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SUMMARY power, and speed in recreational and suitably qualified personnel, resistance
elite level athletes. Weightlifting refers training in general is a safe and effective
CONSIDERABLE CONTROVERSY
to the official sport (that includes the practice for young athletes to partici-
AND MISGUIDED INFORMATION
snatch and clean and jerk) and should pate (4,19,49,55).
HAS SURROUNDED THE INCLU-
not be confused weight lifting, resis-
SION OF WEIGHTLIFTING WITHIN
tance training, or powerlifting (54). MISCONSTRUED RISKS AND
YOUTH-BASED STRENGTH AND
Although the training modality is often UNDERVALUED REWARDS OF
CONDITIONING PROGRAMS TO WEIGHTLIFTING MOVEMENTS FOR
used within elite level sport (30,52), its
DEVELOP STRENGTH, POWER, AND YOUTHS
inclusion within youth-based training
SPEED. THIS ARTICLE REVIEWS THE
programs has previously been ques- A major concern related to weightlift-
EVIDENCE TO SUPPORT ITS INCLU- tioned over concerns surrounding the ing movements for young athletes has
SION AS A SAFE AND EFFECTIVE safety and well-being of young athletes revolved around the potential damage
MEANS TO ENHANCE ATHLETIC to the epiphyseal growth plate. Al-
(2). However, recent literature suggests
POTENTIAL. GUIDELINES ARE PRE- though it is true that this structural
that injuries occurring as a direct result
SENTED TO PROVIDE COACHES compound is weaker than the sur-
from generic resistance training and
WITH A STRUCTURED AND LOGI- rounding connective tissue, there is no
specific weightlifting activities in youths
CAL PROGRESSION MODEL, evidence indicating that weightlifting,
is relatively low (10,20,21,31,45,50,55).
WHICH IS ASSOCIATED WITH THE and more generally resistance training,
Indeed, it is important for physical
THEORETICAL CONCEPTS UNDER- is especially injurious to the epiphyses
educators, sports coaches, and strength
PINNING LONG-TERM ATHLETIC (49) or has a direct correlation with
and conditioning coaches to appreciate reductions in eventual growth height in
DEVELOPMENT. IT IS HOPED THAT and rationalize the dichotomy that young athletes (18,39).
THIS REVIEW WILL SERVE AS A exists between the risk and reward of
USEFUL TOOL TO HELP STRENGTH weightlifting exercises, as they do in Conversely, adaptations to the con-
AND CONDITIONING COACHES IN- many other training modalities and nective tissues and skeletal system that
TEGRATE WEIGHTLIFTING EXER- technical preparation strategies. It is can be gained from weightlifting when
CISES WITHIN TRAINING young athletes are appropriately su-
suggested by some of the leading sports
PROGRAMS OF YOUNG ATHLETES pervised will better prepare them to
science authorities, such as the National
IN A SAFE AND EFFECTIVE MANNER. tolerate the impact and ground re-
Strength and Conditioning Association
action forces that they are likely to
(NSCA), Australian Strength and Con-
ditioning Association (ASCA), United
KEY WORDS:
INTRODUCTION Kingdom Strength and Conditioning
weightlifting; long-term athlete
eightlifting has long been Association (UKSCA), and the British
Copyright National Strength and Conditioning Association Strength and Conditioning Journal | www.nsca-scj.com 55
Weightlifting for Youth
experience within a sporting environ- that when performed correctly under power that result from weightlifting (34)
ment. Consequently, instead of think- the supervision of appropriately quali- would suggest potential transfer to
ing of the risks associated with fied personnel, weightlifting carries a sporting movements such as sprinting,
exposing young athletes to weight- greater risk of injury than other activities accelerating, decelerating, and jumping.
