Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
9, SEPTEMBER 1984
Abstract-Low-frequency l/f noise in Si n-channel MOSFETs is mea- In this paper, we develop McWhorters model further and, by
sured from weak to strong inversion, through the relative spectral den- taking into account all the capacitive components of the small-
sity of the draincurrent fluctuations SrD/I&. Underspecificcondi-
tions, a plateau is observed in the variations of S r D / I i versus thf:gate signal equivalent circuit, we derive an original current noise
voltage in weak inversion followed by a steep decrease in strong inver- spectral densityexpression. We studyparticularlythe char-
sion. A modified trapping noise theory based on the McWhortels as- acteristic term SID/Z:, which exhibits clearly thedifferent
sumptions and valid in all the working regimes is developed to acc:ount noise behavior between weak inversion (where SID/Ih is gen-
for this behavior. Excellent agreement is obtained with the variations erally shown to be a constant at 300 K), and strong inversion
of severalparameters: gate and drain biases, geometry, oxide and de-
pletion Capacitance, temperature, and technologies.Theinfluence of (where it decaysstrongly). Thetheoretical expression of
fastinterfacestates is particularlystudied and is related to thenoise SrD/I$ is first developed at low drain bias and is then extended
variations and the oxide trap densities. t o high drain bias in weak inversion.
The influence of the oxide capacitance Cox anddepletion
capacitance CD is experimentally demonstrated and we show
I. INTRODUCTION the very important influence of the interface trap density Dit,
then # CD t c o x t Cit
<< 1.
In strong inversion IPQnl >> C, t CqX t C,it and R # 1. So
we again find the results of Jindal
and van de:r Ziel.
Inserting (3) into (l), we get:
low nome
amolifler
resistance Rin, and dynamic MOST channel resistance R,. The
RP h
quantity a is a calibrating factor of the digital noise measure-
ment system a = 0.6. The processing of two data sets (corre-
sponding to two different sampling frequencies) has been nec-
essary to obtain this spectrum in Fig. 4 and the two correspond-
ing cutoff frequencies of the filtersof the digital noise measure-
ment systemare visible. Thetotalthermal noise level [17]
3. Principleof the biasingcircuit of the MOST fornoise mea- and the noise of the measurementsystem are also represented.
surements.
High frequencies (>lo00 Hz) are not studied because of the
cutoff introduced by RE and the equivalent capacitance at the
amplifier input.
The devices used in this study were made by the DTE Lab-
oratoryofThomson-CSF St.-EgrBve (France). The transis-
tors are n-channel, enhancement type. Two technologies were
available:
i) a LOCOS technology,the gate insulator being silicon
dioxide covered by silicon nitride;
ii) a classical LTO technology (insulation by deposited sili-
con dioxide), the gate oxide being silicon dioxide.
The transistors were made from (100) substrates with a dop-
ing density of 2.5 X lo1 crnm3. The channel width is 100 pm
and the channel length varies from 7.5 to 100 pm. The equiv-
alent oxide thickness is 1200 or 1700 A, and some transistors
have received a complementaryboronimplantation which
>\ J modifies the threshold voltage and the depletion capacitance.
10 -2 lo- 1 10 10)
Frequency fltlz)
lo2
lob The different types of transistors (implanted with boron or
Fig. 4. Typicaldrainvoltagenoisespectrum. LOCOS transistor: not implanted) are available on each chip so that the compari-
son of the two types of devices is greatly improved. Several
wafers of each technology were studied.
iii) For the intermediate case of moderate inversion [.3], IV. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTSAND DISCUSSION
a numerical calculation is necessary to obtain a precise model- In order to improve the comparison theory-experiment, it is
ing, as will be seen in Section IV, where the extension of the first necessary t o model e,(
VG),which has to be very precise
model for all drain bias will also be studied. because oftheexponentialdependence of Q, versus VG in
weak inversion. One of the purposes of this work is the deter-
111. EXPERIMENTAL SETUP AND DEVICES minationofthe characteristic value ofthe weak inversion-
In order to perform experiments which can easily be con- strong inversion transition voltage &(2$F), $F being the
nected to the physics and to avoid problems associated vlith Fermi level.
