Unit: Electricity: Chapter: Electrostatics

Unit: Electricity
Chapter: Electrostatics
ELECTRIC CHARGE
Charge is the property associated with matter due to which is produces and experiences electrical
and magnetic effects. The study of electrical effects of charge at rest is called electrostatics.
The strength of particles electric interaction with objects around it depends on its electric charge,
which can be either positive or negative. An object with equal amounts of two kinds of charge is
electrically neutral, whereas one with an imbalance is electrically charged.
In the table given below, if a body in the first column is rubbed against a body in the second
column, the body in first column will acquire positive charge, while that in the second column
will acquire negative charge.
TABLE I
Sl. No First Column Second Column
1. Glass Rod Silk Rod
2. Flannes or cat skin Ebonite rod
3. Woollen cloth Amber
4. Woollen cloth Rubber shoes
5. Woollen cloth Plastics objects
Electric Charge: Electric charge can be written as ne where n is a positive or negative integer
and e is a constant of nature called the elementary charge (approximately 1.60 x 10 -19C). Electric
charge is conserved; the (algebraic) net charge of any isolated system cannot be changed.
Regarding charge following points are worth nothing:
(a) Like charges repel each other and unlike charges attract each other.
(b) Charge is a scalar and can be of two types; positive or negative.
(c) Charge is quantized, i.e., the charge on anybody will be some integral multiple of e, i.e.,
Q - ne. where n- 1, 2, 3
Charge on anybody can never be (1/3e), 1.5e etc.
(d) The electrostatic unit of charge is stat-coulomb and electromagnetic unit is ab-coulomb in
CGS system. But in SI system the unit of charge is coulomb, I coulomb =1/10ab-coulomb =
3x109 stat-coulomb.
NOTE: Recently, it has been discovered that elementary particles such as proton or neutron are
composed of quarks having charge (1/3)e and (2/3)e. However, as quarks do not exist in Free
iProf Learning Solutions (India) Private Limited 1

ELECTROSTATICS
State, the quantum of charge is still e.

Example-1: How many electrons are there in one coulomb of negative charge?
Sol: The negative charge is due to presence of excess electrons, since they carry negative charge.
Because an electron has a charge whose magnitude is e = 1.6x10-19 C, the number of
electrons
N=q/e=1.0/1.6x10-19
N=6.25x1018
(5) Unit and dimensional formula

S.I. unit of charge is Ampere x sec = coulomb (C), smaller S.I. units are mC, C.
C.G.S. unit of charge is Stat coulomb or e.s.u. Electromagnetic unit of charge is ab coulomb
1C=3x109 stat coulomb = 1/10 ab coulomb.
Dimensional formula [Q]=[AT]
(6) Charge is
Transferable: It can be transferred from one body to another
Associated with mass: Charge cannot exist without mass but
reverse is not true.
Conserved: It can neither be created nor be destroyed.
Invariant: Independent of velocity of charged particle.
(7) Electric charge produced electric field (E), magnetic field (B) and electromagnetic radiations.

+ v = 0 + v = constant + v constant

E only E and B E, B and radiates energy
Fig 18.3
(8) Point charge: A finite size body may behave like a point charge if it produces an inverse
square electric field. For example an isolated charged sphere behave like a point charge at
very large distance as well as very small distance close to its surface.
(9) Charge on a conductor: Charge given to a conductor always resides on its outer surface.
This is way a solid and hollow conducting sphere of same outer radius will hold maximum
equal charge. If surface is uniform the charge distributes uniformly on the surface and for
irregular surface the distribution of charge, i.e., Charge density is not uniform. It is maximum
where the radius of curvature is minimum and vice versa. i.e., (1/R). This is why charge
leaks from sharp points.

ELECTROSTATICS
(A) (B)
(10) Charge Distribution: It may be of two types

(i) Discrete distribution of charge: A System consisting of ultimate individual charges
Q2 Q4
Q1 Q3 Q5
Fig. 18.5
(ii) Continuous distribution of charge: An amount of charge distribute uniformly or non-

uniformly on a body. It is of following three types
(a) Line charge distribution: Charge on a line e.g. charged straight wire, circular charged
ring etc.
= Charge = Linear charge density
Length
S.I. unit is C/M
Dimension is [L-1TA]
Fig. 18.6
(b) Surface charge distribution: Charge distributed on surface e.g. plane sheet of charge,
conducting sphere, conducting cylinder of
= Charge = Surface charge density
Area

ELECTROSTATICS
S.I. Unit is C/m2
Fig 25.7
(c) Volume charge density: Charge distributes throughout the volume of the body e.g. charge
on a dielectric sphere
= charge= Volume charge density
Volume
S.I. Unit is C/m3
Method of Charging:
A body can be charged by following methods.
(1) By Friction: By rubbing two bodies together, both positive and negative charges in equal
amounts appear simultaneously due to transfer of electrons from one body to the other.
(i) When a glass rod is rubbed with silk, the rod becomes positively charged while the silk
becomes negatively charged. The decrease in the mass of glass rod is equal to the total
mass of electrons lost by it.
(ii) Ebonite on rubbing with wool becomes negatively charged making the wool positively
charged.
(iii) Clouds also get charged by friction.
(iv) A comb moving through dry hair gets electrically charged. It starts attracting small bits
of paper.

ELECTROSTATICS
Fig 18.9
(2) By electrostatic induction: If a charged body is brought near an uncharged body, one side of
neutral body (closer to charged body) becomes oppositely charged while the other side
becomes similarly charged.
Fig 18.10
Induced charge can be lesser or equal to inducing charge (but never greater) and its maximum
value is given by Q=-Q[1-1/K]
Where Q is the inducing charge and K is the dielectric constant of the material of the uncharged
body. It is also known as specific inductive capacity (SIC) of the medium, or relative permittivity
Er of the medium (relative means with respect to free space)

ELECTROSTATICS
Table 18.2: Different dielectric constants

Medium K Medium K
Vaccum 1 Mica 6
Air 1.0003 Silicon 12
Paraffin vax 2.1 Germanium 16
Rubber 3 Glycerin 50
Transformer oil 4.5 Water 80
Glass 5-10 Metal
(3) Charging by conduction: Take two conductors, one charged and other uncharged. Bring the
conductors in contact with each other. The charge (whether ve or +ve) under its own
repulsion will spread over both the conductors. Thus the conductors will be charged with the
same sign. This is called as charging by conduction (through contact).
1 Coulomb = 3 X 109esu of charge = 1/10 emu of charge
(1 Faraday = 96500 coulomb, 1 Amp Hr = 3600 coulombs)
The esu of charge is also called Static coloumb (stat. coul.) or frankline (Fr).
=emu of charge = 3X 1010 = C
esu of charge
Frankline (i.e. esu of charge) is the smallest unit of charge, while faraday is largest.
[Remember Faraday is unit of capacity]
Properties of charge
1. Like charges repel and opposite charges attract.
Ex. A (+)ve charge sphere will attract
Sol. (i) (-) ve charged
(ii) Neutral
2. Charge is a scalar and can be of two types only positive and negative. This is because it
adds algebraically and represents excess or deficiency of electrons.
3. Charge is transferable If a charged body is put in contact with an uncharged body,
uncharged body becomes charged due to transfer of electrons from one body to the other. If
the charged body is positive and it will withdraw some electrons from uncharged body and if
negative will transfer some of its excess electrons to the uncharged body.
The process of charge transfer is called Conduction and in conduction
1. The charged body loses some of its charge (which is equal to the charge gained by uncharged
body).
2. The charges on both the books are similar if initially one is charged and other uncharged.

ELECTROSTATICS
3. The charge gained by uncharged body is always lesser than initial charge present on charged
body, i.e. whole of the charge cannot be transferred by conduction from one body to the
other. Actually, the flow of charge stops when both acquire same potential.
Exception:-
Ex: Can ever the whole charge of a body be transferred to the other? If yes how and if not why?
Ans: Yes, if the charged body is enclosed by a conducting body and connected to it, the whole
charge will be transferred to the conducting body, as charge resides on the outer surface of a
conductor.
4. Charge is invariant This means that charge like phase is independent of frame of reference,
i.e. charge on a body does not charge whatever be its speed. While charge density or mass of
a body depends on its speed and increases with increase in speed.
5. Charge is always associated with Mass I.e. charge cannot exist without mass though mass can
exist without charge, so:
a. The particles such as photon or neutrino which have no (rest) mass can never have a
charge (as charge cannot exist without mass).
b. As charge cannot exist without mass, the presence of charge is a convincing proof of
existence of mass.
c. In charging, the mass of a body charges.
6. Charge is conserved In isolated system, total charge does not charge with time, though
individual charges may charge i.e. charge can neither be created nor destroyed. It therefore,
follows that simultaneously equal quantities of positive and negative charge can appear or
disappear. This is what actually happens in pair production and anniweatron.
Conservation of charge is also found to hold good in all types of reactions either chemical,
nuclear or decay.
In pair production and anniweatron neither mass nor energy is conserved separately but
(mass + energy) is conserved.
In pair production, presence of nucleus is a must to conserve momentum. In absence of
nucleus, both energy and momentum will not be conserved simultaneously and the
process cannot take place.
7. Accelerated charge radiates energy: Electromagnetic theory has established that a charged
particle at rest produces only electric field in the space surrounding it. However, if the
charged particle is in unaccelerated motion it produces both electric and magnetic fields but
does not radiate energy. And if the motion of charged particle is accelerated it not only
produces electric and magnetic fields but also radiates energy in the space surrounding the
charge in the form of electromagnetic waves.
V V = Constant
E E& B

ELECTROSTATICS
But no radiation
V Constant
E, B and radiates energy
8. Similar charges repel each other while dissimilar attract.

The True test of electrification is repulsion and not attraction as attraction may also take
place between a charged and an uncharged body and also between two similarly charged
bodies.
Quest: Can two similarly charged bodies ever attract each other?
Ans: Yes, when the charge on one body (Q) is much greater than that on the other (q) and they are
close enough to each other so that force of attraction between (Q) and induced charge on the
other exceeds the force of repulsion between (Q) and (q).
If the charges are point, no induction will take place and hence, two similar point
charges can never attract each other.
9. Charge resides on the outer surface of a conductor because like charge repel and try to get as
far as possible from one another and stay at the farthest distance from each other which is
outer surface of the conductor. This is why a solid and a hollow conductor sphere of same
outer radius soap bubble expand on charging.
10. In case of conducting body no doubt charge resides on its outer surface, the distribution of
charge, i.e. charge density is not uniform. It is maximum where the radius of curvature is
minimum and vice-versa, i.e. (1/R). This is why charge leaks from sharp points.
Proof:
a. As conductor is an equipotential surface, i.e. Vs = constant and incase of spherical
conductor
os = 1 q
4r f 0 R
with q = 4r R v
2
1 4r R2 v
So, o s = r f 0 = Constant
4 R
1
i.e. v R = Constant or v a
R
b. Lighting rods are made up of conductors with one of their ends earthed while the other
sharp and protects building room lighting either by neutralizing or conducting charge of
the cloud to the ground.
11. A body can be charged by friction, induction or conduction.

