How can teaching methods be used to provide effective learning in an Upper Primary

classroom?

Education, as a concept, covers a broad scope which encompasses both teaching and
learning. Though the field of educational psychology has only been recently
established, psychological theories surrounding education have existed for
thousands of years, tracing back to the influential philosophers Plato and Aristotle
(Berliner, D.C. 1993). Following those original thoughts, many theories have emerged
that attempt to explain learning and the best ways to approach it. Within the world
of child and young peoples education, the theories aim to understand childrens
learning and development. This essay will outline the key aspects of theories of
intelligence, Vygotskys Sociocultural Theory of Cognitive Development, and
Behaviourism. Each of these theories has been proven to have validity in childhood
learning and practical application in the classroom environment. As with any
psychological or scientific theory, there are limitations but this essay will make it
clear that despite their limitations, the theories can have significant influence over
how children learn in the context of an Upper Primary classroom. Through
implementing these theories within their pedagogy, educators can provide students
with an education which understands their learning.

The notion of intelligence plays a significant role in education and learning. Over the
years, there have been many definitions of intelligence which range beyond the
academic interpretation. Many theorists, including Robert Sternberg and Howard
Gardner, concluded that there are multiple forms of intelligence rather than a
general intelligence. Sternberg defined intelligence as the skills and knowledge
needed for success in life, according to one's own definition of success, within one's
sociocultural context (Sternberg, 2004). Sternbergs Triarchic Theory states that
there are three components to intelligence. Analytic intelligence focuses on the
ability to judge, evaluate, compare and contrast. Creative intelligence focuses on the
ability to invent, discover and imagine. Practical intelligence is the ability to apply
knowledge. Sternberg believed that every person had all three components of
intelligence, but were usually stronger in one.

Gardners Theory of Multiple Intelligences defines intelligence as the capacity to

solve problems or to fashion products that are valued in one or more cultural
setting (Gardner & Hatch 1989). When first developed, this theory included at least
seven different types of identifiable intelligence: linguistic, logical-mathematical,
musical, spatial, bodily-kinaesthetic, interpersonal, and intrapersonal. Gardner
proposed naturalist as the eighth form of intelligence in 1999, while existential and
spiritual intelligences remain the subject of debate. No matter which theory or
theories of intelligence an educator adopts, they must keep the Incremental and
Entity theories in mind. The Incremental Theory, also known as a Growth Mindset,
states that intelligence is changeable and can always be increased. The Entity
Theory, also known as the Fixed Mindset, states that intelligence is inflexible and
cannot grow (Dweck, C 2010).

Gardners Theory of Multiple Intelligences is limited by its lack of scientific or

substantial evidence. There is no way to test or prove this theory; it simply provides
an idealistic view of intelligence. The theory, while not strong on its own, can be
paired with other educational theories to be applied in a classroom. A strong point
of Gardners theory is that it explains the wide variety of skills and abilities found in
people (Wilderdom 2006). The theory is also culturally adaptive, meaning that it
does not only apply to Western classroom environments. It is an inclusive theory
that validates many different skills sets, which is important in a diverse classroom
environment.

This kind of open and inclusive approach to intelligence, especially in educational

and learning contexts, means that educators will value each of their students
individual differences. In all classroom settings, teachers need to have a myriad of
teaching methods and approaches to address different ability levels, interests, and
students. Specifically in upper primary classes, students are branching out and
discovering their own interests. Designing lesson plans based around different types
of intelligences can ensure that all students will be able to engage with the content
of the lessons.

Gardners theory emphasises that there is more to intelligence than what was
traditionally thought. These various forms of intelligence allow people to identify
their strengths and weaknesses, which can be very helpful in a classroom
environment wherein a lack of skills in English or Mathematics may lead to feelings
of inadequacy. By identifying the more creative types of intelligence such as musical,
special, or bodily-kinaesthetic, educators are able to validate students in varying
strengths and structure lessons to help students learn effectively. While Gardners
theory provides an excellent approach for understanding and accepting different
forms of intelligence, it also presents difficulty when it comes to assessing students.
For example, a teacher may introduce an individual research project and tell the
students that they may present their final assignment in any way they want such as a
poster, an oral presentation, an essay, or a report. While the students may thrive in
their learning by being allowed to choose their own mode of delivery, the teacher
may find it problematic when grading the work, as the final products may not be
comparable. Educators need to believe that every child can learn and encourage
their students to try their best. It is through self-efficacy and hard work that a
student can increase their knowledge and abilities.
Sternberg and Gardners theories regarding multiple or differing intelligences can be
linked to Standard 1 of the Australian Professional Standards for Teachers: Know
students and how they learn. This standard describes the way teachers must take a
students diverse abilities and development into account when teaching. It also
states that teachers must use different teaching strategies to suit the needs and
abilities of students (Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership 2014).
When considering the Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority
(ACARA), the theories become more difficult to implement in a practical sense.
ACARA lists certain capabilities in various subject areas, including English,
Mathematics and Science, which teachers need to address in their classes. It is not
always realistic for a teacher to allow students free reign in their learning, but it is
possible for dedicated teachers to design lessons that engage the diverse
intelligences in their classes.