the transconductance g, [ 141, [ 151, we measure and analyze The Q,( VG) modeling is made by taking into account all the
the drain voltage and current fluctuation spectra SvD and ,SID charge contributions when solving Poissons equation [ 181. As
rather than the equivalentgate voltage fluctuation spectrum the measurement of the flat-band voltage V, of the transis-
SvG. We used a digital system working with a small comptiter tors is not precise enough forourpurpose, because VFB is
and FFT algorithms [ 161. measured on a capacitance and not directly on the studied de-
Since the current noise spectral density is measured for very vice, the theoretical curve Q,(Vc) is compared to the experi-
low drain current levels and in order to avoid thermal noise mentalonethroughthecurrent curve I,( VG) at very low
limitations in weakinversion [17], very low-frequency r e a - drain bias
surementsare necessary; therefore, noise spectra have b:en
investigated over frequency
a range extending
from to
103 HZ.
The biasing of the devices for the noise measurement prcce- being theelectronmobility. Assuming a weakly varying
dure is schematicallydescribedin Fig. 3 and a typical spec- mobility in the range of weak inversion and beginning of strong
trum is reported in Fig. 4, where the ordinates correspond to inversion when operating at T = 300 K [19] and measuring it
~ + 4kT
SvD = ( Y R(!71~ ($ + &-)I. at the beginning of strong inversion from the ID( VG) curve in
linear scales, we observe a very goodagreement between
RE is the dynamic resistance as measured between the driin The mobility variation with biases can depend on several parameters
and can sometimes be important; nevertheless, our I g ( V c ) modeling
terminal and ground. As seen in Fig. 3, RE is the parallel con- has shown that, for our devices, the carrier mobility slowly varies (no
nection between the biasing resistance R,, the amplifier input more than 10 percent) from weak to moderate inversion.
REIMBOLD: l/f TRAPPING NOISEEXPERIMENTS
THEORY
AND IN MOS TRANSISTORS 1193
TABLE I
ON cox
NOISEDEPENDENCE AND CD AT T = 300 K; COMPARISO?:
THEORY-EXPERIMENT
_-
_I
"classicalTechnology".
not implanted.
Z/L=200/15
Wafer nell
"classicalTechnology",
imolanted
Z/L=200/15
"LOCOS Technology".
1 2.95 I 2.36
implanted. 3.2 10.' 5.53 lo-' 8.8 IO-''
Z/L=200/15
with
Q,( y ) decreases from Q,(O) at the source to Q,(O) exp [ -PVD 1 1.15 1.05 1.1 1.2 1.25
(m/n)]at the drain. For all these values, PQ, << Cox t ,CD in Gate bias V,WI
weak inversion. Assuming that Ci, is a constant over thewhole Fig. 8. Transistor from "LOCOS" technology, not implanted. T = 77 K;
channel at T = 300 K, i.e., Dit is approximately const;mt in f = 0.2 Hz;Z = 100 pm;L = 10 pm; low drain bias; wafer no. 11.
energynear the midgap [20], [21], theintegration clf (9)
leads to
which is similar to (S), but valid for all drain biases. h'o the
characteristic function S I D / I i is independent of drain bias
in weak inversion at T = 300 K.
We have reported in Fig. 7 the experimental charactzristic
noise function S I D / I i versus VD in weak inversion for t -ansis- z 10-1 4.55 4.55 j 4.6 4.65 4.7 4.75 4.0 i
tors of eachwafer of classical technology. As predicted by Gate blas VG(VI
C. Noise at Low Temperature (77 K ) a transistor of LOCOS technology, wafer 11, not implanted;
Figs. 8-10 represent theexperimental noise function SID/ Fig. 9 shows a transistor of classical technology, wafer 2 , im-
I ~ ( V Gin) weak and moderate inversion at low temperature planted; and Fig. 10 shows a transistor of classical technology,
(77 K) and low drain bias for different devices. Fig. 8 shows wafer 2 , not implanted. Contrary to the results at T = 300 K,
REIMBOLD: l/f TRAPPING
EXPERIMENTS
THEORY
NOISE
AND IN MOS TRANSISTORS 1195
is replaced by a decreasing noise level, the slope of which de- tainty due to the temperature, c,is the uncertainty due to thepara-
sitic term pQ,, and -is the empirical relation Cft = U(Vc - V G ~ ) .
pends on the device.
