Physiology and sports

Sports physiology is the study of the lengthy-and brief-time

period effects of training and conditions on athletes. This specialised field of study is going hand in
hand with human anatomy. Anatomy is all about structure, where physiology is about function.

Physiological factors determining strength

1. The size of the muscle-The strength of the muscle depends on the size of the muscle.It is
well-known fact that bigger muscles produce more force. The force produced by the
same size of muscle in men and women is approximately same but men are found to be
stronger because they have larger muscles and bigger muscles in comparison to
females. The size of muscles can be changed with the help of strength training such as
weight lifting. So, strength is determined by the size of the muscle.

2. Body weight- There is a positive relationship between body weight and strength.
Heavier the weightlifter , heavier it will lift the weight.

3. Muscle composition-Muscle composes of two types of muscles which are fast twitch
fibres(white fibres) and slow twitch fibres (red fibres).Fast twitch fibres are capable of
contracting faster and therefore they can produce more force.Whereas slow twitch fibres
are capable of contracting slowly but they can hold the contraction for a long time. SO
strength also depends on the composition of muscle.The composition of muscles cannot
be changed by training and are genetically determined.

4. The intensity of nerve impulse- Our muscles comprises of many motor units (units
responsible for contraction of muscles) .When the signal is released from the central
nervous system , motor units start to work and muscle begin to contract. The contraction
of muscles depends on the intensity of nerve impulse received from the central nervous
system.So the intensity of nerve impulse also determines the amount strength.

Physiological factors determining speed

Speed is one of the important components of physical fitness which is determined by following
factors:

1. The mobility of nervous system- Mobility of nervous system means excitation and
relaxation of motor units which causes contraction and relaxation in muscles.The
mobility of nervous system takes place in events such as sprinting , running etc. (See
this link know the difference between sprinting and running). After few seconds the
 excitation spreads to nearby centres causing the whole body to be stressed. This leads to
the reduction of speed of the player. The mobility of nervous system can be
increased up to a certain extent by training.
2. Muscle composition-Muscles compose of two types of fibres fast twitch fibres and
slow twitch fibres (Learn more about fibres here). Fast twitch fibres are able to contract
faster and slow twitch fibres contract slowly. fast twitch fibres are capable of contracting
faster whereas slow twitch fibres are capable of contacting slowly . So the type of muscle
composition also determines speed. Muscle composition cannot be changed , they are
determined genetically.
3. Explosive strength- Explosive strength is vital for every quick and explosive
movement. Such movements include a quick punch in boxing,weight lifting, sprinting
etc. Explosive strength depends on muscle composition,muscle size, metabolic process
and muscle coordination. All factors that determine explosive strength can be improved
by training except muscle composition (it is determined genetically and cannot be
modified).
4. Flexiblity- It is the ability of the body to bend without breaking any joint, ligament or
tendons. There is a negative relationship between elasticity(flexibility) and inelasticity
(non- flexible).Flexibility allows maximum range of movement without internal
resistance.
5. Bio-chemical reserves and metabolic power- For muscles to work continuously with
high speed , it requires more energy so that the demand of energy keeps on fulfilling until
the player stops. For this purpose adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and creatine phosphate
(CP) stores in the muscles should be enough. In case energy gets depleted, then the speed
of contraction of muscles decreases which also leads to the reduction of speed.The
amount of ATP, CP can be increased by training.

Physiological factors determining endurance

Endurance- Endurance is the ability of the person to do sports movement with the desired
quality and speed under the condition o fatigue.It involves a large number of muscles.In
all sports , directly or indirectly endurance is used.It is usually measured by a number of
repetitions.

1. Aerobic capacity - To maintain momentum , muscles need energy which can be supplied
in the presence of oxygen.Therefore , the ability of the organisms to maintain the
adequate supply of oxygen to the working muscles for energy liberation is important for
endurance performance.The aerobic capacity depends on following factors:
2. Oxygen Intake- It refers to intake of oxygen from the oxygen from the atmosphere. It
further depends on lung size, active alveoli, the strength of respiratory muscles, the size
of chest cavity etc.
3. Oxygen transport- After intake of oxygen , another task is to transport the oxygen to
various parts of the body . It depends on the amount of oxygen absorbed from lungs and
ability of the circulatory system to carry it quickly to working muscles. It also depends on
haemoglobin count in blood, the more the count, the more the oxygen will be carried and
vice versa. The general concentration of haemoglobin in the body of the sportsperson is
 14%-15%.The concentration of haemoglobin cannot be increased by training.The
transportation of oxygenated blood depends on the capacity of the heart, which can be
increased by training.
4. Oxygen uptake-The amount of oxygen which can be absorbed and consumed by
working muscles from the blood is called is called oxygen uptake. It depends on the rate
of diffusion which further depends on the speed of blood flow, temperature and pressure
of oxygen in the blood. The speed and amount of oxygen consumption also depend on the
number , size and capacity of mitochondria and these factors can be improved through
training.
5. Energy reserves- Aerobic capacity further depends on energy reserves for getting the
energy to muscles.Therefore ,the aerobic capacity depends on upon the muscle glycogen
and sugar level in the blood. If the glycogen falls below the certain level , then fatigue
occurs. For long duration activities , the muscle glycogen and liver glycogen reserves are
important. In extraordinary long duration activities, fats can also be used as energy fuel.
It exists in such amount that it cannot be exhausted easily. Hence, it is not a limiting
factor for endurance performance.

