Group 8: Nonferrous metals Other uses are plumbing, heating, and air conditioning

Relatively low strength and high ductility

INTRODUCTION Can be extensively formed
Nonferrous metals and alloys have assumed increasingly important Heavier than iron
roles in modern technology. Because of their number and their widely varied Problems can occur when Copper is used at higher temperatures. They
properties, they provide limitless range of properties for the design engineer. tend to soften when heated above 220C and if copper is stressed for
Strength of nonferrous alloys(as a whole) is generally inferior to that of steel. along period of time, inter-crystalline failure can occur at about half of
Modulus of elasticity is usually lower, which makes it a disadvantage when its normal-room temperature strength.
stiffness is a required characteristic. Many alloys also have high ductility paired Poor abrasive wear characteristics but offers good adhesive wear
with low yield points, which makes it the ideal combination for cold working. resistance
Good Machinability is also a characteristic of many nonferrous alloys. Characteristics of Copper:
Though they tend to be more costly than steel or iron, they possess Low temperature properties are better than most other materials
properties that are not available in ferrous metals such as: Strength increases with decreasing temperature
1. Resistance to corrosion Material does not embrittle
2. Ease of Fabrication savings obtained can often overcome the
Retains ductility under cryogenic conditions (deepfreezing)
higher cost of nonferrous material and justify its use in place of
Conductivity increases with a drop in temperature
steel
Nonmagnetic
Weldability is the only fabrication area where the nonferrous
Nonpyrophoric, meaning it is not likely to ignite spontaneously when
alloys tend to be somewhat inferior to steel but with modern
exposed to air, or nonsparking
joining techniques, it is generally possible to produce satisfactory
weldments in all of the nonferrous metals. Nonbiofouling meaning it is not likely to accumulate unwanted
3. High electrical and thermal conductivity organisms on its surface such as algae, bacteria and barnacles
4. Lightweight Wide spectrum of colors including yellow, red, brown and silver
5. Strength at elevated temperatures Commercially Pure Copper
6. Color Electrolytic tough-pitch (ETP) copper is refined copper containing 0.02-
0.05% oxygen
Used as a base for copper alloys
Used for electrical applications such as wire and cable
Oxygen-free high conductivity (OFHC) copper provides
superconductivity
Copper-Based Alloys
Copper is the base metal
Imparts ductility, corrosion resistance, and electrical and thermal
conductivity
Standardized by the Copper Development Association (CDA)
COPPER AND COPPER ALLOYS Common alloying elements:
GENERAL PROPERTIES AND CHARACTERISTICS: Zinc
Backbone of the electrical industry Tin
Base metal of a number of alloys such as bronzes and brasses Nickel
Offer three important properties: Copper-Zinc Alloys
1. High electrical and thermal conductivity Zinc is the most common alloy addition
2. Useful strength with high ductility Known as brass if zinc is content is less than 36%, the brass is a single-
3. Corrosion resistance phase solid solution which is often called as:
About one-third of Copper is used in electrical applications Alpha Brasses
 Ductile and formable
Strength and ductility increase with increasing zinc
content
If the zinc content is more than 36%, the brass enters a two-phase
region involving a brittle, zinc-rich phase and ductility drops evidently,
thus calling it:
Two-Phrase brasses
High electrical and thermal conductivity
Useful engineering strength
Wide range of colors
Rubber can be vulcanized to it
Brasses have good corrosion resistance
Brasses with 20-36% zinc may experience relative corrosion known as
dezincification when exposed to acidic or salt solutions.
Brasses with more than 15% zinc may experience season-cracking or
stress corrosion
Cold-worked brass is usually stress-relieved to remove residual stress
Lead can be added to increase machinability
Copper-Tin Alloys
Tin is more costly than zinc
Alloys with tin are commonly called tin bronzes
The term bronze can be confusing since it can technically be any copper
alloy where the major alloy addition is not zinc or nickel. To provide clarification,
the major alloy addition is usually added in the designation name.