lifting, strength and conditioning that youths regularly participate in However, weightlifting should not only
coaches, sports coaches, and physical (24,31). Importantly, research now be viewed from a performance enhance-
educators should focus on the risks of shows that young athletes participating ment perspective but also from an injury
not exposing young athletes to the in weightlifting activities can demon- prevention standpoint. Previous litera-
training mode to better prepare them strate significant gains in strength with ture examining the loading during
for competitive sporting situations. few reports of injury (10,22,50). landing activities has shown that the
Researchers have identified an addi- Specifically, Pierce et al. (50) high- ground reaction forces can be up to
tional range of risk factors prevalent to lighted that during a year long period 7 times body mass (14,42). When
weightlifting (and resistance training in of weightlifting competitions and train- examining the weightlifting exercises in
general), including unsafe environment ing sessions, injuries incurred directly more detail, although the initial lift from
and equipment, excessive load and from weightlifting resulted in no loss of the ground to shoulder height (clean) or
volume of training, and limited rest training days in a sample of 70 boys to above the head (snatch) involves
intervals (25,49). However, as the and girls (aged 716 years), who primarily concentric muscle activity, the
authors confirm, these risk factors can regularly completed maximal and catch phase of each lift involves drop-
be reduced or eliminated with appro- near-maximal lifts in competition. In ping underneath the bar to support the
priate supervision and instruction from addition to the increases in loads lifted load in either a front squat position for
suitably qualified coaches. As a mini- by the individuals, the lack of reported the clean or an overhead position for the
mum, coaches should have attained injuries further informs the potential snatch (Figure 1). During the catch
a relevant strength and conditioning gains and relatively low risks associated portion of each lift, the primary muscle
with youth weightlifting. Another action of the lower limbs will involve
qualification (e.g., NSCA Certified
study by Byrd et al. (10) monitored eccentric contraction, synonymous with
Strength and Conditioning Specialist,
weightlifting performance of young the muscle actions involved during
UKSCA Accredited Strength and Con-
athletes (aged 1215 years) over time landing activities. Properly performed
ditioning Coach awards, or USA
and reported significant improvements catch phases produce a smaller impact
Weightlifting certification).
in absolute and relative load lifted for force and are more controllable than
These qualifications only suggest a suit- the snatch and clean and jerk and total typical jump landings (29). Given the
able level of knowledge or competency, load when lifts were combined. Im- reduced prelanding neuromuscular effi-
and therefore it is essential that the portantly, over the course of 534 ciency demonstrated by younger chil-
coach has the relevant pedagogic competitive lifts and all training ses- dren (47), and the high incidence of
experience and communication skills sions, there were no injuries reported noncontact anterior cruciate ligament
to work with young athletes of varying that required medical attention or injuries in young women (15), it is
abilities and personalities. This is espe- forced the athlete to miss training speculated that weightlifting could be
cially true when considering the plan- (10). This provides evidence for the used as an effective injury prevention
ning of weightlifting training sessions, effectiveness of the training mode strategy by strengthening the movement
given the acceptance that strength and when coached and supervised by kinematics inherent to landing, cutting,
conditioning programs designed for appropriately trained personnel. and deceleration.
adults (in terms of loading, frequency,
It is now recognized that a well-struc- LONG-TERM ATHLETE
and intensity) should never be super-
tured weightlifting program can elicit DEVELOPMENT AND
imposed on children owing to clear
positive training adaptations in young WEIGHTLIFTING FOR YOUTHS
physiological differences (19,44,46,49).
athletes for strength and power (8,9,11). Following the emergence of the long-
A growing body of evidence now exists Currently, there is a lack of published term athlete development (LTAD)
to question the previous concerns research investigating the effectiveness of model (5) and its acceptance by a range
surrounding the participation of youths weightlifting on actual sports perfor- of sporting organizations (3,9,16),
in weightlifting activities (20,24,25). mance in adolescent athletes. However, strength and conditioning coaches are
Although minimal recent research ex- the snatch, clean and jerk, and their encouraged to expose young athletes to
amining the safety of youth weightlift- derivative lifts, do replicate the kinetic specific training stimuli at various stages
ing exists, it has been established in and kinematic patterns inherent to lower of development, where they are most
retrospective analysis that weightlifting limb locomotion, where force application susceptible to accelerated adaptation
is safer than many other competitive against the ground via triple extension of (5). The model has been designed to
sports and activities (31). Conversely, the ankle, knee, and hip is essential combine successful training methods
there seems to be no evidence to prove (12,32). The adaptations in strength and alongside a greater scientific basis of
adolescent awkwardness (48). How- coaches should identify such athletes to beginning at the stage that corre-
ever, it should be stressed that if external and allow them to progress more rapidly sponds to their chronological age.