ELECTROSTATICS
In friction when two bodies are rubbed together, electrons are transferred from one body to
the other. As a result of this one body becomes positively charged while the other negatively
charged. E.g. when a glass rod is rubbed with silk, the rod becomes positively charged while
the silk negatively. However, ebonite on rubbing with wool becomes negatively charged
making the wool positively charged. Clouds also become charged by friction. In charging by
friction in accordance with conservation of charge, both positive and negative charges in
equal amounts appear simultaneously due to transfer of electrons from one body to the other.
In case of induction it is worth noting that
1. Inducing body neither gains nor loses charge.
2. The nature of induced charge is always opposite to that of inducing charge is always
opposite to that of inducing charge.
3. Induced charge can be lesser or equal to inducing charge (but never greater) and its
maximum value is given by
q = -q(1 1/K)
Where q is the inducing charge and K is the dielectric constant of the material of the
uncharged body.
4. For metals in electrostatics, k = 3 , So, q = -q
i.e. in metals induced charge is equal and opposite to inducing charge.
5. Induction takes place only in bodies (either conducting or non-conducting) and not in
particles.
12. If a charged body is brought near a neutral body, the charged body will attract opposite
charge and repel similar charge present in the neutral body. As a result of this one side of the
neutral body becomes positive while the other negative this process is called Electrostatic
Induction.
13. Charge can be detected and measured with the help of gold leaf electroscope, electrometer,
voltammeter or ballistic galvanometer. In case of gold leaf electroscope
a. If a charged body is brought near uncharged electroscope, charge on the disc of
electroscope will be opposite to that of body while leaves similar to that of body and
leaves while diverse.
b. If an uncharged electroscope is touched by a charged body, disc and leaves both acquire
charge similar to that of body and leaves will diverse.
c. If electroscope is charged by induction, disc and leaves both will acquire charge opposite
to that of inducting body and leaves will diverse. In fig electroscope is charged by
induction using a positive charged body.
d. If a charged body is brought near a charged electroscope, the leaves will further diverse
if the charge on the body is similar to that on the electroscope and will usually converge
if opposite. This is how we determine the nature of charge.
If the induction effect is strong enough leaves offer converging may again diverse.
Ex: What is the difference between charging by induction and charging by conduction?
1. In induction the two bodies are close to each other, while in conduction touch each other.

ELECTROSTATICS
2. In induction charge on inducing body remains uncharged while in conduction charge on

charging body charges.
3. In induction induced charge is always opposite in nature to the inducing charge while in
conduction the charge on the two bodies is always of same nature.
4. In induction induced charge can be equal in magnitude to inducing charge but in conduction
charge transferred is usually lesser than initial charge present.
COULOMBs LAW
Coulomb found that force between two point charges at rest
1. Varies directly as the magnitude of each charge, i.e. F q1 X q2
2. Varies inversely as the square of distance between them, i.e. F 1/r2
3. Depends on the nature of medium between the charges.
4. Is always along the line joining the charges.
5. Is attractive if charges are unlike and repulsive if like.
F q1 X q2
1/r2
1 q1 q2
Fair =
4r f
2
0 r
1 q1 q2
Fmed =
4r f 0 K r
2
2
1 = 9 Km
r f 9X10 2 (SI Unit)

4 0 c
K = Constant = Characterizes the medium between the charges and is called dielectric
constant, specific inductive capacity (S.I.C) or relative permittivity and for vaccum, free
space or air its value is taken to be 1.
q1 q2 |
F12 = 3 r12
4r f 0 Kr
= 1 q1 q2
3 r 12
4r f r
f = f 0K
f
K = f 0 = f r (relative permittivity or
dielectric constant)
F12 ! 1 r
q K q2
F12 = Force on q1 due to q2.
S
r12 = Unit vector directed to q1 from q2

ELECTROSTATICS
- 12
f 0 = 8.85 X 10 F/m
The equilibrium of a charged particle under the action of Colombian forces along can never
be stable. This statement is known as Earnshaws Theorem.
Ex: A copper atom consists of copper nucleus surrounded by 29 electrons. The atomic weight of
copper is 63.5g/mol. Let us now take two pieces of copper each weighing 10g. Let us transfer one
electron from one piece to another for every 1000 atoms in a piece. What will be the Coulomb
force between the two pieces after the transfer of electrons if they are 2.10cm apart?
23
Sol. No of atoms in 10gm of copper = 6X 10 X 10 = 9.45 X 10 22
63.5
Total electron transferred =1 22 19
X 9.45 X 10 = 9.45 X 10
1000
q = ne = 9.45 X 10 X 1.6 X 10-19 = 15.12c
19
Treating each piece of copper as point charge, electric force between them from coulombs
law when they are 10 cm apart
9 2
9 X 10 X (15.2) 14
F= - 2 2 = 2.08 X 10 3
(10 X 10 )
Ex. (a) Two similar point charges q1 and q2 are placed at a distance r apart in air. If a dielectric
slab of thickness t and dielectric const. K is put between the charges, calculate the coulomb force
of repulsion.
(b) If the thickness of the slab covers half the distance between the charges, the coulombs
force repulsive is reduced 4 : 9. Calculate the in the ratio dielectric constant of the slab.
1 q1q 2 1 q1q 2
Sol. (a) 2

40 r ' 40 Kr 2
r' r K
If there is a slab of thickness t and dielectric constant K, the effective air separation between
the charges will be:
1 q1q 2
F=
40 r t t K 2

F 4
(b)
F0 9
q1q 2
2
r r
r K
4 1 2 2
=
9 40 1 q q
1 2
40 r 2
K=4

ELECTROSTATICS
PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION OF COULOMB'S LAW:

The resultant force on a test charge is a vector sum of forces due to individual charges.

Fres F1 F2 F3 F4

Equilibrium of Charge Particle:
If the net force acting on the charge particle is zero that we say that, the charge particle is in
equilibrium.
Equilibrium of a charge
Case (Q1, Q2)
When Q1 and Q2 both are of similar nature
Let |Q1| < |Q2|
For q to be in equilibrium,
Fq = 0,
KqQ1 KQ 2 q

x 2
r x 2
Q1 Q2

x rx
Q1
x r
Q1 Q2
nearer to charge of smaller magnitude
Case 2:
Q1 and Q2
When, Q1 and Q2 are of opposite nature.
KQ1q
F1 =
x2
KQ 2 q
F2 =
r x 2
KQ1q KQ 2 q

x 2
r x 2
Q1 x2

Q 2 r x 2
Q1 x

Q2 rx

ELECTROSTATICS
x Q 2 r Q1 x Q1
x r Q1
r Q1
x=
Q1 Q 2
From charge of smaller magnitude
Ex. Two point charges +q and +4q are placed at a distance and apart. Find the magnitude, sign
and location of a third charge which makes the system in equilibrium.
Force on charge q due to 4q (repulsive) (in the direction of BA).
In order to make A in equilibrium, a negative charge (let q1) be placed between A and B at a
distance x from A.
For the equilibrium of A

1 q 4q 1 q q1
2

40 l 40 x 2
q4x2 = l2 q1
Considering the equilibrium of C,
1 q1 4q 1 q q1

4 0 l x 2
4 0 x 2
4x2 = (l x)2
2x = + (l x)
l
x=
3
2
l
4q
3 4q
q1 2
l 9
Ex. A pith ball of mass 9 105 kg carries a charge of 5 c. What must be the magnitude and
sign of the charge on a pith ball B held 2 cm directly above the pith ball A, such that the pith ball
A remains stationary?
FAB = m1g
1 q1q 2
=
40 AB2
92 = 7.84 C.
Ex. Three identical spheres each having a charge q and radius R, are kept in such away that each
touches the other two. Find the magnitude of the electric force on any sphere due to other two.

ELECTROSTATICS
1 q 2
FAB = BA
4 0 2R 2
1 q 2
FAC CA
4 0 2R 2
FA 3 FAB
2
1 3 9
=
4 0 4 R
Ex. Two equally charged identical metal spheres A and B repel each other with a force 2 10 5
N. Another identical uncharged sphere C is touched to B and then placed at the midpoint between
A and B. What is the net electric force on C?
K q2
F=
r2
= 2 105 N
When sphere C touches B, the charge on B, q will distribute equally on B and C as spheres
are identical conductors.
For conductors in contact
V1 = V2
q1 q 2

r1 r2
r1 r2
q1 q 2
Also
q1 + q2 = q
q
q1 q 2
2
So sphere C will experience a force
q
Kq
FCA = 2 2F
2
r

2

Along AB due to charge on A.

ELECTROSTATICS
q q
K
2 2
FCB = 2 F
r

2

Along, BA due to charge on B.
So the net force on C due to charges on A and B
FC = FCA FCB
= 2F F = F

Along, AB
Ex. Three identical spheres each having a charge q and radius R, are kept in such a way that each
touches the other two. Find the magnitude of the electric force on any sphere due to other two.
Sol. As for external points a charged sphere behaves as if the whole of its charge where
concentrated at its centre.
Force on A due to B
1 qq
FAB =
40 2R 2
1 q2
=
42 4R 2

Along BA
Force on A due to C
1 qq
FAC =
40 2R 2
1 q2
=
40 4R 2

Along CA
FAB = FAC = F
FA = F2 F2 2FFcos 60
= 3F
2
1 3 q
FA =
4 0 4 R
Ex. Five point charges, each of value +q are placed on five vertices of a regular hexagon of side
LM. What is the magnitude of the force on a point charge of value q coulomb placed at the
centre of a hexagon?

ELECTROSTATICS
If there had been a sixth charge +q at the remaining vertex of hexagon force due to all the six
charges on q at O will be zero (as the forces due to individual charges will balance each other),
i.e.,

FR 0

Now if f is the force due to sixth charge and F due to remaining five charges,

FF 0

i.e., F f
or f = F
1 qq
=
40 L2
F=f
2
1 q
=
4 0 L
Ex. An -particle passes rapidly, through the exact centre of a hydrogen molecule moving on a
line perpendicular to the inter-nuclear axis. The distance between the nuclei is b. where on its path
does the -particle experience the maximum force and what is it?
Sol. FR = 2F cos

Along BA
1 2e2
F

40 x 2 a 2
x
cos = 1
x 2
a 2 2

b
with, a =
2
1 2e2 x
FR = 2
40 x 2 a 2 x 2
a2
1
2
e2 x
i.e., FR = 3
0 x 2
a
2 2
For FR to be max,
dFR
0
dx

ELECTROSTATICS
a
x=
2
b
= Ans.
2 2
8e 2
Fmax. =
3 3 0 b 2
Ex. A point charge q is situated at a distance d from one end of a thin non conducting rod of
length L having a charge Q (uniformly distributed along its length). Find the magnitude of electric
force between the two.
1 qdQ
dF =
40 x 2
Q
dQ = dx
L
1 qQ
dF = dx
40 Lx 2
dL
1 qQ dx
F=
4 0 L x2
d
dL
1 qQ 1
=
4 0 L x d
1 qQ 1 1
=
40 L d d L

1 qQ
F=
40 d d L
Ex. Two identical charged spheres are suspended by strings of equal length the strings make an
angle of 30 with each other. When suspended in a liquid of density 0.8 gm/cc, the angle remains
the same. What is the dielectric constant of the liquid? (Density of the material of sphere is 1.6
gm/cc).
T cos = mg .(1)
T sin = F (2)
F
tan = .(3)
mg
When the balls are suspended in a liquid of density and dielectric constant K, the electric
1
force will become times, i.e.,
K

