S Y S TE M OF E TH I C S

F RIE DRI C H P A U LS E N
P R O F E SS O R OF P H I LO S O P H Y I N TH E UNI VE R S ITY OF B E R LDQ

35mm: anu mranslatm

W I TH TH E A UT H O R S S A N CT I ON FR O M H F O U R TH

, T E

RE V I S ED A ND E N L A R G ED ED I T I ON

F R A NK TH I LL Y
P R O SS O R
FE OF P H I L O S OP H Y I N T HE UNI VE R SI TY
O F M I SS O U R I

N E W YO RK
'

C HA RL E S S C R I BN E R S S O N S

1 9 08
[All r i gh ts r ese r ved ]
 ST . M lOHA E L 'S
C O LL EG E

OCT 2 9 194 3
i 1 4 o4
C op yri ght, 1 8 99 ,
BY CH A R LE S SC R I N R S S ONS
B E

.
 TR A N SLA T O R S PR E FA C E

OF all t he t rea t i ses on eth i cs t h at have appeared i n rece n t

years n o n e i s i n m y O pi n i o n s o ad m i rably tted for i n tro
, , ,

d u ci n g the begi n n er t o thi s s t udy as th e re m arkabl e work of

Professor Pau lse n whi ch I h ere prese n t t o th e E n gli sh speak -

i n g p u bl i c i n thei r n ative t o n g u e . A s th e au thor expressly

decl ares the book was n ot wri tte n for ph il osoph i cal exper t s
, ,

b u t fo r al l those wh o are i n terested i n the proble m s o f prae

ti cal phi l os ophy an d wh o are i n n ee d of so m e o n e to g u i de
,

the m i n solvi n g the sa m e It d i sc u sses th e fu n dam e n tal

.

q u esti o n s of ethi cs i n a m a n n er that ca n n o t fa il to attract the

st u de n t an d e n co u rage h i m t o reect u po n moral matters ,

whi ch i s a fter all the greates t servi ce that an y book c an

, ,

hope to re n der h i m Ma n y of ou r eth i cal treati ses have a

.

t e n de n cy to repel th e ave rage i n tell ige n t reader a n d to deade n

i n s t ead of qui cke n i n g h i s th o u ght ; they m ak e h i m feel tha t
t he s u bjec t s u n der d i sc u ssi o n have abs ol u tely n o co n n ecti o n
wi th l i fe at leas t n ot wi th h is l i fe ; th ey ofte n speak t o h i m of
, ,

th i n gs abo u t wh i ch he k n ows n o t h i n g an d cares less i n l an

,

g u age wh ich he ca n n ot u n ders t a n d Thi s i s a m is fort u n e fo r

.
,

i f a n y sci e n ce has a m e ssage to de l i ver t o the peop l e o f o u r

co u n try an d age i t i s certai n ly th e sci e n ce o f co n d u ct
,
.

Professor Paulse n d ivi des his w ork i n to fou r b ooks Th e .

rs t traces th e hi stori cal develop m e n t of th e c o n cepti o n s o f

l i fe an d m oral pli i l OS Oph y fro m the ti m es o f th e Greek s d ow n
to th e prese n t an d i s o n e of the ablest a n d m ost fasc i n ati n g
,

s u rveys o f th e s u bject eve r wri tte n Th e sec o n d exa m i n es

.
Vi T R A N SLA T OR S P R E F A CE
'

the f u n da m e n t al q u esti o n s of eth i cs an d a n swers them i n

a m a n n e r i n di cati n g the a u th or s clear n ess o f vi si o n a n d

so u n d n ess of j u dgm e n t Th e th i rd wh i c h i s f u ll o f p ra c
.
,

tical wi sdo m appl ies these pri n c iples t o ou r dai ly con duc t
,

an d de n es the d i ffere n t vi rt u es an d d u ti es Th e fo u rth .

book i s s oci ologi cal an d pol iti cal i n its n ature an d deals ,

wi th th e For m s of S oci al L i fe

Th e healthy co m m o n .

se n se pervadi n g t he e n ti re work an d i ts freedom from e x ag

g e ra t i on s ca n n o t b u t w i n th e ad m i rati o n o f the reade r .

O wi n g to a des i re on th e par t o f the p u bli shers n ot to i n

crease the d i m e n si o n s of th is vol u m e beyo n d a re a so n abl e
l i m i t I h ave t ran sl ated o n ly t h e rst three of th e books
, ,

l ea vi n g o u t fo r the prese n t the U m riss ei n er S taats u n d

, ,

Gesellschaftslehre I have also o m i t ted th e seve n th an d
.

e ighth secti o n s o f the si xth chapter i n Book III wh ich di s .

,

c u ss the d u e l i n orde r sti l l fu r th er t o di m i n i sh the si ze of

,

th e t ran slati o n an d becau se i n my bel i ef t h e subject does

, , ,

n o t h ave the sa m e i n teres t fo r u s A m eri ca n s as for the

Ger m an s .

My t ra n sl ati o n i s from th e fou r t h Ger m a n edi t i o n whi ch

h as bee n revi sed an d i n creased I h ave added n otes an d .

bibli ographi cal refe re n ces whe n eve r they see m e d des i rable ;
they wi l l be fo u n d i n sq u are brackets .

In c o n cl u si o n I ca n n o t re frai n fro m expressi n g to Pro

,

fe sso r Pa u lse n m y si n cere tha n ks fo r the e n co u rage m e n t an d

help h e h as gi ve n m e d u r i n g t h e progress of thi s work .

F R AN K T HI L LY .

C OL U M B I A , Mo M r a ch , 1 8 99 .
 AUT HO R S PR E FA C E

TO TH E AM E R I C AN E DI T I O N

IN respo n d i n g t o th e req u est o f my fri e n d Fra n k Thilly to

s peed t h i s book on i ts jo u r n ey I feel i m pell ed rst o f all
, , ,

t o express t o h i m m y h earty th an ks fo r h i s ki n d n ess i n

prese n ti n g m y E t hi cs t o h i s fell ow co u n try m e n i n th ei r
-

n a t ive to n g u e a servi c e whi ch he h as al re ady perfor m ed fo r

,

my I n tr odu cti on t o P h i losop hy .

Fro m m y e arli es t yo u th I h ave had th e feel i n g th a t a

peopl e cl osely aki n t o us dwel t beyo n d t h e ocea n Thi s .

feeli n g was perh aps rst aro u sed by the fact th a t n o t a fe w

, ,

o f th e c o m pa n i o n s o f my yo u th h ad fo u n d a n e w h o m e o n

the other si de ; i n m y n ati ve la n d S chleswi g Holstei n fro m

,
-
,

whi ch th e A n gl o S ax o n s on ce sai led westward ove r the sea

-
,

t h e m i grati o n to the Wes t stil l c o n ti n u es S i n ce th e n the

.

years h ave w ove n m a n y n e w b o n ds o f u n i o n A n d so i t i s .

n o w a speci al s o u rce o f pl eas u re to m e also as an a u th or t o

, , ,

co m e i n to cl ose r c o n tac t wi th the great n ati o n wh i ch has

show n s u ch re m arkabl e e n e rgy i n es t abl i shi n g i tsel f i n the
n e w world .

It i s m y ear n est wish t h a t thi s book may al so c o n tri b u te

a li ttl e to stre n gthe n the ti es o f spi ri t u al fellowshi p u n it
i n g t h e t wo ki n d re d peopl es We Ger m a n s wel l k n ow an d
.
,

grate fu lly c o n fess that n o n ati o n of the e arth m ore deeply

,

appreci ates a n d m ore th oro u ghly u n dersta n ds th e prod u cts o f

Ger m a n t ho u ght th a n t h e Un ited S tates o f N orth A m eri ca .

F R I E DR I C H P A U L S E N .

B R I N S TE GLI T Z S p t m b r 2 7 1 8 9 8
E L -
, e e e ,
.

Ed
NH
 PR E FA C E TO THE FIR ST G E R MA N E DIT IO N

I ch gl au be n icht d ass ich viel e i gn es n e u es lehre ,

N oc h du rch m ei n S e h e r e i n Witz d e n S c h atz d e r Weisheit m ehre .

Do ch d e n k i ch
v on d e r M uh m i r

e i erlei Gewi n n ;
zw

E i m al d ass i ch n u n selbst an E i n sic h t weiter b i n

n ,

S o d an n d ass d o ch d a du rc h an m a n che n M a n n w ir d ko m m e n
,

M a ch es w o v e n er so n st g ar h atte ic h ts vern o mm e n
n
,
n .

U n d a u c h d e r d r i tte G r u n d s ch e i t wer t n i c h t d e s G e l ach t e r s

n

Dass wer d ies Bu chle i m liest d erwei l d o ch li est kei n s c hl e ch t e

, , rs.

'

R UC K E R T .
 FRO M THE P REFA C E TO THE S EC O ND

GERMA N EDITIO N

THE seco n d ed i t i o n of t hi s work whi ch has bee n s o ki n dly

,

recei ved by a l arge ci rcl e of readers e m braces i n the m ai n

, , ,

th e sa m e c o n te n ts as th e rst ; I h ave ho weve r s o far as I

, ,

was able m ade i m prove m e n t s h ere an d there Th e seco n d

,
.

book especi al ly has bee n w orked over ; I h ope tha t the fu n

, ,

d am e n t al co n cepts have gai n ed s o m ewh at i n d e n i t e n e ss an d ,

that the e n ti re treat m e n t h as bee n so m ewhat ro u n de d o u t .

Pe rhaps thi s wi ll m ake i t a l i ttl e easi e r fo r so m e o f th e

cri ti cs t o u n ders t a n d th e c o n cepti o n of l i fe an d i t s values
o n wh i ch m y syste m i s b ased .