loadings need to be reduced during this through the stages of an LTAD model to Because of the age-related neural devel-
phase, an element of focus on technical maximize their athletic potential. opments, it is speculated that these
competency should still be retained athletes might transition between the
within the program. This period of stages of the model more quickly,
COACHING WEIGHTLIFTING
natural development would coincide PROGRESSIONS TO YOUNG progressing through to the stage of
with the early stages of the Training ATHLETES the model that is more aligned with
to Train phase of the LTAD model (5). The snatch and clean and jerk are their chronological age. In accordance
complex multijoint exercises that re- with previous work that has proposed
POSTPUBERTAL TRAINING
quire an intricate sequence of move- a progression schematic for plyometric
FOCUSTRAINING TO COMPETE
AND TRAINING TO WIN ments to move the bar from the floor to training (36), the model contains
Approximately 1218 months after above the head in 1 (snatch) or 2 (clean approximated age ranges for each phase
PHV, children will normally experi- and jerk) movements. When teaching reflecting the differential rates of matu-
ence peak weight velocity (PWV) (6), these lifts to young athletes, it is ration for males and females. Regardless
which is a phase of development imperative that the strength and condi- of age or gender, a young athlete must
characterized by rapid increases in tioning coach uses a structured and demonstrate technical proficiency of
muscle mass as a result of increasing logical approach. At all times, especially fundamental weightlifting skills before
sex hormone concentrations (27). in the infancy of learning the lifts, focus attempting more complex movements.
These hormonal changes will result should be placed on technical compe-
tency, as opposed to load lifted. This is STAGE 1: FUNDAMENTAL
in developments in muscle size (in-
underlined by the suggestion that young WEIGHTLIFTING SKILLS (MALES
crease muscle fiber size) and structure 69 YEARS, FEMALES 68 YEARS)
(increased muscle pennation), and athletes should always start by perform-
ing the lifts with a wooden dowel or This stage is relevant for children who
consequently an increased muscle demonstrate the emotional maturity to
cross-sectional area resulting in greater a long piece of PVC piping instead of
a weightlifting bar (26). listen to and follow instructions (36).
force producing capabilities (38). Emphasis within this stage should be
Providing that the young athlete can Once technical proficiency can be placed on developing movement pro-
demonstrate correct and consistent demonstrated, only then is it recom- ficiency and fundamental weightlifting
weightlifting technique, it is suggested mended that the young athlete uses a skills (FWS) within an environment that
that to further develop athletic poten- youth-sized weightlifting bar, which develops agility, balance, coordination,
tial, greater external loads are intro- typically weighs 5-10 kg. Coach and kinaesthetic and spatial awareness.
duced to provide a progressively expertise and experience should then A recent review has highlighted the
overloading stimulus. In relation to the be used to decide on when the athlete importance of FMS development for
LTAD model, this stage of development is ready to use a full-size weightlifting children and adolescents (37), and it is
is synonymous with the latter period of bar. Figure 2 shows the progression generally accepted that FMS mastery is
the Training to Train phase, and the from technique work with a dowel to important for physical, social, and
beginning of the Training to Compete lifting with a full-size weightlifting bar. cognitive development (37). It is sug-
and Training to Win phases (5). By the For the purposes of this article, it gested that the strength and condition-
end of the Training to Compete and was deemed pertinent to formalize a ing coach should not view every exercise
Training to Win phases, male and comprehensive progression model within this stage as having to be specific
female athletes are older than 18 years (Figure 3) that corresponded with the to weightlifting. Conversely, for young
and would no longer be classified as developmental stages aligned with the children, learning to manage body
adolescent (56). However, it should be LTAD model (5). It is the intention that weight through fun-based activities such
noted that LTAD models must be this model will provide coaches with as gymnastics, climbing, and crawling
flexible to accommodate for individual a strategic approach to developing activities (Figure 4) will all help condi-
differences in physiological maturation weightlifting technique in young ath- tion the child for later technical speci-
rates, and should not be limited by an letes. It should be noted that if ficity. In addition to developing general
athletes chronological age. The 3-time a strength and conditioning coach strength, strength endurance, metabolic
Olympic gold medallist, Naim Suley- begins to work with an athlete who conditioning, flexibility, and mobility
manoglu, set his first weightlifting world has not completed the earlier stages should all be targeted within the young
record at just 15 years old, and had he (e.g., a 15-year-old who has not been athletes training program (54). With
