization assume that the design variables are continuous. In
structural optimization, almost all design variables are discrete. A simple Genetic
Algorithm (GA) is used to obtain the optimal number of layers, thickness of ply
and fiber orientation of each layer. All the design variables are discrete in nature
and easily handled by GA. With reference to the middle plane, symmetrical fiber
orientations are adopted.

8.1 GENETIC ALGORITHM:

A tailor made computer program using C language has been developed to
perform the optimization process, and to obtain the best possible design.

Formulation of an optimal design problem involves identification of the

design variables, objective function and design constraints. The design
constraints are not mandatory for all types of optimization problems. Most of the
methods used for design optimization assume that the design variables are
continuous. In structural optimization, almost all design variables are discrete. GA
used to obtain the optimal number of layers, thickness of ply and fiber orientation
of each layer. All the design variables are discrete in nature and are easily
handled by GA. With reference to the middle plane, symmetrical fiber orientations
are adopted.
GA differs from traditional optimization algorithm in many ways. A few are
listed below,
GA does not require a problem specific knowledge to carryout a search.
GA uses only the values of the objective function. For instance, calculus
based search algorithms use derivative information to carryout a search.
GA uses a population of points at a time in contrast to the single point
approach by the traditional optimization methods. That means at the same
time GA process a number of designs.

30
8.2 Objective Function:
The objective for the optimum design of the composite drive shaft is the
minimization of weight, so the objective function of the problem is given as:
Weight of the shaft,

m AL

m
4

2
d o d i2 L
Weight of the steel
m = 0.0076*/4*(45- 41.68) *1250 = 8.5383 kg.

Weight of the S2 glass epoxy

m = 0.0020*/4*(45- 38.2) *1250 = 4.443 kg.

Weight of the High strength carbon epoxy

m = 0.0016*/4*(45- 42.96) *1250 = 1.132 kg.

8.3 Design Variables:

The design variables of the problem are number of plies, stacking
Sequence and thickness of the ply. The limiting values of the design variables are
given as follows,

1]. N > 0 90 k 90 0.1 t k 0.5

2]. 3].
n = 1,2,332
k =1, 2, n

The number of plies required depends on the design constraints, allowable

material properties, and thickness of plies and stacking sequence. Based on the
investigations it was found that up to 32 numbers of plies are sufficient.

31
8.4 Design constraints:

1].Torque 2].Tortional Buckling 3]. Fundamental natural

transmission capacity capacity of the shaft: frequency of the shaft :
of the shaft : Tcr Tmax N crt N max
T Tmax

The constraint equations may be written as,

C=C1+C2+C3
Using the method of Rajeev and Krishnamoorthy, the constrained
optimization can be converted to unconstrained optimization by modifying the
objective function as,

For all practical purposes, k1 is a penalty constant and is assumed to be 10.

32
8.5 INPUT GA PARAMETERS OF COMPOSITE SHAFTS:

Table No.8.1 Input genetic algorithms parameters of composite shafts

GA parameters Composite drive shaft

Number of parameters n/2+2, if n is even.

(n+1)/2+2, if n is odd.

Total string length 139

Population size 50
Maximum generations 150
Cross-over probability 1
Mutation probability 0.003
String length for number of plies 5

String length for fiber orientation 8

String length for thickness of ply 6

33
GENETIC ALGORITHM OF FLOW CHART:

Figure.8.1 Genetic algorithm of flow chart

34
8.6 OUT PARAMETERS OF COMPOSITE DRIVE SHAFTS:
Table No.8.2 out parameters of composite drive shafts

Materials steel S2 glass-epoxy High strength

carbon-epoxy
Length of the 1250 1250 1250
shaft. (mm).
Diameter of the 90 90 90
shaft. (mm).
Thickness of the 3.32 0.4 0.12
ply. (mm).
Number of plies 1 17 17
Thickness of the 3.32 6.8 2.04
shaft. (mm).
Optimum -------- 46/-64/-15/- -65/25/68/-
stacking 13/39/-84/- 63/36/-40/-
sequence 28/20/-27. 39/74/-39.
Torque. (N-m). 3500 3500
Weight (kg) 8.5383 4.443 1.132

35
8.7 GA Results of S2-Glass/Epoxy Drive Shaft:

Figure 8.2: Variation of the Weight of S2-Glass/Epoxy Drive Shaft with number of
generations.