Tin bronzes have desirable mechanical properties
1. Good strength
2. Good toughness
3. Good wear resistance
4. Good corrosion resistance
often used for bearings, gears and fittings with high compressive loads
Most popular wrought alloy is Phosphor bronze, which usually contains
from 1-11% tin.
Copper-Nickel Alloys
Copper and nickel exhibit complete solubility
High thermal conductivity
High temperature strength
Corrosion resistance to a range of materials
These properties, when coupled with a high resistance to a stress-
corrosion cracking, make the copper-nickel alloys a good choice for heat
exchangers, cookware, and a wide variety of coinage.
Nickel Silvers contain no silver but 10-30% nickel and at least 5% of
zinc, Cupronickels contain 2-30% nickel, Constantan contains 45% nickel, Monel
contains 67% nickel material, which is also a nickel alloy.
Other Copper-Based Alloys
The copper alloys previously discussed acquire their strength primarily
through solid-solution strengthening and cold work while alloys containing
Aluminum, Silicon, or Beryllium can be strengthened by precipitation hardening
Aluminum-bronze alloys contain less than 8% aluminum, which makes
it very ductile, but if it exceeds 9%, its ductility and its hardness become similar
to steel. Also best known for their combination of high strength and excellent
corrosion resistance and are often considered to be cost-effective alternatives
to stainless steel and nickel-based alloys.
Silicon-bronzes contain up to 4% silicon and 1.5% zinc. Also has good
strength, good formability, good machinability and corrosion resistance. Its uses
include boiler, tank and stove applications, which require a combination of
weldability, high strength and corrosion resistance.
Copper-Beryllium alloys contain less than 2% beryllium and can be age-
hardened to produce the highest strengths of the copper-based materials but
can be quite expensive to use and can produce even stronger material when age
hardening is coupled with cold work. Its properties such as:
has the strength of heat-treated steel
non-sparking, nonmagnetic and electrically and thermally conductive
make it the best choice for electrical contact springs but cost limits
application to small components requiring long life and high reliability
Because of concerns over the toxicity of beryllium, there have been
demand for substitute alloys with similar properties but no alternative has
emerged.
Lead-Free Casting Alloys
For many years, lead has been a common alloy additive to cast copper
alloys. It helped to fill and seal the microporosity that forms during solidification
thereby providing the pressure tightness required for use with pressurized gas
and fluids.
Lead also acts as a lubricant and chip-breaker, which enhances the
machinability and machined surface finish.
EnviroBrass Alloy is one of the most common lead-free copper-based
alloys made due to increasing concern about lead in drinking water and the start
of environmental regulations.
Uses Bismuth and Selenium as alternatives to Lead.
o Bismuth is not known to be toxic and is used as a
remedy for upset stomach
o Selenium is an essential nutrient for humans
o Though these new alloys have lower ductility, they
have been shown to have similar mechanical
properties, machinability and platability to the
traditional leaded materials.
