ECE330

Power Circuits and Electromechanics

Dr. Nam Nguyen-Quang

Fall 2016

http://www4.hcmut.edu.vn/~nqnam/lecture.php

Lecture 2 1

Introduction

Electromagnetic theory: basis for explaining the operation of all

electrical and electromechanical systems.

There are magnetic field and electric field systems, the discussion is
restricted to magnetic field systems.

Integral form of Maxwells equations

H dl = J f n da Amperes law
C S

B
E dl = n da Faradays law
C S t
J n da = 0
S
f Conservation of charge

B n da = 0
S
Gausss law

Lecture 2 2
Static magnetic circuits

There are no moving components in static magnetic circuits.

Toroid: N uniformly wound turns. r0 and r1 are inner and outer radii.

Consider the contour corresponding to the mean radius r = (r0 + r1) / 2,

assuming magnetic field intensity Hc is uniform inside the core. Using
Amperes circuital law, it can be determined that Hc(2r) = Ni. Or,

H c l c = Ni
where lc = 2r is the mean length in core. Assuming
B is a linear function of H in the core, the flux
density in the core is
Bc = H c =
Ni
(Wb )/m 2
lc
Lecture 2 3

Static magnetic circuits (cont.)

Flux is given by
Ni Ni
c = Bc Ac = Ac = Wb
lc l c Ac
where is the magnetic permeability of the core material, Ac is the core
cross-sectional area.

Define Ni as magneto-motive force (mmf), reluctance can be defined as

Ni mmf l
= = c = R (At/Wb)
c flux Ac

P = 1/R is called permeance. Flux linkage is now defined as = Nc =

N2
PN i. By definition, self inductance L of a coil is given by L = = PN =
2
2
i R

Lecture 2 4
Static magnetic circuits (cont.)

There are similarities between electrical and magnetic circuits

mmf voltage
flux current
reluctance resistance
permeance conductance

Toroid with air gap (no fringing): There is magnetic field intensity H in
both the air gap and the iron portion. lg length of the air gap, lc mean
length of the iron portion. Applying ACL around the contour c
Bg Bc
Ni = H g l g + H c lc = lg + lc
0 r 0
where 0 = 4 x 107 H/m is the airs permeability, and r is the relative
permeability of the core material.
Lecture 2 5

Static magnetic circuits (cont.)

Applying Gausss law on the closed surface s covering one magnetic

pole, BgAg = BcAc. For the case of no fringing, Ag = Ac. Hence, Bg = Bc.
Divide the mmf by the flux to calculate equivalent reluctance
Ni lg lc
= + = R g + Rc
0 Ag Ac
Where Rg and Rc are reluctances of the air gap and the core,
respectively. In the equivalent magnetic circuit, these are in series.

Suppose there is fringing, i.e., not all the flux is confined to the area
between the two faces of iron portion. In this case, Ag > Ac, i.e., effective
air gap area increases. This can be accounted for empirically,

Ac = ab, Ag = (a + l g )(b + l g )
Lecture 2 6
Class examples

Ex. 3.1: Find the required mmf to produce a given flux density. Air gap
and core length and area are known.
0.06
Rc = = 3

( )(
10 4 4 10 7 10 4 )(47 . 7
)
10 At/Wb

0.001
Rg = = 7.23 106 At/Wb
(
4 10 1.110
7
)(
4
)
= Bg Ag = (0.5)(1.110 4 ) = 5.5 10 4 Wb
Hence,

Ni = (R c + R g ) = (47.7 + 7230) 10 3 5.5 10 5 = 400 At

Lecture 2 7

Class examples (cont.)

Ex. 3.2: Find the flux through the coils. All air gaps are the same in
length and area. Irons permeability is infinite and ignore fringing.

R1 = R 2 = R 3 =R =
(0.1 10 ) = 1.989 10
2
6

(4 10 )(4 10 )
7 4
At/Wb

2500
In the equivalent circuit, positive directions R
for 1, 2, and 3 are shown. The algebraic 1
500
sum of the fluxes at node a must be zero. b R a
2
Let mmf of node a wrt. b be F, then 1500
R
2500 F 500 F F + 1500
+ =0 3
R R R
Hence,
F = 500, 1 = 10 3 Wb, 2 = 0, 3 = 10 3 Wb
Lecture 2 8
Mutual inductance

Mutual inductance: parameter related induced voltage in one coil with

time varying current in another coil.

Consider two coils wound on the same magnetic core, coil 1 is

excited whilst coil 2 is open. The total flux linking coil 1 is
11 = l1 + 21
where l1 (called leakage flux) links to coil 1 only; whereas, 21 is the
mutual flux linking to both the coils, also the flux linking coil 2 due to
current in coil 1. The order of subscripts is important.

Since coil 2 is open circuited, the flux linkage of this coil is

2 = N 2 21
Lecture 2 9

Mutual inductance (cont.)

21 is linearly proportional to the current i1, hence 2 = N 221 = M 21i1

The induced voltage v2 (due to the change of flux linkage) is given by

d2 di
v2 = = M 21 1
dt dt
M21 is called the mutual inductance between the coils. Similarly, induced
voltage v1 in coil 1 can also be determined as follows.

