1

Outline of Youth Work: Emerging Perspectives in Youth Development

Donna Backues

Eastern University
OUTLINE OF YOUTH WORK 2

Chapter 2 Adolescence

I. Introduction (pp. 19-20)

A. American culture is obsessed with youth.
1. American media is inundated with images and stories of young people in movies,
magazines, television.
2. Being young reflects Americas consciousness being strong, innovative and the
future leaders of the world.
B. American culture is very critical of youth.
1. Youth are stereotyped by adults as being dangerous to society.
2. Youth are seen as being a risk to themselves such as in substance abuse or suicide.
3. In the minds of adults, American youth represent both the worst and the best of our
culture. Their actions are seen as a predictors of our nations future.
C. American cultures worries about youth development is evident.
1. Books about youth and how to help youth are profuse.
2. Youth are mysterious.
a) Experts are often confused about youth.
(1) Teens dont allows follow conventional ideas about youth behavior.

II. Introduction (pp. 19-20)

A. American culture is obsessed with youth.
1. American media is inundated with images and stories of young people in movies,
magazines, television.
2. Being young reflects Americas consciousness being strong, innovative and the
future leaders of the world.
B. American culture is very critical of youth.
1. Youth are stereotyped by adults as being dangerous to society.
2. Youth are seen as being a risk to themselves such as in substance abuse or suicide.
3. In the minds of adults, American youth represent both the worst and the best of our
culture. Their actions are seen as a predictors of our nations future.
C. American cultures worries about youth development is evident.
1. Books about youth and how to help youth are profuse.
2. Experts are often confused about youth.
3. Teens dont allows follow conventional ideas about youth behavior.
a) Youth seem to be always changing.
4. There are competing views regarding American youth culture.

III. Defining Adolescence (pp. 20-24)

A. Adolescence is a tumultuous time of great change for youth.
1. It is a difficult time but also an exciting time.
2. Due to this time we need a solid understanding of adolescence.
B. G. Stanley Hall wrote Adolescence in 1904. The focus was on psychological factors and puberty.
His perspective states that adolescence is a period of storm and stress.
1. Youth were defined as troubled among youth workers and in need of control
2. This perspective is still strong today especially in the media
C. Dictionaries define adolescence as a time between puberty and adulthood but without an
explanation of the processes of development
OUTLINE OF YOUTH WORK 3

D. Adolescence is a critical transitionary period with positive challenges including future choices
and also a time of great anxiety.
E. Life span psychologists state that adolescence effects the youth as a whole as well as the context
in which the youth exists.
F. Extended Adolescence
1. The time of adulthood is culturally defined and is not static
a) During the turn of the century adulthood was age 14
b) Today due to youth entering university, adulthood is extended
2. Steps to adulthood
a) Completing education
b) Working full-time
c) Able to support a family
d) Financially independent
e) Living independent of parents
f) Marrying and having a child
3. Extended Adolescence will have implications on the way in which society is
constructed and will have impact on how we view youth and how we develop youth work
in the future.

IV. Framing a Concept of Adolescence: Prevailing Assumptions (pp. 24-25)

A. Assumptions about Adolescence as a Life Stage impacts the way adults work with youth
1. The period of adolescence is universal and impacts a youths future
2. Adolescence is a dangerous period in the developmental sequence between childhood
& adulthood.
3. A belief in the existence of a pre-social self. Youth are always in the process of trying
to find their true self.

V. Thinking of Young People: Alternate Views (pp. 25-29)

A. There are seven major views of adolescence
1. Psychoanalytical (Sigmund Freud & Anna Freud) adolescence is triggered by specific
conflicts occurring between natural biological drives and the social expectations young
people experience.
2. Biological (G. Stanley Hall) adolescence is the final stage of maturation before the
child enters adulthood. The focus is on body changes and how well the child adjusts and
how the child is able to control sexual desires.
3. Cognitive-developmental (Piaget & Inhelder) Development happens in stages and is
characterized by growth in a variety of areas related to knowledge.
4. Social Learning Theory (Albert Bandura) based on principles of conditioning &
reinforcement-modeling, cognition, personal standards, and a sense of self-efficacy.
5. Ecological (Urie Bronfenbrenner) the social and physical environments within which
adolescents reside and participate significantly impacts their development.
6. Sociological (Hans Sebald) characterized as a period of time within which individuals
are socialized and made aware of various expectations and roles. External factors outside
family life become great sources of influence during adolescence.
7. Anthropological (Margaret Mead, Harold Bernard, Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, Maria
Dubious., R. Doll, Elizabeth Douvan and Joseph Adelson) Adolescence is impacted by the
culture in which one grows up.
OUTLINE OF YOUTH WORK 4

8. Integrated View There is a reciprocal influence between the social environment and
the individual. Not only do individuals shape their own development but they are also
influenced by the context of the culture within which they exist. Looking at each of the
views, adults can be guided as to how to help adolescence.