Thi s n e w ed i ti o n h owe ver i s stil l ope n t o th e objecti o n

, , ,

whi ch has bee n repea t edly u rged agai n st m e t hat the treat ,

m e n t of th e fun da m e n tal q u esti o n s i s m u ch less searchi n g

an d thoro u gh ,
wh i le the q u esti o n s of th e day recei ve m ore
atte n ti o n th an they dese rve i n a ph il osoph i cal treati se I .

have n ot bee n abl e to m ake u p m y m i n d to e n te r u po n a m ore

detai led d i sc u ssi o n o f th e pri n ci ples becau se I d o n ot be l i eve
,

that great prol i x i ty i n these m atters wi l l d o a n y o n e m u ch

good Th e phi l osoph ers o f co u rse h ave l o n g ago worked ou t
.
, ,

thei r o w n pri n ci ples ; t o t h e readers h owever wh o d o n o t l ay

, ,

cl ai m to th i s ti tl e the si gn i ca n ce an d t n ess o f th e fu n da
,

m e n tal n oti o n s w il l be proved m ore easi ly by the abil i ty o f the

l atter to ex plai n parti c u l ar cases an d to s ol ve co n crete prob
le m s I have bee n eq u ally u n willi n g t o i gn ore th e q u esti o n s
.

wh i ch are m ovi n g o u r age ; th e boo k s th at h a v e n oth i n g to

say to th e i r ti m es an d the re fore l l the i r pag e s w i th u n
,
X F ROM TH E P R EF A C E TO THE S E C ON D ED I T I O N

ti m ely l ogi cal qu ibbles o r w i th e n dless h istori cal criti cal

,
-

d isc u ssi o n s are ple n ti fu l e n ou gh as i t i s an d there has th u s

, , ,

far n ever bee n a lack o f ti reso m e book s i n Ger m a n y

,
There .

are books that are ti m eless beca u se they are writte n fo r al l

ti m es ; b u t there are also ti m eless books whi ch are writte n
fo r n o ti m e .Thi s book d oes n ot bel o n g to the rst cl ass ,

n o r wo u ld i t l ike t o bel o n g to the seco n d .

A n d n o w that I have beg u n to m ake c o n fessi o n s l et m e ,

co n fess fu rther that thi s book was n ot wri tte n for ph i l oso
p h e r s a t all ; God f orbi d th at I sh o u ld presu m e to th i n k
for peopl e wh o are al ready overb u rde n ed w ith th ou ghts I .

h ad i n m i n d readers wh o h ave i n so m e way or oth er bee n

, ,

sti m u l ate d to m edi tate u po n th e proble m s of l i fe an d are ,

l oo ki n g for so m e on e to g u i de the m or i f that so u n ds too

, ,

pres u m ptu ou s fo r so m e on e to d isc u ss th es e q u esti o n s wi th

,

the m Sho u l d an y s u ch take u p thi s book an d n ot lay i t asi de

.

disappoi n ted the auth or s a m bi t i o n wi ll have bee n thoro u ghly

,

real i zed Besi des I d o n ot beli eve th a t a n e w system of m oral

.
,

philosophy i s ei the r n ecessary o r possi bl e ; th e grea t con st ru c

ti v e pri n ciples have al re ady bee n s o th oro u ghly developed by
Greek phi l osophy that they are i n the m ai n sati s factory eve n
, ,

to day To bri n g the old t ruth i n to l i vi n g t ouch wit h th e q u es

-
.

ti o n s whi ch pre occ u py o u r age i s i n m y O pi n i o n the m ost

, , ,

i m porta n t fu n cti o n O f a m oder n eth i cs N or do I beli eve .

that I am m i stake n i n the ass u m pti o n that thi s vi ew i s so m e

w h at wi despre ad i n o u r ti m es Perhaps there has n ever bee n
.

s o l ittle di sagree m e n t co n cern i n g the proble m an d pri n ci ples

o f m oral ph i l osophy si n ce th e days o f C hri sti a n Wol ff as

e xi sts at prese n t .

Let m e h e re bri ey o u tl i n e t he co n cep t i o n t owards wh i ch

th e thou gh t Of th e age see m s to be te n d i n g ; I call i t the
t e l e olog i ca l vi ew It i s l i m i ted a n d de n ed by a d o u ble a n ti
.

thesi s On th e o n e si de by h e d on i sti c u ti li ta ri a n i sm wh i ch
.
, ,

teach es th at pl eas u re i s the thi n g o f absol u te worth to whi ch ,

vi rt u e an d m oral i ty are re lated a s m ea n s In opposi ti o n to .

 F ROM TH E PRE F A C E TO TH E S E C O N D ED I TIO N Xi

thi s t eleol ogi cal eth i cs co n te n ds t ha t n o t th e feel i n g Of

,

pleas u re b u t th e O b j ective co n te n t of li fe i tself whi ch i s

, ,

expe ri e n ce d wi th pleasure i s the thi n g of worth Pleasure

, .

i s t he for m i n whi ch the s u bject beco m es i m m edi a t ely aware

o f th e O bjec t a n d i ts val u e I ntu i ti on a li s ti c f or m a li sm i s the
.

othe r a n tithes is Thi s regards t h e O bserva n ce of a sys t em

.

of a
p r i or i r u l es o f
,
t he m oral l aws a s
,
t he t hi n g o f absol u te

worth In oppos iti o n t O th is t el eologi cal ethi cs c o n t e n ds

.
,

that the thi n g o f absol u te worth i s n ot th e O bserva n ce of

the m oral laws b u t th e s u bsta n ce wh i ch i s e m brace d i n
,
.

these for m u l ae th e hu m a n hi s t ori cal l i fe whi ch l ls th e

,

o u tli n e w i th an i n n i te weal t h of ma n ifold co n cre t e form s ;

that the m oral laws exi s t for t h e s ake o f li fe n ot li fe for ,

the sake of th e m oral laws .

This i s th e form whi ch A ristotle t h e fou n der o f e thi cs as

,

a sys t e m ati c sci e n ce origi n ally gave t o i t Thi s co n cepti o n

, .

co n trolled th e e n tire Greek th ou ght an d moder n ethi cs t o o

,

adhered to i t u n til i t was overthrow n by Ka n t s gre at reacti o n

,

i n favor o f a for m alisti c i n t ui ti o n alis m Teleological ethi cs

.
,

h owever at o n c e fo u n d an eloq u e n t an d w ar m de fe n de r agai n s t

,

for m al m oralism i n S ch i ller an d i n a certai n se n se S pec u la

,

tive Philosophy also re t u r n ed to t he old v i ew At prese n t .

this sci e n ce i s agai n t ur n i n g i n to th e Ol d cha n n els u n der th e

i n ue n ce of t he m ode rn b i ol ogical con cepti o n s .
 TA BLE OF C ONTE NTS

I N T R O DUCT I O N

N A TU RE A N D F U N C T I ON OF E T H I C S
1 De n i t i o n ( 1 ) 2 P o si t i o n i n t h e
. . Syst e m of Sc i e n ce s (1) 3 .

F u n ct i o n (4 ) 4 M e th o d
(6) 5 . M r o a l La w and N atu r a l
La w (1 3) 6 C o n ce p t Of P rf t i
e ec on ( 1 7) 7 In w h a t S e n se
8
. .

Un i v e r s alV a li d i t y m ay b e Pr di e ca t e d of Mr o ali t y ( 1 9) .

Pr ac ti c a l V l a u e of E thi c s

BO O K I
OUT LINE OF A I
H S TO RY OF T HE C ONC E P T IONS OF LI F E A ND
MO R AL P H ILO SOP HY

C HAP TE R I

TH E C ON CE P T I ON O L I FE A N D M O A P H IL O S O H Y A M ON G
F R L P

TH E GR SEEK

Th Gr k P p l C f th V l f Li f ( 3 5 )

1 . e ee
p ti
eo e s o n ce on o e a ue o e

2 . S r toc ( )
3 9
a es 3 P l t ( )
4 1 4 Ar i t t l ( )
4 8.
5 St i
a o . s o e . o cs

( )
5 3 6 E p i. r ( )
5 6 7 C mm
c u e an s C h r t ri ti f Gr k . o on a ac e s cs O ee

E th ic s

C HAP TE R II

TH E C H R I ST I A N C ON C E PT I ON OF L I FE
1 C h r i t i i ty i
s an s Su pe r n atu r lia st i c (6 5 ) 2 . It s C o n t e m p t fo r Le a r n

i ng ( 6 7) 3 . fo r t h e N t a u r al V ir t ue s (6 8) 4 . fo r C o u r a ge (6 9)
5 . fo r J u s t i c e (7 1 ) 6 . I t s R e la t i o n t o th e S ta te (72 ) 7 to

En j
y m e n t an d A r t ( 7 4 )
o 8 . to l V e a lt h (77) 9 . to r
Ho n o (7 8 )
1 O M e r cy , t h e C h i s t i a n r V ir t ue ( )
8 1 ll . r
C h i s t i a n i ty an d
 T AB L E OF C O N TE N T S
PA G E
F a m i ly-Li fe (8 4 ) 12 . Th e E t e r n al Li fe (8 7) 13 . Th e Lib e r al

i s t i c C o n ce p t i o n of r
C h i s t i a n i ty

C HAP TE R III
TH C ON V R S I ON O H O D W O R L D o C H R I S T I A NI T Y
E E F T E L T

1 Th Old W rld
. e Opi i f C h ri t i i ty ( 9 8 )
o 2 C
s f th n on o s an . a u se o e

Ch g D li anf A i t M r li ty i th R m
e : ec E m p i r (1 0 0 )
ne o nc en o a n e o an e

3 Th M r l S lf . i e f t h Im p ri l P ri d E p i
o a e -
co n sc o u sn e s s o e e a e o c

t t M r
e u s, A r li N P l t i m ( 1 0 6 ) 4 C r i g f
a cu s u e us
,
e O- a on s . av n or