ELECTROSTATICS
F
F' = while
K
weight mg' = mg th
= mg v g

mg' = mg 1

m
V=

F'
tan' =
mg '
F
=

Kmg 1

'
1.6
K= 2
1.6 0.8
Ex. (a) Two similar helium filled spherical balloons tied to a 5 gm weight with strings and each
carrying an electric charge q float in equilibrium as shown in fig. Find the magnitude of q in eqn
assuming that the charge on each balloon acts as it were concentrated at its centre.
(b) Find the volume of each balloon. Neglect the weight of the unfilled balloons and assume that
the density of air = 0.00129 gm/cc and density of helium inside the balloon = 0.0002 gm/cc).
Equilibrium of weight
2T cos = mg .(1)
Equilibrium of a balloon
F = T sin
Th mg = T cos
i.e. V g V g = T cos (3)
mg
F= tan
2
mg
And, Vg (4)
2
qq
F= in eqn. units
x2
mg
q= x2 tan
2

ELECTROSTATICS
m
and, V =
2
= 1665 eqn of charge
5
V=
2 0.00129 0.0002
5 105
=
218
= 2294 cc
TRANSLATORY EQUILIBRIUM
When several forces act on a body simultaneously in such a way that the resultant force on the
body is zero, i.e.,

F0

With F Fi
The body is said to be in translatory equilibrium.
1. As if a vector is zero all its components must vanish, i.e. in equilibrium as

F Fi 0
Fx 0,
Fy 0
and Fz 0
So in equilibrium forces along x-axis must balance each other and same is true for other
directions.
2. As for a body

F0

Means ma 0

dV
Or, 0
dt

V const or zero
i.e., if a body is in translatory equilibrium it will be either at rest or in uniform motion.
If it is at rest, the equilibrium is called static, otherwise dynamic.
dV
3. If the forces are conservative, then as for conservative force F and for equilibrium
dr
(F = 0)

ELECTROSTATICS
dV
So F = 0
dr
dV
i.e., 0
dr
i.e., in conservative fields at equilibrium potential energy is optimum, i.e., in equilibrium
potential energy is maximum or minimum or constant.
4. Dynamic equilibrium types:
Types of dynamic equilibrium
(a) Stable equilibrium:
If on slight displacement from equilibrium position a body has tendency to regain its original
position, it is said to be in stable equilibrium. In case of stable equilibrium potential energy is
d2V
minimum 2 ve and so centre of gravity is lowest.
dr
(b) Unstable equilibrium:
If on slight displacement from equilibrium position body moves in the direction of
displacement, the equilibrium is said to be unstable. In this situation potential energy of the
d2V
body is maximum 2 negative and so centre of gravity is highest.
dr
Examples
(c) Neutral equilibrium:
If on slight displacement from equilibrium position a body has no tendency to come back to
original position or to move in the direction of displacement, it is said to be in neutral
d2V
equilibrium. In this situation potential energy of the body is constant 2 0 and so
dr
centre of gravity remains at constant height.
5. In case of stable equilibrium lesser the potential energy or lower the centre of gravity, i.e.,
greater the base area more stable is the equilibrium.
F U
6. If we plot graphs between and , at equilibrium F will be zero while U will be optimum
r r
(max or min or constant). If
U = min
d2U
i.e.,
dr 2
= (+) ve, equilibrium is stable.
U = max
d2U
i.e.,
dr 2
ELECTROSTATICS
= negative, equilibrium is unstable.

and U = constant
d2U
i.e., = 0,
dr 2
Equilibrium is neutral.
ELECTRIC FIELD AND POTENTIAL

The space surrounding an electric charge q in which another charge q0 experiences a
(electrostatic) force of attraction, or repulsion, is called the electric field of the charge q.
* q Source charge
Point charge a group of point charges continuous distribution of chargesq0 test charge must be
vanishingly small so that it does not modify the electric field of the source charge.
Intensity (or strength) of Electric field

F
E
q0
The intensity of electric field at a point in an electric field is the ratio of the force acting on the
test-charge placed at that point to the magnitude of the test-charge.

If the intensity of electric field E at a point in an electric field be known, then we can determine

the force F acting on a charge q placed at that point by the following eqn.

F qE

E MLT 3 A 1
gl gl
gl
2 2
1
mv 2
2
v 2gl
v

l
2gl
=
l
2g
=
l

ELECTROSTATICS
2g
Answer.
l
Electric Lines of Force: Faraday gave a new approach for representation of electric field in the
form of electric lines of force. Electric lines of force are graphical representation of electric field.
An electric line of force is an imaginary line or curve drawn through a region of space so that its
tangent at any point is in the direction of the electric field vector at that point.
This model of electric field has the following characteristics:
(i) Electric lines of force are originated from positive charge and terminal into negative
charge.
(ii) The number of electric lines of force originates from a point charge q is q/0. Electric lines
of force may be fraction.
(iii) The number of lines per unit area that pass through a surface perpendicular to the electric
field lines is proportional to the strength of field in that region.
(iv) No electric lines of force cross each other. If two electric lines of force cross each other, it
means electric field has two directions at the point of cross. This is not physically possible.
(v) Electric lines of force for two equal positive point charges are said to have rotational
symmetry about the axis joining the charges.
(vi) Electric lines of force for point positive charge and a nearby negative point charge that are
equal in magnitude are said to have rotational symmetry about an axis passing through both
charges in the plane of the page.
(vii) Electric dipole Electric lines of force due to infinitely large sheet of positive charge is
normal to the sheet.
(viii) No electrostatic lines of force are present inside a conductor. Also electric lines of force are
perpendicular to the surface of conductor. For example if a conducting sphere is placed in a
region where uniform electric field is present, then induced charges are developed on the
sphere.
(ix) If a charged particle is released from rest in region where only uniform electric field is
present, then charged particle move along an electric line of force. But if charged particle
has initial velocity, then the charged particle may or may not follow the electric lines of
force.
(x) Electric lines of force inside the parallel plate capacitor is uniform. It shows that field
inside the parallel plate capacitor is uniform. But at the edge of plates, electric lines of force
are curved. It shows electric lines of force at the edge of plates is non-uniform. This is
known as fringing effect.
If the size of plates is infinitely large, then fringing effect can be neglected.
(xi) If a metallic plate is introduced between plates of a charged capacitor, then electric lines of
force can be discontinuous.
(xii) If a dielectric plate is introduced between plates of a charged capacitor, then number of
lines of forces in dielectric is lesser than that in case of vacuum space.

ELECTROSTATICS
(xiii) Electrostatics electric lines of force can never be closed loops, as a line can never start and
end on the same charge. Also if a line of force is a closed curve, work done round a closed
path will not be zero and electric field will not remain conservative.
(xiv) Lines of force have tendency to contract longitudinally like a stretched elastic string
producing attraction between opposite charges and repel each other laterally resulting in,
repulsion between similar charges and edge-effect (curving of lines of force near the edges
of a charged conductor).
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL AND ELECTRIC POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE:

Electric Potential:
"Electric potential at any point in a electric field is equal to the ratio of the work done in bringing
a test charge from infinity to that point, to the value of test charge."
Suppose, W be the work required in bringing a test charge q0 from infinity to a point b against the
repulsive force F acting on it, then potential at the point b is
Wb
Vb
q0
Since, W and q0 both are scalar quantities; the potential is also a scalar quantity.
Electric Potential Difference:
The potential difference between two points in an electric field is equal to the ratio of work done
in moving a test charge from one point to the other, to the value of test charge. Suppose W work
be done in bringing a small test charge q0from the point a to a point b against the repulsive force
acting on it, then potential difference between the points is
Wa b
Vb Va
q0
Obviously, potential difference is also a scalar quantity.
IMPORTANT FEATURES
1. Electric potential due to a point charge q:
From the definition of potential,
U
V
q0
1 qq 0
.
4 0 r
=
q0
1 q
Or, V = .
40 r
Here, r is the distance from the point charge q to be point at which the potential is evaluated.

ELECTROSTATICS
If q is positive, the potential that it produces is positive at all points; if q is negative, it

produces a potential that is negative everywhere. In either case, V is equal to zero at r = 3 .
2. Electric potential due to a system of charges:
Just as the electric field due to a collection of point charges is the vector sum of the fields
produced by each charge, the electric potential due to a collection of point charges is the
scalar sum of the potentials due to each charge.
1 qi
V
40 i ri
1 qi
3. In the equation V
40 i ri
, if the whole charge is at equal distance r0 from the point
where V is to be evaluated, then we can write,

1 q net
V= .
40 r0
Where qnet is the algebraic sum of all the charges of which the system is made.
Example-11: In a regular polygon of n sides, each corner is at a distance r from the centre.
Identical charges are placed at (n 1) corners. At the centre, the intensity is E and the potential is
V
V. The ratio has magnitude.
E
(A) rn (B) r(n 1)
n 1 r n 1
(C) (D)
r n
q
Sol. E =
4 0 r 2
n 1 q
and v
40 r
n 1 q
v 4 0 r

E q
4 0 r 2
= (n r)
TABLE: Electric Potential of Various Systems

ELECTROSTATICS
S.No. First Column Second Column

1. Isolated charge q
V
40 r
2. A ring of charge q q
E
40 R2 x2
3. A disc of charge 2
E R x 2 x
20
4. Infinite sheet of charge Not defined
5. Infinitely long line of charge Not defined
6. Finite line of charge sec tan

V ln
40 sec tan
7. Charged spherical shell (a) Inside 0 < r < R

q
V
40 R
(b) Outside r > R
q
V
40 r
8. Solid sphere of charge (a) Inside 0 < r < R
R 2 r2
E 3 2
6 0 R
(b) Outside r > R
q
V
40 r

ELECTROSTATICS
Calculations of electric field due to continuous charge distribution

(1) Linear charge distribution Infinite line of charge:
y = x tan
dy = x sec2 d
1 dq
dEP =
40 r 2
1 dx
=

4 0 x 2 y 2
1 x sec2 d
dEP =

40 x 2 tan 2 x 2
1
dEP = d
40 x
E = dE cos

= 40 x d cos

= sin /2/2
40 x

=
40 x sin 2 sin 2

E=
2 0 x

ELECTROSTATICS
Semi infinite wire

E1 =
40d

E11 =
40d
2
Enet =
4 0 d
E1 = E11

=
40d
2
Enet =
4 0 d
For finite wire

E1 = sin sin
40d

E11 = cos cos
40d

ELECTROSTATICS
Electric field for uniformly charged arc
dl = R d
d = l dl
= l R
1 dq
dE =
40 R 2
1 Rd
=
40 R 2

dE = d
40 R
E = dE cos
/2

=
40 R cos d
/2

E= sin
20 R 2
Here, is in radians.
ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL
Electrostatic potential is the scalar way of representing the region around any electric charge
configuration (as the electric field was the vector way of representation) which is useful in
calculating the work involved when a charge moves around other charges or field.
When a charge is moved slowly around another charge, some electrical work may be done and the
work done by the electric field is equal and opposite to the work done by external agent during the
same movement.
Physically you know that high potential means high capacity to do work. Closer you are to a
positive charge, higher is the potential experienced by you (means the positive charge will do

ELECTROSTATICS
large work in pushing a unit charge from that point to infinity). Closer you are to a negative
charge, lesser is the potential experienced by you.
SI unit for electric potential that follows from its definition is the "joule per coulomb". This
combination is given a special name, called "volt" in honour of the Italian scientist Alessandro
Volta (1745-1827).
1 volt = 1 V = 1 J/C = 1 joule/coulomb
Content Builder
(i) Test charge is an infinitesimal positive charge.
(ii) Potential is a scalar quantity.
(iii) Potential may be positive, negative or zero.
(iv) The potential at a point in the electric field due to an isolated positive charge will be positive
and that due to an isolated negative charge will be negative relative to zero potential at
infinity.
(v) Potential differences are fundamental since they do not depend on defining an arbitrary
reference point and assigning an arbitrary potential energy to it. But the potential at a point
depends on defining an arbitrary reference point and assigning an arbitrary potential energy
to it.
(vi) The potential difference Va Vb is called potential of a with respect to b. Sometimes it is
abbreviated as Vab i.e., Vab = Va Vb.
(vii) When a charge q moves from i to f in an electric field, the word done by the electric field on
the charge q is Wele = q(Vi Vf). For a positive charge, W > 0 if Vi> Vf. Hence a positive
charge moves from high potential to low potential if it is free to move. For a negative
charge, W > 0 if Vi< Vf. Hence a negative charge moves from low potential to high potential
if it is free to move.
(viii) The work done by the external force is Wext = q(Vf Vi), (note the order of subscripts), if
the charge q moves from i to f in a electric field very slowly.
Potential due to a Point Charge
It is the work done by an external agent in moving unit positive charge slowly from infinity to the
point where potential is to be calculated. Figure shows an isolated positive point charge of
magnitude q. We want to find potential V due to q at a point P, at a radial distance r from that
charge.

