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AbstractPower systems are going through a paradigm large-scale utilization of distributed energy resources (DER),
change from centralized generation to distributed genera- including renewables, electric vehicles, and energy storage sys-
tion and further on to smart grids. In this paper, it is shown tems, is regarded as a promising means for lessening these
that future power systems will be power electronics based,
instead of electric machines based, with a huge number of problems [1] and, as a result, power systems are going through
incompatible players and that the fundamental challenge a paradigm change from centralized generation to distributed
behind this paradigm change is how to make sure these generation. Adding a communication and information network
players could work together and maintain system stability. into power systems, hence the birth of smart grids, would help
Then, a lateral architecture based on the synchronization
make power systems more efficient, more resilient to threats,
mechanism of synchronous machines (SM), which has un-
derpinned the growth and operation of power systems for and friendlier to the environment [2]. Naturally, the added com-
over 100 years, is proposed to unify the integration and in- munication network is expected to provide the infrastructure
teraction of these players with the grid by operating power needed for all power system players to work together, even at
electronic converters to behave like virtual synchronous the low-level controls. This standard scenario, however, could
machines (VSM), which are coined cyber synchronous ma-
lead to serious concerns about reliability [3], [4]. If the com-
chines (CSM) here. Thus, all the suppliers and the major-
ity of loads can follow the same mechanism to regulate munication network breaks down then the whole power system
system stability. This paves the way for autonomous op- could crash. Moreover, when the number of players reaches
eration of future power systems. Moreover, two technical a certain level, how to manage the communication network is
routes, one based on the synchronverter technology and the itself a challenge.
other based on the robust droop control technology, are pro-
When a large number of DER are integrated into a power
posed to implement the architecture. Real-time simulation
results are presented to illustrate the operation of such a system, the number of players on the supply side will increase
system. considerably. Moreover, a lot of players on the demand side are
expected to actively take part in the system regulation as well.
Index TermsControl, cyber synchronous machines
(CSM), distributed energy resources (DER), grid archi- Hence, the total number of active players in a power system
tecture, phase-locked loops (PLL), power electronics, could easily reach millions, hundreds of millions or even bil-
power systems, renewable energy, robust droop control, lions. How to integrate all these players so that they are able to
self-synchronization, smart grid, synchronverter, universal work together to maintain the system stability is a great chal-
droop control, virtual synchronous machines (VSM). lenge [5]. The intergrid proposed in [6] adopts the hierarchical
nanogridmicrogrid ... grid structure to achieve dynamic
I. INTRODUCTION decoupling of generation, distribution, and consumption by us-
ing bidirectional power electronic converters as energy control
N CURRENT power systems, the generation of electricity
I is dominated by centralized large facilities. For example,
the lions share of electricity in China is provided by just 1500
centers. The integrated grid [7] is proposed to integrate DER in
the planning and operation of the grid and to expand its scope
to include DER operation. An integrated smart grid system is
or so generators rated at 200 MW and above. It is relatively proposed in [8] to advocate a synergy of computing and phys-
easy to regulate a limited number of generators in a power sys- ical resources and envision a trustworthy middle-ware provid-
tem to achieve system stability and meet the balance between ing services to grid applications through message passing and
generation and demand. Due to civilization and economic de- transactions. The FREEDM system envisions to operate power
velopment, the demand for electricity is constantly growing, systems as Energy Internet or Internet of Energy [9]. The
leading directly to supply issues and environmental crisis. The constant seeking for an underlying principle is ongoing.
What is equally important is the integration and interaction
Manuscript received September 16, 2016; revised December 4, 2016 of loads. At the moment, most loads do not actively contribute
and January 5, 2017; accepted January 30, 2017. Date of publication to the regulation of system stability. In recent years, demand
March 2, 2017; date of current version June 9, 2017.
The author is with the Department of Electrical and Computer Engi- response has become an active research area to empower some
neering, Illinois Institute of Technology, Chicago, IL 60616 USA (e-mail: loads to take part in the regulation [10]. However, these are
zhongqc@ieee.org). done on the on/off basis. It would be much better if the majority
Color versions of one or more of the figures in this paper are available
online at http://ieeexplore.ieee.org. of loads are able to take part in the system regulation in a
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TIE.2017.2677339 continuous way, like generators.
0278-0046 2017 IEEE. Personal use is permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission.
See http://www.ieee.org/publications standards/publications/rights/index.html for more information.