A large aspect of the everyday lives of Upper Primary students is their social and
cultural environment. Vygotskys Theory of Sociocultural Cognitive Development
focuses on the way in which children learn through social interaction. Vygotsky
emphasised that learning occurs collaboratively and is often co-constructed between
a child and an adult. Vygotsky believed that every function in a childs cultural
development appears twice: first, on the social level and later on the individual level;
first between people (interpsychological) and then inside the child
(intrapsychological) (Vygotsky 1978, cited in Woolfolk & Margetts 2013, p. 95). This
transition between the social level to the individual level can also be seen in
Vygotskys thoughts surrounding language in learning. Language begins on the social
level, between a child and an adult wherein the adult co-constructs a scenario with
the child. Language learned in that scenario can then be used by the child in a
process called self-talk, a vital process in developing cognition. Self-talk allows the
child to regulate their thoughts and actions out loud as they engage in social
scenarios or play. Eventually, this self-talk is completely internalised and it becomes
silent; this is known as private speech (Woolfolk & Margetts 2013). While it is likely
that most students in Upper Primary classrooms have reached the stage of private
speech, it may be useful for educators to engage in collaborative or co-constructed
scenarios to ensure that students are able to complete tasks accurately. It also may
be necessary for teachers to narrate what they are doing to provide appropriate
language for students.

Within co-constructed learning there is a more knowledgeable other. In a classroom

setting, this may be the teacher or a student. Similar to the way language is
developed into thought, the child is able to take the strategies learned within the co-
constructed interaction and internalise them for future use. Vygotskys theory, while
not the originator of the scaffolding process, highlights the importance of this type
of assisted learning. Scaffolding is the process of providing intense assistance when
the child is first learning a skill, then gradually removing this assistance as the child
gains independence and competence. Besides co-constructing, scaffolding can
involve modelling the required task, prompting or cueing, chunking down a lesson,
or providing encouragement. It is not always effective for the teacher to be the one
providing this assistance. As mentioned, a peer can be of great use in learning a new
skill, especially if the peer has only recently mastered the skill themselves, as they
would be more familiar with the learners Zone of Proximal Development. Vygotsky
believed that, in learning, there are things within a childs current level of
independent abilities, things well beyond a childs level of ability, even with
assistance, and there is an area in between. Vygotsky called this area the Zone of
Proximal Development (ZPD). It is within the ZPD that educators are able to assist
children in learning by extending and building on what students already know.

Above all else, Vygotskys theory is limited by the fact that he died before expanding
on his theory. The theory was completed by his co-workers and it is unknown
whether or not he would agree with the direction they have taken his research.
Another significant limitation of Vygotskys theory is that the ZPD is quite a vague
concept. There is no specific or consistent way to measure a childs ZPD and there is
little practical information available about how educators should work within the
ZPD to extend their students knowledge. Despite these limitations, Vygotskys
theory is strong as it recognises cultural differences in learning and explains these
differences in cognitive development.

The Australian Curriculum identifies Personal and Social capabilities as important

aspects students need to be educated about. By the end of Year 6, it is expected that
students should be able to contribute to groups and teams, suggesting
improvements in methods used for group investigations and projects (ACARA
2015). Vygotskys theory prepares students for this by encouraging collaborative and
co-constructed learning.

There has been much research into the relationship between behaviour and learning
by researchers such as Ivan Pavlov, John Watson, B.F. Skinner, and Albert Bandura.
The theories these men have developed explain learning as a response to external
stimulus, which cause changes in observable behaviour. In the context of an Upper
Primary classroom, behaviour management can present a challenge for educators.
On the cusp of adolescence, students are going through biological, emotional and
physical changes, all of which can have a significant impact on how a student
behaves at school. Within the field of Behaviourism, there are many strategies a
teacher can use in a classroom. Operant conditioning, developed by Skinner, refers
to when voluntary behaviour is strengthened or weakened by antecedents (events
that precede behaviour) or consequences (events that follow behaviour). Teachers
can use reinforcement to strengthen behaviours in their classrooms.