been limited to specific stages of an exposed to the Fundamental Weight- appropriate exercise selection, the
LTAD model, his achievements in lifting Skills or Learning Weightlifting strength and conditioning coach should
weightlifting may have been curtailed. stages), the athlete should enter the be able to expose the child to such key
Effective strength and conditioning model at the earliest stage as opposed movement competencies, such as lower
limb triple extension, scapula stabiliza- that can be integrated within a training place multiple demands upon the young
tion, thoracic extension, and core program aiming to develop a range of athlete, thereby developing a broader
strength development, in a relatively key physical competencies linked to the range of physical literacy. Furthermore,
unstructured manner. Although the weightlifting movements. It should be training sessions within this phase
array of exercises appropriate for chil- noted that although the table has been should take a less structured approach,
dren at this stage is vast, Table 1 provides separated according to body parts for with the use of innovative games, to
an overview of the possible exercises clarity, many of the exercises would incorporate the desired movement
Figure 4. Basic fundamental weightlifting skill exercises: start and end position of a superman exercise (top, left to right), and start
and end position of a crawling exercise (bottom, left to right).
patterns without the expense of a fun heavier external loads at the expense of an individual in years from PHVand can
and motivating environment for the technical proficiency, thus increasing the be calculated by using chronological
young athlete. It is possible to coach injury potential for the child. age, standing height, sitting height, and
effectively and make significant progres- leg length within regression analyses
sions in posture and control even in such STAGE 3: TRAINING (43). The benefit of such an approach is
unstructured environments. WEIGHTLIFTING (MALES 1216 that it involves simple and noninvasive
YEARS, FEMALES 1115 YEARS) procedures, which should be available
STAGE 2: LEARNING
The Training Weightlifting stage is a to all coaches. However, caution is
WEIGHTLIFTING (MALES 912
YEARS, FEMALES 811 YEARS) developmental stage, whereby strength warranted when implementing the
As the young athlete matures and and conditioning coaches must pay maturity offset, owing to the measure-
approaches an age where more struc- attention to key growth and matura- ment error associated with the measure
tured training is appropriate, the focus of tional processes. During this stage, it is of 61 year 95% of the time (43).
training sessions can become more expected that young athletes will expe- Alternatively, if working with the same
specific to weightlifting movements. rience rapid growth in limb lengths, athletes over a prolonged period of
During this stage, the athlete should be which may cause discomfort and/or time, coaches in cooperation with a
introduced progressively to the different momentary loss in motor coordination physician may simply monitor growth
phases of each lift (Table 2), with (48). Consequently, it is imperative that rates of the stature, limbs, and trunk to
technical competency serving as the during this phase, coaches monitor identify when a growth spurt is begin-
primary goal at all times. In the authors growth rates and are sensitive to sudden ning, is at its peak, and is coming toward
experience, children naturally learn interruptions in technical competency. an end. During this stage, program
quickly during this stage and can de- Coaches may wish to use a maturity content may fluctuate between techni-
velop these skills at a fast rate; however, offset estimate to monitor the develop- cal competency and external loading;
it must be stressed that the strength and ment of their athletes that will indicate however, the safety of the athlete must
conditioning coach should not treat physical maturity in relation to the be paramount at all times. As children
young athletes like miniature adults onset of PHV (43). The maturity-offset approach the end of this stage, it is likely
and should not progress the child to lift estimate predicts the biological age of that they will have experienced PHV
Arm circles Scapula Partner medicine Deadbugs Inch worms SL balances CMJ and stick
push ups ball rotations
Arm swings Bunny hops Partner medicine Superman Spiderman Forward lunge SL CMJ and stick
(multi- ball over and crawls
directional) unders
Wall slides and Forward Sitting T-spine Partner/band Under and Reverse lunge CMJ for maximum
doorframe crawling rotations squats overs to balance height
slides cage walks
Wide arm OH Sideways Spiderman Crawling Arabesque Lateral lunge CMJ with shrug for
squat/lunge crawling crawl with Superman maximum height
rotation balances
Y, T, W, Ls Backward Lunge with Partner/wall Super wide SL squat Box jumps
crawling rotation bracing monster and reaches
band walks
Behind neck Mini-band Foam roller Medicine ball Split squat Multi-directional OH medicine
pressing hand slides supported balance mini-band ball toss
side-lying walks walks
extension-
rotations
CMJ = countermovement jumps; OH = overhead; SL = single leg.