VI. Implications for Youth Work (pp. 29-30)

A. Different views can affect how the youth worker approaches developing programs.
B. Youth workers need to think about how different views have shaped their own conceptions of
adolescence and how this will impact their approach as a youth worker and for the ways in
which youth participate and interact with the environment and individualswithin youth
programs

Chapter 3 A Historical Perspective

I. Introduction (pp. 33-34) Over the past 100 years, global and national issues have had
major impacts on the evolution of youth work including the structure and implementation of
organizations aimed at providing a safe haven.
A. The successful organizations have survived due to being able to focus on the growth of youth
while working with community members.
B. In 1830 the realization that the energy and creativity of adolescents was being wasted and
caused future scarring to the person. This led to efforts to reform labor laws and to protect
children from exploitation.
1. Progressive movement led to the idea that character development was more important to
youth than backbreaking work.
2. Youth work changed and combined character development, systemization and fun
morality leading to the future creation of established methods of youth work.

II. A Starting Point for Youth Work (pp. 34-36)

A. In the 19th century life for youth was dismal. They were overworked in dangerous situations and
had little opportunity for schooling. The cycle repeated itself into the next generation.
B. The circumstances for youth in the 19th century led to new youth work organizations
C. The Special Needs for Youth
1. In the mid-1980s the Puritan work ethic stressed activities that kept youth out of trouble.
Religious worship was the primary non-work activity and the focus was character
development.
a) The Juvenile Missionary Society of Philadelphia
b) The Young Mens Missionary Society of New York
2. As a result of the awareness of exploitation of youth in the workplace, children were
more and more taken out of work places but not necessarily going to school.
a) Organizations such as the YMCA were created to fill the void and focus on
character
b) Youth who were labeled as abnormal were put into institutions in the hope of
reforming them. Unfortunately, it didnt work and often caused permanent
damage
c) A national public policy advocating for the welfare of youth began to be pushed
by Jane Addams and Jacob Riis
OUTLINE OF YOUTH WORK 5

III. The Progressive Movement (pp. 36-40)

A. The idea of human welfare came about during the first part of the 20th century.
1. Reformers warned of national repercussions of not paying attention to the needs of
individuals to have leisure time
2. Theodore Roosevelts Bull Moose Party was based on the need for reform and the need to
focus on the youth of America
3. Taking care of youth was also thought of as a part of community work or civic
housekeeping.
B. Youth Work Reform Movement
1. Progressive Era Youth work increased dramatically
a) Reformers pushed the need for youth to be in school and in youth work
organizations.
b) Organizations such as Hull House, Junior Achievement, Kiwanis Key Clubs,
Youth and Childrens Ministries, allowed youth to be educated and trained to
become civic minded adults
c) The social claim according to Addams was to encourage youth to think not
only of their biological family but also the rest of society leading to a better
world for everyone.
C. The Idea of Human Capital - Youth begin to be seen as an asset and developing human
capital in youth leads to a successful adulthood and a better community
D. Compulsory Schooling Although many parents were against schooling that pulled youth out of
the work force, states implemented compulsory schooling.
E. Youth Culture
1. In the early 20th century a distinct youth culture was recognized with unique
characteristics such as styles for outward appearance, tastes in music and entertainment, a
way of speaking, rituals etc.
2. Youth culture initially was looked on as an attempt only to resist authority but later came
to be seen as a way of creating a social bond and strengthening identity and self-esteem.
F. Character Building within Society Organizations for youth were important for building
character so that youth would become better members of society and of the nation. Boy Scouts,
Camp Fire Girls & the Girl Scouts are successful organizations that had youth working to help
society during difficult times such as the World Wars and the influenza epidemic in 1918.
G. Federal Involvement in Youth Work Developing the emotionally priceless child became a
focus from 1900 1930. The Childrens Bureau was established to construct a child welfare
policy to protect children on a national level and to ensure social justice for youth.