ELECTROSTATICS
This potential will be determined relative to zero potential at infinity.

Let us suppose that a test charge (positive) q0 moves from infinity to point P. Since the work done
by the electric field is independent of the path followed by the test charge, we take the simplest
path along the radial line from infinity to q passing through P.
Consider an arbitrary position P' at a distance r' from q. The electrostatic force on q at P' is
1 qq 0
F , directed radially away. For further differential displacement ds, the work done by
40 r '2
the force F is
dW = F.ds

Since the direction of ds is opposite to the direction of increasing r'.

Hence ds dr '
So, dW= Fdrc
1 qq 0
= dr '
40 r '2
r
1 dr '
Or, W =
4 0
qq 0 r '2

=W
r
1 1
= qq 0
4 0 r '
1 1 1 qq 0
= qq0 =
40 r 4 0 r
W q
V
q0 40 r
[Potential due to a point charge]
If the point charge is negative the electrostatic force points towards q, and hence W will be
positive, giving a negative potential V.
Thus the sign of V is same as the sign of q, when we assign zero potential at infinity.
Potential due to an Electric Dipole

Figure shows a dipole of dipole moment p = qd. We have to find the electric potential at the point
P, distant r from the centre O of the dipole. The line OP makes an angle with the dipole axis.
The potential at P due to the positive charge (+ q) is
1 q
V=
40 r1

ELECTROSTATICS
and that due to the negative charge (q) is

1 q
V2 =
40 r2
The net potential at P is

V = V1 + V2
1 q q q r2 r1
= = (i)
4 0 r1 r2 4 0 r1r2
For a small dipole, we have usually, r>> d, where "d" is the separation between the two
charges. Under these conditions, we may write, r2r1 d cos and r1 r2 r2using these
quantities in equation (i), we get
q d cos
V= .
40 r 2
Example: Infinite number of same charge q is placed at x =1, 2, 4, 8...... What is the potential at x
= 0?
1 q q q q
Sol. V = ....
40 1 2 4 8
q 1
=
40 1
1
2
2q q
= =
40 20
Example: If the alternative charges are unlike, then what will be the potential?
Sol. Then,
1 q q q q
V= .........
40 1 2 4 8

ELECTROSTATICS
1 q q q q
=
40 1 2 ..... 2 8 .....

1 1 1 1 1 2q
= 1 1 =
4 0 1 2 1 40 3
4 4
Potential difference:
The work done in taking a charge from one point to the other in an electric field is called the
potential difference between two points.
Thus, if w be work done in moving a charge q0 from B to A then the potential difference is given
by
W
VA VB =
q0
(i) Unit of potential difference is volt.
(ii) This is a scalar quantity.
(iii) Potential difference does not depend upon Co-ordinate system.
(iv) Potential difference does not depend upon the path followed. This is, because electric field is
a conservative force field and work done is conservative force field does not depend upon
path followed.
Relationship between electric potential and intensity of electric field
A
(i) VA = E .dr,

VA = electric potential at point A.

(ii) Potential difference between two points in an electric field is given by negative value of line
integral of electric field i.e.,
B
VB VA = E .dr
A

(iii) E V
= grad
= (gradient)

= i j k
x y z
V
Ex = ,
x

ELECTROSTATICS
V
Ey = ,
y
V
Ez =
z
dV
(iv) If v is a function of r only, then E =
dr
V
(v) For a uniform electric field, E = and its direction is along the decrease in the value of
r
V.
Example: Electric potential for a point (x, y, z) is given by V = 4x 2 volt. Electric field at point (1,
0, 2) is
dV
Sol. E =
dx
= 8x
E at (1, 0, 2)
= 8 V/m
Magnitude of E
= 8V/m direction along x axis.
100
Example: Electric field is given by E = potential difference between x = 10 and x = 20 m
x2
will be
dV
Sol. E =
dx
dV Edx
B B
dV E.dx
A A
20
100
VB VA
10
x2
= 5 volts
Potential difference = 5 volt.
1000 1500 500
Example: The potential at a point (x, 0, 0) is given as V = 2 3 . What will be
x x x
electric field intensity at x = 1m?
V V V
Sol. E = V = i j k
x y z

ELECTROSTATICS
Or, iEx + jEy + kEz

V V V
= i j k
x y z
V
=
x
V V
y 0 z

Comparing both sides
V
Ex =
x
1000 1500 5000
= 2 3
x x x x
1000 2 1500 3 5000
= 2
x x3 x 4
For x = 1,
(Ex) = 5500 V/m
Equipotential Surface
(i) These are the imaginary surface (drawn in an electric field) where the potential at any point
on the surface has the same value.
(ii) No two equipotential surfaces ever intersect.
(iii) Equipotential surfaces are perpendicular to the electric field lines.
(iv) Work done in moving a charge from a one point to the other on an equipotential surface is
zero irrespective of the path followed and hence there is no change in kinetic energy of the
charge.
(v) Component of electric field parallel to equipotential surface is zero.
(iv) Nearer the equipotential surfaces, stronger the electric field intensity.
POTENTIAL ENERGY OF CHARGED PARTICLE IN ELECTRIC FIELD

(i) Work done in bringing a charge from infinity to a point against the electric field is equal to
the potential energy of that charge.
(ii) Potential energy of a charge of a point is equal to the product of magnitude of charge and
electric potential at that point i.e. P.E. = qV.
(iii) Work done in moving a charge from one point to other in an electric field is equal to change
in its potential energy i.e. work done in moving Q from A to B = qVB qVA
= UB UA

ELECTROSTATICS
(iv) Work done in moving a unit charge from one point to other is equal to potential difference
between two points.
NOTE: Circumference of the circle in above example can be considered as equipotential surface
and hence work done will be zero.
Potential Energy of System:
(i) The electric potential energy of a system of charges is the work that has been done in
bringing those charges from infinity to near each other to form the system.
(ii) If a system is given negative of its potential energy, then all charges will move to infinity.
This negative value of total energy is called the binding energy.
(iii) Energy of a system of two charges
1 q1q 2
PE =
40 d
(iv) Energy of a system of three charges

1 q1q 2 q 2 q 3 q 3q1
PE =
4 0 r12 r23 r31
(v) Energy of a system of n charges.
n
1 1 n qj
PE = . qi
2 4 0 i 1 r
ij1j ij

ELECTRIC DIPOLE
(i) A system consisting of two equal and opposite charges separated by a small distance is
termed an electric dipole.
Example:
Na+Cl, H+ Cl etc.
(ii) An isolated atom is not a dipole because centre of positive charge coincides with centre of
negative charge. But if atom is placed in an electric field, then the positive and negative
centres are displaced relative to each other and atom become a dipole.
(iii) Dipole Moment:

ELECTROSTATICS
The product of the magnitude of charges and distance between them is called the dipole
moment.
(a) This is a vector quantity which is directed from negative to positive charge.
(b) Unit:
Coulomb metre (C-M)
(c) Dimension:
[M0 L1 T1A1]

(d) Itis denoted by p that is p q d
Electric field due to a dipole

(i) There are two components of electric field at any point

(a) Er in the direction of r

(b) Ein the direction perpendicular to r
1 2P cos
Er = .
40 r3
q P sin
E= .
40 r 3
(ii) Resultant
E = E 2r E 2
P
= 3
1 3cos 2
40 r

(iii) Angle between the resultant E and r, is given by

ELECTROSTATICS
E
= tan E
1
r
1
= tan1 2 tan
(iv) If = 0, i.e. point is on the axis

1 P
Eaxis = .
40 r 3
= 0, i.e. along the axis.

(v) If = 90, i.e. point is on the line bisecting the dipole perpendicularly
1 P
Eequator = .
40 r 3
(vi) So, Eaxis = 2Eequator (for same r)
1 2 Pr
(vii) Eaxis = .

2
40 r 2 2
1 2P
Eequator = .

3/2
40 r 2 2
Where, P = q . 2
1 q 2 cos
(viii) V= .
40 r2
1 P cos
= . 2
40 r

1 P. r
= .
40 r 2

1 P .r
= .
4 0 r 3

Where, is the angle between P and r.
(ix) If = 90, Vequator= 0
(x) Here we see that V = 0 but E 0 for points at equator.
NOTE:
(i) This is not essential that at a point, where E = 0, V will also be zero there eg. Inside a
uniformly charged sphere, E = 0 but V 0

ELECTROSTATICS
(ii) Also if V = 0, it is not essential for E to be zero eg. in equatorial position of dipole V = 0, but
E0
Electric Dipole in an Electric Field Uniform Electric Field

(i) When an electric dipole is placed in a uniform electric field, a torque acts on it which subjects
the dipole to rotatory motion.
This is given by = PE sin

Or, P E
(ii) Potential energy of the dipole
U = PE cos

= P.E
1 p cos
or, V . 2
40 r
[potential due to an electric dipole]
Where, p = qd is the magnitude of the electric dipole moment.
Potential due to a System of Charges

Suppose a system contains charges q1,q2, q3....... qn, at distances r1, r2, r3....... rn, from a point P.
The potential at P,
1 q1
Due to q1 is V1=
40 r1
1 q2
Due to q2 is V2=
40 r2
1 q3
Due to q3 is V3= and so on.
40 r3

ELECTROSTATICS
By the superposition principle, the potential V at P due to all the charges is the algebraic sum
of potentials due to the individual charges. Therefore, net potential at P is
V = V1 + V2 + V3 + + Vn
1 q1 q 2 q 3 qn
Or, V .............
4 0 r1 r2 r3 rn
Potential due to a Continuous Charge Distribution

When a charge distribution is continuous, instead of consisting of separate point charges, we
divide it into small elements, each carrying a charge dq. Considering this differential element of
charge dq as a point charge, we determine the potential dV at the given point P due to dq, and
then integrate over the continuous charge distribution.
Assuming the zero of potential to be at infinity,
1 dq
dV =
40 r
Where, r is the distance of P from dq.
The potential V at P due to the entire distribution of charge is given by
1 dq
V dV
40 r
Case I: Line charge distribution
For the charge uniformly distributed along a line dq = dl, where is the linear charge density
and dl is a line element.
Case II: Surface charge distribution
For the charge uniformly distributed on a surface with surface charge density , the charge on a
surface element dA is dq = dA
Case III: Volume charge distribution
For the charge uniformly distributed in a volume with volume charge density , the charge in a
volume element dV is dq = dV.
Various Cases:
A thin uniformly charged spherical shell
(a) Potential at an outside point:
We already know that for all points outside the sphere, the field is calculated as if the sphere
was removed and the total charge q is positioned as a point charge at the centre of the sphere.
Hence, the potential at an outside point at a distance r from its centre is same as the potential
due to a point charge q at the centre.
1 q
i.e., V [for an outside point]
40 r