For each transistor, we have also displayed the static ID( V , )
characteristic inweak andmoderate inversion, atlow drain In order to get quantitativeresultsand modeling of SID/
bias. Fig. 9 and Fig. 10 exhibit usual ZD(VG) curves, Le., I;(&) curves at low temperature,wehave performed Cit(VG)
a constant slope in weak inversion in log-lin scale, which de- measurements by the ID(V,) method in we,ak inversion as ex-
creases inmoderate inversion (V, > VG(24F)). The associ- plained by Van Overstraeten [lo]. We get more precise re-
ated S I ~ / I A ( V Gcurves
) presenta smoothly decreasing level sults than by analyzing the slope of the ID( &) curve in log-lin
instead of a plateau. On the contrary, the ID( V,) curve of scale because the ID( V) method gives results independent of
Fig. 8 does not exhibit any constant slope in weak inversion, the standard deviation of surface potential u,*provided it takes
but a continuously decreasing one, so that even the character- usual values. This method gives direct meiasurements on the
istic value VG(24F) cannot be determined as easily as before. studied transistors (as opposed to C- V measurements) and is
Two classical phenomena can explain the modification of the also quicker to perform.
ID( VG)Icurve: To get significant results, it is important to be sure that the
i) Surface potential fluctuations due to fixed oxide charges classical weak inversion current relation [ 101
randomly distributed in the oxide and which affect the con-
ductance mobility p [22]
p = ELm( 1 - +(Us,) (1 8)
holds, in order that the channel charge ( 2 , be calculated
can
pm being the microscopic mobility, not influenced by fluctua- throughthe previously describedmodelingand thus can be
tions and ((5:) being the variance of surface potential fluctua- taken into account for the precision of Ci, measurements. For
tions normalized to kT/q. Nevertheless, thisphenomenon this reason, Dit measurements from I D ( V G ) curves of transis-
does not lead simply to an explanation of the decreasing noise tors like the one shownin Fig. 8 withoutconstant slope in
in weak inversion, weak inversion in log-lin scale have not been performed. On
ii) The increase of the interface trap density Dit near the the contrary, Q,(V,) values can be calculated very precisely
conduction band thatcan trap or de-trap charge carriers because forthetransistor of Fig. 10,for which we have deduced
the Fermi level probes closer to the conduction band as the cit(VG) and Dit(VG) values. They are represented in Fig. 1 1
temperature decreases. As shown by many authors [20], [21], with vertical arrowstaking intoaccount in the calculation
[23], [:24], Ci, can increase drastically in the bandgapnear the i) a temperature uncertainty on the chip of 3 K, ii) the influ-
conduction band, i.e., when the gate bias increases. This evolu- ence of the terms PQ, and l / q Q, for Ci, and Dit calculations,
tion of Cit can then explain both the I D ( & ) slope variation respectively. These terms can only lead to an overestimation
through. Cox/Coxt CD t Ci, and the decreasing noise level of real Cit and Dit values in the same way as in(4).
through (4). The transistors of Figs. 9 and 10 which exhibit Using a mean value for Ci, approximated by Ci, = V(VG -
the usual I D ( & ) curves, and hence have moderate Di, near V G , ) f o r V ~ < 1 4 4 5 m V , ~ i t h U = 2 . 1 O - ~ F * m - ~ *VV G ,-= 9
the band edge, present SID/Ii(VG)curves with smoothly de- 1388 mV, and Ci, = 1.2 X F m - 2 for VG > 1445 mV,
creasing level instead of a plateau. On the contrary, the tran- which becomes rapidly negligible compared to PQ, as VG in-
sistor of Fig. 8 does not present any constant slope in weak creases, we have modeled the theoreticalS I D / I ; ( V ~ curve ) (4)
inversion and so has a rapidly increasing trapdensity Dit at low drain bias (Fig. 10). We observe a good agreement be-
towardstheband edge. This varying trapdensity has to be tween the experimental and theoretical curveand hence the
associated with the observed rapidly varying capacitance Ci, incurvation in weak inversion can be quantitatively well ex-
responsible forthestrongly decreasing level of , S I ~ / I $ ( V G )plained by the variation of Ci, in the bandgap, as it had been
curve. qualitatively explained for all the transistors studied.