IV. Youth Work in the Mid-1900s (pp. 40-41)

A. The Fun Morality
1. School was generally accepted as the new lab for educating and developing youth to
become good community members.
2. Organizations such Young Life, Big Brothers of America, the Presidents Council on
Physical Fitness, Girls Brigades of America, and Awana Clubs International were
established.
3. A focus on a playful attitude developed as well as encouraging self-expression.
B. The Importance of Individualism
1. As a result of WWII, youth workers were influenced by the American drive to deviate
away from the images of conformity put forth by the Nazis and the Japanese and the horrors
that resulted.
OUTLINE OF YOUTH WORK 6

2. Unfortunately, this drive toward individualism and the ideal American life negatively
affected portions of the population who did not have access to the means of fulfilling this
very white-dominated ideal.
3. Youth work did not usually include these pockets of excluded American youth leading to
segregation. This led to the turmoil of the 1960s.

V. Youth Work in the1980s (pp. 41-42)

A. Threats to the development of youth became more prominent during the 80s. Youth work
became seen as the way to fix youth so that they could then later go on to have a health family.
B. The Clinical Model of Youth Work Youth work settings were seen as labs where workers could
study the youth to diagnose the problem so as to fix it.
C. This model failed to see the connections between the youth and his/her interactions with family,
community, school and natural environments.

VI. Youth Work in the Twenty-First Century (pp.42-45)

A. Collaboration between all the stakeholders such as parents, youth workers, teachers, and other
members of the youths community became the focus
B. The concept of expertism is being replaced with an understanding that there may not be a ceiling
on the quantity of knowledge associated with youth work. (p. 42).
C. Collaborative Efforts in Present Day Youth Work
1. Americas Promise
a) Five Promises for every Youth in America with the help of community members:
safe places, healthy start, marketable skills, opportunities to serve.
2. The 21st Century Community Learning Centers Program
a) Part of the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 a focus on after-school learning
programs for youth and families that help youth develop trusting relationships
with guidance counselors, social workers and mentors. There are three focus
areas:
(1) Temporary adult supervision after school
(2) Avenues of enrichment
(3) A place to practice social skills and avoid the evils of society
D. Current Funding Strategies for Youth Work Organizations The success of most youth programs
depends on funding.
1. Funding is found from many sources now and each donor organization has its own
criteria.
2. In order to provide enough resources often fees are costly for students making good
programming unaffordable for disadvantaged youth.
3. Donations from the community and in-kind donations are often the only way some
programs survive in poorer communities.
E. The Evolution of Volunteerism in Youth Work
1. Programs that are grass-root oriented and smaller can meet the needs of youth better and
be more satisfying to stakeholders.
2. The idea of Social Compact of Responsibility can help youth programs be more
community oriented and intergenerational and more volunteer oriented leading to more of an
active involvement of individuals in bettering their future.
3. Being a small and grassroots organization means that there are fewer income streams.
Connecting to a larger national organization might bring more funding and prestige.
OUTLINE OF YOUTH WORK 7

Chapter 4 The Language of Youth Work & Youth Development

I. Early Perspectives of Youth Development (pp. 50-51)

A. Early efforts at youth work lacked clear vocabulary and definitions that would allow for
specialization and growth for youth development and youth work.
B. The beginning of youth development study began in the early 20th century with psychologists
Edwin D. Starbuck and G. Stanley Hall. The latter half the 20th century, philosophers, educators
OUTLINE OF YOUTH WORK 8

and psychologists further developed language, study and research on all levels leading to the
vibrancy of youth work today.

II. Toward a Definition (pp. 51-62)

A. Youth Development is a term that has lacked a clear definition. It has been used to describe a
goal, a process, activities, and/or an approach to programming that helps youth reach adulthood
successfully.
B. Youth Development can be described in light of community which might focus on making
communities better for youth.
C. Youth Development can have the view of seeing youth as disadvantaged members of the
society and therefore making efforts toward social justice and preparing youth to participate more
fully in society.
D. Positive Youth Development focuses on the assets of youth rather than the deficits which then
influences youth programming leading to helping youth develop the inner resource and skills they
need to cope with pressure. Promotion and prevention are the focus.
1. Youth development competencies for programing
a) Five Elements leading to youth development are: character, connections,
confidence, contribution, and competence. Competencies are further refined to
b) include: Physical Development, Intellectual Development, Psychological &
Emotional Development and Social Development.
c) Different organizations such have developed ideas, methods, principles, outcomes
and goals for their youth programs focusing on assets.
d) Some have criticized using competency lists as end goals stating that a focus on
moral development is key.
2. Building resilience in youth is a way of enhancing assets and empowering youth to face a
difficult life situation.
a) There are three characteristics: Caring relations, high expectations, opportunities
for participation.
b) Life components for resilience: Insight, Interdependence, Relationships, Initiative,
Creativity, Humor, Values Orientation