R ligi
3. f R d m pti
e ( 1 1 0
) 5 S p ri ri ty f C h ri ti i ty
on O e e on . u e o o s an

( 1 1 2 ) 6 A l g D l p m t i .t h Hi d ld
na o ou s eve o en n e n oo
r
or

C HAP TE R I V
TH M I DD L E A G S A N D T H I R C ON CE P T I O N O L I FE
E E E F

1 Th C ri G rm i N t i 2 M
. e f th onv e ( 1 1 6
s on
) d o e e an c a on s . oo and

M d f Li f (1 1 8 ) 3 Th C l rgy ( 1 1 9) 4 H i t ri
o e O e . e e . s o c al

N i ty P rt f th C h r h t A imi l t t h W rld
e c e ss on a o e u c o ss a e e o

C HAP TE R V
TH E M O DER N C ON CE P T I ON OF L I FE
1 . C h r t ri t i c s f t h e M d e r E
a ac e s
( 1 2 6 ) 2 R o i a c ( )
1 2 7 o n ra . e n a ss n e

3 R f rm t i .
( 1 2 9)
e o4 Th L e f K w l d g ( 1 3 5 )
a on . e ov o no e e

5 Fr . i B c d h i Dre m f t h e F t r (1 3 7)
an c s a 6 R D
on an s a o u u e . . es

c rt s a d h i
a Pr gr mm f C i i li t i (1 4 0) 7 Th M d r
e n s o a e o v za on . e o e n

S ci e ce f t h S t t
n Th mo H bb ( 1 4 3 ) 8 L ib i ( 1 4 4 )
e a e : o as o es . e n z

9 Th e S e lf
. ti f ti f th M d r E ( 1 4 5 ) 1 0 Th e
~
sa s ac on o e o e n ra .

N i t e th C t ry P i m i m Ni e t ch e a i m ( 1 4 7) 1 1
ne e n en u : e ss s , zs n s .

R l t i on t o C h ri st ia i ty
e a n

C HAP TE R VI

M ED I E V AL AND M O DER N M O R A L P H IL O S OP H Y
1 . Th e o lo gi c al M r l P hi l
o a o so
p h y (1 6 9) 2 C at h oli c . M r l Th l gy
o a eo o

(1 7 2 ) 3 . M dr Mr
o e n o al P
h i lo s o p h ; Th om a s y H bb (1 7 9)
o es

4 . S p i n oz a (1 8 1 ) 5 . S h aft e sb u y ( 1 8 5 ) r
6 . H m B th m
u e, en a ,

M i ll , S pe n ce r ( 1 8 9 ) 7 . Le ib n i z , W o lff ( 1 9 3 ) 8 K t (1 94 )
. an

9 . G o e th e , S ch i lle r (2 0 1 ) 10 . S p e cu l a t i v e P h i l ph y ( 2 0 3 )
o so

11 . S chle i e m a ch e r r ( 2 0 5) 12 . H rb rt e a
( 2 08 ) 13 . S ch o
e nh au e r
p
 T A BL E OF C O N TE N T S

BO O K II
F UND A M NTAL C ONC E PTS A ND Q U E ST ION S OF P R IN C IP L E

ME T A P HY S I C A L A N D P S YC H O L O GI C A L I N T R O D U C T ION

C HAP TE R I
G OO D A N D BA D : T E L E O L O GI C A A N D FO R M A LI ST I C C ON CE P T I ON S
L 222

1 . P o ssi b le C o n ce p ti o n s ( 2 2 2 ) 2 . Th e Te le ologi c a l C o n ce p ti o n
(2 24)
3 S u b j e c t i v e fo rm al a n d Obj e c ti v e m at e ri a l Ju d gm e n t ( 2 2 6 )
.
- -

4 . Th e E n d J u sti e s t h e M e a n s ( 2 3 3 ) 5 Th e I m p o rt an c e o f .

t h e P art i cu la r A c t ( 2 4 0) 6 P rov i si o n al Re p u d i a t i o n o f E go i sm
.

S u mm ary
( 2 4 3 ) 7 .

C HAP TE R II
TH H IG H ST G OO D HED ON I ST I C A N D E N ER GI ST I C C ON CE P T I ON S
E E : 251

1 C r i ti q
. f H d i m Pl r t th E d f A t i ( 2 5 1 ) 2
ue o e on s : e asu e n o e n o c on .

A M di d F rm f th H d i ti Th ry ( 2 5 8 ) 3 Si g i
o e o o e e on s c eo n

r fr m th Bi l gi l S t d p i t ( 2 6 4 ) 4
.

f Pl
c a n ce o e a su e o e o o ca an o n .

P l re t t h C ri t r i
e asu f J d gm t
no f V l e
( 2 6 8 ) 5 e on o u en s o a ue .

P i ti D i t i os f th
ve H i g h t G d (2 7 0 ) 6 H i t
e n on O e es oo . s or

i l C carm t i ( 2 73 ) on7 F r th r R m rk
a on
( 2 75 ) 8 . u e e a s .

A O b j ti n ec on

C HAP TE R I II
PE SS IMI S M
l P i mi m
. e ss s as a M o od an d a Th e ory ( 2 8 7) 2 . H e d o n i st i c Arg u

me nt ( 2 8 9) 3 . Mr o a li st i c Arg u me nt ( 2 9 7) 4 . Th e H i s t ri
o l ca

Ph i l p h i o so cal Arg um e nt i n t h e H e d o n i s t i c S e n se ( 3 08) 5 . in

t h M r li st i c S e n se S u mm a y r
e o a (3 1 4 ) 6 .

C HAP TE R IV
TH E E IL V , TH E BA D , A N D T H E O D I CY
l . y (3 2 1 ) 2
Th e o di c . P hy i l E i l ( 3 2 2 ) 3 M r
s ca v . o al E vil ( 3 2 5)
4 C q . o n se u e n ce s
(3 3 2 ) 5 . De ath

C HAP TE R V
DUT Y A N D C O N S C I E N CE
1 . Ori gi n of th e F e e li n g of Du ty ( 3 4 0 ) 2 . Re lat io n b e t w e e n Du ty
and In cli n a t io n ( 3 4 G) 3 . r q
C i ti ue of th e K a n t ia n Vi ew (3 5 0)
 T A BL E OF C ON T E N T S
PA G E
4 . r
F u th e r E rr ro s of r r
t h e A -p i o i s t i c -i n t u i t i o n a l i s t i c o al h il Mr P
o so p h y ( 3 5 5) 5 . C o n sci e n c e ( 3 6 3 ) 6 I n d i v i d u a liza t i o n o f
.

C o n sc i e nc e ( 3 6 8 ) 7 . Mr o al N i h i li sm
(3 73 ) 8 . Th e P o
p u la r
U sage of La n gu age

C HAP TE R VI
EG O I S M A N D A L T RU I S M
1 N Ab l t O pp i t i
. 0 (3 79)
so u e os on 2 . Th e Effe c t s o f so-calle d Ego i st i c
d A ltr i t i A t ( 3 8 3 ) 3
an u s c c s . an d th e i r Moti ve s O rl
ve a
p (3 8 6 )
-
4 . Ou r J u d gm e n t of E go i s t i c an d A ltr u i st i c A cts (3 91 ) 5 .

R e lat io n to t h e E v o lu ti o n i s t i c Th e o ry
C HAP TE R V II
V I R T UE A N D H A PP I N E SS
1 . Eff e c t of C on d u ct on We lfare (4 0 0 ) 2 . E ffe c t Of We lfar e on

C ha r a c te r
C HAP TE R V I I I
R E L A T I ON OF M O R A I T Y o R LIGI ON
L T E

1 H i t ri
. s o ca l C o n n e c t i o n , i t s C a u se s an d Effe ct s ( 4 1 5 ) -
2 . Ne c e s
ry I
sa nn e rC o n n e ction (4 2 1 ) 3 . Re lat i o n b e t w e e n Re li gi o n an d

S ci e n ce (4 2 5 ) 4 . C au se of U n b e li e f (4 3 3 ) 5 . Th e Be li e f i n
Imm o t ali t r y (4 3 9 ) 6 . O bj e c ti o n s

C HAP TE R IX

TH E F R ED O M O EH W ILL F T E

1 H i t ri l Ori t ti (4 5 2 ) 2 Pr
. s o ca en a on . e se n t a t i o n o f th e F a ct s ( 4 5 7)
3 R p i b i l ty ( 4 6 0 )
. es on s4 Th Tr i . e ue M e a n i n g o f H u m a n F re e
d om

BOO K III

THE DO TR N C I E OF V R T U S A ND DU T I E IE S
C HAP T E R I

VI R TU S A N D
E V I CE S IN G E N ER A L

C HAP TE R II
TH E D U C A T I ON O H W ILL A N D H DI S C I P LI N E O H
E F T E T E F T E

F E L IN G S O SE L F C ON TR O L
E ,
R -

l S lf
. tr l ( 4 8 3 ) 2 T m p r
e -
co n o ; A t i i m ( 4 8 5 ) 3 M d e e an ce sce c s . o

ty ( 4 9 1 )
es 4 C r g (4 9 5 ) 5 I d p d . ou Pr r a e . n e en e n ce , e se v e a n ce ,

P ti ( 4
a 9 8 ) 6 E q
e n ce i m i ty ( 5 0 0 ) 7 Wi d m . u an . s o
 T ABL E OF C ON TE N T S xvii

C HAP TE R III

BO D ILY L I FE
1 . Its P rp u o se (5 05 ) 2 . N ri ou sh m e n t ; Dru n k e n n e s s (5 0 6)
3 . Do mi c i le , C lo th i n g ( 5 1 5 ) 4 . Pl a
y an d Wo rk

C HAP TE R IV

E C ONO MI C L I FE
1 T l l gi l N
. e eo o ca e e e s si t y Of t h e C alli n g ( 5 2 9) 2 . Du ty t o th e C om
m u n i ty (5 3 3 ) 3 . A ri va ce a nd Pr o di
g ali t
y (5 3 6 )
4 . P ov e rty
an d We alth

