Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Prof. Tzong-Lin Wu
EMC Laboratory
Department of Electrical Engineering
National Taiwan University
Thus, the general solutions for the line voltage and line current in the sinusoidal
steady state are superposition of voltages and currents, respectively,
of sinusoidal (+) and (-) waves.
The general solutions for the line voltage and line current in the sinusoidal steady state
z z
V ( z , t ) = A cos t +
+ B cos t + +
v p v p
1 z z
I ( z, t ) = A cos t + B cos t + +
Z0
v p v p
The corresponding expressions for the phasor line voltage and phasor line current
+
V ( z ) = V e j z + V e j z
I ( z) =
1
Z0 (
+
V e j z V e j z )
where = / p
It is convenient to use a distance variable d that increases as we go from the load toward the
generator as opposed to z, which increased from the generator to the load.
+
V (d ) = V e j d + V e j d
I (d ) =
1
Z0
+
(
V e j d V e j d )
I (d ) =
1
Z0
+
( +
)
V e j d V e j d = 2
V
Z0
cos d
/2 3/4 /4
P ( d , t ) = V (d , t ) I ( d , t )
+
4 | V |2
= sin d cos d sin(t + ) cos(t + )
Z0
+
| V |2
= sin 2 d sin 2(t + )
Z0
Thus, the phenomenon on the short-circuited line is one in which the voltage, current, and power
flow oscillate sinusoidally with time with different amplitudes at different locations on the line,
unlike in the case of traveling waves in which a given point on the waveform progresses in
distance with time.
Since there is no feeling of wave motion down the line, these waves are known as standing waves.
In particular, they represent complete standing waves in view of the zero amplitudes of the voltage,
current, and power flow at certain locations on the line.
Complete standing waves are the result of (+) and (-) traveling waves of equal amplitudes.
Although there is instantaneous power flow at values of d between the voltage and
current nodes, there is no time-average power flow for any value of d.
+ + 2
|V(d)|=2 | V || sin d |= 2 | V || sin d|
+ +
2 |V | 2 |V | 2
|I(d)|= | cos d |= | cos d|
Z0 Z0
They are the patterns of line voltage and line current one would obtain by connecting an ac
voltmeter between the conductors of the line and an ac ammeter in series with one of the
conductors of the line and observing their readings at various points along the line.
Standing-wave patterns should not be misinterpreted as the voltage and current remaining
constant with time at a given point. On the other hand, the voltage and current at every point on the
line vary sinusoidally with time.
Prof. Tzong-Lin Wu / NTUEE 10
7.1 Short-Circuited Line
Natural Oscillations
Since there is no power flow across a voltage node or a current node of the standing-wave
patterns, a constant amount of total energy is locked up in every section between two such
adjacent nodes with exchange of energy taking place between the electric and magnetic fields.
Electrical length of a line: its length in terms of wavelength, which is depends on the
frequency.
Let us now consider a line of length l, one end of which is open-circuited and the other end
short-circuited, and assume that some energy is stored in this line.
We also know that the standing-wave patterns are sinusoidal with the distance between successive
nodes corresponding to a half sine wave.
L = /4
vp (2n 1)v p
(2 n 1) n fn = = n = 1, 2,3,....
l= n = 1, 2, 3,K
4 n 4l
Prof. Tzong-Lin Wu / NTUEE 13
7.1 Short-Circuited Line
Natural Oscillation
vp (2n 1)v p
fn = = n = 1, 2,3,....
n 4l
The standing-wave patterns are said to correspond to the different natural modes of oscillation.
The lowest frequency (corresponding to the longest wavelength) is known as the fundamental
frequency of oscillation, and the corresponding mode is known as the fundamental mode. The
quantity n is called the mode number.
In the most general case of non-sinusoidal voltage and current distributions on the line, the
situation corresponds to the superposition of some or all of the infinite number of natural modes.
The input reactance is zero for values of frequency equal to multiples of v p / 2l . These are
the frequencies for which l is equal to multiples of /2 so that the line voltage is zero at the
input and hence the input sees a short circuit.
v / 4l
The input reactance is infinity for values of frequency equal to odd multiples of p . These
are the frequencies for which l is equal to odd multiples of /4 so that the line current is zero
at the input and hence the input sees
Prof.anTzong-Lin
open circuit.