11 is proportional to i1, hence 1 = N111 = L1i1 , then

d1 di
v1 = = L1 1
dt dt
with L1 is the self inductance of coil 1, as you may know.

Lecture 2 10
Mutual inductance (cont.)

Consider now the case where coil 1 is open and coil 2 is excited. The
same procedure can be used to calculate induced voltages.
d1 di
22 = l 2 + 12 1 = N112 = M 12i2 v1 = = M 12 2
dt dt
d2 di
2 = N 222 = L2i2 v2 = = L2 2
dt dt
where L2 is the self inductance of coil 2, as you may know.

From energy considerations, it can be shown that M21 = M12 = M.

Finally, consider now the case where both the coils are excited.
1 = l1 + 21 + 12 = 11 + 12 2 = 21 + l 2 + 12 = 21 + 22

Lecture 2 11

Mutual inductance (cont.)

Noting that M21 = M12 = M

1 = N111 + N112 = L1i1 + Mi2 2 = N 221 + N 222 = Mi1 + L2 i2
By differentiating those, induced voltages can be calculated
di1 di di1 di
v1 = L1 +M 2 v2 = M + L2 2
dt dt dt dt
M
Coefficient of coupling between the two coils is defined by k =
L1 L2
It can be shown that 0 k 1, or equivalently, 0 M L1 L2

Most air core transformers are loosely coupled (k < 0.5), whilst iron
core transformers are tightly coupled (k > 0.5, can approach 1).

Lecture 2 12
Example

Ex. 3.4: Given reluctances of three air gaps in the magnetic circuit.
Draw equivalent circuit and compute flux linkages and inductances.
N 1i1 = R 3 (1 2 ) + R11 N 2 i2 = R 2 2 R 3 (1 2 ) 1

100i1 = (51 2 2 ) 10 6 100i2 = ( 21 + 4 2 ) 10 6 N1i1

Solving these equations for 1 and 2 R1

1 = (25i1 + 12.5i2 ) 10 2 = (12.5i1 + 31.25i2 ) 10 6

R3
6

1 = N11 = (25i1 + 12.5i2 )10 4

R2
From
N2i2
2 = N 22 = (12.5i1 + 31.25i2 )10 4

2
4
It can be seen that L1 = 25 10 H = 2.5 mH

L2 = 31.25 10 4 H = 3.125 mH M = 12.5 10 4 H = 1.25 mH

Lecture 2 13

Polarity markings (dot convention)

Lenzs law: the voltage induced is in such a direction that the current
due to it opposes the flux causing the voltage.

Signs of mutually induced voltages are monitored by a dot marking

convention. A current i entering a dotted terminal in one winding induces
a voltage Mdi/dt with positive polarity at the dotted terminal of the other
winding.

Two problems: (1) given the coil configuration, determine the dot
markings. (2) given the dot markings, how they are used in writing
equations.

Lecture 2 14
Determining polarity markings

Steps:

Arbitrarily select one terminal of a coil and assign a dot in one coil.
Assume a current flowing into the selected dotted terminal and
determine the flux flowing in the core.
Select an arbitrary terminal of the second coil and assign a positive
test current to it.
Determine flux direction due to this current.
Compare directions of two fluxes. If both is additive, then a dot is
placed in the second coil where the test current enters.
If the fluxes are in opposite directions, then a dot is placed in the
second coil at the terminal where the current leaves.

Lecture 2 15

Practical ways of determining dot markings

For a device such as a transformer, there is no way of knowing how

the coils are wound, therefore a practical way is adopted:

A DC source is used to excite one

coil of the transformer.
+

Place the dot on the terminal to _

which the + side of DC source is

connected.

Close the switch: up-scale kick in voltmeter => the dot on the other coil is
on the + side of the voltmeter. Down-scale momentary deflection in
voltmeter => the dot is placed the side of the voltmeter.

Lecture 2 16
Writing equations with mutually coupled coils

Given 2 mutually coupled coils and dot markings, write loop equations.

Choose arbitrary direction for currents.

Choose arbitrary direction for currents.
Rule: Reference current enters a dotted (undotted) terminal, induced
Rule: Reference current enters a dotted terminal, induced voltage in the
voltage in the other coil is positive at the dotted (undotted) terminal.
other coil is positive at the dotted terminal.
Reference current leaves a dotted (undotted) terminal, induced voltage at
the dotted (undotted) terminal of the other coil is negative.

di1 di2 R1 R2
v1 = i1 R1 + L1 +M M
dt dt i1 i2
di2 di1 v1 v2
v 2 = i 2 R 2 + L2 +M
dt dt
Lecture 2 17

Example

Ex 3.6: Write loop equations for a circuit with mutually coupled coils.

Assuming zero initial voltage on capacitor

i1 R1 L2
v1 = i1 R1 + (i1 i2 )R2
R2 C
v1
M i2
+ L1 (i1 i2 ) M 2
d di
L1
dt dt (i1 i2)

di2
0=
1 t
+
d
( ) +
d
(i2 i1 )
C 0
i 2 dt L 2 M i1 i 2 L1
dt dt dt
+ M 2 + (i2 i1 )R2
di
dt
Lecture 2 18