Lactic Acid tolerance- When oxygen cannot be used as a source of energy then body
uses glucose to get energy through a process called glycolysis. When the body has
plenty of oxygen, pyruvate is shuttled to the aerobic pathway to be further broken
down for more energy. But when oxygen is limited, the body temporarily converts
pyruvate into a substance called lactate, which allows glucose breakdown--and
thus energy production--to continue.The ability to tolerate a higher concentration
of lactic acid is a significant factor in determining anaerobic capacity. The lactic
acid tolerance is important for activities that last for about 40 seconds or more .
The lactic acid tolerance capacity can be improved through training. So, it can
help in improving performance.
Movement economy- Position of the head, torso, shoulders, arms , hips, legs, ankles
should be in a proper position to reduce the energy consumption. This is known as
movement economy. It helps the player to do activity for a long time with limited energy.
Proper position of the head, torso, shoulders. arms, hips, legs, ankles can be seen here.
Muscle composition- Muscles compose of two types of fibres fast twitch fibres and
slow twitch fibres . Fast twitch fibres are able to contract faster and slow twitch fibres
contract slowly.Slow twitch fibres are best used for aerobic activities or endurance
activities. They produce the small level of force for long periods of time and that is why
they are better suited for endurance activities. In fact, it is found that elite marathoners
have 90% slow twitch fibres in muscles of the leg. So the type of muscle composition
also determines endurance. Muscle composition cannot be changed , they are determined
genetically.

Physiological factors determining flexibility

The ability to bend easily without breaking is known as flexibility.Flexibility depends on various
factors. Some of the factors can be modified by training but some of them are genetically
decided.Factors which determine flexibility are :

1. Type of joint- Human body has many types of joints. Some of them favour for the small
range of movement whereas some favour high range of movements.For example , ball
and socket joint has more range of movement than the knee joint.
2. Age and Gender-With the increase in age, flexibility decreases. The reason for the
decrease in flexibility is, many body parts start to contract which does not allow
flexibility. However, the body can be made flexible again with the help of training.
Gender also determine flexibility. Women are found to be more flexible than men.
3. The stretchability of muscles- The length and stretchability of muscle also determine
the flexibility of player. For joints to do some movement, muscles require doing some
contraction. If muscles are not doing some stretching for a long period of time, their size
decreases which eventually affect stretchability. The stretchability of muscles can be
modified by training .
4. Body temperature- Body temperature also determines the flexibility of player. A hot
bath improves flexibility whereas a cold bath decreases flexibility.
5. Past injury- After an injury , injured part grows thick .The tissues which cause
thickening are known as fibrous tissues. Fibrous tissues are less elastic and can lead to
limb shortening and decrease flexibility.

Effects of exercise on Cardio-Vascular System

Organs (heart,lungs,kidneys and brain) ,arteries, veins and capillaries which transport nutrients
and oxygen to the various body of parts forms cardiovascular system. The cardiovascular system
is responsible for transporting oxygenated blood to parts and transporting deoxygenated blood to
lungs back.
Effects of exercise on cardiovascular system are:

1. The increase in the size of heart- After performing an exercise for a long time the
strength and size of heart increases. In fact left ventricle adapts the most. Heart walls
grow thick and strong.
2. The decrease in resting rate- regular exercise for a long period of time decrease the
resting rate of the heart. It is observed that after a period of 10-week training , resting rate
reduces from 72 beats per minute to 60 beats per minute. After exercise efficiency of the
heart increases.While at rest it can pump more blood in fewer beats.
3. The amount of blood pumped increases- Stroke volume (amount of blood pumped
with the single heartbeat) increases. Normal stroke volume of males is found to be less
than that of athletes or players.
4. The increase in cardiac output at rest- The amount of blood pumped in one
minute.Regular exercise is helpful in increasing cardiac output of the heart. The players
who regularly exercise are found to have the cardiac output of 25-35 litres per minute
whereas the cardiac output of untrained individuals is 14-20 litres per minute.
 5. Better supply of blood- To meet energy requirement of muscles, capillaries increases,
widens so that blood can provide energy to muscles properly.Because of this , blood
supply becomes more efficient and effective,
6. Decreased blood pressure- After doing regular exercise for a period of time, blood
pressure decreases. Hence reducing the chances of heart attack.
7. The increase in blood volume- After exercising for a period of time , blood volume
increases. Blood composes of plasma,platelets, white blood cells and red blood cells.
After doing exercise plasma(contains urea, water, minerals, glucose,patients,fats etc) and
red blood cells (contains haemoglobin which help in transporting oxygen) increase to
meet the increasing demand of energy and nutrients of muscles.
8. Reduced heart diseases- Regular exercise develops capillaries, the heart becomes
strong, blood flow in arteries,veins increases. High blood flow in arteries and veins
prevent stress hormones to accumulate. This also prevents plaque ( a substance that
builds up and harden arteries walls) to accumulate that can lead to coronary heart
diseases.Hence reducing the risk of heart disease.

Effects of exercise on respiratory system

1. Increase in tidal air capacity- Tidal air capacity is the amount of oxygen flows in and
out of the lungs in each respiratory movement. It has been observed that tidal air capacity
can be increased after doing regular exercise.
2. Decrease in rate or frequency of respiration- When a normal person starts exercising
then his rate of respiration but as he continues to do exercise for a long period of time, his
rate of respiration decreases.
3. Strengthens muscles- Regular exercises helps to the over functioning of lung's muscles
of the diaphragm which makes them flexible and strengthens them.
4. Second wind is rarely felt- Second wind is a condition in running or jogging when a
person is too out of breath. Initially it is a crucial stage but afterwards, the respiratory
system adapts automatically and an athlete does not feel it .
5. Activates alveoli- Due to bad lifestyle, our alveoli become inactive because of the lesser
requirement of oxygen but when a person starts doing exercise , his lungs work hard to
meet the oxygen requirements of the body and ultimately activates alveoli.
6. Increases residual air volume- Residual air volume is the amount of air left in the lungs
after the exhalation. When a person starts to do exercise , his residual air volume
increases.
7. The increase in the size of lungs and chest- When someone does some exercises , his
body requires more amount of oxygen than at normal (rest) state. Due to which lungs
inhale more oxygen and heart pumps more blood to meet the demand.
8. Prevent diseases- When we don't do any exercise , our lungs reduce the efforts to
prevent energy loss. This causes the waste products to stick inside the lungs.To get it
clean regularly , we should do exercise regularly.
9. Increase in vital air capacity- It is the amount of oxygen inhaled and exhaled with
maximum effort. In a normal human being it varies from 350cc to 4500cc but in athletes
it increases to 5500cc.

Effects of exercise on the circulatory system

Components of the circulatory system include Heart, Lungs and Arteries, Viens. The role of
heart is to pump blood so that oxygenated blood and deoxygenate blood can be delivered to their
respective organs on time ( oxygenated blood will be pumped to organs from lungs and
deoxygenated blood will be pumped back to lungs ). The tubes or vessels which transfer blood
are called as arteries and veins. The role of lungs is to provide oxygen to the deoxygenated
blood so that it can be sent back to muscles.Thus effects of exercise in lungs, heart and
arteries,veins will be counter under the topic of effects of exercise on the circulatory system.

1. Activates alveoli- Due to bad lifestyle, our alveoli become inactive because of the lesser
requirement of oxygen but when a person starts doing exercise , his lungs work hard to
meet the oxygen requirements of the body and ultimately activates alveoli.
2. Increase in tidal air capacity- Tidal air capacity is the amount of oxygen flows in and
out of the lungs in each respiratory movement. It has been observed that tidal air capacity
can be increased after doing regular exercise.
3. Decrease in rate or frequency of respiration- When a normal person starts exercising
then his rate of respiration but as he continues to do exercise for a long period of time, his
rate of respiration decreases.
4. Strengthens muscles- Regular exercises helps to the over functioning of lung's muscles
of the diaphragm which makes them flexible and strengthens them.
5. The increase in the size of heart- After performing an exercise for a long time the
strength and size of heart increases. In fact left ventricle adapts the most. Heart walls
grow thick and strong.
6. The decrease in resting rate- regular exercise for a long period of time decrease the
resting rate of the heart. It is observed that after a period of 10-week training , resting rate
reduces from 72 beats per minute to 60 beats per minute. After exercise efficiency of the
heart increases.While at rest it can pump more blood in fewer beats.
7. The amount of blood pumped increases- Stroke volume (amount of blood pumped
with the single heartbeat) increases. Normal stroke volume of males is found to be less
than that of athletes or players.
8. The increase in a number of capillaries- Number of capillaries increase and become
more and more active to provide oxygenated blood to all muscles.