Wu / NTUEE 15
7.1 Short-Circuited Line
Input impedance
These properties of the input impedance of a short-circuited line (and, similarly, of an open-
circuited line) have several applications.
Since the difference between a pair of consecutive frequencies for which the input reactance
values are zero and infinity is v p / 4l
The principle behind this lies in the fact that the input reactance of a short-circuited line of
a given length can be inductive or capacitive, depending on the frequency, and hence, two
short-circuited lines connected together form a resonant system.
How to derive characteristic equation for the resonant frequencies of such a system?
1 1 1
Y1 = = =
Z 1 jZ 01 tan 1l1 jZ 01 tan(2 f v p1 )l1
1 1 1
Y2 = = =
Z 2 jZ 02 tan 2l2 jZ 02 tan(2 f v p 2 )l2
2 f 2 f
Z 01 tan l1 + Z 02 tan l2 = 0
v p1 vp2
1 + j d
I (d ) = (V e V e j d )
Z0
+
V (d ) = V e j d + V e j d
B. C. on load
V (0) = Z R I (0)
+ ZR + + Z R Z0
V +V = (V V ) V =V
Z0 Z R + Z0
V Z R Z0
R = +
= voltage reflection coefficient at the load
V Z R + Z0
(d ) = R e j 2 d = R (d ) = R + e j 2 d = 2 d
+
V j d
V (d ) = V e
+ j d
(1 + R e j 2 d
) I (d ) = e (1 R e j 2 d )
Z0
+
= V e j d [1 + (d )] +
V j d
= e [1 (d )]
Z0
Prof. Tzong-Lin Wu / NTUEE 19
7.2 Line Terminated by Arbitrary Load
standing wave pattern
1.
2.
3.
Vmax V (1 + R )
1+ R
SWR = = =
Vmin V + (1 R ) 1 R
also
+
I max (V Z 0 )(1 + R ) 1 + R
= =
I min ( V + Z )(1 R ) 1 R
0
2.
+
d min = = ( + )
2 4
Z R > Z0 =0 d min = / 4
SWR 1
R =
SWR + 1
4 d min
=
1+ R
Z R = Z0
1 R
The slotted line is essentially a rigid coaxial line with air dielectric and having a length of about 1
meter (or at least a half wavelength long). The center conductor is supported by dielectric
inserts.
Since the SWR is the ratio of to the quantity of interest is the ratio of the two readings
rather than the absolute values of the readings themselves. Therefore, absolute
calibration of the detector is not required.
Prof. Tzong-Lin Wu / NTUEE 27
7.2 Line Terminated by Arbitrary Load
Slotted-line measurements
Since it is not always possible to measure the distances of the standing wave pattern minima from
the location of the load, the following procedure is employed.
First, the line is terminated by a short circuit in the place of the load. One of the nulls in the
resulting standing-wave pattern is taken as the reference point, as shown in Fig. 7.12(a).This
establishes that the location of the load is an integral multiple of half-wavelengths from the
reference point.
Next, the short circuit is removed and the load is connected. The voltage minimum then shifts
away from the reference point, as shown in Fig. 7.12(b). By measuring this shift, either away from
the load or toward the load, the value of can be established.
+
V (d ) V e j d [1 + (d )]
Z (d ) = = +
I (d ) (V Z 0 )e j d [1 ( d )]
1 + (d )
= Z0
1 (d )
5. The product of the line impedances at two values of d separated by 4 is
given by
1 + ( d )
1 + ( d ) 4
[ Z (d )] Z d = Z 0 Z0
4 1 ( d ) 1 (d )
4
1 + (d ) 1 + (d )e m j 2 / 4
2
=Z m j 2 / 4
0
1 ( d ) 1 ( d ) e
2 1 + (d )
1 + (d )e m j
= Z0 m j
1 ( d ) 1 ( d ) e [ Z (d )] Z d = Z 02
4
1 + ( d ) 1 ( d )
= Z02
1 ( d ) 1 + ( d )
Prof. Tzong-Lin Wu / NTUEE 30
7.2 Line Terminated by Arbitrary Load
Input impedance
1 + (l )
Z in = Z (l ) = Z 0
1 (l )
The input impedance is a useful parameter, because, for a given generator voltage and internal
impedance, the power flow down the line can be computed by considering the line voltage and
current at any value of d.