5908 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS, VOL. 64, NO. 7, JULY 2017
On the supply side, more and more DER are being connected where p is the number of pairs of poles of the magnetic field;
to the grid through power electronic inverters. For example, i is the stator current; if is the field excitation current; Mf is
most wind turbines generate electricity at variable frequencies the maximum mutual inductance between the stator windings
and require power electronic converters to control the generation and the field winding; and , denotes the conventional in-
and interaction with the grid. Solar panels generate dc electric- ner product. The vectors s , are defined,
in , together with cos
ity, which needs to be converted into ac electricity to make it respectively, as
compatible with the grid as well. Similarly, electric vehicles and
storage systems require power electronic converters to integrate cos sin
with the grid. = cos( 2
cos
3 ) , s
2
in = sin( 3 ) .
4
In transmission and distribution networks, in order to reduce cos( 3 ) sin( 4 3 )
losses and improve controllability, more and more power elec-
The three-phase generated voltage e and the reactive power Q,
tronic converters, e.g., high-voltage direct current (HVDC) links
respectively, are given as
[17] and flexible ac transmission systems (FACTS) devices [18],
are being added to electronically, rather than mechanically, con- e = Mf if s
in , (3)
trol future power systems [19].
Putting all the above together, future power systems will be .
Q = Mf if i, cos (4)
power electronics based, instead of electric machines based,
Assume that the terminal voltage is v. Then, the stator current
with a huge number of relatively small and nonsynchronous
is given as follows:
players at the supply side, inside the network and at the demand
side. The fundamental challenge is how to organically grow and ev
i= (5)
operate these systems without jeopardizing the system stability, sL + R
i.e., how to make millions or even billions of different players where sL + R is the impedance of the stator windings. Note that
work together. Because of the huge number of players involved, i, e, and v in (5) are the Laplace transform of the corresponding
it will no longer be viable for low-level controls to rely on signals. The mathematical model of an SM described in (1)(5)
communication network. It will no longer be viable to manage actually performs the function of an enhanced phase-locked loop
these systems through human interaction, either. It is crucial to (PLL) called the sinusoid-locked loop [1], [21], which includes
find a mechanism to enable the organic growth and autonomous a frequency channel to synchronize the frequency and the phase
stable operation of future power systems. and a voltage channel to synchronize the amplitude with the
terminal voltage. In other words, SM have the inherent mech-
III. FUTURE OF POWER SYSTEMS anism of synchronization, which allows them to synchronize
A. Synchronization Mechanism of SMWhat Underpins with each other or the grid autonomously. The synchronization
the Growth and Operation of Power Systems mechanism of SM is the mechanism that has underpinned the
growth and operation of power systems for over 100 years.
A vital problem that needs to be answered when the power
system is going through the transition from electric machines
B. Architecture for Future Autonomous Power Systems
based to power electronics based is whether it is possible to
continue adopting the major principles that have already been The main contribution of this paper is to point out that the
established in current power systems. If yes, this is going to synchronization mechanism of SM can continue to be adopted to
significantly reduce the cost and effort involved in this transition. underpin future power systems and to propose the correspond-
Looking at the current power systems, it is easy to find out ing architecture for future power systems shown in Fig. 3. In
that the electricity generation is dominated by synchronous gen- such a power system, all conventional power plants, including
erators in coal-fired power plants, nuclear power plants, hydro coal-fired, hydro, and nuclear power plants are connected to
power plants, etc. There must be a reason why the industry has the transmission and distribution network through SM, as nor-
decided to adopt SM while there are different types of electric mally done without any major change. For all DER that need
machines. This can be understood from the mathematical model power electronic inverters to interface with the grid, the invert-
of synchronous generators. ers can be controlled to behave like VSM, more specifically,
A synchronous generator is governed by the well-known virtual synchronous generators, by embedding the mathemati-
swing equation: cal model of conventional synchronous generators as the core
of the controllers for these inverters. Hence, these inverters can
1
= (Tm Te Dp ) (1) have the same dynamic behavior, in particular, the synchroniza-
J tion mechanism, of conventional SM. As for loads, since the
where is the rotor angle; is the angular speed of the machine; majority of them will have rectifiers at the front end to interface
Tm is the mechanical torque applied to the rotor; J is the moment with the grid, these rectifiers can also be controlled to behave
of inertia of all the parts rotating with the rotor; Dp is the friction like VSM, more specifically, virtual synchronous motors. For
coefficient; and Te is the electromagnetic torque HVDC links, the power electronic converters at both ends can
be controlled as VSM, one as a virtual synchronous generator
Te = pMf if i, s
in (2) and the other as a virtual synchronous motor, as well.
5910 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS, VOL. 64, NO. 7, JULY 2017
Fig. 3. Proposed architecture for future power-electronics-enabled autonomous power systems, which actually offers a technical solution to realize
the lateral power that underpins the Third Industrial Revolution as envisioned in [20].