ELECTROSTATICS
Remember:
This is valid only when the charge distribution is uniform.
(b) Potential at an inside point:

We know that inside the spherical shell of uniform distribution of charge, the electric field E
is zero everywhere. Hence, if a test charge q0 is moved inside the sphere no work is done on
that charge against the electric force. Hence for any infinitesimal displacement anywhere
inside the sphere, W = 0 or q0 V = 0 or, V = 0. Hence V (potential) remains constant
inside the sphere and is equal to its value at the surface
1 q
i.e., V
40 R
[for an inside point, r<R]
A Charged Conducting Sphere
Since the charge on a conducting sphere is uniformly distributed on its surface, therefore, it acts
just like a spherical shell of charge uniformly distributed in it. So
1 q
V=
40 r
[for an outside point, r> R]
1 q
And, V =
4 0 R
[for an inside point, r< R]
Important Points about Conducting Sphere:

For a charged spherical shell
(1) Vinside = Vsurface = REsurface = constant
(2) Voutside= rEoutside
It increases or decreases with increasing r depending on whether q <0 or q >0.
(3) The maximum potential (Vm) upto which a spherical shell can be raised is
Vm = REm
Where, Em is the electric field magnitude at which air becomes conductive (known as
dielectric strength of air). Its value is about 3 106N/C.
Thus, a conducting sphere of 1 m radius can be charged upto a maximum potential of 3 106
volt in air.
Potential due to Uniformly Distributed Charge in a Spherical volume
Case I:
At a point P outside the sphere:
As we know for all external points, the total charge q is supposed to be concentrated at the centre
of the sphere. So the potential at an outside point P, distant r from the centre O is

ELECTROSTATICS
1 q
VP =
40 r
potential at an outside point i.e., for r> R
Case II:
At a point P inside the sphere:
Let us divide the entire sphere into two parts, one is a sphere of radius OP = r and the other is the
spherical shell of internal radius r and external radius R. As in case I, the potential at P due to the
charge of sphere of radius ris
1 q'
V1 =
40 r
4 3
r
1 3
=
40 r
r 2
=
30
q
Where,
4 3
R
3
For finding the potential due to the other part, let us consider a thin spherical element of radius x
and thickness dx. Its volume is 4x2dx, and hence it contains the charge dq = (4x2dx) =
4x2dx
The potential at P due to this element is
1 dq
dV =
40 x
1 4x 2dx
=
40 x
1
= xdx
0
The potential at P due to the spherical shell of internal radius rand external radius R is
V2 = dV

0
= xdx
R
x2
=
0 2 r

ELECTROSTATICS

=
20

R2 r2
So, the net potential at P is
V = V1 + V2
=
2
r 2 R r

2

30 20
=

3R 2 r 2
60
q
=
4
3R 2 r 2
R 3 6 0
3
q
or, V =
80 R 3
3R 2 r 2
[potential at an internal point i.e., r<R]
q
(1) Putting r = R, we get Vsurface =
40 R
(2) Putting r= 0,
3q
We get Vcentre =
8 0 R
3
= Vsurface
2
(3) Figure shows the Variation of V with r. For
0 < r < R, the graph is parabolic.
For r > R, the graph is hyperbolic.
EQUIPOTENTIAL SURFACES
"An equipotential surface is a surface on which the electric potential V is same at every point".
The electric field in a region can be represented by a family of equipotential surfaces, each of
which corresponds to different potential.

ELECTROSTATICS
Figure (a) and (b) show different arrangement of charges and corresponding field lines, and cross-
sections of equipotential surfaces for (a) the uniform electric field due to a large plane sheet of
charge (b) the electric field associated with a positive point charge.
Figure (c) represents the equipotential surfaces for an electric dipole. Figure (d) represents the
equipotential surfaces for two identical positive charges.
Example 16: The electric potential existing in space is V(x,y,z) = B(xy + yz + zx). Find the
expression for the electric field at point P(1, 1, 1) and its magnitude if B = 10 S.I. unit.
dV
Sol. The formula E= in extended form is written as follows:
dr
V V V
E i j k
x y z
V V V
Where, , and
x y z
are partial derivatives of potential V with respect to x, y and z respectively. For partial
V
derivative you should note that if say you are calculating , then other variables y and z
x
will be treated as constant.
Now, If we write

E i E x jE y k E z ,
Then
V
Ex= ,
x
V
Ey
y

ELECTROSTATICS
V
and E z .
z
In the question
V= B(xy + yz + zx)
So,
V
Ex=
x
= B(y + z)
Because variables y and z are treated constant
Now, put the values of B, y and z. Given B = 10 and (x, y, z) are (1,1,1) respectively.
So,
V
Ex =
x
= B(y + z)
= 10 (1 + 1)
= 20 N/C
Similarly,
V
Ey =
y
= B(x + z)
[Now treating x and z constant]
Therefore
Ey = 10 (1 + 1)
= 20 N/C
V
And, Ez=
z
= B (x + y)
= 20 N/C
Therefore,
E E x i E y j E z k

Or, E 20i 20j 20 k N / C

Now, if we want the magnitude of E , then it's equal to
E 2x E 2y E z2

ELECTROSTATICS
=
202 202 202 = 20 3

Example 17: An electric field E i 20 j30 netwon/coulomb exists in the space. If the
potential at the origin is taken to be zero, find the potential at (2m, 2m).
Sol. We have
dV
E=
dr
So, it can be written in vector form as

dV = E.dr

Note, you can write E as E x i E y j E z k

and dr dx i dy j dz k
Therefore,

E.dr E x .dx E y .dy E z .dz
In the given question the z component of E or the point is not given. So you can write

E .dr E x .dx E y .dy
Now,

dV = E.dr

= 20i 30 j . dx i dy j
Or, dV= 20dx 30dy
Now we will have to integrate it within limits. Given V = 0 when x = 0 and y = 0 (lower
limit) and we have to calculate V when x = 2 and y = 2 (upper limit)
Therefore,
V x 2 y2
dV 20 dx 30 dy
0 x 0 y 0
or, V 0 20 x 0 30 y 0
V 2 2
or, V 0 = 20 (2 0) 30 (2 0)
or, V= 40 60
= 100 volt.

ELECTROSTATICS
POTENTIAL ENERGY OF A SYSTEM OF CHARGES

"The electric potential energy of a system of fixed point charges is equal to the work that
must be done by an external agent to assemble the system, bringing each charge in from an
infinite distance".
Let us first consider a simple case of two point charges q 1 and q2separated by a distance r. To
find the electric potential energy of this two-charge system, we consider the charges q1 and
q2initially at infinity. When one of the two charges (sayq1)is brought from infinity to its place
(say A), no work is done, because no electrostatic force acts on it. But when we next bring
the other charge q2from infinity to its location (B), we must do work because no, exerts an
electrostatic force on q2during its motion.
Assuming the potential at infinity to be zero, the potential at B due to the charge q1 at A is
1 q1
V=
40 r
The work done by the external agent in bringing the charge q2from infinity to B is
W = q2 V
1 q1q 2
=
40 r
So, the potential energy is
U=W
1 q1q 2
=
40 r
1 q1q 2
This formula U = is true for any sign of q1.If q1and q2 are of same sign, q1. q2> 0,
40 r
so the potential energy U is positive. If q1 and q2 are of opposite signs, q1q2< 0, and hence U
is negative.
Now, we consider a three-charge system shown in the figure.

ELECTROSTATICS
First, we suppose that three charges are at infinity. Then we bring them one by one to their
locations.
As before, the work done by the external agent in bringing the two charges q 1 and q2 (one by
one is)
1 q1q 2
W1 = (ii)
40 r12
Now, the potential at C, due to q1 (at A) and q2(at B) is
1 q1 q 2
V=
4 0 r13 r23
So, when q3 is brought from infinity to C, the work done on it by the external agent is
W2 = q3V
1 q1q 3 q 2 q 3
=
4 0 r13 r23
The total work done is W = W1 + W2

1 q1q 2 q1q 3 q 2 q 3
=
4 0 r12 r13 r23
Hence, the potential energy of the system is
U=W
1 q1q 2 q1q 3 q 2 q 3
=
4 0 r12 r13 r23
Or, U = U12 + U13 + U23
This can be generalized for any system containing n point charges q1, q2, q3..........qn. The
potential energy of the system will be written as
U = (U12 + U13 + . + U1n) + (U23 + + U2n)
+ (U34 + + U3n) + . + U(n 1)n
Or, U = U ij
i j
1 q i .q j
= 4 rij
i j 0
Thus, the potential energy of a system of charges is the sum of potential energies of all
possible pairs of charges that can be formed by taking charges from the system.
POTENTIAL ENERGY IN AN EXTERNAL FIELD

(i) Potential Energy of a single charge:

ELECTROSTATICS
The work done by an external agent in bringing a charge g from infinity to the present
location in the electric field is stored in the form of potential energy of g.
If V be the electric potential at the present location of the point charge g, then the work done
in bringing it from infinity to the present location is qV.

The potential energy of q at r in an external field is U q. r .[potential energy]

Where V r is the potential at r.
(ii) Potential energy of a system of two charges:

Suppose two charges q1 and q2 are located at r1 and r2 respectively in an external field.

To find the potential energy of the two charge system, first bring q 1 from infinity to r1. The
work done in this process is

W1= q1V( r1 ),

Where, V( r1 ) is the potential at r1 due to the external field E .

Next, we bring q2from infinity to r2 .
The work done on q2against the external field E is

W2= q2 V( r2 ),

Where, V( r2 ) is the potential at r2 due to the external field E only.
The work done on q2against the field of q1 is
q1q 2
W3 = ,
40 r12
Where, r12 is the separation between q1 and q2.
The potential energy of the two-charge system is
U = W1 + W2 + W3
qq
= qV r1 q 2 V r2 1 2
40 r12
Example 20: A bullet of mass 2 gm is moving with a speed of 10 m/s. If the bullet has a charge of
2 micro-coulomb, through what potential it be accelerated starting from rest, to acquire the same
speed?
Sol. Use the relation
1
qV = mv2;
2
Here, q = 2 106 coulomb;
m = 2 103 kg;
v= 10 m/s

ELECTROSTATICS
Therefore,
mv 2
V=
2q
2 103 10
2
=
2 2 106
101
=
2 106
= 5 104 volt
= 50 kV
Work done in rotating an Electric Dipole in an Electric Field:

If a dipole, placed in a uniform electric field, is rotated from its equilibrium position, work
has to be done against the electric field torque.
If a small work dW is done (against the field torque) in rotating the dipole through a small
angle d, then dW = Torque angular displacement or dW = d = pE sin d
Thus, the total work done against the field torque for a deflection '' from equilibrium is

W = pE sin d
0
= pE cos 0

W = pE(1 cos)
This is the formula for the work done in rotating an electric dipole against an electric field
through an angle from the direction of the field (equilibrium position). The work done in
rotating from the position 1 to 2 is given
by W = pE(cos 1 cos 2).
Case (i)
If the dipole be rotated through 90 from the direction of the field, then the work done:
W = pE(1 cos 90)
= pE (1 0) = pE.
Case (ii)
The work done in rotating the dipole through 180 from the direction of the field
W= pE (1 cos 180)
= pE [1 (1)]
= 2pE.
Note:

ELECTROSTATICS
The work done by the field torque on the dipole is

W = pE(cos2 cos1)
= pE(1 cos),
When 1 = 0, 2 = .
Potential Energy of an Electric Dipole in an Electric Field:

The potential energy of an electric dipole in an electric field is defined as the work done in
bringing the dipole from infinity to inside the field.