Define:
Z (d ) 1 + (d )
z (d ) = =
Z0 1 (d )
z (d ) 1
(d ) =
z (d ) + 1
Admittance:
1 1 1 (d )
Y (d ) = =
Z (d ) Z 0 1 + (d )
1 (d )
Y (d ) = Y0
1 + (d )
Y (d ) 1 (d )
y (d ) = =0
Y0 1 + (d )
When the load impedance is not equal to the characteristic impedance, the input impedance of
the line will vary with frequency
This sensitivity to frequency increases with the electrical length of the line. Why?
l lf l n f
n = = = f = f = n
v
p vp vp f
It is desirable to eliminate standing waves on the line by connecting a matching device near the
load such that the line views an effective impedance equal to its own characteristic impedance
on the generator side of the matching device.
Does the matching device at the same time absorb any power?
It should be noted that matching, as referred to here, is not related to maximum power transfer
since the condition for maximum power transfer is that the line input impedance must be the
complex conjugate of the generator internal impedance.
Prof. Tzong-Lin Wu / NTUEE 33
7.3 Transmission-Line Matching
Quarter-Wave Transformer Matching
Z1 Z 2 = Z q2 Z 2 = Z q2 / Z1 = Z q2 / Z 0 Real number
The line impedance is purely real at locations of voltage maxima and minima of the standing-wave
pattern.
Therefore, within the first half-wavelength from the load, there are two solutions for dq.
min
max
d q(1) = ( + )
4
1 R 1 R
Z0 Z0 = Z q2 Z (1)
= Z0
1+ R q
1+ R
For the second solution, the value of dq corresponds to the location of a voltage
maximum that occurs at / 4 from the location of the voltage minimum.
1+ R
d (2)
q =d (1)
q and Z (2)
q = Z0
4 1 R
We shall assume the characteristic impedance of the stub to be the same as that of the line.
y1' = 1 jb
1 y1' jb
=
'
=
2 jb
1
1 + y1'
' j2 d jb j 2 d s
R = e 1
s
= e
2 jb
b 1 >
= e j ( / 2 + tan b / 2 + 2 d s + 2 n )
for b 0
4 + b2 <
b b >
R = = + tan + 2 d s + 2n 1
for b 0
4 + b2 2 2 <
2 R
b=
2
1 R
1 b >
ds = m tan 2 n for b 0
4 2 2 <
1
= j tan ls Normalized input impedance of a short-circuited line
jb
1
so tan ls =
b
When two stubs are used, it is possible to fix their locations and achieve a match for a wide range of
loads by adjusting the lengths of the stubs.
1 y2' jb2
y = y2 jb2 = 1 jb2
'
=
'
=
2 jb2
2 2
1 + y2'
jb2 1 1
y1 =
' j 2 d12
1 = e
2 = e j 2 d12
2 jb2 1 + 1
4 j (4b2 cos 2 d12 2b22 sin 2 d12 )
=
4 4b2 sin 2 d12 + 4b22 sin 2 d12 )
y1' = y1 jb1
1
=
1 b2 sin 2 d12 + b22 sin 2 d12
b22 sin 2 d12 2b2 cos 2 d12
+ j b1
2 2b2 sin 2 d12 + 2b2
2
sin 2
d12 )
1
= g'
1 b2 sin 2 d12 + b22 sin 2 d12 )
From the equation for the imaginary parts of y1 , the corresponding values of b1 are then
given by
Finally, the lengths of the two stubs are computed from b1 and b2
For any transmission-line matched system, the match is disturbed as the frequency is varied
from that at which the various electrical lengths and distances are equal to the computed
values for achieving the match.
For example, in the QWT matched system, the electrical length of the QWT departs from one-
quarter wavelength as the frequency is varied from that at which the match is achieved, and the
system is no longer matched even if the load does not vary with frequency.
For a given f/f0, the procedure consists of starting at the load and computing in succession the line
admittance to the left of the stub at each discontinuity, from a knowledge of the line admittance at
the output of the line section to the right of that stub, until the line admittance to the left of the last
discontinuity is found and used to compute the required SWR.