III. Youth Work (pp. 62-71)

A. Youth Work is difficult to define and there is a lack of clarity.
1. There are 2 main perspectives: Youth work in disenfranchised areas and youth work that
focuses on character building organizations offering recreation.
2. A common set of ideas and body of knowledge is beginning to develop around the
profession of the youth worker.
3. Youth work is defined as being informal education complementing more formal school
education.
B. The Values of Youth Workers
1. Broad guidelines of values can be the foundation for working with youth and influencing
youth practice. These are some examples: Democratic Participation, Informal Education,
Relationship Building, Empowerment, Collaboration & Partnership Building, Holistic
Functioning, Learning & Engagement, Equality of Outcome, Participation & Choice,
Responsibility & Empowerment, Partnership.
2. Creating an informal educational experience where the youth want to come is key as well
as the principle of self-determination and nondirective enabling.
OUTLINE OF YOUTH WORK 9

C. Youth Worker Roles can be described as: Guide, Philosopher and Friend; Controller; Converter;
Mediator and Interpreter; Confidante; Rights Advocate

IV. Youth Work Organizations (pp. 71-74)

A. Six Different Youth Work Organizations: national youth organizations, multipurpose, grassroots,
religious, youth groups by adult service clubs, public service organizations.
B. Characteristics of Youth Organizations: they serve high school age and under, adult supervision,
mostly non-profit, national in scope.

Chapter 5 Approaches to Youth Work

V. Philosophical Approaches to Youth Work (pp. 86-93)

A. Youth organizations and youth work are built on a set of assumption or philosophical
foundation. Questions can be used to thoughtfully develop curriculum strategies based on certain
philosophies. These questions can be based on purpose, unique contributions in terms of
learning, goals, objectives, structure, etc.
B. There are four educational philosophical approaches to youth work:
1. Classical Promoting common virtues and wisdom that support the existence of a
common human nature. Its a transmission approach with passive youth.
2. Romanticist Expression of self promotes the development of well-rounded,
freethinking individuals. Role of youth is active.
3. Progressivist Values of democracy and freedom have to be applied to educational
endeavors. Role of youth is active and reflective.
4. Constructivist Opportunity based for applying knowledge and challenges personal
conceptions and misconceptions. Role of youth is active and self-regulating.

VI. Promoting Democratic Learning (pp.93-95)

A. Democracy is promoted as a way of life and youth learn skills so that they naturally treat all
people with respect no matter their race, beliefs, sex or class. Even the method of teaching is in a
democratic, collaborative style.
B. Basis for Democratic Learning Based on the history of the Magna Carta and the Bill of Rights
Rousseau developed a new theory of education emphasizing the importance of expressionin
OUTLINE OF YOUTH WORK 10

the development of youth. This influence other important documents about democracy such the
Declaration of Independence.
C. Educational Philosophies & Democratic Learning Froebel, the person who invented
kindergarten, emphasized the importance of individuals living their lives with self-determination
and freedom

VII. Approaches to Youth Work Organizing efforts in developing programs to reach mission
and vision goals. (pp. 95-99)
A. Remedial Approach counseling, therapy or correction are the forms used to fix problem youth
with an emphasis on keeping youth entertained and out of trouble.
B. Prosocial Approach character- building programs assume youth are basically good and capable
of making right choices if there is guidance and training in how to live in a complex society.
C. Integrative Approach The focus in on seeing youth as an asset and capable of contributing
greatly to society and able to participate in community as long as they have support from youth
workers to become who they need to be to become responsible adults.

VIII. Orientations to Youth Work and Youth Development (pp. 99-100)

A. Programs for youth have eight major orientations and how these are chosen is based on the
setting, goals, assumptions, the youth themselves, and philosophies of development. These
OUTLINE OF YOUTH WORK 11

orientations are: leisure, sports fitness, social services, character-building, religious,

vocational/career, advocacy, social policy and social pedagogy.