An electric dipole (+q, q) is brought from infinity to a uniform electric field E in such a way that

the dipole moment p is always in the direction of the field. Due to the field E , a force F qE

acts on the charge +q in the direction of the field, and force F qE on the charge q in the
opposite direction. Hence, in bringing the dipole in the field, work will be done on the charge +q
by an external agent, while work will be done by the field itself on the charge q. But, as the
dipole is brought from infinity into the field, the charge q covers 2ldistance more than the charge
+q. Therefore, the work done on q will be greater. Hence the 'net' work done in bringing the
dipole from infinity into the field
= force on charge (q) additional distance moved
= qE 2l
= pE.
This work is the potential energy U0of the electric dipole placed in the electric field parallel to it:
U0 = pE
In this position the electric dipole is in stable equilibrium inside the field.
On rotating the dipole through an angle work will have to be done on the dipole. This work is
given by
W= pE(1 cos ).
This will result in an increase in the potential energy of the dipole. Hence, the potential energy of
the dipole in the position will be given by
U = U0+W
= pE + pE (1cos ).

ELECTROSTATICS
or U= pE cos

or, U p.E
This is the general equation of the potential energy of the electric dipole.
DIPOLE IN A UNIFORM EXTERNAL FIELD

Consider a small dipole (+q, q) of length 2l, placed in uniform electric field of intensity E .
Forces of magnitude (qE) each act on the charge +q, and q as shown in figure. These forces are
equal, parallel and opposite, and hence net force on the dipole is zero but these forces constitute a
couple. The moment of this couple i.e., torque is
= force perpendicular distance

=F 2l sin
=qE 2l sin I
= 2ql E sin = pE sin,
Where, 2ql = p (electric dipole moment).
[=pEsin)

or, p E
If the dipole is placed perpendicular to the electric field ( = 90 or sin = 1), then the couple
acting on it will be maximum. If this be max, then max = PE.
If E = 1 NC1, then p = max. Hence, electric dipole moment is the torque acting on the dipole
placed perpendicular to the direction of a uniform electric field of intensity 1 NC1.
Period of Dipole in Uniform Electric Field
1. If dipole is parallel or antiparallel to the field (i.e., = 0or 180), torque is zero. Hence
dipole is in equilibrium position.
Consider an electric dipole of dipole moment p making an angle '' with the field direction. It
experiences a torque pE sin tending to bring it in the direction of field. Therefore, on being
released, the dipole oscillates about an axis through its centre of mass and perpendicular to
the field. If l is the moment of inertia of the dipole about the axis of rotation, then the
Equation of motion is:

ELECTROSTATICS
d 2
l 2 = pEsin
dt
For small amplitudes sin .
d 2 pE
Thus,
dt 2 l
= 2,
pE
Where,
l
This is an SHM whose period of oscillation is
2
T=

l
= 2 .
pE

2. Potential energy of the electric dipole at an angle with electric field is U P.E =
PEcos.
3. Work done is rotating the dipole from angle 1 to 2 is W= PE(cos1cos2).
Example 15: An electric dipole consists of two opposite charges of magnitude 0.2 C each,
separated by a distance of 2 cm. The dipole is placed in an external field of 2 10 s N/C. What
maximum torque does the field exert on the dipole?
Sol. Torque = pEsin
For maximum value of torque, sin = 1
maximum torque = pE
= (0.2 106 2 102) (2 105)
= 8 104 Nm
Motion of a Charged Particle in a Uniform Electric Field
Along x-axis,
ux = v0,
ax = 0,
Sx = x,
vx = v0
1
S = ut at 2
2
x = v0 t

ELECTROSTATICS
Along y-axis,
uy = 0,
qE
ay = ,
m
1 qE 2
y= t
2 m
2
1 qE x
y=
2 m v0
1 qEx 2
y
2 mv 02
y x2
i.e., path is parabolic.
Deflection on the screen Y = (y + D tan)

vy qEt qEx
tan =
vx mv 0 mv 02
qEx 2 2
So, tan=
2mv 02 x
y
tan
x

2
x
It means that the tangent at point P intersects the line AB at its midpoint i.e. at distance
2
from B.
x
Y D tan
2

ELECTROSTATICS
ELECTRIC FLUX
(i) It is denoted by ''.
(ii) It is a scalar quantity.
(iii) It is defined as the total number of lines of force passing normally through a curved surface
placed in the field.

(iv) It is given by the dot product of E and normal infinitesimal area ds integrated over a closed
surface

d E.ds

E.ds
= Eds cos
Where, = angle between electric field and normal to the area
(v) (a) if = 0, = Eds (maximum)

(b) if = 90, = zero
(vi) Unit:
(a) Newton metre2 / coulomb.
(b) Volt meter
(vii) Dimension: [M L3 T3 A1]
(viii) Flux due to a positive change goes out of the surface while that due to negative change
comes into the surface.
(ix) Flux entering is taken as negative while flux leaving is taken as positive.
(x) Value of electric flux is independent of shape and size of the surface.
(xi) Flux is associated with all vectors.
(xii) If only a dipole is present in the surface then net flux is zero.

ELECTROSTATICS
(xiii) Net flux of a surface kept in a uniform electric field is zero.

(xiv) Net flux from a surface is zero does not imply that intensity of electric field is also zero.
GAUSS'S LAW
1
This law states that electric flux E through any closed surface is equal to times the net charge
0
'q' enclosed by the surface i.e.,

E E.ds
q
=
0
Note:
The closed surface can be hypothetical and then it is called a Gaussian surface.
If the closed surface enclosed a number of charges q1, q2 ...........qn etc. then

= E .ds
q
=
0
q1 q2 ........qn
=
0
Flux is
(i) Independent of distances between charges inside the surface and their distribution.
(ii) Independent of shape, size and nature of surface.
(iii) Dependent on charges enclosed by surface, their nature and on the medium.
(iv) Net flux due to a charge outside the surface will be zero.
(v) If Q = 0, then = 0 but it is not necessary that E = 0.
(vi) Gauss law is valid only for the vector fields which obey inverse square law.
(vii) Gauss's and coulomb's law are comparable.
Note

ELECTROSTATICS
(i) A charge q is placed at the centre of a cube, then

q
(a) Total flux through cube =
0
q
(b) Flux through each surface =
60
q
(ii) A charge q is placed at the centre of a face of a cube, then total flux through cube =
20
q
A second cube can be assumed adjacent to the first cube total flux through both cubes = ,
0
q
so flux through each cube =
20
q
(iii) Now, q is placed at a corner then the flux will be .
80
Gauss's Law
Example: A rectangular surface of length 4m and breadth 2m is kept in an electric field of 20
N/c. Angle between the surface and electric field is 30. What is flux thought this surface?
Note:

Angle between surface and E is given to be 30. This is not the '' used in our formula '' is the

angle between normal to surface and E.
So here = 90 30 = 60.
Solution:
= EA cos
= 20 8 cos 60
= 80 V-m
q
Example: If charges and 2q are placed at the centre of face and at the corner, of a cube, then
2
total flux through cube will be
q q
(A) (B)
20 0
q q
(C) (D)
60 80
Sol. (A)
q
Flux through cube, when is placed at the centre face, is
2

ELECTROSTATICS
2q
2
80
q
= ,
40
Total flux = 1 2
q q
=
40 40
1 q
=
2 0
APPLICATION OF GAUSS'S LAW

Electric field due to a charged conducting sphere/ hollow conducting or insulating sphere
(i) In all the three type of spheres, charge resides only on the outer surface of the sphere in order
to remain in minimum potential energy state.
Case 1:
OP=r > R
q q
E r
40 r 2
1 R 2
= r
0 r 2
( = surface charge density)

Case 2:
r=R

E r
0

ELECTROSTATICS
Case 3:
r<R

E0
i.e. At point interior to a conducting or a hollow sphere, electric field intensity is zero.
(iii) For points outside the sphere, it behaves like all the charge is present at the centre.
(iv) Intensity of electric field is maximum at the surface.
Important:
(v) Electric field at the surface is always perpendicular to the surface.

(vi) For points, near the surface of the conductor, E = perpendicular to the surface.
0
Electric potential
Case 1:
r< R
1 Q
Vin =
4 0 R
Case 2:
r=R
1 Q
Vsurface =
4 0 R
Case 3:
r>R
1 Q
Vout =
4 0 r
(i) For points interior to a conducting or a hollow sphere, potential is same everywhere and
equal to the potential at the surface.
(ii) atr = , V = 0
Note:

Here, we see that E inside the sphere is zero but V 0. So E = 0 does not imply V = 0. This
presents a good example for it. Similarly V = 0 does not imply E = 0.
Electric field due to solid insulating sphere

A charge given to a solid insulating sphere is distributed equally throughout its volume
Electric Field

ELECTROSTATICS
Case 1:
r > R (point is outside the sphere)
1 Q
E r
40 r 2
Case 2:
r = R (point is at the surface)
1 Q
E r
40 R 2
= Emax = Esurface
Case 3:
r < R (point is inside the sphere)
1 Q
E rr
40 R 3
r
=
30
Ein r
at r = 0,E = 0
(i) Again, for points outside the sphere, it behaves as all the charge is present at the centre.
(ii) For points outside, it obeys inverse square law.
(iii) Intensity of electric field at infinity is zero.
1 Q
(iv) Intensity at the surface is maximum and is equal to .
40 R 2
(v) Again, it is perpendicular to the surface at the surface.

ELECTROSTATICS
(vi) Intensity is zero at the centre and for points inside the sphere, it is directly proportional to
distance of the point from the centre.
Electric Potential
Case 1:
r>R
1 Q
Vout =
4 0 r
Case 2:
r=R
1 Q
Vsurface =
4 0 R
Case 3:
r<R
Vin=
2
1 Q 3R r
2

40 2R 3
3 1 Q
Vcentre= (Imp)
2 40 R
3
Vcentre = Vsurface
2
(i) Again, Ecentre = 0, but Vcentre q.
(ii) Electric potential at infinity is zero.
(iii) Electric potential is maximum at the centre.
Example: A solid insulating sphere of radius R is given a charge. If inside the sphere at a point
the potential is 1.5 times that of the potential at the surface, this point will be
(A) At the centre
3
(B) At distance R from the centre
2
(C) Potential will be same inside and on the surface of sphere, so given information is
inadequate.
(D) Insulating bodies cannot be given charge.
Sol.
(A) Potential at the centre of insulating sphere is given by
Vin =
2
1 Q 3R r2
(1)

40 2R 3

ELECTROSTATICS
and on the surface,

1 Q
Surface = (2)
4 0 R
Given that,
3
Vin = Vsurface
2

Q 3R 2 r 2 3Q
2R 3 2R
r0
Hence, the point will be at the centre.
CAPACITANCE:
Introduction
A capacitor can store energy in the form of potential energy in an electric field. In this chapter we
will discuss the capacity of conductor hold energy.
Capacitance of an isolated conductor
When a conductor is charged its potential increases. It found that for an isolated conductor.
(Conductor should be of finite dimension, so that potential of infinity can be assumed to be zero)
potential of the conductor is proportional to charge to charge to give it
q = charge on conductor
V = potential of conductor
qV
q = CV
Where C is proportionally constant called capacitance of the conductor
Definition of Capacitance:
Capacitance of conductor is defined as charge required to increase the potential of conductor by
one unit.
Important point about the capacitance of an isolated conductor:
It is a scalar quantity
Unit of capacitance is farad in SI unit its dimensional formula is M-1
L-2T-4
1 Farad: 1Farad is the capacitance of the conductor for which 1 coulomb charge increase
potential by 1 volt.
1 Farad =
1 F = 10-6F, 1 nF = 10-6 F or 1 pF = 10-12 F

ELECTROSTATICS
Capacitance of an isolated conductor depends on following:

(a) Shape and size of conductor
On increasing the size, capacitance increase.
(b) On surrounding medium
With increasing the dielectric constant K, capacitance increases.
(c) Presence of other conductors.
When a natural conductor is placed near a change conductor capacitance of a conductor do
not depend on.
(a) Change on the conductor
(b) Potential of the conductor
(c) Potential energy of the conductor
Capacitance of an isolated spherical conductor:
Ex.1 Find out the capacitance of an isolated spherical conductor of radius R.
Sol. Let there is a charge Q on sphere.
Potential V =
Hence by formula: Q = CV
Q=
C = 40R
Capacitance of an isolated spherical conductor
C = 40R
(i) If the medium around the conductor is a vacuum or air.
Cvacuum = 40R
R = Radius of a spherical conductor. (may be solid hollow)
(ii) If the medium around the conductor is a dielectric of constant K from surface of a sphere to
infinity.
Cmedium = 40KR
(iii) = K = dielectric constant.