1 i 1 0 e 2 l
yi = =
1 + i 1 + 0 e 2 l
1 [(1 y0 ) /(1 + y0 )]e 2 l
=
1 + [(1 y0 ) /(1 + y0 )]e2 l
j sin l + y0 cos l
yi =
cos l + j y0 sin l
We begin with the relationship for the reflection coefficient in terms of the normalized line
impedance as given by
z (d ) 1
(d ) =
z (d ) + 1
1
r + jx 1 ( r 1) + jx ( r 1) + x
2 2 2
( d ) = = (d ) = 2
1
(r + 1) + x
2
r + jx + 1 (r + 1) + jx
r + jx 1 r 2 1 + x 2 2x
= = + j
r + jx + 1 (r + 1) 2 + x 2 (r + 1) 2 + x 2
r 2 1 + x2 2x
Re() = Im() =
(r + 1) 2 + x 2 ( r + 1) 2 + x 2
Z is purely imaginary
http://www.sss-mag.com/smith.html
1.
Z (d ) Z (d + ) = Z 02
4
z (d ) z (d + ) = 1
4
y (d ) = z (d + )
4
4. 1.
0.325 0.185 = 0.14
2.
r=1
3.
To achieve a match,
The stub must be located at a point on the line at which the real part of the normalized line
admittance is equal to unity;
The imaginary part of the line admittance at that point is then canceled by appropriately
choosing the length of the stub.
y = 1 + j 1.16 C B
D
Is there second solution?
Prof. Tzong-Lin Wu / NTUEE 60
7.5 THE SMITH CHART: 2. APPLICATIONS
ex: 7.5 Single-stub matching solution
Second solution
Auxiliary circle
Auxiliary circle
ABCD
So,
Why?
How to solve?
Y1 Y2 Yd
y1 = = +
Y01 Y01 Y01
Y Y Y 1 1 1 2 (1 + a a yd ) 2 + (1 a + a yd )
= 02 ( 2 + d ) = a( + yd ) 1 =
Y01 Y02 Y02 1 + 1 1 + 2 (1 a + a yd ) 2 + (1 + a + a yd )
= a ( y2 + yd )
Bilinear transformation between two complex planes, a property of which is that circles in one
plane are transformed into circles in the second plane.
(1 + a a yd ) 2 + (1 a + a yd )
1 =
(1 a + a yd ) 2 + (1 + a + a yd )
Ex 7.7
We wish to
find the locus of the normalized admittance y1 to the left of the discontinuity as the susceptance
slides along the line, and then
determine the location, nearest to the load, of the susceptance for which the SWR to the left of it is
minimized.
A, B, C points on y2 transform to
C, D, E, respectively, on y1 based on
y1 = y2 +j 0.8
The power dissipation in the conductors is taken into account by a resistance in series with the
inductor, whereas the power dissipation in the dielectric is taken into account by a conductance in
parallel with the capacitor.
I ( z , t )
V ( z + z , t ) V ( z , t ) = RzI ( z , t ) Lz
t
V ( z , t )
I ( z + z , t ) I ( z , t ) = G zV ( z , t ) C z
t
V
= ( R + j L) I
z
I
= (G + jC )V
z
2V I
= ( R + j L )
z 2 z
= ( R + j L)(G + jC )V
2V
= 2V
z 2
= + j = ( R + j L)(G + jC )
V ( z ) = Ae z + Be z
1 V
I (z) = 1 + z
R + j L z I ( z) = V e + V e z
1 Z0
= V + e z + V e z
R + j L R + j L
where Z0 =
G + jC
characteristic impedance of the line, which is now complex.
R
= j L(1 +
R
) jC (1 +
G j L(1 + )
j L jC
) j L
Z0 =
G
R G jC (1 + )
j LC 1 + + jC
j L jC
L R G
1 R G (1 + ) (1 )
j LC 1 + ( + ) C j L jC
2 j L jC
L R G
1 C L (1 + )
(R +G ) + j LC C j L jC
2 L C
L 1 R G
1
(R
C
+G
L
) 1 + 2 ( j L jC )
2 L C C
LC L
1 C
vp = Thus, for the low-loss line, the expressions for and Z0 are essentially
LC
the same as those for a lossless line.