C HAP TE R V
S P I R I TU A L L I FE A N D C U L TU RE
1 N t r
. a u e d Im p r t f K w l d g ( 5 4 3 )
an o2 C lt r o no e e . u u e, Su p e r
-
c ul

t r uH lf lt r ( 54 7) 3 N t r d Im p rt f A
e, a -c u u e . a u e an o o rt (5 5 6 )
4 P re . t P i ti fA t
se n os on o r

C HAP TE R VI

HONO R A ND TH E L OV E OF H ONO R
1 . N at u e r of H on o r ( 5 6 9) 2 . It s S i gn i ca n c e for Mr o al De v e lo p
me n t (5 71 ) 3 . Th e Lo v e of H
on o as r
ide Pr (5 73 ) 4 . Th e
Lo v e of H on o r as H u m i li t
y ( 6)
5 7 5 . S e lf-c o n de n ce an d S e lf
k no wle d ge (5 78) 6 . M o de st y

C HAP TE R V II

S U I C I DE
1 . Th e F ac t s (5 84 ) 2 . HOW w e J u dge th e F act s ( 5 8 6 ) 3 . Th e
C a u se s

C HAP TE R V II I
C O M PA S SI ON A N D BE N O E N CE EV L

l . C o m p as si o n (5 92 ) 2 . Be n e v o le n ce

C HAP TE R IX

JU S TIC E

1 N t r
. a u e an d N at u r al F o u n d at i o n of J u st i ce (5 9 9) 2 . It s S igu i
c a n ce (6 02 ) 3 Nee d . of a P o s i t i ve Le gal Ord r e (6 0 3 )
4 . P u n i sh m e n t a n d t h e Ri gh t o f P u n i sh me n t (6 06 ) 5 . Du ty to
xviii T A BL E OF C O N TE N T S
PA C E
De fe n d t h e Ri gh t s o f O th r e s an d o f S e lf (61 3) 6 . M a
gn an i mi ty
and r
F o gi v e n e ss ( 6 1 6 ) 7 Th e . Pri i p l nc e of Ri gh t s (6 2 4 ) 8 .

r
I n co n g u i ty b e t w e e n La w an d o M r li ty ; N a ece s sa ry Wr g on s
( 6 2 7 )
9 . Th e Law F alls sh o rt of th e De m an d s o f M r li ty o a

C HAP TE R X

L OV E OF N E IG H B O R
1 . De n i t i o n a nd Li m i t at i o n s of t h e Du ty ( 6 3 8) 2 . A lm s
gi v i n g ( 6 4 1 )
S e lsh n e s s S i gn i c a n ce Of N r
-
3 .
( 6 4 8) 4 . Lo v e of e i h bo
g
(65 2 ) 5 G r at i t u d e ( 6 55 )
.
6 . Lo v e of H om e , o f C ou n t y, r of

H u m an i t
y

C HAP TE R XI

V ER A C I T Y
1 . N g ti e
e a v A Sp e ct : t h e Li e 2 Wh y C d e m d
(664) . on ne
(6 6 6 )
3 . C alu m n y , F la t t e ry H yp ocri y
, P rj ry ( 6 6 9 ) 4s , e u . Li e of

N i t y ( 6 7 2 ) 5 W h y t h i s R i g ri m ? ( 6 8 1 ) 6 P
e ce ss . o s . o si t i v e

A p t V r i ty i R l t i t th I d i i d l ( 6 8 5 ) 7
s ec : e ac n e a on o e n v ua . Th e
P bli C mm i ti
u c o f th Tr th ( 6 8 8 ) 8 Wh y t h
u n ca on o e u . e Ne w
Tr th u P r t d ( 6 9 0) 9 I h w f th i i N
s ar e e se cu e . n o ar s s e ce s sa ry
( 6 9 5 ) 1 0 I t h D t r c.t i sf E rr r
e d r es ll C i
u r c m t on o o un e a u s a n ce s

a D ty ? u

IND X E
2 I N T R O D U CT I ON

a rts are subordi n at ed t o e thics the th e ory Of the ar t of li fe

, ,

o r i n cl u ded as its parts .

A ll practical scie n ces are based on theori es They are .

m erely the a pplicatio n o f theoretical tr u ths to the sol u tio n

o f practical proble m s Th e theoretica l scie n ce to which ethics
.

bears this relatio n is the scie n ce Of m an a n thr op ology an d ,

p ys chol og y Pres.u pposi n g a k n owledge Of h u m a n n at u re an d

the co n dition s o f hu m an li fe ethics u n dertakes to a n swer the

,

q u estio n : Wh at form s of social life an d wha t m odes of i n di

'

vidual co n d u ct are favorable or u n favorable to the perfectio n

Of h u m a n n at u re ? A Co m pariso n with an other practical
scie n ce will m ake the relatio n clear Th e fu n ctio n of m ed i .

ci n e is to teach m e n the physicia n s ar t an d the objec t Of this

art i s to aid the body i n reachi n g i t s perfect develop m e n t to ,

bri n g abou t favorable co n ditio n s to ward off dan gers to , ,

re m ove disturba n ces ; dietetics an d therapeutics together per

for m this fu n ctio n Physical a n thropology for m s the theoret
.

ical basis o f m edici n e We m ay th ere fore say E thi cs bears

.
, ,

the sa m e relatio n to g en er a l a n thr op ology as m e di ci n e to

p yh si ca l a n thr o ology
p Based o n the k n owledge Of corporeal
.

n at u re ,m edici n e i n structs us to solve the proble m s Of cor

p o r e al li fe t o the e n d that the body m ay perfor m all its fu n c

,

tio n s i n a heal thy m a n n e r duri n g its n atural e xiste n ce while

e thics basi n g itsel f o n th e k n owledge of h u m a n n at u re i n
,

ge n eral especially O f its spi rit u al an d social side ai m s to

, ,

solve all the proble m s O f li fe so t hat it m ay reach its fu llest ,

m ost beau ti fu l an d m ost per fect develop m e n t

, We m ight .
,

there fore call ethics u n i ver sa l di e te ti cs to which m edici n e

, ,

an d all the othe r tech n ologies like pedagogy politics etc

, , ,
.
,

are related as S pecial parts o r as au xiliary scie n ces With

,
.

this view the fou n der o f syste m atic m oral philosophy A ris ,

t o tl e wholly agrees
, .

A re m ark will n o t be ou t O f place here It is easy to see .

that the arts are n o t really n e w i n depe n de n t scie n ces S cie n ce

,
.

deals with the n at u re Of thi n gs Th e fact th at obj ects m ay .

 N A TU R E A ND F UN C TIO N OF ET HI C S 3

be m odi fi ed by ou r ac t io n does n ot co n s t i t u t e a special phase

Of thei r n a t u re S cie n ce m ight t herefore co n n e itself t o
.
, ,

c alli n g atte n tio n to this i n occasio n al i n terspersed re m arks ;

physics m igh t for ex a m ple i n disc u ssi n g the s u b j ect of stea m
, , ,

ad d the foll owi n g n ote : S uch an d s u ch partic u lar properties

of gases e n able u s to u tilize the m as m e t e rs Th e t e ch n ol o .

gies wo u ld th u s be i n serted i n to the theories as corollaries .

If h u m a n bei n gs were esse n tially theoretical bei n gs they ,

m ight perhaps be satised with s u ch a procedure

, , Bu t s u ch .

i s n ot th e case ; they are rather pre e m i n e n tly practical o r

, ,
-

volitio n al bei n gs Th e practical proble m s are earlier an d m ore

.

i m porta n t tha n the t heore t ical proble m s Th e scie n ces we .

,

m ay say with o u t goi n g far a m iss have bee n i n v e n ted to solve

, ,

proble m s ; k n owledge is at leas t i n its rst begi n n i n gs a

, ,

m ea n s to practical e n ds Thus a n ato m y an d physi ology are

.
,

m ea n s t o the art o f heali n g ; geo m etry as the n a m e i n dica t es , ,

a m ea n s to the surveyor s ar t S i m ilarly philosophy o r

.
, ,

the u n iversal theore t ical scie n ce owes i ts origi n to the ques ,

tio n co n cer n i n g the m ean i n g an d O bjec t of li fe Y es we m ay .

,

go still farther an d say : Th e u lti m a t e m otive i m pelli n g m e n

to m edita t e u po n the n at u re of th e u n iverse will always be the
desire to reach so m e co n cl u sio n co n cer n i n g the m ea n i n g the ,

so u rce an d th e goal of their o wn lives Th e origi n an d e n d

,
.

o f all philosophy is co n seq u e n tly to be sought i n ethics .

Th e priority of the practical scie n ces i s show n i n a re m ark

abl e way by the for m which scie n tic i n str u ctio n has ass u m ed
on its highes t stage Ou r u n iversity scie n ces ar e abs ol u tely
.

gover n ed by practical e n ds Th e m edical sci e n ces do n ot .

really for m a syste m atic scie n ce ; they are u n ited by a p rac

tical ai m : the m edical fac u lty is a tech n ic al trai n i n g school
fo r physici a n s It draws all such theoretical scie n ces i n to the
.

sphere o f its i n str u ctio n as it regards esse n tial an d usef u l to

the tech n ical trai n i n g of its stu de n ts III this way physiol ogy .
,

an d a n ato m y which i n a classicatio n based o n p u rely theo

, ,

retic ul pri n ciples wo u ld o f co u rse be gro u ped u n der th e

, , ,
 4 I N T R O DUCT IO N

n at u ral scie n ces u n der the t itle biol ogy c a me i n t o the fac u l ty
, ,

o f m edici n e .Th e sa m e is tr u e o f j urispr u de n ce an d theology .