/
Capacitor: A capacitor or condenser consists of two conductors separated by an insulator or

dielectric.
(i) When uncharged conductor is brought near charged conductor,
The charge conductor remains same but its potential decrease of capacitance.
(ii) In capacitor two have equal but opposite charges.

ELECTROSTATICS
(iii) The conductors are called the plates of the capacitor .the name the capacitor depends on
shape of the capacitor.
(iv) Formula related with capacitor
(a) Q = CV
C= = =
Q = charge of positive plate of capacitor

V = Potential different between positive and negative plates of capacitor.
C = Capacitance of capacitor.
(v) The capacitor is represented as following:
(vi) Based on shape and arrangement of capacitor plates there various type of capacitor
(a) Parallel plate capacitor.
(b) Spherical capacitor.
(vii) Cylindrical capacitor depend on
(a) Area of plates
(b) Dielectric medium between the plates
Parallel plate capacitor
Two metallic parallel plates of any shape but of same size separated by small distance constitute
parallel plate capacitor. Suppose the area of each plate is A and the separation between two plate
is d. Also assume that space between the plates contain the vacuum.
We put the charge Q on one plate and a charge q on the other. This can be done either by
connecting one plate with positive plate of battery (as shown figure a) or by connecting one plate
to the earth and by giving a charge +q to other plate only. This charge will induce a charge q on
the earthed plate. The charge will appear on the facing surface. The charge density on each these
surfaces has a magnitude = /

ELECTROSTATICS
If the plates are large as compared to the separation between them, field between the plates (at
point B) is uniform and perpendicular to the plate except for the small region near the edge. The
magnitude of this uniform field E may be calculated by using fact that the positive and negative
plate s produce the electric field in the same direction (from positive plate towards negative plate)
of magnitude /2 and therefore the net electric field between the plates will be,
E= + =

Outside the plates (at point A and C), the field due to positive sheet of charges is in opposite
direction. Therefore, net field at these points is zero.
V = E.d = ( )d =

The capacitance of the parallel plate capacitor is,

C= = or C =
Cylindrical capacitor
Cylindrical capacitor consist of two axial cylinders of radios a and length l. if a charge q is given
to inner cylinder, induced changed q will reach to the inner surface of the outer cylinder. By
symmetry, the electric field in the region between the cylinders is radially outward.
By Gausss theorem, the electric field as distance r from the axis of the cylinder is given by
E=

The potential difference between the cylinders is given by
V=- . = q =

Or, C = =
Spherical Capacitor:
A spherical capacitor consists of two concentric spheres of radii a and b as shown in figure. The
inner sphere is positively charged to potential V and outer sphere is at zero potential.
The inner surface of the outer sphere has an equal negative charge.
ELECTROSTATICS
The potential difference between the spheres is
V=
Hence capacitance is
C=
Energy Stored in a charged Capacitor:
Work has to be done in charging a conductor against the force of repulsion by already existing
charges on it. The work is stored as a potential energy in the electric field of the conductor.
Suppose a conductor of capacity C is charged to a potential V0 and q0 be the charge on the
conductor at this instant. The potential of the conductor when (during charging) the charge on it
was q (q0) is
V=
Now, work done in bringing a small charge dq at this potential is
dW = V dq = dq
Total work done in charging it from 0 to q0 is

W= dW = dq =
This work is stored as the potential energy,
U=
Further by using q0 = CV0 we can write this expression also as
1 1
U CV0 2 q 0 V0
2 2

ELECTROSTATICS
1 1 q2 1
U CV 2 qV
2 2C 2
Energy Density of a Charged Capacitor:
This energy is localized on the charges or the plates but is distributed in the field. Since in case of
a parallel plate capacitor, the electric field is only between the plates, i.e. in a volume (A d), the
energy density is
UE = = =

Or, UE = = E2 =E
Calculation of Capacitance:
The method for the calculation of capacitance involves integration of the electric field between
two conductors or the plates which are just equi-potential surfaces to obtain difference Vab. Thus,
Vab = - E . dr
C= =
.
Heat Generated:
(1) Work generated by battery
W = QV
Q = charge flow of battery
V = emf of battery
(2) W = +ve (when battery discharging)
W = -ve (when battery is charging)
(3) Q = CV (C = equivalent capacitance)
So, W = CV V = CV2
Now, energy on the capacitor =
Energy dissipated in form of heat (due to resistance)
DISTRIBUTION OF CHARGES ON CONNECTING TWO CHARGED

CAPACITORS:
When two capacitors C1 and C2 are connected as shown in figure

ELECTROSTATICS
Before connecting the Capacitors
Parameter 1st Capacitor 2nd Capacitor

Capacitance C1 C2
Charge Q1 Q2
Potential V1 V2
After connecting the Capacitors
Parameter 1st Capacitor 2nd Capacitor

Capacitance C1 C2
Charge Q1 Q2
Potential V1 V2
(a) Common Potential:

By charge conservation of plates A and C before and after connection
Q1 + Q2 = C1V + C2V
V= = =
(b) Q1 = C1V = (Q1 + Q2)
Q2 = C2V = (Q1 + Q2)
(c) Heat loss during redistribution:
H = U1 U2 = (V1 V2)2
The loss of energy in the form of Joule heating in the wire

When plates of similar charges are connected with each other (+ve with +ve and ve with
ve), then put all values (Q1, Q2, V1, V2) with +ve sign.
When plates of opposite polarity are connected with each other (+ve with ve), then take
charge and potential of one of the plate to be negative.
ELECTROSTATICS
Derivatio:
C1V + C2V = C1V1 + C2V2
V=
1 1 1
H C1V12 C 2 V2 2 (C1 C 2 )V 2
2 2 2
1 2 1 2 1 (C1V1 C2 V2 ) 2 2
C1V1 C2 V2 V
2 2 2 (C1 C2 )
(
=
= (V1 V2)2
H= (V1 V2)2
When oppositely charged terminals are connected, then

C1V + C2V = C1V1 - C2V2
V=
H= (V1 + V2)2
COMBINATION OF CAPACITORS:
Series of combination:
(i) When initially uncharged capacitors are connected as shown in the combination is called
series combination.
(ii) All capacitors will have same charge but different potential difference across then.
(iii) we can say that
V1 =
V1 = potential across C1
Q = charge on positive plate of C1
C1 = capacitance of capacitor similarly
V2 = , V3 = -------
(iv) V1: V2: V3 = :
We can say that potential difference across capacitor is inversely proportional to its capacitance in
series combination.

ELECTROSTATICS
V
Note: in series combination the smallest capacitor gets maximum potential
(v) V1 = V, V2 = V, V3 = V
. . .
Where, V = V1 + V2 + V3
(vi) Equivalent capacitance:
Equivalent capacitance of any combination is that capacitance which when connected place
of the combination stores same charges and energy that of the combination.
In series:
= + + ..
In series combination of equivalent is always less than smallest capacitor of combination.

(vii) Energy is store in the combination
UCombination = + +
UCombination =
Energy supplied by the battery in charging the combination
Ubattery Q V = Q . =
Half of the energy supplied by the battery is stored in form of electrostatic energy and half of
the energy is converted in to heat through resistance.
Derivation of formulae:
Meaning of equivalent capacitor
Q
C =
V
Now,
In series initially, the capacitor has no charge. Applying Kirchhoffs voltage law
+ + +V=0
V=Q + +

ELECTROSTATICS
V 1 1 1
= + +
Q C C C
In general
Place of
1 1
=
C C
Parallel combination:
(i) When one plate of each capacitor (more than one) is connected together and the each
capacitor is connected together, such combination is called parallel combination.
(ii) All capacitors have same potential difference but different charges.
(iii) When we say that:
Q1 = C1V
Q1 = charge on capacitor C1
C1 = capacitance of capacitor C1
(iv) Q1: Q2: Q3 C1: C2: C3
The charge on the capacitor is proportional to its capacitance
QC
(i) Q1 = Q
Q2 = Q
Q3 = Q
Where Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3 .
Maximum charge will flow through the capacitor of largest value
(ii) Equivalent capacitance of parallel combination
Ceq = C1 + C2 + C3
Equivalent capacitors are always greater than the largest capacitor of combination.
Vcombination = C1V2 + C2V2 + .
= (C1 + C2 + C3 . ) V2 = Ceq V2
Ubattery = QV = CV2

ELECTROSTATICS
Half of the energy supplied by the battery is stored in form electrostatic energy and half of
the energy is converted into heat through resistance.
Formulae derivation for parallel combination:
Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3
= C1V + C2V + C3V
= V (C1 + C2 + C3)
= C1 + C2 + C3
Ceq = C1 + C2 + C3
In general
Ceq = C
Mixed combination:
The combination which contain mixing of series combinations or other complex combinations fall
in mixed category.
There are two type of mixed combination
(1) Simple (2) Complex
Ex.19 Find out the relation between C1, C2, C3 and C4 such that point A and B are equipotential.
[Balance wheat stone bridge]
Sol. When A and B are equipotential then there will be no charge on capacitor C 5. So remove it
now C1, C2 are in series and C3, C4 are in series they will have same changes respectively.
= .. (1)
And, = . (2)
= C2C3 = C1C4
Ex 26. Find out equivalent capacitance between A and B.
Sol. These are only two capacitors, Ceq = C1 + C2

ELECTROSTATICS
Ex 27. Five similar condenser plates, each of area A, are placed at equal distance d apart and are
connected to a source of e.m.f. E as shown in the following diagram. The charge on the plates 1
and 4 will be
(A) , (B) ,
(C) , (D) ,
Sol. Equivalent circuit diagram change on first plate
Q = CV Q=
Charge on fourth plate
Q = C(- V) Q =
As plate 4 is repeated twice, hence charge on 4 will be Q = 2Q
Q =
Hence, the correct answer will be (B).
Heat generated and charge flown
Circuit Solution for R-C Circuit at T = 0 (initial state) and T =
(FINAL STATE)
Note:
Charge on the capacitor does not change instantaneously or suddenly if there is a resistance in the
path (series) of the capacitor.
When an uncharged capacitor is connected with battery then its initial charge is zero, hence
potential difference across it is zero. At this time, the capacitor can be related as a conducting
wire.
The current will become zero finally (that means in steady state) in the branch which contain
capacitor.
CHARGING AND DISCHARGING OF A CAPACITOR
Charging of a condenser:
In the following circuit, if key K is closed then the condenser gets charged. Finite time is taken in
the charging process. The quantity of charge at any instant of time t is given by
( )
q = q0 [1 - ]

ELECTROSTATICS
Where q0 = maximum final value of charge at t = .

