Unit 1: Industrial revolution

Overview: Influence of Industrial Revolution on building materials, construction technology, evolution

of new building types and increasing user requirements

1.0 INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION AN OVERVIEW

The Industrial Revolution was the transition to new manufacturing processes in the period from
about 1760 to sometime between 1820 and 1840. This transition included going from hand
production methods to machines, new chemical manufacturing and iron production processes,
improved efficiency of water power, the increasing use of steam power and the development of
machine tools. It also included the change from wood and other bio-fuels to coal. It began in Great
Britain and within a few decades had spread to Western Europe and the United States.

1.1 IMPORTANT TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS

The commencement of the Industrial Revolution is closely linked to a small number of innovations,
beginning in the second half of the 18th century. By the 1830s the following gains had been made in
important technologies:

Textiles: Mechanized cotton spinning powered by steam or water increased the output of a
worker by a factor of about 1000. The power loom increased the output of a worker by a factor
of over 40.The cotton gin increased productivity or removing seed from cotton by a factor of 50.
Large gains in productivity also occurred in spinning and weaving of wool and linen, but they
were not as great as in cotton.

Steam power: The efficiency of steam engines increased so that they used between one-fifth
and one-tenth as much fuel. The adaption of stationary steam engines to rotary motion made
them suitable for industrial uses. The high pressure engine had a high power to weight ratio,
making it suitable for transportation. Steam power underwent a rapid expansion after 1800.

Iron making: The substitution of coke for charcoal greatly lowered the fuel cost of pig iron and
wrought iron production. Using coke also allowed larger blast furnaces, resulting in economies of
scale. The cast iron blowing cylinder was first used in 1760. It was later improved by making it
double acting, which allowed higher furnace temperatures. The process produced a structural
grade iron at a lower cost than the finery forge. The rolling mill was fifteen times faster than
hammering wrought iron. Hot blast (1829) greatly increased fuel efficiency in iron production in
the following decades.

Steel manufacturing Second industrial revolution: Steel is often cited as the first of several
new areas for industrial mass-production, which are said to characterize a "Second Industrial
Revolution", beginning around 1850 - 1860, when Sir Henry Bessemer invented a new furnace
which could convert molten pig iron into steel in large quantities. However, it only became
widely available in the 1870s.

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 This second Industrial Revolution gradually grew to include the chemical industries, petroleum
refining and distribution, electrical industries, and, in the 20th century, the automotive
industries, and was marked by a transition of technological leadership from Britain to the United
States and Germany.
The introduction of hydroelectric power generation enabled the rapid industrialization of coal-
deprived northern Italy, beginning in the 1890s. The increasing availability of economical
petroleum products also reduced the importance of coal and further widened the potential for
industrialization. By the 1890s, industrialization in these areas had created the first giant
industrial corporations with burgeoning global interests, as companies like U.S. Steel, General
Electric, Standard Oil and Bayer AG joined the railroad companies on the world's stock markets.

1.2 IMPORTANT DEVELOPMENTS IN CITIES

The Industrial Revolution marks a major turning point in history; almost every aspect of daily life was
influenced in some way. In particular, average income and population began to exhibit
unprecedented sustained growth.

Transportation network: The Industrial Revolution improved the transport infrastructure with a
turnpike road network, a canal and waterway network, and a railway network. Raw materials
and finished products could be moved more quickly and cheaply than before. Improved
transportation also allowed new ideas to spread quickly.
Housing: Living conditions during the Industrial Revolution varied from the splendor of the
homes of the owners to the squalor of the lives of the workers. Workers lived in crude shanties
and shacks, some not being completely enclosed, some with dirt floors. These shantytowns had
narrow walkways between irregularly shaped lots and dwellings. Sanitary facilities were
nonexistent. These slum areas had extremely high population densities. It was common for
groups of unrelated mill workers to share rooms in very low quality housing where eight to ten
people may occupy a single room, which often had no furniture, with the occupants sleeping on
a pile of straw or sawdust. Conditions did improve during the 19th century as public health acts
were introduced covering things such as sewage, hygiene and making some boundaries upon the
construction of homes.
The Industrial Revolution created a larger middle class of professionals such as lawyers and
doctors.
Factories and urbanization: Industrialization led to the creation of the factory. Factories were
foci for the mass production of various articles. The ultimate assembly of a product was no more
the work of one specialist craftsman, but the result of an integrated corporate system. The
remuneration process in factories also became impersonal and wage based (based upon the
number of hours put in).
The factory system contributed to the growth of urban areas, as large numbers of workers
migrated into the cities in search of employment in the factories. Nowhere was this better
illustrated than the mills and associated industries of Manchester, nicknamed "Cottonopolis",
and the world's first industrial city.
Rise of Trade Unions, societies, cooperative societies, etc: The Industrial Revolution
concentrated labor into mills, factories and mines, thus facilitating the organization of

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 combinations or trade unions to help advance the interests of working people. These
organizations increasingly grew in power over time.