Ageing

Ageing is a process which is characterised by degeneration of organs and various systems

respectively. Ageing depends on genetics, diet, environmental conditions, pollution, radiation.
This process continues to grow and cannot be stopped.

Changes in body due to Ageing

1. Change in muscle and strength- Size of muscle decreases and overall body fat
increases. Due to above two changes , muscle strength also decreases.
2. Metabolism and body composition- Due to increasing age, body requires less energy
and metabolism slows down. Consequently, there is an increase in body fat and lean body
weight (tendons,ligaments,tissue,tendons,muscle and water) decrease.
 3. Bone Density- It results in the decrease in bone density. This happens due to the shortage
of minerals in the body. The bones become denser or more prone to injuries. The
decrease in bone density begins in the early forties.
4. Changes in respiratory system- The elasticity of lung muscles decreases and it leads to
decrease in efficiency of lungs as well. Oxygen uptake and oxygen exchange
decrease.Ability to breath deeply decreases due to a reduction in elasticity of muscles.
Pulmonary oxygen is reduced which leads to reduced endurance with shortness of breath
and fatigue. it can be said that tidal volume, vital capacity, lung capacity are decreased,
whereas residual volume is increased.
5. Changes in cardiovascular system -Cardiovascular system composes of lungs, heart
and blood vessels. With the advancing age, there is a progressive reduction in the
elasticity of cardiac muscle strength. Stroke volume, cardiac output and blood flow are
decreased with age. Blood vessels( arteries and veins) also lose their elasticity.There is
less nourishment of cells in the body. Heart valves become rigid.
6. Changes in the nervous system- Researchers and observations show that there is a
decrease in reaction time and movement time with the increase in age.The weight of
brain, growth of nerve endings and network of the nervous system decreases . It also
makes it difficult for a person to recall memories.
7. Changes in Digestive system or Gastrointestinal system- There is a decrease in the
production rate of HCl (Hydrochloric Acid), digestive enzymes and saliva. This results
in the decrease in digestion and decrease in appetite. The efficiency of lungs decreases
along with repairing damaged liver cells.
8. Changes in urinary system or excretory system- Excretory system consist of kidneys,
bladder, ureter, urethra. Due to ageing , the mass of kidneys decreases , the capacity of
bladder decrease. The process of filtration of blood decrease. There is an increase in
residual urine.
9. Change in flexibility- Due to ageing , spinal cord decrease in length which also leads to
the reduction in flexibility. There is also increase in reduction in flexiblity of tendons and
ligaments.

Role of regular exercises on Ageing

1. Reduce the loss of muscle mass- Muscle mass decreases with advancing
age.Ageing has a negative impact on metabolism.Regular exercise decreases the
loss of lean body mass and loss in metabolism rate. Regular exercise also reduces
the accumulation of fats.
2. Maintaining bone density- Due to advancing age, digestive device and kidneys
lessen their tactics which cause them to incomplete extraction of nutrients and
minerals (vitamin d helps our body to soak up calcium) from meals which cause
the reduction in bone density. doing physical activities often continues the
digestive machine and excretory system wholesome which in turn hold bones
sturdy.
3. Diseases- Sporting activities helps us to shield towards numerous illnesses
including diabetes,weight problems, hypertension and so forth.
4. Improves muscle strength- Exercises increase the size of muscle which ultimately
increases muscle strength.
 5. Enhances the capacity of lungs- Regular exercise enhances the capacity of lungs.
It reduces the loss of elasticity of the lungs and chest wall. It plays a key role in
keeping the chest strong. Regular exercise increases oxygen uptake and oxygen
exchange.
6. Improves flexiblity-Regular exercises improves the elasticity of tendons,ligaments,
and joint capsules.Exercise decrease the stiffness of joints. In this way there is
increase in flexiblity.
7. Reduces stress and tension- Regular exercise has a unique capacity to exhilarate
and relax to depression and reduce stress and tension. In fact, regular exercise
reduces levels of body's stress hormones such as adrenaline and cortisol Regular
exercise also stimulates the production of endorphins, the body's natural painkillers
and mood elevators. Such benefits of exercise help in delaying the ageing process.
It can be concluded that regular exercise can play a very effective role on ageing process
because it has an ample benefits which usually help in delaying the ageing process. It is a
well established fact that no one can stop the clock of ageing as it is inevitable but physical
exercise can slow its tick.