N either of these is a special i n depe n de n t scien ce ; t he fac

,

u l ti e s of l aw a n d theology are tech n ical t rai n i n g schools the ,

for m er for j u dges an d o fcials the latter fo r preachers an d ,

S piritu al advisers an d whatever k n owledge is req u ired by the

m e m bers o f these pro fessio n s they draw u po n an d m ake su b

,

servie n t to thei r goal A p u rely theoretical classicati o n Of

.

the scie n ces w o u ld place all these s u bj ects either u n der the
head Of hi s tor v or philosophy Th e q u estio n as to what was .

o r is the law i n an y partic u l ar co u n try belo n gs to history a ,

well as the q u estio n co n cer n i n g the essen ce or the historic al

d evelop m e n t of a particular religio n Th e q u estio n howeve r
.
, ,

co n cern i n g the n at u re of law i n ge n eral an d its S ign ica n ce fo r

h u m an co n d u ct belo n gs to prac t ical philosophy ; the q u estio n
co n cer n i n g the n at u re Of Go d an d the co n stitu tio n of the u ni
verse t o m etaphysics
, W e have here an ill u s t ratio n of the
.

tr u th th at k n owledge exists for the sake of li fe n o t li fe for ,

the sake of k n o wledge .

3 Let m e add a few fu rther s tat e m e n t s co n cer n i n g t he

'

f u n cti on an d m e tho d of e thics .

It h as a do u ble fu n ctio n to per for m to deter m i n e t he e n d

of li fe o r the highest good an d to poi n t o u t the way o r th e
, , ,

m ea n s o f realizi n g it
, .

It is the b u si n ess of t he d octr i n e of g ood s ( G u ter lchr e ) to

establish the goal or the highest good It will to forestall
, .
,

the co n te n ts of a s u bseque n t chapter regard as the highest ,

good stati n g it i n a ge n eral for m u la a p erf e ct life that is a

, , , ,

li fe leadi n g to the co m plete devel op m e n t o f the bodily an d

m e n tal powers an d to thei r fu ll exercis e i n all the spheres o f
h u m an existe n ce i n close co m m u n io n with other closely
,

related perso n s a n d fu lly participati n g i n the historical an d

,

spiritual li fe of society at large Th e ter m w e lfa r e ( Wo hl .

f a h r t ) m a y also be e m pl oyed to desig n ate this goal which ,

wo u ld s u ggest the s u b j ective ele m e n t i n volved i n it o r the ,

 N A TU R E A ND F U N CT I O N OF ET HI C S 5

fact tha t s u ch a life yields satis factio n ( Wo hlg ef a hl) Here .

,

however we m u st g u ard agai n st the m iscon ceptio n that this

,

feeli n g o f satis factio n o r pleas u re is what gives li fe i ts real

worth Th e feeli n g i s n ot the good b u t the for m i n which
.
,

the good is k n o wn an d e n j oyed by th e s u bject .

Th e other fu n ctio n o f eth ics is to S how by wh at i n n er q u ali

ties a n d m odes O f co n d u ct the highest good or the per fect ,

li fe i s attai n ed an d realized This p roble m i s solved i n the

, .

d o ctr i n e f
o vi r tu e s an d the d octr i n e o
f d u ti es ( Tu g e n d u nd

Pi chten l e hr e ) doctri n e o f d u ties describes i n ge n eral

. Th e
for m u l ae h o w we m u st co n d u ct o u rselves i n order s u ccess fu lly
to solve the proble m s o f li fe that is attai n to per fectio n , , .

Th e doctri n e o f d u ties sets forth h o w we m u st fashio n the

character or the will i n order to realize that goal : it m akes
, ,

clear to u s th at pr u de n ce co u rage j u stice veracity are q u al i

, , , ,

ties which e n able u s correctly to sol ve th e p roble m s o f li fe ,

while thei r opposites tho u ghtless n ess cowardice an d ple a s u re

, , ,

seeki n g i n co n siderate s elsh n ess an d base m e n dacity hi n der

, ,

the realizatio n of th e perfect li fe .

Here however w e m u st a t o n ce call atte n tion to an i m

, ,

porta n t fact Th e m ea n s e m ployed to realize the per fect li fe

.

are n o t m erely e xtern al tech n ical m ea n s havi n g n o i n de

, ,

pe n de n t val u e b u t they are at th e sa m e ti m e parts o f its co n

,

te n t J u st as the m ea n s Of dietetics work an d exercise rest

.
, ,

a n d sleep as fu n ctio n s of li fe at th e sa m e ti m e for m c o n s t i t

, ,

u e n ts Of bodily li fe so the virtu es an d thei r exercise for m

,

the co n te n ts of the per fec t li fe O r to u se a di ffe re n t ill u s .

,

t r at i o n : Each part i n a good poe m i s a m ea n s Of expressi n g

a n d u n foldi n g th e wh ole otherwi se it wo u ld be a s u per u o u s
,

episod e ; an d co n versely every m ea n s als o n ecessarily for m s

, ,

a part o f the poe m itse lf an d as s u c h possesses its o w n poetic

val u e S o too e ve r vth i n g i n m oral li fe is both a m ea n s a n d
.
, ,

a par t Of the e n d so m ethi n g that exists fo r i ts o w n sake an d

,

fo r th e sake o f th e whole Th e vi r t u es have absol u te w orth

.

as ph as es o f the pe rfect m an b u t t h e y a re at th e sa m e ti m e ,
6 IN T R O DUCT I O N

val u able as m ea n s i n so fa r as the perfect li fe is realized

,

thro u gh the m In both cases however a differe n ce m ay be

.
, ,

n oted . N ot all the parts of a work of art h ave the sa m e

val u e whe n co m pare d with t he p u rpose u n derlyi n g it n o r are ,

the di ff ere n t vi rtu es eq u ally i m porta n t as m ean s o f realizi n g

the perfec t li fe Si m ilarly the differe n t d u ties m ay be graded
.
,

accordi n g to their i m porta n ce .

.4 Let us n o w i n q u ire i n to the m e thod o f ethics What is .

the so u rce of its k n owledge How does it prove the tr u th of

its propositio n s
It is c u sto m ary t o disti n gu ish betwee n e mp i r i ca l an d r a
ti on a l k n owledge Th e latter of which m athe m atics is the
.
,

prototype ded u ces propositio n s fro m de n i t io n s an d axio m s

, ,

a n d de m o n strates the m l ogically ; that is it S hows that they ,

follow as n ecessary co n seq u e n ces fro m the pri n ciples Em .

i r i c al scie n ces o n the other ha n d like physics an d che m istry

p , , ,

O bserve facts an d red u ce the m to ge n eral for m u l ae which ,

a i m t o express th e u n i for m ity i n the behavior O f thi n gs ;

s u ch for m u l a we call causal laws Th e proo f of the tr u th Of .

these propositio n s d oes n ot co n sist i n showi n g thei r logical

co n n ectio n with certai n pres u pposed de n itio n s b u t i n poi n t ,

i n g o u t that they adeq u ately express an observed ca u sal

co n n ectio n .

It see m s t o m e t o be an i n disp u t able fact that ethics rese m

bles the n at u ral scie n ces rather tha n m athe m atics i n its
, ,

m ethod . It does n o t d educe an d de m o n strate propositio n s

fro m co n cepts b u t discovers th e rel atio n s which exist b e
,

twee n facts a n d which m ay be established by experie n ce

,
.

S u ch an d s u ch a m ode of co n d u ct has such an d s u ch an

e ffect ; that is the ge n eral for m o f its argu m e n t O r to state .
,

it i n the co n verted for m i n which the cau sal co n n ectio n s are

expressed i n all practical or tech n ical scie n ces : In order to
prod u ce or preve n t s u ch an d s u ch res u lts s u ch an d s u ch ,

m ea n s are n ecessary Qu od i n con te mp la ti on e i n sta r ca u sa e

. .

i d i n op er a ti on e i n s t a r r eg u la e says Baco n ; the ca u sal l aw

,
 N A TU R E A ND F U N CT I O N OF E T HI C S 7

beco m es a practical rul e Bu t th e correct n ess of the rule is

.

proved by the cau sal co n n ectio n an d cau sal co n n ec t io n s are

ascertai n ed by experie n ce alo n e Experie n ce proves t hat
.

clea n li n ess exercise fresh ai r are m ean s of preservi n g

, , ,

health S o too experie n ce proves that pr u de n t an d ratio n al

.
, ,

co n d u ct a regular vocatio n a well ordered fa m ily li fe are

, ,
-
,

co n d u cive to li fe ; an d that i n dole n ce shi ftless n ess dis , ,

ho n esty an d m alice h ave t he te n de n cy to m ake li fe m iser

,

able an d to destroy it .

Th e r a ti on a li sti c view de n ies to e thics its e m pi rical char

acter It clai m s that propositio n s o f m orals are n either cap
.

able n o r i n n eed o f e m pi rical proo f It regards the m as the .

expressio n s of a n i n n ate fac u lty co n scie n ce o r practical , ,

reaso n which j u dges an d legislates a p r i or i It asser t s tha t

,
.

everybody k n ows what is right or wro n g witho u t an y e X p e

r i e n ce Experie n ce decides what is advan tageous or di sad
.

v an t a eou s i n i ts effec t s b t everybody k n ows be f ore all

g u ,

experie n ce wha t is good o r bad an d n o experie n ce of what ,

h u m a n bei n gs really d o o r what m ay be the ac tu al e ffects of

thei r ac t io n can place i n do u bt o r correct t his im m ediate
k n owle d ge of what they ou g ht to do .

Ou r a n swer i s : It i s i n d eed tr u e that m an ki n d did n ot

a wait the co m i n g o f m oral philosophy i n order to disti n g u ish

betwee n good an d bad Ilf or a li ty i s old er t han m or a l p hi los

.

o h an d there co u ld be n o m oral philosophy witho u t m orality

p y ,

as its pres u ppositio n It arises as the reectio n on an exist

.

i n g positive m orality which gover n s li fe an d j u dg m e n t an d

, ,

which is n ot destroyed o r m ade s u peruo u s by its appeara n ce .