2.0 INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION IMPACT ON ARCHITECTURE

The Industrial Revolution led to radical changes at every level of civilization throughout the world.
With industrialization, came huge migrations to urban settings, the rise of mass housing projects,
public transit, the need for public parks and amusement areas. A new urban society had emerged
and the demand for urban architecture was greater than ever before. On the other hand, the growth
of heavy industry brought a flood of new building materialssuch as cast iron, steel, and glasswith
which architects and engineers devised structures hitherto undreamed of in function, size, and form.

2.1 TECHNICAL TRANSFORMATIONS: THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION AND A NEW WORLD ORDER

An Emerging New Order: The Pre-Industrial revolution building types were churches, palaces,
fortresses and their variations such as town halls and villas. However, Post-Industrial revolution
saw a broader spectrum of functional buildings, factories, warehouses, railroad stations, bridges,
commercial buildings, etc. In addition to this, as a response to the increasing urbanization and
the growing population in cities, courts, seats of parliament, large theatres, hospitals, hotels,
resorts, public parks, libraries, etc. were also developed

Development of Modern Architecture: The industrial revolution brought about the rapid growth
of technology and led to the discovery and invention of several materials for building purposes.
With this, there was a change in building technology as well. There was an emergence of new
settlement structures such as workers housing, etc. one important aim of architectural design
was to erect large factory halls with flexible interiors suitable to production; and at the same
time, to provide them with as much daylight as possible. This need let to the construction of
filigree architectonic shells-either buildings with huge windowed facades of glazed iron beams,
or brickwork buildings that literally strained the limits dissolving into small windows.

Peoples aesthetic tastes also showed a marked change. 19th century factories were designed in
a style which approached that of public buildings of the state as the factories were often located
on private properties and close to private residences. Hence, value was placed not just on
utilitarian concerns, but also on a decorative exterior

Traditional versus new materials: Traditional materials were primarily procured from nature
and modified marginally, such as timber, stone blocks, clay bricks, etc. Lime mortar and Roman
concrete were the only exceptions, which had to be prepared. Metals which could withstand
high tensile stresses had limited use. Bronze was quite expensive and brittle. Iron was available
in limited quantities. However, as there was no quality control system, iron was susceptible to
rust, and hence, sparingly used for tie rods, chains, masonry clamps, minor decorations, etc.

TRADITIONAL MATERIALS NEW MATERIALS

Stresses involved were largely compressive with
Greater tensile strength permitted thinness in
emphasis on load support relationships between
structural components
individual pieces
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No uniformity in quality of traditional materials
Older materials shaped by cutting into smaller
units
Structure made up of small constructional units
joined by mortar
Materials chosen for structural and aesthetic
properties
Predictable uniformity, crucial to engineering
calculations
Structural forms of new materials create from
rudimentary materials in liquid form that is
poured, moulded, extruded or beaten into
virtually any shape
Monolith structures became possible
In terms of visual quality, the old materials were
chosen for their texture; color etc. whereas the
new materials were not attractive to look at.

Structural design: Prior to 19th century, structural forces were understood in approximate
empirical terms. In the late 18th century, exact knowledge replaced guesswork and laws of statics
came to be applied to architectural problems by a new group of professionals the civil
engineers. The formal architectonic system for articulating load and support derived from the
Greeks had no real meaning in the new integrated equilibrium system. Differentiation between
supporting and supported members was not appropriate to structures of iron, steel and ferro-
concrete. Also, the thinness of the structural members (made possible because of the strength
of new materials) did not lend itself well to the refined detailing of traditional architecture.

2.2 ARCHITECTURAL RESPONSES TO TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCEMENTS OF THE 19TH CENTURY

The following were the various architectural responses to the massive technological advancements
that were witnessed with the advent of the industrial revolution.