Figure 8.3: Variation of the No. of Layers of S2-Glass/Epoxy Drive Shaft with
number of Generations.

36
8.8 GA Results of HS Carbon/Epoxy Drive Shaft:

Figure 8.4: Variation of the Weight of HS Carbon/Epoxy Drive Shaft with number
of generations.

Figure 8.5: Variation of the No. of Layers of HS Carbon/Epoxy Drive Shaft with
number of generations.

37
8.9 STRESS AND STRAIN DISTRIBUTION ALONG THICKNESS
OF S2-GLASS/EPOXY DRIVE SHAFT USING CLT:

Figure.8.6 Variation of 1 through thickness of S2-Glass/Epoxy Drive Shaft.

Figure.8.7 Variation of 2 through thickness of S2-Glass/Epoxy Drive Shaft.

38
Figure.8.8 Variation of 12 through thickness of S2-Glass/Epoxy Drive Shaft.

Figure.8.9 Variation of 1 through thickness of S2-Glass/Epoxy Drive Shaft

39
Figure.8.10 Variation of 2 through thickness of S2-Glass/Epoxy Drive Shaft

Figure.8.11 Variation of 12 through thickness of S2-Glass/Epoxy Drive Shaft.

40
 From the Figures 8.6-8.11, the following conclusions are drawn and shown
in Table No.8.3

Material Allowable Predicted Design is

Stress(MPa) Stress OK/NOT
(MPa)
t
S2-Glass/Epoxy S 1 = 400 119.78 ok
St2 = 20 19.38 ok
S12 = 36 23.45 ok
Sc1 = - 400 - 87.34 ok
Sc2 = -20 -18.11 ok
S12 = -36 -26.08 ok

8.10 STRESS AND STRAIN DISTRIBUTION ALONG THICKNESS

OF HS CARBON-EPOXY DRIVESHAFT USING CLT.
The stress and strain distribution along thickness of the shaft is shown in
the below figures

Figure.8.12 Variation of 1 through thickness of HS carbon/epoxy drive shaft

41
Figure.8.13 Variation of 2 through thickness of HS carbon/epoxy drive shaft.

Figure.8.14 Variation of 12 through thickness of HS carbon/epoxy drive shaft.

42
Figure.8.15 Variation of 1 through thickness of HS carbon/epoxy drive shaft.

Figure.8.16 Variation of 2 through thickness of HS Carbon/Epoxy Drive Shaft

43
Figure.8.17 Variation of 12 through thickness of HS Carbon/Epoxy Drive Shaft

From Figures 8.12 - 8.17, the following conclusions are drawn and shown in
Table No.8.4
Material Allowable Predicted Design is
Stress(MPa) Stress (MPa) OK/NOT

HS St1 = 440 378.36 ok

Carbon/Epoxy St2 = 30 22.24 ok

S12 = 48.5 35.06 ok

Sc1 = - 440 -392.38 ok

Sc2 = -30 -6.43 ok

S12 = -48.5 -38.25 ok

44
 9. ANALYSIS OF COMPOSITE DRIVE SHAFT
1. Modeling of composite drive Shaft using ANSYS software.

2. The shaft is considered as simply supported beam undergoing transverse

Vibration Static, Modal and Buckling analysis are to be find out on the
finite element model of the S2-glass/epoxy and High Strength
Carbon/Epoxy composite drive shaft using ANSYS software.

9.1 STATIC ANALYSIS:

Static analysis deals with the conditions of equilibrium of the bodies acted
upon by forces. A static analysis can be either linear or non-linear. All types of
non-linearity are allowed such as large deformations, plasticity, creep, stress
stiffening, contact elements etc. A static analysis calculates the effects of steady
loading conditions on a structure, while ignoring inertia and damping effects, such
as those carried by time varying loads. A static analysis is used to determine the
displacements, stresses, strains and forces in structures or components caused
by loads that do not induce significant inertia and damping effects.
In static analysis loading and response conditions are assumed, that is the
loads and the structure responses are assumed to vary slowly with respect to
time. The kinds of loading that can be applied in static analysis includes,
1. Externally applied forces, moments and pressures
2. Steady state inertial forces such as gravity and spinning
3. Imposed non-zero displacements
A static analysis result of structural displacements, stresses and strains
and forces in structures for components caused by loads will give a clear idea
about whether the structure or components will withstand for the applied
maximum forces. If the stress values obtained in this analysis crosses the
allowable values it will result in the failure of the structure in the static condition
itself. To avoid such a failure, this analysis is necessary.