According to this equation the quantity of charge on the condenser increases exponentially with
increase of time.
If t = RC =
Then
( )
q = q0 [1- ] = q0 [1 ]
Or, q = q0 (1 - 0.37) = 0.63q0
= 63% of q 0
Time t = RC is known as time constant.
i.e the time constant is that time during which the charge rises on the condenser plates to 63%
of its maximum value.
The potential difference across the condenser plates at any instance of time is given by
( )
V = V0 [1 - ] volt
The potential curve is also similar to that of charge. During charging process an electric current
flows in the circuit for a small interval of time which is known as transient current. The value of
this current at any instant of time is given by
( )
I = I0 [1 - ] ampere
According to this equation the current fall in the circuit exponentially
If t = RC = = time constant
( )
I = I0 [1- ] = 0.37 I0 = 37% of I0
i.e. time constant is that time during which current in the circuit falls to 37% of its maximum
value.
Derivation for charging of capacitor
It is given that initially capacitor is unchanged. Let at any time
Applying Kirchhoffs voltage law
iR =0 iR =
i= =
= - ln (C - q) + ln C =

ELECTROSTATICS
ln =
( ) ( )
C q = C. q = C(1- )
RC = time constant of the RC series circuit
After one time constant
q = C(1 - ) = C(1 - 0.37) = 0.63 C
Current at any time t
( )
i= = C ( ( ))
( )
=
Voltage across capacitor after one time constant v = 0.63 Q = CV
( )
VC = (1- )
Voltage across the resister
VR = Ir
=
By energy conservation
Heat dissipated = work done by battery -U capacitor
= C() - ( C 2 0) = C 2
Alternatively:

Heat = H =

= Rdt = dt

2t
e RC
=- 2 / RC

0

=-
2t
- e RC =
0
Ex.38 A capacitor is connected to a 12 V battery through a resistance of 10 it is found that

the potential difference across the capacitor rises to 4.0 V in s. find the capacitance of the
capacitor.
Sol. The charge on the capacitor during is given by Q = Q0 (1 - e t/RC)
Hence, the potential across the capacitor is V = = (1 - e t/RC)

ELECTROSTATICS
Here, at t = s, the potential differences is 4V whereas the steady potential difference is =

12V
4V = 12V (1- e t/RC)
Or, 1- e t/RC = or, e t/R =
Or, = n = 0.405 or, RC = = = 2.469s

. .
.
Or, C = = 0.205F
Force between the plates of a capacitor:
In a capacitor as plates carry equal and opposite charges, there is a force of attraction between the
plates to calculate this force use the fact that the electrical field is conservative and is conservation
field.
F=- in case of parallel plate capacitor

U= = [as C = ]

So, F =- x =

The negative sign implies that the force is attractive
Capacitors with Dielectric:
(i) In absence of dielectric

E=

(i) When a dielectric fills the space between the plates then molecules having dipole moment
align themselves in the direction of electric field.

ELECTROSTATICS
b = induced charge density (called bound charge because it is not due to free electron).
* For polar molecule dipole moment 0
* For non- polar molecule dipole moment = 0
(ii) Capacitance in presence of dielectric

C= = = =
.

Here capacitance is increased by a factor K.

C=
(iii) Polarization of material:
When a non-polar substance is placed in electric field then the dipole moment is induced in
the molecule.
This induction of dipole moment is called polarization of material. The induced charge also
produced electric field.
b = induced (bound) charge density.

Ein = E Eind =

It seen the ratio of electric field between the plates in absence of dielectric and in presence of
dielectric is constant for a material dielectric. This ratio is called dielectric constant of the
material. It is represented by r or k.

Ein = b = (1 )

(iv) If the medium does not filled between the plates completely then electric field will be shown
as figure.
Case: (1)
The total electric field produced by bound induced charge on the dielectric outside the slab is
zero because they cancel each other.
Case: (2)
So, potential difference between plates

ELECTROSTATICS

V= [d t1 t2] + t1 + t2

So equivalent capacitance
C=

C=
[ ]

C=
Introduction of a dielectric constant K between the plates

(a) When the battery is disconnected
Let q0, V0, E0 and U0 represent the charge, a capacity potential difference electric field and energy
associated with charged air capacitors respectively. With the introduction of a dielectric slab of
dielectric constant K between the plates and the battery disconnected.
(i) Charged remain constant, i.e. q = q0 as in an isolated system charge is conserved.
(ii) Capacity increases, i.e. c = KC0, as by the presence of a dielectric capacity becomes K times.
(iii) Potential difference between the plates decrease, i.e.,
V= , as
V= = = [ q = q0 and C = KC0]
(iv) Field between the plates decreases, i.e. E = , as
E= = = [as V = ]
and E0 =
(v) Energy stored in the capacitor decreases i.e.
(vi) U = , as
U= = = (as q = q0 and C = KC0)
(b) When the battery remains connected (potential is need constant)

ELECTROSTATICS
(i) Potential difference remains constant, V = V0 as battery is source of constant potential

difference.
(ii) Capacity increases, that is C = KC0, as by presence of dielectric capacity become K times.
(iii) Charge capacitor increases, i.e q = Kq0, as
q = CV = (KC0)V = Kq0 [:. Q0 = C0V]
(iv) Electric field remains unchanged i.e, E = E0, as
E= = = E [as V = V and = E ]
(v) Energy store in the capacitor increase, i.e U = n K U as
U= CV = (KC ) (V )2 = KU [as C = KC and U = C V ]

Ex.41 A parallel plate capacitor is made using two square plates of side 0.2 m, spaced 1 cm. apart.
It is connected to V battery.
(a) What is the capacitance?
(b) What is the charge of each plate?
(c) What is the energy stored in the capacitor?
(d) What is the electric field between the plates?
(e) If the battery is disconnected and then plates are pulled apart to a separation of 2 cm, what
are the answers the above parts?
( . ) . .
(a) C = = = 3.54 10-5 F
.
(b) Q = C V = 3.5410-5 50 = 1.77 10-3 C
(c) U = C V = (3.54 10-11)(50)2 = 4.42 10-8 J
(d) E = = = 50000 V/m

.
(e) If the battery is disconnected the charge on the capacitor plates remain constant while the
potential difference between the plates can change.

C= = = 1.77 10-5 F
Q = 1.77 10-3C
V= = = 2V
/
U= C V = C V = 8.84 10-8 J
E= = = E = 5000 v/m

ELECTROSTATICS
Ex.42 In the last illustration suppose that the battery is kept connected while the plates are pulled
apart.
What are the answer to the parts (a) (b),(c) and (d) in that case?
Sol. If the battery is kept connected, the potential difference across the capacitor plates always
remain equal to the emf of battery and hence is constant.
V = V = 50v

C= = = = 1.77 10-5 F
Q = CV = = = 8.85 10-4 C
U= CV2 = V = = 2.21 10-8 J
E= = = = 2500 V/M
Ex.43 A parallel plate capacitor has plates of area 4 m2 separated by distance of 0.5 mm. the
capacitor is connected across a cell emf 100V.
(a) Find the capacitance, charge and energy store in the capacitor.
(b) A dielectric slab of thickness 0.5 mm is inserted inside the capacitor after it has been
disconnected from the cell. Find the answer to part (a) if K = 3
.
Sol. (a) C0 = = = 7.08 10-2F
.
Q = C V = (7.08 10-2 100) C
U= C V = 3.54 10-4 J
(b) As the cell has been disconnected
Q = Q0

C= = KC0 = 0.2124 F
V= = = = V
U= = = = 118 10-6 J
Ex.46 Find out capacitor between A and B if two dielectric slabs of thickness d are inserted
between the plates of parallel plate capacitor of plate area A as shown figure.

Sol. C1 = , C2 =
E1 = = ; E2 = =

1 = 2 =

ELECTROSTATICS

C= = = +
The combination is equivalent to:
C = C 1 + C2
Ex.47. Find out capacitance between A and B if three dielectric slabs of dielectric constant K1 of
area A1 and thickness d1 of area A2 and thickness d1 and K3 of area A2 and thickness d2 are
inserted between the plates of parallel plate capacitor of plate area A as show in figure (given
distance between the two plate d = d1 + d2 )
Sol. It is equivalent to
C = C1 +

.
C= +

= +

= +

Ex48. A dielectric of constant K is slipped between the plates of parallel plate condenser in half
of the space as shown in the figure. If the capacity of air condenser is c then the new capacity
between A and B will be
(A) (B) (c) [ + ] (D) [ + ]
Sol. This system is equivalent to two capacitors in parallel with area each plate
C = C1 + C2

= + = [1 + K] = [1 + k]
Hence the correct answer will be (C)
EX.50 Find the break down voltage for the capacitor if they connected in series.
Max charge Max. Charge
20 2c = 40 C 20 4c = 120 C
Charge will be same on both capacitor so 2 F capacitor will reach at break down voltage first, so
maximum charge possible = 40 C
So Breakdown voltage = + = +
V= + volt
V= volt = 30 volt

ELECTROSTATICS
Leakage current:

Here, C =

Resistance (R) =
Theoretically after disconnection from the battery charge should remain as it is but due to the
materials resistance discharging takes place. This discharging current called leakage current.
So, R should be high for good capacitor so that leakage current is minimum.
(iii) Force on dielectric due to charged capacitor.
If dielectric is completely inside the capacitor then force is equal to zero.
Case 1: Voltage source remains connected
V = constant.
U= cv2
F= =
( )
Where C = +

C= [Kx + l x]

= (k 1)

F= ( ) = constant (does not depend on X)
Case 2: when charge on capacitor is constant
( )
C= + U =

F= = . (Where = (K - sl)
= . (Here, force F depends on X)

Unit: Electricity: Chapter: Electrostatics

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Unit: Electricity: Chapter: Electrostatics

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Unit: Electricity

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State, the quantum of charge is still e.

(5) Unit and dimensional formula

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(10) Charge Distribution: It may be of two types

(ii) Continuous distribution of charge: An amount of charge distribute uniformly or non-

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S.I. Unit is C/m2

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Table 18.2: Different dielectric constants

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E, B and radiates energy

8. Similar charges repel each other while dissimilar attract.

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2. In induction charge on inducing body remains uncharged while in conduction charge on

r f 9X10 2 (SI Unit)

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PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION OF COULOMB'S LAW:

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For the equilibrium of A

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= negative, equilibrium is unstable.

ELECTRIC FIELD AND POTENTIAL

Intensity (or strength) of Electric field

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ELECTRIC POTENTIAL AND ELECTRIC POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE:

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If q is positive, the potential that it produces is positive at all points; if q is negative, it

where V is to be evaluated, then we can write,

TABLE: Electric Potential of Various Systems

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S.No. First Column Second Column

4. Infinite sheet of charge Not defined

5. Infinitely long line of charge Not defined

6. Finite line of charge sec tan

7. Charged spherical shell (a) Inside 0 < r < R

8. Solid sphere of charge (a) Inside 0 < r < R

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Calculations of electric field due to continuous charge distribution

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Semi infinite wire

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Electric field for uniformly charged arc

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This potential will be determined relative to zero potential at infinity.

Potential due to an Electric Dipole

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and that due to the negative charge (q) is

The net potential at P is

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