The experimental technique is based on the measurements of the input impedance of the line
for two values of load impedance.
V ( d ) = V + e d + V e d V (d ) = V + e d 1 + ( d )
1 + d V + d
I (d ) = V e + V e d I (d ) = e 1 (d )
Z0
where Z0
V (d ) V e d
(d ) = =
+
V (d ) V + e d
= R e2 d = R e2 d e j 2 d
The line impedance is given by
V (d ) 1 + (d )
Z (d ) = = Z0
I (d ) 1 (d )
1 + R e 2 d
= Z0
1 R e 2 d
Prof. Tzong-Lin Wu / NTUEE 76
7.6 The Lossy Line
Experimental Determination of and Z0
1 + R e 2 l
Z in = Z (l ) = Z 0
1 R e 2 l
1 + ( Z R Z 0 ) /( Z R + Z 0 ) e2 l
= Z0
1 ( Z R Z 0 ) /( Z R + Z 0 ) e2 l
( Z R + Z 0 ) + ( Z R Z 0 ) e 2 l
= Z0
( Z R + Z 0 ) ( Z R Z 0 ) e 2 l
Z R cosh l + Z 0 sinh l
= Z0
Z R sinh l + Z 0 cosh l
Z R + Z 0 tanh l
Z in = Z 0
Z R tanh l + Z 0
s
s Z in = (30 j 40)
Z = Z 0 tanh l
in
Ex:
0
0
Z in = (30 + j 40)
Z in = Z 0 coth l Z 0 = (30 j 40)(30 + j 40) = 50
s 0
Z0 = Z Z 30 j 40 50 53.13
in in
tanh l = =
s 30 + j 40 5053.13
Z in
tanh l = 0 = 1 53.13 = 0.6 j 0.8
Z in
l = tanh 1 (0.6 j 0.8)
1 1+ x
l = 0.3466 tanh 1 x = ln
2 1 x
= 0.3466 / l 1 1.6 j 0.8 1 1.789 26.565
l = ln = ln
2 0.4 + j 0.8 2 0.89463.435
l = n / 4
n = 0, 1, 2 1 1
= ln 290 = ln 2e j (2 n / 2)
2 2
However, if the approximate value of is 1
known, then the correct value of n, and = [ ln 2 + j (2n / 2) ] = 0.3466 + j ( n / 4)
2
hence of can be determined.
Prof. Tzong-Lin Wu / NTUEE 78
7.6 The Lossy Line
Experimental Determination of and Z0
s
Z R + Z in
Z in = Z 02 s
Z R Z in + Z 02
s
Z R Z in Z in
Z0 = s
Z R + Z Z in
in
solve
s
Z = Z 0 tanh l
in
2 Z0
1
2 { 2
= Re V + Y0*e 2 d 1 (d ) + j 2 Im ( d )
2
}
P =
1 + 2 2 d
2
V e {
G0 1 (d ) + 2 B0 Im (d )
2
}
1
where Y0 = = G0 + jB0
Z0
Please compute the time-average power delivered to the input of the line, the time-average
power delivered to the load, and the time-average power dissipated in the line.
Z R Z 0 150 50
R = = 0.5
ZR + Z0 150 + 50
(l ) = R e 2 l = R e 2 l e j 2 l
= 0.5e 0.204 e j 40.8
= 0.4077 144
Prof. Tzong-Lin Wu / NTUEE 81
7.6 The Lossy Line
Power Flow (example)
Vg 1000
I (l ) = =
Z g + Z in (30 j 40) + (22.817 j13.140)
1000 1000
= =
52.817 53.140 74.923 45.175
= 1.334745.175
1
P(l ) = Re V (l ) I * (l )
2
1
= Re 35.14315.238 1.3347 45.175
2
1
= 35.143 1.3347 cos 29.937
2
= 20.32W
+ 2 P(l ) e 2 l
V =
G0 1 (l )
2
2 20.32 e 0.204
=
0.02(1 0.4077 2 )
= 44.58V
The time-average power delivered to the load is then given by
P(0) =
1 +2
2 (
V G0 1 R
2
)
1
= 44.582 0.02(1 0.25)
2
= 14.91W Pd = P (l ) P(0)
= 20.32 14.91
Finally, the time-average power dissipated in the line is
= 5.41W
Prof. Tzong-Lin Wu / NTUEE 84
7.7 PULSES ON LOSSY LINES
Since and p are in general functions of frequency, the different frequency components of an
arbitrarily time-varying signal undergo different amounts of attenuation and different amounts of
phase shift. Hence, as the signal propagates down the line, it gets distorted.