and will be undergoing PWV, which plan. During the Performance Weight- should at all times be individualized
refers to the maximal rate of change in lifting phase, and to ensure that the within a training program. See Table 3
body mass during a growth spurt, movement velocity is appropriate to the for a summary of suggested training
typically owing to increased muscle mass desired training goal (i.e., speed- prescription guidelines.
(40). As such, the athlete can be exposed strength or strength-speed), motion
to heavier external loads, as PWV capture devices and accelerometers VOLUME
naturally leads to lean muscle mass de- may be used to monitor bar velocity For young athletes entering the FWS
velopment owing to increases in muscle- and power outputs (35) to ensure the stage, the volume of exercises would
building hormonal concentrations (40). maintenance of repetition velocity and commonly be higher in comparison
It is important to minimize the potential rate of force development. Additionally, with the later stages owing to the
of long-term dysfunction by coaching the the use of video analysis is encouraged relatively lower impact forces and joint
athlete, and not being misled by excep- to monitor technique as technical loadings experienced during basic
tional sports performances produced by inconsistencies become less obvious. bodyweight movements. The purpose
athletes within this age group. of the FWS stage is to provide children
WEIGHTLIFTING PROGRAM
DESIGN FOR YOUNG ATHLETES with a wide range of movement stimuli,
STAGE 4: PERFORMANCE
When designing weightlifting pro- and therefore for a given exercise,
WEIGHTLIFTING (MALES 16+
YEARS, FEMALES 15+ YEARS) grams for young athletes, the variables coaches are advised to prescribe ap-
The final stage represents the period of volume, intensity, repetition veloc- proximately 24 sets of 612 repetitions.
whereby the young athlete can be ity, frequency, and recovery must be This should provide the child with
exposed to more advanced training considered to ensure optimal athletic sufficient exposure to aid motor control
program design, focused on both tech- development, and minimize injury risk. development while serving as a suitable
nical expertise and external loading. It The authors wish to stress that the volume for physical conditioning.
should be noted that although earlier following recommendations should be For the purposes of concentration
stages are more technique focused, applied within the context of the retention and physical literacy devel-
training during these times should still individual needs of the athlete, and opment, it is suggested that a range
be structured and follow a periodized that the following training variables of exercises should be given within
Table 2
Suggested top-down progression model for weightlifting exercises (appropriate for Learning Weightlifting, Training
Weightlifting and Performance Weightlifting)
Snatch Clean Jerk
a single session (610). However, it (i.e., an overhead squat with wooden recommended that children perform
should be noted that if children are dowel), then multiple repetitions might single repetitions and are provided
exposed to very basic introductory be counterproductive for motor con- with real-time feedback to ensure safe
weightlifting exercises within this stage trol development. Instead, it is and correct movement development.
Table 3
Suggested guidelines for training session prescription
Training variable Fundamental Learning Training Performance
weightlifting skillsa weightlifting weightlifting weightlifting
Suggested age ranges (y) Males: 69, Males: 912, Males: 1216, Males: 16+,
Females: 68 Females: 811 Females: 1115 Females: 15+
Volume (total repetitionsb) 3624 3024 2415 186
Total number of exercises per session 610 36 36 25
Intensity (%1RM) Body weight 3050 5085 85100
Repetition velocity (speed of movement) Moderatefast Moderatefast Fastmaximal Maximal
Frequency (sessions per week) 12 12 24 25
Recovery (hours in between sessions) 72 7248 48 4824
a
The values for FWS do not necessarily equate to designated weightlifting progressions, but rather broad-ranging exercises to develop physical
literacy.
b
The total number of repetitions can be divided between different configurations of sets and repetitions based on the goal of the training
session, and phase of the periodized plan.