IX. Theoretical Perspectives and their Application (pp. 100-106)

A. There are five major theoretical perspectives that are determined by the needs of youth, how
youth are perceived and methods of practice.
1. Problem Behavior Theory. Application: Health Promotion Problem arises due youths
interaction with their environment. focus on life choices by increasing awareness and
promoting a healthy environment.
2. Social Learning/Social Cognitive Theory. Application: Problem Behavior Prevention
Guidance in promoting self-efficacy to prevent problems brought about by the environment,
personal issues and negative behavior.
3. Ecological/Contextual Development Theory. Application: Ecological Model of Youth
Development Youth are affected by a complex system of relationships and intervention
needs to occur on all levels of community leading to more success in tackling poor habits and
behavior.
4. Developmental Assets. Application: Positive Youth Development The focus is on
external and internal assets of youth not a focus on the problems. Intervention would include
providing safe spaces, development of social skills, life skills and emotional support.
5. Informal Education. Application: Informal Education Learning by doing is the focus
which is by choice and through participation and relationships.

X. Informal Education (pp. 106 117)

A. Informal education (unlike formal school education) takes place where the youth are in their
own context.
B. The principles of informal education are echoed in liberation theology, American social work
efforts and German social pedagogy.
C. Informal and Formal Education: Areas of Differentiation
1. The setting of informal education is not static or controlled and learning happens in the
context of spontaneous interactions & conversations. Framework values include: respect for
process, the promotion of well-being, truth, democracy, fairness & equality.
2. Differences between informal and formal education:
a) Goals Acquiring skills vs. Promoting skills
b) Settings Schools/learning centers vs. Parks/youth centers/camps/etc.
c) Pedagogical Strategies Controlled exchanges/Inquiry from knowledge base vs.
Conversation/collaboration/self-directed/focus on fun
d) Subject matter/Content Basic reading, writing, speaking skills/school subject
matter vs. Life skills/health/leadership/career/sports, etc.
e) Roles of teachers/workers Supported by aids/coaches/counselors etc. vs. activity
leaders/advisors/directors/counselors/outreach workers/ etc.
f) Focus Teachers are knowledgeable sources of information vs. Workers are
guides/confidants/counselors
g) Conception of Youth Valuable assets to society if educated properly vs.
Community assets/ resources/ sometimes viewed at risk
h) Reasons for participation Mandated by law vs. Voluntary
i) Environments Controlled/monitored/prescribed by standards vs.
Open/eclectic/organic/community-minded
OUTLINE OF YOUTH WORK 12

D. Bruners Models of the Mind & Models of Pedagogy In developing programs its important to
know how youth think and how they construct meaning in the learning process. There are four
propositions developed by Bruner: imitation, instruction, collaborative learning.
E. The Intime Learning Model Applied to Informal Education
1. Youth participate actively in the learning process integrating elements of learning,
program development, and the democratic values.
2. Principles of learning: active involvement, patterns and connections, incidental learning,
direct experience, reflection compelling situation frequent feedback and hospitable setting.
3. Elements of informal processing appreciation, presearch, search, interpretation,
communication, evaluation
4. Framework for youth development peer mentoring, academic enrichment, leadership
development, health promotion, clubs, interest groups, service learning, etc.
5. Tenants of democracy tolerance, critical thinking & decision making, thinking together
& making meaning, power sharing and empowerment, individual responsibility & civil
involvement with others.

XI. Character Education (pp. 117-119)

A. The idea character education has been developing since the early 1900s
B. Character development has 3 components: moral knowledge, moral feeling & moral action
C. Core moral values on which to build programs: Trustworthiness, Respect, Responsibility, justice
& fairness, caring, civic virtue & citizenship
D. Youth worker can build this values through modeling how they treat the youth, community
service participation, instruction and praxis.

XII. Youth Work as a Social Instrument (pp. 119-120)

A. Historically, not all youth programs have been established with the purpose of empowering youth
and making them whole.
B. Youth programs can be used as a way to improve society by seeing youth as an asset or
negatively as a way to control the youth to protect society. Youth are smart enough to see
through this.

References

Christopher R. Edginton, C. L. (2005). Youth Work: Emerging Perspectives in Youth

Development. Champaign: Sagamore Publishing L.L.C.