ALUMINUM AND ALUMINUM ALLOYS
GENERAL PROPERTIES AND CHARACTERISTICS:
Used at:
Transportation
Containers & Packaging
Building Construction
Electrical Applications
Consumer Durables
Mechanical Equipment
a.2 CASTING ALUMINUM ALLOYS
Properties:
Low melting point
Workability
High fluidity
Light weight
Corrosion Resistant Attractive as solidified structure and properties
Good electrical and thermal conductivity Silicon is usually added to produce eutectic reaction and
Optical Reflectivity increase fluidity. Copper, zinc, and magnesium can also be
COST added to permit formation of age hardening precipitates
It is 5 times more expensive than carbon steel (cost per pound). But a b. ALUMINUM-LITHIUM ALLOYS
pound of aluminum produces three times more than steel. And aluminum can Lithium is added for:
be recycled repeatedly. High strength
Weakness: Greater stiffness
Low modulus of elasticity (1/3 of steel) Lighter weight
COMMERCIALLY PURE ALUMINUM But compared to other alloys, it has poor:
Soft, ductile, and not very strong (1/5 of steel) Fracture toughness
used for its physical more than its mechanical; Ex. Electrical Ductility
applications Stress corrosion resistance
MECHANICAL APPLICATIONS c. STABILIZED ALUMINUM FOAM
a. ALUMINUM ALLOYS Ceramic particles + molten + gas
Have greater strength than pure aluminum (30 times stronger) Offers:
Wear, creep, fatigue resistance are poor Outstanding strength to weight ratio
Lose strength and change dimension when exposed to Excellent energy absorption
temperature increase Applications:
Aluminum foam is introduced to racecars. Their tubular
ALUMINUM structures are filled with foam to increase strength, absorb energy, and provide
ALLOYS resistance to crushing.

MAGNESIUM AND MAGNESIUM ALLOYS

WROUGHT
ALLOYS
a.1 WROUGHT ALUMINUM ALLOYS
Low yield strength
High ductility
Good fracture resistance
Good strain hardening
CASTING GENERAL PROPERTIES
ALLOYS Lightweight
High strength to weight ratio
High energy absorption
Impact & dent resistant
Poor wear, creep, fatigue properties
Highest thermal expansion
Strength drops at temperature increase
 Low modulus of elasticity ZAMAK 3 is widely used because of its excellent dimensional stability
Highly combustible in finely divided form while ZAMAK 5 offers higher strength and better corrosion-resistance. Zinc has
Excellent corrosion resistance the ability to be cast close to dimensional limits with extreme thin sections.
Therefore, it is best for applications where lightness is primary Resistance to surface corrosion (the ability to withstand damage caused by
consideration and strength is secondary requirement. oxidation & other chemical reaction) is commonly used for its application. Zinc
MAGNESIUM ALLOYS AND THEIR FABRICATION offers low energy cost, tool life is excellent and zinc alloys can be efficiently
PRECIPITATION HARDENING recycled. Rigidity is low (ability to be altered easily). Its attractiveness increased
Aluminum when it is alloyed together with aluminum that offers wide range of usage like
Zinc for fire fighting gears, door & decorative hardware and etc.
Zirconium
Thormium TITANIUM AND TITANIUM ALLOYS
IMPROVE CORROSION RESISTANCE What is Titanium?
Manganese It is a strong, lightweight, corrosion-resistant material that has been
CASTABILITY commercially important since 1960s since its properties are generally important.
Tin On other hand, it is difficult to be extracted from its ore, difficult to process and
CASTING PROCESSES difficult to fabricate making it expensive than steel and aluminum. Aluminum,
1. Sand Casting Magnesium, and Beryllium are the only base metals that are lighter than
2. Permanent mold Casting Titanium but none of these come close to the mechanical performance or
3. Die Casting elevated temperature properties. Titanium is lightweight, high-strength-to-
4. Semi solid Casting weight-ratio, good stiffness, good fatigue strength & fracture toughness,
MACHINABILITY excellent corrosion-resistance and retention of its mechanical properties at
It is the best of any commercial metal. The savings in machining costs elevated temperature.
compensate for the increased cost of magnesium. Sample of its uses:
WELDABILITY Osseointegration
It can be welded almost as easily as aluminum given that brushing and Aircraft
chemical cleansing is done prior to it. Titanium Alloy
Titanium alloys are designated by major alloy and amount and group
ZINC-BASED ALLOYS into three classes according to their microstructural features. These classes are
What is Zinc? alpha, beta, alpha-beta. Titanium and Titanium alloys are also used in diverse
Zinc is the primary component of the hot-dip galvanized coating & it is areas as chemical and electrochemical equipment, food processing equipment,
importantly infinitely recyclable. It is also the 27th most element in the Earth's heat exchangers, marine implements, medical implants, high-performance
crust. It is also the same Zinc that helps us to live to support our metabolic bicycle, automotive components, and sporting goods. They are often used in
process. In fact, Zinc oxide blocks more UV rays that any ingredient used in place for steel where weight saving is desired and to replace aluminum where
sunscreens. Zinc is also used as the basic metal for a variety of die-casting alloys, high-temperature performance is necessary.
for this purpose, it offers low cost. Its melting point is only 380 Celsius or 715
Fahrenheit.