There are two types of reinforcement: positive and negative. Positive reinforcement
presents a desirable stimulus after the behaviour, while negative reinforcement
removes an undesirable or unpleasant stimulus. Both forms of reinforcement
increase the chance that the behaviour will occur again. In a classroom, a teacher
may use positive reinforcement in the form of a rewards chart or by providing well-
behaved students with lollies. Negative reinforcement may mean a teacher plays a
loud annoying song until the students are sitting on the floor quietly. The negative
reinforcement would be the process of turning the music off, removing the
unpleasant stimulus. On occasion, various forms of punishment may need to be used
with students to supress undesirable behaviours. Type 1 Punishment (Presentation
Punishment) is the use of unpleasant stimulus after behaviour to decrease the
chance it will occur again, such as issuing detention or time out. Type 2 Punishment
(Removal Punishment) involves removing pleasant stimulus after behaviour to
decrease the chance it will occur again, such as taking away free time or privileges. It
is important to remember, as educators, that punishment should not be approached
with the sole intention of simply supressing the undesirable behaviour. Educators
should also make it explicitly clear to the child what the correct behaviour is.

Behaviour modification or applied behaviour analysis is the application of

antecedents and consequences to change behaviour. This requires identification of
undesirable behaviour, observation, analysis of reinforcers promoting the behaviour,
intervention with behaviour modification methods such as reinforcement, and
measurement of changes. (Woolfolk & Margetts 2013)

In a classroom setting, praise from a teacher can be used as a reinforcer to

encourage positive behaviour. Effective praise must (1) be contingent on the
behaviour to be reinforced, (2) specify clearly the behaviour being reinforced, and
(3) be believable (Landrum & Kauffman 2006). A classroom setting also provides
other forms of reinforcement for positive behaviour such as pre-existing privileges.
The Premack Principle, developed by David Premack (1965), states that preferred
activities can be used as reinforcers for less preferred activities. This approach is
most effective when the less preferred activity is completed prior to the preferred
activity. Shaping, also known as successive approximations, is the process of
reinforcing behaviour after each small step. This encourages progress and effort
rather than results and can be particularly effective when students lack motivation
or ability. Responding to negative behaviours in a classroom can be done a number
of ways. Reprimands can be used privately and calmly to dissuade students from
repeating behaviour. In an Upper Primary classroom, students can be very
preoccupied with the way their peers view them. If a student is reprimanded
publicly, this can lead to humiliation or refusal to acknowledge wrongdoing because
of his or her public image. Response cost is similar to Removal Punishment, but
focuses more specifically on cause and effect. It refers to privileges being taken away
in response to undesirable behaviour. It is punishment by loss of reinforcers
(Woolfolk & Margetts, p.234). Teachers can use this by taking away minutes of play
time or recess time in response to bad behaviour.

A common and controversial strategy for responding to negative behaviours is the

use of social isolation or time out. This involves the removal of a disruptive student
for a short period of time. Concerns have been raised about social isolation being
used as punishment in a classroom as it can be viewed as an authoritarian approach
and it labels children as naughty. When used appropriately and not as a go-to
punishment, time out can be an effective behaviour management strategy
(Morawska, A & Sanders, M 2011).

One of the most undeniable strengths of Behaviourism is that it is testable and

provable. As Behaviourism is concerned with observable behaviour, it is easy to
discern whether or not the theory is valid. Unfortunately, this is closely linked with a
limitation of Behaviourism: the fact it only takes observable behaviour into account.
Another very important limitation to consider is that Behaviourism assumes that
humans and animals are interchangeable in studying their behaviour. It attempts to
reduce human behaviour to a series of responses to stimulus, not taking free will or
mediating factors into consideration. When it comes to behaviourism in a classroom
context, a significant strength of the theory is that it is highly applicable. This can be
seen in classroom routines, uniforms, and management policies. The students have
been conditioned to know how to behave in the classroom setting.

The Australian Curriculum states that by the end of Year 6, students should be able
to evaluate the consequences of actions in familiar and hypothetical scenarios
(ACARA 2015). Implementing consistent strategies rooted in Behaviorism in the
classroom familiarises students with consequences and allows them to anticipate
which behaviours will be considered appropriate or inappropriate.

The theories described in this essay all have practical teaching and classroom
application possibilities. It is essential that teachers familiarise themselves with
various educational theories surrounding child and young peoples development. It is
through this knowledge that teachers are able to equip themselves with the many
tools required to provide effective education under the guidance of the Professional
Standards for Teachers and the Australian Curriculum. As stated in the Melbourne
Declaration on Educational Goals for Young Australians, all young people in
Australia should be supported to become successful learners, confident and creative
individuals, and active and informed citizens.
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