In a power system shown in Fig. 3, all power-electronics- new power balance. The increase or decrease of load power can
based players, at the supply side, at the demand side, and inside be of short term or long term, depending on the types and func-
the network, are empowered to actively take part in the regu- tions of loads. Similarly, the variability of DER can be taken
lation of system stability in the same way as SM. Because the care of by the system players. It is worthy emphasizing that all
synchronization mechanism of SM is inherently embedded in- the SM and VSM have the inherent mechanism of synchroniza-
side all the active players, they autonomously interact with each tion so there is no need to rely on additional communication
other via exchanging power through the electricity network. This network to achieve this low-level control. In other words, the
paves the way for the autonomous operation of power systems, communication network can be released from low-level con-
which means minimal human intervention is needed to maintain trol to focus on high-level functions of power systems, e.g.,
the system operation within the designed operational boundaries supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) and market
of the frequency and the voltage. For example, when a coal-fired operations [22]. This also helps enhance the cybersecurity of the
power plant is tripped off, the system frequency drops. Because system because no access to low-level control is provided for
of this, all SM/VSM that take part in the autonomous regula- malicious attackers. This architecture will also facilitate con-
tion of system stability on the supply side would quickly and tinuous demand response and turn all players into active and
autonomously respond to the frequency drop and increase the responsible players to maintain system stability, which avoids
power output. At the same time, all VSM that take part in the some customers to suffer load shedding and improves quality of
autonomous regulation of system stability on the demand side service. Because the key principle that has underpinned power
would autonomously decrease power consumption. As a result, systems for over 100 years is adopted, the transition of todays
the frequency drop is reduced, which helps reduce the num- grid into tomorrows is expected to be evolutionary rather than
ber of loads to be tripped off. If a new power balance cannot revolutionary.
be reached after all generators reach the maximum capacity This architecture is scalable and can be applied to power
then some VSM that serve noncritical loads further reduce the systems at different scales, from single-node systems to million-
power consumption. Similarly, if a heavy load is turned off, all node systems, from vehicles, aircraft to public grids. When there
SM/VSM that take part in the autonomous regulation of system is a need, small systems can be connected together. If a part of
stability on the supply side would quickly and autonomously the system is faulty, then it can be disconnected; after the fault
reduce the power output and all VSM that can take part in the is cleared, it can be reconnected to the grid.
autonomous regulation of system stability on the demand side Unlike the normal hierarchical architecture, e.g., the ones
would autonomously increase power consumption to help reach proposed in [6], [9], and [23], this architecture is technically
ZHONG: POWER-ELECTRONICS-ENABLED AUTONOMOUS POWER SYSTEMS: ARCHITECTURE AND TECHNICAL ROUTES 5911
1
grid voltage vg is put through a low-pass filter L s+R , which
functions like a virtual stator winding, to generate a virtual
current is . After setting Pset and Qset to zero, turning SQ OFF to
disable the voltage droop control, and replacing the grid current
ig with the virtual current is , the voltage e can be established
to be the same as the grid voltage vg before the synchronverter
is connected to the grid, with the help of the PI controller to
regulate T to zero. This is equivalent to floating a synchronous
generator on the grid without exchanging any real power or
reactive power.
Fig. 10. Conventional droop control principles [1]: (a) for resis-
tive impedance; (b) for inductive impedance; and (c) for capacitive
impedance.
EVo V2 EVo
different types of output impedance, the conventional droop P = cos o cos + sin sin , (6)
Zo Zo Zo
controllers have different forms [1]. The robust droop controller
[50], initially proposed for R-inverters to achieve accurate power EVo V2 EVo
Q= cos o sin sin cos (7)
sharing and tight voltage regulation, has recently been proven Zo Zo Zo
to be applicable to inverters with output impedance having an
impedance angle between 2 and 2 rad [53], and hence, it where is the phase difference between the voltage source
is universal. Furthermore, it can be equipped with the self- and the terminal. It is often called the power angle and has a
synchronization mechanism mentioned above so that no ad- small value in order to maintain system stability. Based on these,
ditional PLL is needed [54]. In this section, it will be shown droop control strategies can be developed to regulate the voltage
at first that droop controllers are structurally the same as PLL source [1]. For different types of impedances, the conventional
and hence droop controllers have the inherent synchronization droop control principles are different, as shown in Fig. 10 for
mechanism of SM. Then, a technical route based on the robust inductive, resistive, and capacitive impedances.
droop control will be illustrated. For inverters with resistive impedance (R-inverters), the droop
relationship is P E and Q , where means in pro-
portion to, and the conventional droop controller is
A. Inherent Synchronization Capability of Droop Ei = E ni Pi
ControlStructural Resemblance Between PLLs and
Droop Controllers i = + mi Qi .