It is also tr u e th at so m ethi n g like an i n n e r voice speaks to

the i n d ivid u al : Y ou ough t to d o this y ou m u s t n ot d o that ! ,

an d that too with o u t an reaso n s i n the for m o f an u n co n

y ,

d it i o n al i m perative This i n n er voice we call co n scie n ce

. .

We shall rec u r to th e a n th ropological expla n atio n an d telco

logical i n terpretatio n Of these thi n gs l ate r o n He r e h o w .
,

ever I sh o u l d like to S h ow th at it d oes n ot follow fro m this

,
8 I N T RO DUCT I O N

th at moral philosophy m us t be an a p r i or i sti c o r ratio n al -

scie n ce Let the scie n ce O f diete t ics agai n serve as an ill u s

.

t r at i o n to explai n o u r m ea n i n g .

What was said Of the m oral co n d u ct O f li fe m ay also be

applied to bodily li fe J u st as m en did n ot await the co m i n g
.

of m oral philosophy be fore disti n g u ishi n g betwee n good a n d

bad they did n o t wait fo r th e appeara n ce of the scie n ce o f

,

dietetics i n order to d isti n gu ish betwee n th e wholeso m e a n d

the u n wh oleso m e Lo n g be fore m e d ici n e or a n y scie n ce
.

existed h u n gry m e n ate the thirsty q u e n ched thei r thi rst

, , ,

a n d th e shiveri n g covere d the m selves with ski n s T h e q u es .

tio n : Why do they do this why is bread good fo r the h u n gry

, ,

an d water fo r t h e thirsty ? wo u l d h ave see m ed as stra n ge to

the m as the qu estio n Why is steali n g w ro n g ? see m s to o u r

schoolboys I t is sel f evide n t ; n o other reaso n can be give n
.
-

for it . Here as everywhere else scie n tic i n vestigatio n

, ,

begi n s by regar di n g everythi n g that has previo u sly bee n

accepted as sel f evide n t as a proble m A fter m e n had li v ed
-
,
.

fo r u n tol d ages accordi n g to the absol u te i m peratives of a

n aturalistic dietetics an d a n eq u ally n at u ralistic therapeutics ,

which co n ti n u e eve n to this day i n the prescriptio n s or ab so

l u te i m perati ves Of pop u l ar dietetics an d m edici n e wha t we ,

call scie n tic m edici n e arose S lowly an d grad u ally by

.
,

m ean s Of Observatio n an d experi m e n t w e h ave co m e to u n ,

d e r st an d th e orga n izatio n o f the body a n d its relatio n to the

exter n al co n ditio n s Of li fe an d h ave th u s bee n grad u ally e u
,

abled t o prove th e appropriate n ess Of m ethods an d c u res

which have lo n g bee n p ractised an d to eli m i n ate u seless o r
h ar m fu l o n es an d to e m ploy n e w o n es i n thei r stead
, .

Moral philosophy occ u pies a si m ilar positio n It t oo is .

,

co n fro n ted with a n at u ralistic u n scie n tic traditio n al m oral

, ,

ity J u st as bodily li fe was ori i n ally gover n ed by i n sti n cts

.
g

an d bli n d habits witho u t physiology so the e n tire h u m a n

, ,

li fe especially social li fe was origi n ally gover n ed witho u t

, ,

scie n ce by a ki n d of m oral i n sti n cts These m oral i n sti n cts

, .
8 I N T RO DUC TION
th at m oral philosophy m us t be an a p r i or i sti c o r ratio n al -

scie n ce Let the scie n ce of diete t ics agai n serve as an ill u s

.

t r at i o n to expl ai n o u r m ea n i n g .

What was s aid of the m oral co n d u ct of li fe m ay also be

applied to bodily li fe J u st as m en did n ot await th e co m i n g
.

o f m oral philosophy be fore disti n g u ishi n g betwee n good an d

bad they did n ot wait fo r the appearan ce of the scie n ce o f

,

dietetics i n order to disti n g u ish betwe e n the wholeso m e a n d

the u n wh oleso m e Lo n g be fore m edici n e or any scie n ce
.

exi sted h u n gry m e n ate the thirsty q u e n che d their thi rst
, , ,

a n d th e shiveri n g covere d the m sel ves with ski n s Th e ques .

tio n : Why do they do this why is b read good for the h u n gry
, ,

a d
n water fo r t h e thirsty ? wo u ld have see m ed as stra n ge to
the m as the qu estio n Why is steali n g w ro n g ? see m s to ou r
schoolboys It is sel f evide n t ; n o other reaso n can be give n
.
-

for it . Here as everywhere else scien tic i n vestigat io n

, ,

begi n s by regar di n g everythi n g that has previo u sly bee n

accepted as sel f evide n t as a proble m A fter m e n had lived
-
,
.

fo r u n tol d ages accordi n g to the absol u te i m perati ves o f a

n aturalistic dietetics an d a n eq u ally n at u ralistic therape u tics ,

which co n ti n ue eve n to this day i n the prescriptio n s o r ab so

l u te i m perati ves of pop u l ar dietetics an d m edici n e what we ,

call scie n tic m edici n e arose S lowly an d grad u ally by

.
,

mean s of observatio n an d experi m e n t w e h ave co m e to n u ,

d e r s t an d th e orga n izatio n o f the body a n d its relatio n to the

exter n al co n ditio n s of li fe an d h a v e th u s bee n grad u all y e n
,

abled t o prove the appropriate n ess of m ethods an d c u res

which have lo n g bee n p ractised an d to eli m i n ate useless o r .

h ar m fu l o n es an d to e m ploy n e w o n es i n thei r stead

, .

Moral philosophy occ u pies a si m ilar positio n It t oo is .

, ,

co n fro n ted with a n at u ralistic u n scie n tic traditio n al m oral

, ,

ity J u st as bodily li fe was origi n ally govern ed by i n sti n cts

.

an d bli n d habits witho u t physiology so the e n tire h u m a n

, ,

li fe especially social li fe was origi n ally gover n ed witho u t

, ,

scie n ce by a ki n d of m oral i n sti n cts These m oral i n sti n cts

, .
 NA T URE A ND F U N C TI ON OF E TH IC S 9

of peoples are called cu stom s ( S i tten ) l e m ploy this ter m .

to design ate all those obligatory habits an d for m s o f li fe all ,

those c u sto m s an d laws which u n i for m ly gover n the li fe of

,

every me m ber o f a co m m u n ity Like the dieteti c r u les these .

,

custo m s appear i n th e co n scious n ess of the i n divid u al i n the

for m of absol u te co m m a n ds which assig n n o reaso n for their
,

validity Thou shalt n o t kill rob o r de fra u d a m e m ber o f thy

.
, ,

tribe ,
so con sci e n ce speaks witho u t grou n ds an d co n ditio n s
,

to do so is bad : that is a self evide n t t r u th j u st like the tr u th

-
,

that re b u r n s an d bread satises h u n ger

,
.

Is this tr u th really i n capable of proo f can m oral philosophy ,

d o n othi n g but collect an d arra n ge these absol u te co m m a n ds

an d prohibitio n s ? To say so i s to deprive it o f its character

as a scie n ce for scie n ce does n o t co n sist i n taki n g i n ve n tories

, ,

b u t i n the discovery an d proo f of tr u ths Bu t s u ch is n ot th e .

case Th e tr u th s of pop u lar m orality the m selves s u ggest a

.

di ffere n t a n swer ; they also appear i n a n other for m n a m ely ,

i n the form o f proverbs : Pride goeth be fore a fall ; Lies

are sh ort lived Ho n esty is t he bes t poli cy A ho u se di v ided
-

agai n s t i t sel f ca n n ot sta n d Here the i m perative a ppears i n

.

the for m o f an assertio n on e i n which the reaso n is i m plied :

,

Do n ot lie for l i es a re short l ived ; Do n o t cheat for ill gotte n

,
.
-
,
-

gai n s do n ot prosper A n d this s u ggests to u s the real fu n c

.

tio n o f a p ki losop hy of m orals It m u st u n fol d i n d etail th e .

reaso n s which are si m ply i m plied i n popula r m orality for

, ,

the di ffere n t val u e o f the di ffere n t m odes o f co n duct Like .

the scie n ce o f diete t ics it m us t show tha t certai n m odes o f

,

co n d u ct which have bee n foll owed i n sti n ctively for a lo n g ti m e ,

are s u ited to th e n at u re an d co n ditio n s o f h u m a n li fe an d are ,

there fore be n ecial while others are i n j u rious an d per n icious

,
.

It will sh o w fo r exa m ple tha t it lies i n the very n at u re of

, ,

falsehood to i n j u re the deceiver the perso n deceived a n d the , ,

e n tire co m m u n ity which i s u n ited by the ties of la n g u age by ,

destroyi n g co n de n c e an d thereby u n der m i n i n g t h e fo u n d a

tio n o f social li fe witho u t which real h u m a n li fe is n o t pos
,
 10 I N TRO DU C TION
sible It will show that steali n g distu rbs the eco n o m ic life
.

o f the i n j u red party an d al m ost n ecessarily u tterly destroy s

,

that of the thie f an d n ally t ha t it e n dan gers the li fe of the

, , ,

e n tire co m m u n ity by m aki n g property i n sec u re w hic h is the ,

i n evitable e ffect o f the ft an d thereby u n der m i n es the fou n da

,

tio n s of civilizatio n an d all h u m an li fe In this way m oral .

,

philosophy cha n ges i n sti n cti ve c u sto m i n to con sci ou s p u rp os

i v e n e ss .