45
Figure.9.1 Design of Composite shaft before mesh

Figure 9.2 Composite shaft after mesh

46
Figure.9.3 Torque acting along z-axis displacement (steel).

Figure.9.4 Torque acting along z-axis rotation (steel).

47
 Figure.9.5 Von-mises stress- steel.

Figure.9.6 Torque acting on z-axis along displacement- S2 glass-epoxy.

48
Figure.9.7 Torque acting on z-axis along rotation- S2 glass-epoxy.

Figure.9.8 Von-mises stress- S2 glass-epoxy.

49
Figure.9.9 Torque acting on z-axis along displacement- high strength carbon
epoxy.

Figure.9.10 von-mises stress- high strength carbon epoxy.

50
9.2 MODAL ANALYSIS:
When an elastic system free from external forces is disturbed from its
equilibrium position it vibrates under the influence of inherent forces and is said to
be in the state of free vibration. It will vibrate at its natural frequency and its
amplitude will gradually become smaller with time due to energy being dissipated
by motion. The main parameters of interest in free vibration are natural frequency
and the amplitude. The natural frequencies 45 and the mode shapes are
important parameters in the design of a structure for dynamic loading conditions.
Modal analysis is used to determine the vibration characteristics such as
natural frequencies and mode shapes of a structure or a machine component
while it is being designed. It can also be a starting point for another more detailed
analysis such as a transient dynamic analysis, a harmonic response analysis or a
spectrum analysis. Modal analysis is used to determine the natural frequencies
and mode shapes of a structure or a machine component.

Figure. 9.12 Modal analysis of steel

51
 Figure.9.13 Modal analysis of S2 glass-epoxy.

Figure. 9.14 Modal analysis of high strength carbon epoxy.

52
9.3 BUCKLING ANALYSIS:

Buckling analysis is a technique used to determine buckling loads (critical

loads) at which a structure becomes unstable, and buckled mode shapes. (The
characteristic shape associated with a structure's buckled response).

For thin walled shafts, the failure mode under an applied torque is torsional
buckling rather than material failure. For a realistic driveshaft system, improved
lateral stability characteristics must be achieved together with improved torque
carrying capabilities. The dominant failure mode, torsional buckling, is strongly
dependent on fiber orientation angles and ply stacking sequence.

9.3.1 TYPES OF BUCKLING ANALYSIS:

Two techniques are available in ANSYS for predicting the buckling load
and buckling mode shape of a structure. They are,
1. Nonlinear buckling analysis and
2. Eigenvalue (or linear) buckling analysis.

9.3.2 NONLINEAR BUCKLING ANALYSIS:

Nonlinear buckling analysis is usually the more accurate approach and is

therefore recommended for design or evaluation of actual structures. This
technique employs a nonlinear static analysis with gradually increasing loads to
seek the load level at which your structure becomes unstable.
Using the nonlinear technique, model will include features such as initial
imperfections, plastic behavior, gaps, and large-deflection response.

53
9.3.3 EIGENVALUE BUCKLING ANALYSIS:

Eigenvalue buckling analysis predicts the theoretical buckling strength (the

bifurcation point) of an ideal linear elastic structure. This method corresponds to
the textbook approach to elastic buckling analysis: for instance, an Eigenvalue
buckling analysis of a column will match the classical Euler solution. However,
imperfections and nonlinearities prevent most real-world structures from
achieving their theoretical elastic buckling strength. Thus, eigenvalue-buckling
analysis often yields unconservative results, and should generally not be used in
actual day-to-day engineering analysis.

Figure. 9.15 Buckling analysis of steel.

54
 Figure. 9.16 Buckling analysis of S2 glass-epoxy.

Figure. 9.17 Buckling Analysis of High strength carbon epoxy.