A. Substitution
This involves the simple substitution of materials in traditional architecture with newer materials (for
e.g. casting a Corinthian column in cast iron). This was popular in the Cast Iron Age where mass
production of architectural components duplicating traditional architectural forms was used
extensively. For e.g. factories and stores, New York, by James Bogardus, Haughwout Building, New
York by John Gaynor

The Kitchen, Montross & Wilcox Store, The E.V. Haughwout Building
Manhattan, New York. Built in 1857 to a design by John P. Gaynor, with cast-iron
Built in 1861 in the Italianate style with a cast facades

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 iron faade

B. Modification
This involves the modification of older forms while exploiting the properties of new materials. This
quite often, involved the distortion of traditional forms to make use of the varied properties of the
new materials. For e.g. St. Eugene, Paris, L.A. Bouleau

Saint-Eugne, Paris, by L.A. Bouleau

The originality of this church does not lie in its Gothic form but in the materials employed: 44 fine cast iron
columns support the iron arches of the vault.

A. Creation
Architects created new eclectic forms combined with traditional historical styles. This was made
possible through

i. Hidden structures: Where the structure or the newer materials were hidden/ masked under an
external traditional fabric/ faade. E.g. The Statue of liberty
ii. Co-existence: Where new structural forms would coexist side-by-side with traditional fabric as in
Railway stations
iii. Combination: Where new and traditional structures were combined in the same unit as in a
masonry shell with a visible internal structure entirely or partly of iron found in early factories,
commercial buildings, markets, galleries and stores

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 The Statue of Liberty an example of Hidden
Structures.

Alexandre-Gustave Eiffel was the second

designer of the internal structural elements of
the Statue of Liberty. Eiffel designed a 92-foot
tall pylon to be the primary support structure of
the Statue's interior. To connect the Statue's
copper skin to the pylon, flat metal cantilever
bars are used. The 2.5 mm copper skin of the
statue was hung like a modern curtain wall.

Eiffel's pylon is visible in Paris, France, where the

Statue was first constructed.

St. Pancras Railway station, London an example of the Co-existence principle, where new structural forms co-
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 exist with traditional fabric

Traditional and new structures as a part of the same unit an

example of the Combination principle

2.3 THE GREAT EXPOSITIONS

If one were to look for a 19th century counterpart for the traditional structures of the Renaissance,
Baroque and Gothic periods, it would be the buildings for the international expositions which began
in London in 1851 and climaxed in Paris in 1889. The expositions were devoted to the stimulation
and progress of a specific industry or to all the industries of a specified country or area. Although the
exhibitions were meant to bring together the products of all nations and increase free trade, the
fairs were, in effect, the celebration of the industrial civilization, a statement of the faith in the
progress and ability of industrialized nations. The exhibition buildings were like the cathedrals of the
19th century. Some important exhibitions are as follows:

The London Exposition, 1851

The 19th century Paris Expositions, etc.

The fair which created one of the greatest sensations was the London Exposition of 1851 because of
Joseph Paxtons Crystal Palace. It was an example of the ability to mass produce almost limitless
quantities of necessary materials and erect them speedily. The building was assembled in 6 months.

2.3.1 THE LONDON EXPOSITION, 1951: FLAGSHIP BUILDING: CRYSTAL PALACE BY JOSEPH
PAXTON

The Crystal Palace was a cast-iron and plate-glass building originally erected in Hyde Park, London,
England, to house the Great Exhibition of 1851. More than 14,000 exhibitors from around the world
gathered in the Palace's 990,000 square feet (92,000 m2) of exhibition space to display examples of
the latest technology developed in the Industrial Revolution. Designed by Sir Joseph Paxton, the

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Great Exhibition building was 1,851 feet (564 m) long, with an interior height of 128 feet (39 m).
Because of the recent invention of the cast plate glass method in 1848, which allowed for large
sheets of cheap but strong glass, it was at the time the largest amount of glass ever seen in a
building and astonished visitors with its clear walls and ceilings that did not require interior lights,
thus a "Crystal Palace". When completed, The Crystal Palace provided an unrivaled space for
exhibits, since it was essentially a self-supporting shell standing on slim iron columns, with no
internal structural walls whatsoever. Because it was covered almost entirely in glass, it also needed
no artificial lighting during the day, thereby reducing the Exhibition's running costs.

After the exhibition, the building was rebuilt in an enlarged form on Penge Common next to
Sydenham Hill, an affluent South London suburb full of large villas. It stood there from 1854 until its
destruction by fire in 1936.

Partial front (left) and rear (right) elevations of the

The transept faade of the original Crystal Palace
Crystal Palace

Interior of the Crystal Palace

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 Crystal Palace a Birds Eye View

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