Bu t it m ay possibly d o m ore tha n this J u st a s m edical .

dietetics does n ot m erely ex plai n b u t r e ctie s the r u les of ,

n at u ral dietetics so m oral philosophy d oes n o t m erely j u sti fy

,

the i n j u n ctio n s of n at u ral m orality b u t also s u pple m e n ts a n d

,

corrects t he m Th u s it m ay for exa m ple i n givi n g t he rea

.
, ,

so n s for a r u le at the s a m e ti m e de n e the li m its withi n

,

which it holds In explai n i n g the per n i cio u s n ess of false

.

hood i t at the sa m e ti m e helps us to decide whe n wil fu l

,

deceptio n m ay be allowable an d n ecessary It solves the .

proble m of the se called lie of n ecessity w hich s o stra n gely

-
,

co n fu ses co m m o n se n se ( as well as m a n y m oralists ) By

-
.

showi n g why i t is good t o forgive i n j u ries it at th e sa m e ,

ti m e deter m i n es u n der what co n ditio n s alo n e forgive n ess is

possible an d u n der what co n ditio n s retali atio n is n ecessary
, .

N at u ralistic m orality with its absol u te i m peratives leaves

us e n tirely i n the l u rch i n co m plicated cases ; it leaves it to
the i n divid u al s o wn i n sti n ct or t o his t ac t as it is u s u

ally called to settle th e poi n t Moral philosophy can n o t

, .

m ake tact s u per u o u s ; partic u lar decisio n s based u po n c on ,

crete circ u m sta n ces m u st al w ays be left to t act ; but i t m ay

,

lay do wn r u les fo r the g u ida n ce of tac t which w ill acco m plish

m ore tha n these absol u t e i m pera t ive s .

Su ch is the m ethod of ethics i n t h e doc t ri n e o f virt u es an d

d u ties It explai n s its propositio n s t eleologically an d ca u s
.

ally : i n order to reach s u ch an d s u ch a goal s u ch an d s u ch ,

behavior is n ecessary Bu t what abo u t the kn owle dg e of t he

.

g oa l i ts e lf ? Fro m what so u rce does ethics derive the k n owl

 NA TURE A ND F U N C TI ON OF E T H IC S 11

edge of th e perfect li fe how d oes i t prove that its de n it i o n

o f the highest good is correct
?

Here the case i s so m ewhat di ffere n t We m ay say : Th e .

n at u re of the highest good is i n reality n o t deter m i n ed by the

i n tellect bu t by the will Th e i n divid u al has an idea o f

,
.

t he co n d u ct of his i n divid u al li fe a li fe ideal the realizatio n o f

,
-
,

which he feels to be his tr u e fu n ctio n as well as the highes t

goal o f his de sires It is really n o t the i n tellec t fro m which
.

this ideal spri n gs alth o u gh it appears i n the for m of an idea ;

,

its excelle n ce ca n n ot be proved to the reaso n ; it is n othi n g

b u t the reectio n of the i n n er m ost esse n ce an d the wi ll of the
i n divid u al hi m self i n ideatio n If other i n dividuals have .

differe n t i deal s I ca n n o t prove t o the m the i n adeq u acy of

,

their ideals either by logical de m o n stratio n s o r by e m pirical

ca u sal i n vestigatio n s I m ay perhaps m ak e the m feel the
.
, ,

val u e of m y ideal by the m ere revelatio n an d descriptio n o f it

i n deed I m ay co n vi n ce the m tha t m i n e h as greater val u e t ha n
,

theirs an d th u s w i n the m over to m i n e N evertheless it is

,
.
,

n ot the u n dersta n di n g b u t the will which i m pels t he m t o de

,

cide i n its favor Th e i n tellect as s u ch k n ows absol u tely n oth

.

i n g o f val u es i t disti n g u ishes betwee n the tr u e an d t he false

, ,

t he real an d u n real but n o t betwee n the good an d the bad

, .

Earlier ethics freq u e n tly disc u ssed the q u estio n whether r e a

son o r f ee li n g was the source o f m oral k n owledge W e shall .

say that both are i n volved Th e q u estio n : Wha t i s a good

.

li fe wil l i n the last a n alysis be decide d by i m m edi a t e i n co n tro

, ,

vertible feeli n g i n which the i n n erm os t esse n ce of the bei n g

,

m a n i fests itsel f It is as i m possible to force a m an by logical

.

proo fs to love an d ad m ire an ideal o f life as it is to m ake his

to n g u e feel t he swee t n ess or bi tter n ess of a partic u l ar frui t .

We can arouse s u ch feeli n gs o n ly by showi n g that an object

possesses th e qu alities which origi n ally prod u ce d the m i n
h i m owi n g to hi s n at u re A n d to a certai n exte n t a perso n s

, .
,

taste fo r th e good s o f l i fe m ay be cha n ged by h abit as his ,

taste fo r certai n foods m ay be cha n ged In that case .

,
12 I N TRO DUC TI ON
however the cha n ge depe n ds o n the i n ter n al m odicatio n
,

o f the n at u re o f the bei n g But we m ay whe n o n ce the .

,

co n ceptio n of the highest good is established m ake cl ear to ,

t he i n tellect that s u ch or s u ch m ea n s are be n ecial o r

i n j u rio u s t o its realizatio n .

It will n ot there fore be possibl e to give a scie n tic d e n i

, ,

tio n of the highest good which shall be valid fo r all , on e , ,

that i s w h i ch we can force every i n divid u al by l ogical proofs to

,

accept ; o r at l east it will be possible o n ly i n so far a s the

, ,

will itsel f is fu n dam e n tally the sa m e i n all i n divid u als A n d .

we m ay co n sideri n g the fa r reachi n g si m ilarity of the powers

,
-

an d the co n ditio n s o f li fe a ss u m e that this is i n a certai n de

, ,

gree actu ally the case J u st as all the m e m bers o f an a n i m al

,
.

species o n the whole d esire to perfor m the sa m e fu n ction s

, , ,

so we shall n d a certai n si m ilarity of e n ds o r ai m s i n the

h u m a n species It wo u ld be the b u si n ess of a ki n d of n atu ral
.

historical i n vestigatio n t o discover s u ch a u n i for m goal It .

wo u ld have to be show n i n the m ost ge n eral for m ul ae what

, ,

m e n actually desi re as the highest good o r the per fect li fe , .

Th e p u rpose o f the m oralist wo u ld here be ide n tical with that

o f the bi ologis t : h e would be obliged n ot t o prescribe the

goal o f li fe b u t to discover it S ho u ld he however s u cceed

,
.
, ,

i n discoveri n g a u n iversal e n d of li fe h e co u ld n ot o f co u rse , , ,

re fu se t o desig n ate i n divid u als absol u tely deviati n g fro m the

goal o r havi n g di ffere n tly fashio n ed wills (i f th ere sho u ld be
,
-

s u ch ) as ab n or m al for m s A s is well k n ow n there are per

,
.
,

verse sex u al i m p u lses A ltho u gh i t i s i m possible to prove

.

to those who are so a ficted tha t their i m p u lses are perverse

they s ay : Im p u lses are facts ; yo u r i m p u lse te n di n g as it ,

does is n o m ore an d n o less a m ere fact than o u rs the

,

physiologist is co n vi n ced that it is ab n or m al an d the perso n ,

so a ficted can be clearly m ade to see that he is an exceptio n ,

a n d that li fe wo u ld n o t be possible i f the perversity were t h e

r u le Th e sa m e reaso n i n g applies to an ab n or m a l will A

. .

m an fo r exa m ple who is se n sitive o n ly to se n su al i m pressio n s

, , ,
 NA T URE A ND F U N C TION OF E TH IC S 13

s ay, to those o f t he pala t e an d has absol u t ely n o appreci at io n of

,

t h e o t her pl e as u res the pleasures which spri n g from perceptio n

,

an d k n owledge the ex ercise of powers o r i s to t ally i n di ff ere n t

, ,

to the weal an d w oe of hi s hu m an s u rro u n di n gs or u n iform ly

e n j oys th ei r su ff eri n gs : such a bei n g we sho u ld regard as an
ab n ormal for m an d we sho u l d n o t hesitate t o c all h i m per
,

verse eve n though we co u ld n ot co n vi n c e him of t he correct

,

n ess o f o u r co n de m n a t ory j u dg m e n t A n d i t is quite possible

.

that he wou ld n ot e ve n g r a n t tha t his n a t ure was ab n or m al ,

tha t is a deviatio n from th e a verage n ay he m ight asser t

, , ,

that coul d we b u t look be n eath th e o u t w ard appearan ces we

sho u ld n d th at all o t hers thought an d felt as he did .

5 Let m e here ad d a r e m ark co n cer n i n g t he rela t io n of

.

m ora l la ws t o n a tu r a l la ws N atu ral laws a re for m u l a which

.

express t he co n sta n t u n ifor m i t y of n a t ural occ u rre n ces I n .

the n arrower se n se of the t erm t he c o n cep t i s i n t erpreted to

,

mea n an absol u te u n ifor m i ty on e ad m i tt i n g of n o excep t io n s

, .

Thus physics a ss u m es t ha t th e law of gr a vitatio n i s an e xac t

,

mathe m atical ex pressio n of the u n i form reciprocal actio n of

all m asses i n t he u n iverse In t his se n se the law of causality
.
,

itself i s co n ceived as a stric tly u n iversal n a t u ral law In a .

wide r se n se h owever we also desig n ate a s n at u ral laws s u ch

, ,

u n i form occurre n ces i n n a ture as are n ot absol u t ely b u t rela ,

t i ve ly co n s t a n t Th e law s of biology fo r the m os t par t bel o n g to

.

this class ; for ex ample the laws whi ch ex press th e u n i for m ity
,

o f s t r u c t ur e an d fu n c t io n of an a n i m al or pla n t species In .

this se n se we m ay evide n tly call th e propositio n s o f m edical

,

die t etics n at ur al l aws : A s a rule such an d such a method o f

procedure r e a c t s upo n t he body i n such an d s u ch a way C old
water abl u t io n s harde n t he ski n an d the e n tire orga n is m
agai n s t ch an ges i n te m perat u re ; Th e exercise of th e m u s
cu l ar an d n ervo u s syste m s leads to an i n crease i n stre n gth

an d skill while orga n s which are n o t used decay

,
O pi u m an d
alcohol have s u ch an d s u ch direct an d s u ch an d s u ch i n di
r ect e ffects upo n the orga n is m A ll th ese are u n i for m ities
.
 14 I N TRO DUC TION
which ca n n o t be deter m i n ed with m athe m at ical exactn ess ,

an d which ,
owi n g t o the co m plexity of vital processes do ,

n ot appear with t h e sa m e co n sta n t reg u larity as those de

scribed by physics but n evertheless t hey express u n iversal

,

an d regula r t e n de n cies .