For the general case, the analysis can be performed by employing Fourier techniques.
There are, however, two special cases of importance that permit solution without the use of
Fourier techniques: distortionless transmission and diffusion.
As the signal propagates down the line, its shape versus time remains the same, but it diminishes
in magnitude. The situation arises for the condition:
R G
=
L C
= ( R + j L)(G + jC )
L C
= R(1 + j )G (1 + j )
R G
L
= RG 1 + j
R
G
= RG + j L
R
C
= RG + j L
L
= RG + j LC
= RG R + j L R(1 + j L / R)
Z0 = =
= LC G + jC G (1 + jC / G )
1 =
R
=
L
vp = =
LC G C
This case pertains to the historically important noninductive, leakage-free cable first investigated
by Lord Kelvin in 1855, but is also relevant to modern lines with large skin-effect losses and to
many other physical phenomena, such as heat flow.
V ( z , t )
= RI ( z , t ) 2V V
z = RC
I ( z , t ) V ( z , t ) z 2 t
= C
z t
diffusion equation
2 1
=
z 2
D t
2 1
=
z 2
D t
( 1/ 4 Dt ) z
= A e Y dY + B
2
Solution:
0
where A and B are arbitrary constants to be evaluated from boundary conditions, and Y is a dummy
variable.
2V V
= RC
z 2 t
( RC / 4 t ) z
V ( z , t ) = A e Y dY + B
2
Solution:
0
V (0, 0+ ) = V0
V ( , t ) = 0 for t >0
0
A e Y dY + B = V0 B = V0
2
0
2V0
A e Y dY + V0 = 0 + V0 = 0
2
A A=
0 2
Prof. Tzong-Lin Wu / NTUEE 90
7.7 PULSES ON LOSSY LINES
Diffusion
2V0 ( RC / 4 t ) z
V ( z, t ) = eY dY + V0
2
2 ( RC / 4 t ) z
= V0 1 e Y dY
2
error function (erf)
0
( )
http://mathworld.wolfram.com/Erf.html
V ( z , t ) = V0 1 erf RC / 4t z
= V erfc ( RC / 4t z )
0
erfc is the complementary error function.
1 V ( z , t )
I ( z, t ) =
R t
d 2 z2
C ( RC / 4t ) z 2 erf ( z ) = e
= V0
Rt
e dz
V% ( z , s ) = Ae sRC z
+ Be sRC z
V
Step function excitation at z = 0 V% (0, s ) = 0 A=
V0
B. C. s s
V = 0 at z = infinity V% (, s ) = 0 B=0
a e a
( )
s
erfc( ) V ( z , t ) = V0 erfc RC / 4t z
2 t s
Erf(z) is the "error function" encountered in integrating the normal distribution (which is a
normalized form of the Gaussian function).
2 z
e t dt erf ( z ) + erfc( z ) = 1
erf ( z ) =
2
Since the argument involves both z and t in the manner RC / 4t z , this sketch represents the
shape of the line voltage variation with z for any fixed value of t.
V ( z, t )
V0
= erfc ( RC / 4t z )
Thus, we note that, immediately after closure of the switch, there is voltage everywhere on
the line. This corresponds to the phenomenon of diffusionas distinguished from
propagation, which is characterized by a well-defined velocity.
As t increases, a given point on the sketch corresponds to larger and larger values of z, indicating
that as time progresses, the line voltage at all values of z increases.
For example, since the values of z are doubled as t is quadrupled, the voltage at a given distance
from the source and at a particular time after closure of the switch is the same as the voltage at
half that distance and at one-fourth of that time.
We can also obtain the time-variations of the line voltage for fixed values of z, by noting that for a
fixed z, the numbers on the abscissa can be converted to values of time.
Note:
As the value of z is increased, the attainment of
the maximum of the pulse is delayed and the
value of the maximum is reduced.