55
 10. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

10.1 STACKING SEQUENCE:

1. The optimum stacking sequence of S2-Glass/ Epoxy and High Strength
Carbon/Epoxy shafts are shown in the following table no.10.1,
Material Stacking sequence
S2-Glass/Epoxy [46/ - 64/ -15/ -13/39/ - 84/ -
28/20/ - 27 ]
High Strength [-56/ - 51/74/ - 82/67/70/13/ - 44/
Carbon/Epoxy - 75]

10.2 STATIC ANALYSIS:

In the static analysis the deflection of the steel, S2-Glass/Epoxy and HS
Carbon/Epoxy drive shafts are shown in the table no.10.2,

Static steel S2-glass-epoxy High strength

analysis carbon - epoxy

Deflection 7790 4448 3296

in mm.

10.3 MODAL ANALYSIS:

The natural frequency of the steel, S2-Glass/Epoxy and HS Carbon/Epoxy
drive shafts are shown in the table no.10.3,

Modal steel S2-glass-epoxy High strength

analysis carbon - epoxy
Natural 1.741 2.225 3.052
frequency of
the shaft.

10.4 BUCKLING ANALYSIS:

56
 The Critical buckling torque of the steel, S2-Glass/Epoxy and HS
Carbon/Epoxy drive shafts are shown in Table.10.4,

Buckling steel S2-glass-epoxy High strength

analysis carbon - epoxy
T in 7362 3529 2522
N-m

10.5 ELASTIC CONSTANTS OF THE COMPOSITE DRIVE

SHAFTS:
The elastic constants of S2-Glass/Epoxy, High Strength Carbon/Epoxy
drive shafts are shown in Table below.10.5,
Material Ex (MPa) Ey (MPa) Gxy (MPa) 12
S2- 28.99 20.46 9.96 0.3
Glass/Epoxy
HS 26.69 71.68 20.02 0.26
Carbon/Epoxy

10.6 THE EFFECT OF TRANSVERSE SHEAR AND ROTARY

INERTIA ON THE FUNDAMENTAL NATURAL FREQUENCY:
Natural frequency is calculated by using Bernoulli-Euler and Timoshenko
beam theories are shown in Table 10.6. As Bernoulli Euler beam theory neglects
the effect of rotary inertia & transverse shear, it gives higher natural frequency.

Material Steel S2-Glass / HS

Epoxy Carbon/Epoxy
Ncrbe 9662.38 9697.55 11899.25
(rpm)
Ncrt 9319.98 9486.25 112379.94
(rpm)

10.7 TORSIONAL BUCKLING CAPACITY:

57
 The torsional buckling capacity of S2-Glass/Epoxy, High Strength
Carbon/Epoxy drive shafts is shown in Table no.10.7,

Material Steel S2-Glass / HS

Epoxy Carbon/Epoxy
Tcr (Nm) 43857.96 29919.211 3720.82

10.8 PERCENTAGE OF WEIGHT SAVING:

The usage of composite materials and optimization techniques has
resulted in considerable amount of weight saving in the range of 48 to 86% when
compared to steel shaft. The table no.10.8, shows the weight of the steel, S2
glass/epoxy and high strength carbon/epoxy,

Parameter Steel S2-Glass / HS

s Epoxy Carbon/Epoxy
Weight 8.5383 4.443 1.132
(kg)
Weight ------- 48.36 85.17
saving (%)

11. CONCLUSION

58
 The following conclusions are drawn from the present work. The designed
drive shafts are optimized using genetic algorithm for better stacking sequence,
better torque transmission capacity and bending vibration characteristics.
By using classical lamination theory (CLT), the variations of the stresses and
strains along thickness of the S2-Glass/ Epoxy and High Strength Carbon/Epoxy
composite drive shafts were plotted CLT. It has been observed that all the
stresses were within the allowable limit.
The usage of composite materials and optimization techniques has resulted
in considerable amount of weight savings of the S2-Glass/ Epoxy and High
Strength Carbon/Epoxy shafts were equal to 48.36% and 85.17% of the weight of
steel shaft respectively.
The static, modal and buckling analysis was done for steel, S2 glass/epoxy
and high strength carbon/epoxy. When compared with these results of S2
glass/epoxy and high strength carbon/epoxy is better than steel.
In Future dynamic analysis can be done to know more about torque
transmission and vibration during in motion through velocity, displacement with
respect to time.

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