Here are some of its products that contains Zinc:
Some of its common Zinc-Die Casting alloys
Therefore, when alloys are designed for die-casting, the alloy elements
are usually selected for their ability to increase strength and toughness while
retaining its low melting point. Unfortunately, pure Zinc is almost as heavy as
steel but brittle and weak.
NICKEL-BASED ALLOYS
Nickel-based alloys are most noted for their outstanding strength and
corrosion resistance, particularly at high temperatures and are available in a
wide range of wrought and cast grades
Wrought alloys generally known by tradenames: Monel,
Hastel-loy, Inconel, Incoloy, and others
Cast alloys generally identified by Alloy Casting Institute or
ASTM designations
General characteristics of nickel-based alloys:
Good formability
Good creep resistance
Retention of strength and ductility at cold or even cryogenic
temperature
Cryogenic very low temperatures (e.g. -150 degree Celsius)
Monel metal an alloy containing about 67% nickel and 30% copper. It has been
used for years in the chemical- and food- processing industries because of its
outstanding corrosion characteristics. It probably has better corrosion resistance
to more media than any other commercial alloy. It is particularly resistant to salt
water, sulfuric acid, and even high-velocity, high temperature steam. Monel is
know to be used for steam turbine blades. It can be polished to have an
appearance similar to stainless steel and is often used in ornamental trim and
household ware.
Examples:
Military dog tags
Musical instruments (trumpets, french horns)
Nickel-based alloys are also used for electrical resistors and heating
elements such as:
Nichrome primarily nickel-chromium alloys who have excellent
resistance to oxidation while retaining useful strength at red heats
Invar an alloy of nickel and iron that has a near-zero thermal
expansion and is used where dimensions cannot change with a change
in temperature
SUPERALLOYS AND OTHER METALS DESIGNED FOR HIGH-TEMPERATURE
SERVICE
Superalloys are one class of materials that are based on nickel, iron and
nickel, or cobalt and have the ability to retain most of their strength even after
long exposures to extremely high temperatures.
These superalloys are mostly used in:
Jet engines
Gas-turbines
Rockets
Nuclear applications
Most superalloys are difficult to form or machine, so methods such as
electrodischarge machining, electrochemical machining, ultrasonic machining,
and powder metallurgy are often used, or the products are made to final shape
as investment castings.
1. Electrodischarge machining (EDM) also known as spark
machining, is a manufacturing process whereby a desired shape is
obtained using electrical charges (sparks)
2. Electrochemical machining (ECM) used to machine work pieces
through the anodic dissolution of metal
3. Ultrasonic machining (USM) also known as Ultrasonic impact
grinding, is an operation that involves a vibrating tool fluctuating
the ultrasonic frequencies in order to remove the material from
the work piece
4. Powder metallurgy (PM) is the production and working of metals
as fine powders that can be pressed and sintered to form objects
A number of engineering applications require materials whose
temperature limits excess those of the superalloys. One of them is the future jet
engines who reach temperatures in excess of 1425 degrees Celsius. Materials
such as TD-Nickel (a powder metallurgy nickel alloy containing 2% dispersed
thorium oxide) can operate at service temperatures somewhat above 1100
degree Celsius (or 2000 degree Fahrenheit).