An inverter can be modeled as the series connection of an As demonstrated in [47] and [48], the equivalent structure of
ideal voltage source vr and an output impedance Zo . Fig. 9 this droop control can be found as shown in Fig. 11(a), which
illustrates such an inverter delivering power to a voltage source is structurally the same as the enhanced PLL (EPLL) or the
5914 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS, VOL. 64, NO. 7, JULY 2017
200
Fig. 16. Test system with three inverters connected to a weak grid.
take part in the regulation of the grid. The PCC frequency quency and voltage. This actually offers a technical solution
and voltage were regulated by the grid. to realize the lateral power envisioned in [20]. Two technical
5) Operation in the droop mode with nonzero Pset and routes, one based on the synchronverter technology and the
Qset . At t = 10 s, the droop modes were enabled, which other based on the robust droop control technology, have been
forced the R-inverter, L-inverter, and C-inverter to take presented to implement the proposed grid architecture. Real-
more load (proportionally) because the PCC voltage was time simulation results have illustrated the operation of such
below the rated value and the frequency was above the a system. Live discussions and future updates are available at
rated value. As a result, the real power and reactive power https://www.linkedin.com/groups/7061909.
provided by the grid decreased, which autonomously
brought both the grid voltage and grid frequency closer ACKNOWLEDGMENT
to the rated values, respectively. Note that the PCC fre-
quency and voltage were still mainly regulated by the The author would like to thank Dr. F. Lee for the stimulating
grid because of the nonzero power set-points. discussions, and Dr. W.-L. Ming and Dr. Y. Zeng for their help
6) Operation in the droop mode with zero Pset and Qset . At on the real-time simulations.
t = 13 s, the Pset and Qset were changed to 0. The invert-
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[36] Q.-C. Zhong, P.-L. Nguyen, Z. Ma, and W. Sheng, Self-synchronised ceived the Ph.D. degree in control and power
synchronverters: Inverters without a dedicated synchronisation unit, IEEE engineering from Imperial College London, Lon-
Trans. Power Electron., vol. 29, no. 2, pp. 617630, Feb. 2014. don, U.K., in 2004 (awarded the Best Doctoral
[37] M. Karimi-Ghartemani, Universal integrated synchronization and control Thesis Prize), and the Ph.D. degree in con-
for single-phase DC/AC converters, IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 30, trol theory and engineering from Shanghai Jiao
no. 3, pp. 15441557, Mar. 2015. Tong University, Shanghai, China, in 2000.
[38] S. M. Ashabani and Y. A. I. Mohamed, A flexible control strategy for grid- He is the Max McGraw Endowed Chair in en-
connected and islanded microgrids with enhanced stability using nonlinear ergy and power engineering at the Department
microgrid stabilizer, IEEE Trans. Smart Grid, vol. 3, no. 3, pp. 1291 of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Illinois
1301, Sep. 2012. Institute of Technology, Chicago, IL, USA.
[39] R. Aouini, B. Marinescu, K. B. Kilani, and M. Elleuch, Synchronverter- Prof. Zhong is a Distinguished Lecturer of the IEEE Power and Energy
based emulation and control of HVDC transmission, IEEE Trans. Power Society, IEEE Power Electronics Society, and IEEE Control Systems So-
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[40] S. Dong, Y. Chi, and Y. Li, Active voltage feedback control for hybrid (IET), U.K., and the Vice-Chair of the IFAC Technical Committee on
multiterminal HVDC system adopting improved synchronverters, IEEE Power and Energy Systems, and was a Senior Research Fellow of the
Trans. Power Del., vol. 31, no. 2, pp. 445455, Apr. 2016. Royal Academy of Engineering, U.K. (20092010), and the U.K. Repre-
[41] P.-L. Nguyen, Q.-C. Zhong, F. Blaabjerg, and J. Guerrero, sentative to the European Control Association (20132015). He serves
Synchronverter-based operation of STATCOM to mimic synchronous as an Associate Editor of the IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON AUTOMATIC CON-
condensers, in Proc. 7th IEEE Conf. Ind. Electron. Appl., Singapore, Jul. TROL, IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS, IEEE TRANSAC-
2012, pp. 942947. TIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS, IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON CONTROL SYS-
[42] W.-L. Ming and Q.-C. Zhong, Synchronverter-based transformerless PV TEMS TECHNOLOGY, IEEE ACCESS, and IEEE JOURNAL OF EMERGING AND
inverters, in Proc. 40th Annu. Conf. IEEE Ind. Electron. Soc., Oct. 2014, SELECTED TOPICS IN POWER ELECTRONICS.
pp. 43964401.