IEEE
1196 TRANSA(1TIONS
ON ELECTRON
DEVICES, VOL. NO.
ED-31, 9, SEPTEMBER 1984
TABLE I1
TYPICAL TRAP PROFILE
I N THE FORBIDDEN GAP OF SILICON
(Transistor not implanted.)
5
0: i 12 bo
2
I I , I wLA Drain bias VDImVI
10 moderate -
stronginversion
260,120 3 10 -+ 6 10% 2.3 10!!+2.5 10%
Fig. 12. SI-,/ID(VD) fromohmictosaturation region in weak inver-
sion. Transistorfrom classical technology,notimplanted. T= I I 1
theorcticalexpressions
77 K ; f = 0.2 Hz; ID saturation = 2.7 nA; 2 = 200 pm;L = 15 pn1. degeneration no longervalid
a = c q ( / ~ / p ~where
) ~ , a1 is of the order of2.IOw3,p1 is the ACKNOWLEDGMENT
value tlhat the mobility would have if only lattice scattering The author wishes to thank Dr.A. Chovet and Prof. P. Gentil
had been present, and y is the carrier mobility. As long as the for initiating this work, for useful discussions and guidance,
exact physical mobility dependence on the competing scatter- andfor criticalreading of themanuscript.Theauthor also
ing mechanisms and on parameters like electric fields is not thanks B. Munier, M. Arques, J. P. Reboul,and Y . Thenoz
clearly defined, it appears that only measurements indiffer- from the DTE division of Thomson-CSF for helpful discussions
entcharacteristic regimes (allowing comparisons and cross- for supplying the devices.
checkings by the analysis of parameters showing typical and
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1198 IEEE TRANSAZTTIONS
ELECTRON
ON
DEVICES, VOL. ED-31, NO. 9, SEPTEMBER 1984
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Abstract-Surface effects stemming simply from photodiode opera- call this d. Then, for a device using a single pass of the incident
tion in vacuum environment are seen to improve quantum efficiency light
significantly. This is attributed to desorption of surface impurities and
consequent reduction of surface recombination and Debye length Ef- 77 = (1- r) [Pt (1 - P>(1 - e-ad)/adt e-aYd(l- e-aw)]
fective depletion layer width, because of junction shallowness, C ~ I alsoI
be noticeably affected by changes in surface potential and free charge (1)
redistribution stemming from desorption of surface iqpurities. Quantum
efficiency enhancement here in vacuum is greatest at visible wavele~rgths, where a is absorption coefficientof the semiconductor material,
thus suggesting application in solar cell technology, particularly since P is collection efficiency at the frontsurface, and Wis depletion
Zsc, Voc, and fill factorare all increased in vacuum. layer width. The square-bracketed part of (1) describes inter-
nal quantum efficiency [4].To decrease reflectivity, an anti-
I. INTRODUCTION reflection passivation coating is generally applied to the photo-
diode front surface [3]. Intermsofgeometry, improved
A SSUMING all current carriers photogenerated in the ,lune-
tion depletion layer are collected, net photodiode cpan-
tum efficiency 17 is limited by light reflectivity r o f the dwice
quantum efficiency requires decreasing d and increasing W.
However, losses between the front surface and junction deple-
tion layer can also be reduced by other means, i.e., by reducing
entrance face and the loss of photons absorbed between the
surface recombination current [ 5 ] , [ 6 ] through surface space
front surfaceand the junction depletion layer [ l ]-[3]. We
charge reduction [7]. This improves the collection efficiency
since more surface photogeneratedcurrent carrierscan then
Manuscript received April 25, 1983; revised April 9 , 1 9 8 4 diffuse down to the junction depletion layer [SI. To this end
TheauthorsarewiththeDepartment of ElectricalandCoqputer
Engineering,Ben-GurionUniversity of the Negev, Beer-Sheva,Israel various techniques have been applied and found to be some-
84 120. what successful in increasing quantum efficiency. Such tech-
0018-9383/84/0!?00-1198$01.000 1984 IEEE