For even high temperatures, refracory metals (which include niobium,
molybdenum, tantalum, rhenium, and tungsten) all have melting points near or
in excess of 2500 degree Celsius (4500 degree Fahrenheit). They retain a
significant fraction of their strength at elevate temperature and can be used at
temperatures as high as 1650 deree Celcius (3000 degree Fahrenheit) provided
that protective ceramic coating effectively isolates them from gases in their
operating environment.
The ceramic coating technology of these materials is quite a challenge
because:
1. The ceramic coating must have a high melting point
2. It must not react with the metal they are protecting
3. It provides a diffusion barier to oxygen and other gases, and
4. It has a thermal-expansion characteristics that match the
underlying metal
Other materials and technologies used for high-temperature service:
1. Intermetallic compounds
These provide properties that are between those of metals
and ceramics, and they are excellent candidates for high-
temperature applications. They are hard, stiff, creep resistant, and
oxidation resistant, with good high-temperature strength that
often increases with temperature. Unfortunately, intermetallic
 compounds are also characterized by poor ductility, poor fracture seem unlikely as engineering materials, they offer outstanding corrosion
toughness, and poor fatigue resistance. They are difficult to resistance and electrical conductivity, often under extreme conditions of
fabricate using traditional techniques, such as forming and temperature and environment.
welding. On a positive note, research and development efforts
have begun to overcome some of these limitations. METALLIC GLASS
2. Engineered ceramics What is metallic glass?
3. Advanced coating systems Metallic glass are novel engineering alloys in which the structure is not
crystalline but rather is disorered, with the atoms occupying more-or-less
LEAD AND TIN, AND THEIR ALLOYS random position in the structure.
The dominant properties of lead and lead alloys are: Mechanical Properties:
High density High strengths
Good corrosion resistance Large elastic strain
Low melting point Good toughness
The ease of casting or forming Wear resistance
The principal uses of lead as a pure metal include storage batteries, Process metallic glass undergoes:
cable cladding, and radiation-absorbing or sound- and vibration-damping shields. Compression molding
Lead-acid batteries are clearly the dominant product, and over 60% Extrusion
of U.S. lead consumption is generated from battery recycling. Blow molding
As a pure metal, tin is used primarily as a corrosion-resistant coating Injection molding
on steel.
One of the oldest and best bearing materials is known as genuine or tin babbitt- GRAPHITE
an alloy of 84% tin, 8% copper, and 8% antimony Graphite is an engineering material that offers properties of both a
Because of the high cost of tin, lead babbitt, composed of 85% lead,5% metal and non-metal.
tin, 10% antimony, and 0.5% copper, is a more widely used bearing material. Properties of Graphite:
Good thermal
SOME LESSER KNOWN METALS AND ALLOYS Electrical conductivity
Beryllium combines a density less than aluminum with a stiffness Inertness
greater than steel and is transparent to X-rays. Hafnium, thorium, and beryllium The ability to withstand high temperature
are used in nuclear reactors because of their low neutron-absorption Lubricity
characteristics. Classification of Graphite:
Depleted uranium, because of its very high density (19.1 g/cm3), is
useful in special applications where maximum weight must be put into a limited Natural Graphite Synthetic Graphite
space, such as counterweights or flywheels. Divided into many different
Cobalt, in addition to its use as a base metal for superalloys, is used types depending on the
as a binder in various powder-based components and sintered carbides, where Flake
carbon use in its
it provides good high-temperature strength. Amorphous
manufacture as well as the
Zirconium is used for its outstanding corrosion resistance to most Lump graphite
heat treatment the carbon
acids, chlorides, and organic acids. It offers high strength, good weldability and underwent
fatigue resistance, and attractive neutron-absorption characteristics.
Rare earth metals have been incorporated into magnets that offer
increased strength compared to the standard ferrite variety. Neodymiumiron
boron and samariumcobalt are two common varieties.
While the precious metals (gold, silver, and the platinum group
metalsplatinum, palladium, rhodium, ruthenium, iridium, and osmium) may