In t he sa m e se n se we m ay call t he propositio n s o f e thics

,

n at u ral laws : they too express the co n sta n t co n n ectio n s

, ,

exis ti n g betwee n m odes o f co n d u c t an d their e ffects u po n

li fe Falsehood has th e te n de n cy to prod u ce distr u st ; dis
.

t rus t has the te n de n cy to dist u rb an d destroy hu m a n social

li fe : these are ge n eralizatio n s o f the sa m e ki n d as the asser
tio n that alcohol te n ds t o i m pai r co n scio u s n ess Th e proposi .

tio n : Idle n ess weake n s the powers of the u n ders t a n di n g an d

th e will is n othi n g bu t a u n ive r sal biological law tra n slated
, ,

i n to psych ological lan gu age .

Th e O bj ectio n is urged : Th e propositio n s of e thics o r t he

m oral laws declare what ou g ht t o he an d n o t w ha t i s as d o , ,

the n atu ral laws Thou shal t n ot lie is a law of morality

.
, ,

o n e t hat is u n iversally valid i n S pi t e o f all th e devi atio n s o f

reali ty Th e moral laws i t is held are close ly related t o

.
, ,

the laws on t he stat u te books n ot t o th e laws of n ature ,

.

They are ce r tai n ly rel a t ed t o t hese ; n ay perhaps w e m ay ,

say that th e stat u tes m erely represe n t a sectio n o f the moral

law . Bu t tha t d oes n o t hi n de r t he m fro m bei n g rela t ed to
n atural laws Th e s t a t u t ory laws u n doub t edly express wha t
.

ough t t o be an d there are ex ceptio n s t o the m i n ac tu al

,

practice S t ill t hese are but excep t io n s ; as a rule the law

.
,

is an expressio n of the ac t u al beh avior of th e citize n s ; we

should surel y n ot recko n a m o n g the laws of t he stat e a law
th a t is u n iversally violated It is a real l aw n ot because it
.
,

is pri n ted on a piece o f paper b u t becau se it is an ex pressio n,

o f t he u n iform ity of actio n eve n th o u gh this u n i for m ity be

,

n ot absol u te Moreover alth o u gh the law o f the state has

.
,

i t s origi n i n the will o f m an i t is i n the last a n alysis b ased

, , ,

u po n the n ature of thi n gs u po n the ca u sal co n n ectio n s exist

,
16 I N TRO DUC TION
be t wee n causes an d e ffec t s be t wee n a cts an d i n divid u al an d
,

social li fe there would be n o m oral laws Th e m oral law is

, .

n o t the prod u ct o f caprice n o t the arbitrary co m m a n d of a

,

tran sce n de n t despo t or o f an u n co n trollable i n n er voice

b u t the expressio n o f an i m m a n e n t law of hu m a n life H u m a n .

li fe that is a li fe with a h u m a n m e n tal historical co n te n t is

, ,
-
,

possibl e o n ly where all i n divid u als ac t with relative u n iformity ,

i n accorda n ce with the laws of m orality he n ce w here the moral

,

law has the validity o f a biologic al law Deviatio n s from the.

m oral l a w h ave t he t e n de n cy t o prod u ce disturba n ce s i n i n di

vid u al a n d social li fe ; absol u t e violatio n of the m oral law
wo u ld lead rst t o th e des t ru ctio n of h u m a n historical life
, , ,

an d n ally also t o t he destructio n o f its a n i m al e xis t e n ce .

Perhaps a co m pariso n wi t h the la ws of gr a mma r will elu ci

d at e th e for m al character of the m oral laws It is popularly .

s u pposed that the laws of gra m m a r d e cl ar e wha t o u gh t t o b e :

gra m m ar prescribe s th e way i n which we ought to speak .

Th e history of la n g u ag e regards gra m m ar i n a di ffere n t light

gra m m a r does n ot prescribe t he ways i n whic h we o ugh t t o
speak but describes t he ways i n which w e d o speak Th e
, .

gra m m aria n o f Gothic or Middle High Ger m a n collec t s an d

describes the forms which were ac t u ally used i n the pas t ; the
paleo n tologist collects an d describes ex t i n c t for m s of li fe ;
an d the gra m m ari a n o f the livi n g la n guage does t he sa m e .

Bu t a pec u liar fac t i s observed here There is a di ff ere n c e

.

i n the la n guage of di ff ere n t perso n s of di e r e n t writers

,
.

Tr u e we n d great u n i for m ity a t leas t i n the ge n eral pla n

, ,

o f the la n g u age i n t h e decle n sio n s an d co n j u gatio n s b u t

, ,

eve n here we n d exceptio n s especially i n the spoke n word

, .

This co m pels th e gra m m aria n whose real a i m is to describe

,

the lan gu age t o choose betwee n di ff ere n t for m s i n order t o

, ,

reac h u n iversal proposi t io n s He w ill be guided i n his choice

.
,

e ither by t he freque n cy o f t hei r occ u rre n ce o r by his es t i m a t e

o f t h e li n g u istic powers o f the writers C ertai n for m s are

.

declared t o b e t he n or m a l o n es an d gra mm a r t here fore

, , ,
 NA TURE A ND F U N C TIO N OF E T H IC S 17

beco m es a n or m ative sc i e n ce afte r all : i t decides what i s

correct an d what is i n correct Th is proced u re h owever it .
, ,

m u s t he co n fessed i s ulti m at ely gover n ed by teleological

,

n ecessity : t he p u rpose o f the la n g u age is to co m m u n icate

though t s ; d eviatio n s make this i m possible an d t hey a re ,

therefor e eli m i n ated as disturbi n g ele m e n t s .

In t h e s am e way popula r t hough t regards i t as t he fu n c

,

t ion of moral philosophy t o prescribe l aws But an thropology .

an d his t ory hav e a di ffere n t co n cep t io n of t he proble m Th e .

pri m ary ai m i s n ot t o prescribe what m e n ought t o do an d ,

accordi n g t o wha t pri n ciples t hey o u ght t o j u dge b u t t o ,

d escribe an d u n dersta n d t he ways i n which they really ac t

an d live A n d t o u n dersta n d t he m mean s t o u n dersta n d the
.

t eleological n ecessi ty of thei r c u sto m s l a ws an d i n stit u tio n s , ,

.

H e n ce h er e as be fore a descrip t ive an d expla n a t ory scie n ce

, ,

b e co m es a n o rm a t ive scie n ce : i t s p r e posi ti on s beco m e pri n

ci pl e s o f j udg m e n t an d r u les o f co n d u c t i n s o fa r as they ,

r eprese n t t h e c o n di t i o n s o f h u m a n welfare l
.

6 Le t m e n ow make a few more s t ate m e n ts c o n cer n i n g

.

th e fu n ct io n o f ethics to de n e the highes t good In sec .

t io n 3 we used t he term p erf ecti on A p e rfe ct h u m an li fe .

,

tha t i s a li fe i n which all t he bodily a n d m e n t al powers of

,

m an ar e fully developed an d exercised is the highest good ,

for the i n dividual We shall h a ve t o disc u ss the m a t erial

.

ph a se of t his de n itio n i n de t ail l at er on Here I shall .

si m ply e n ter u po n a brief co n sideratio n o f i ts fo rm al side ,

.

It has bee n said t ha t this is a purely form al e m pty de n itio n , ,

which m ay be lled with an y co n crete co n te n t w hatsoever .

A s co m pared with this co n cep t io n the d e n i te n e ss o f othe r ,

v iews fo r i n s t a n ce
, t ha t pleasure is the absol u te goo d has
, ,

1 S eh l e i e r m aeh e r , w h ose e n t i r e e t h i cs r e st s u p on ap aralle l is m b e t w ee n e t h i cs

an d p h ys i cs, t he m o ral law an d t h e n at u ral l a w , d i s cu sse s t h e d iffe re n ce b e t w e e n

nat u ral la w an d m oral l aw i n an acade m i c t r eat i se of t h e y ear 1 8 2 5 .

(C o m p le t e
Work s ,
3d Di vi s i o n, vo l II , p
. . C o m p a r e al s o F J
. . . N
e u m an n , N a t ura l La w

a nd E con o mi c La w (i n t h o Ze its chr t i r d i e ges a m t S ta a ts w , 1 8 9 2 n u m be r

. .
,

an d E u ck e n , F un da menta l C oncep ts qf the P re s e nt, 2 d cd .

,
1 8 93 , p p . U SE .

2
18 IN TR O DUC TION
bee n extolled Whe n we speak of p leasure i t h as bee n
.
,

clai m ed we k n o w wh at we are talki n g abo u t I shall have

, .

to de fer the disc u ssio n of he d o n is m t o a lat er ti m e Here .

,

however I sho u ld like t o show tha t it is utterly i m possible to

,

give a n ythi n g b u t a for m al explan a t io n o f th e highest g ood .

Medical diete t ics does n o t give us a co n crete expositio n o f

the perfect bodily li fe b u t o n ly a ge n eral o u tli n e which m ay
, ,

be lled i n i n m a n y di ff ere n t ways S i m ilarly ethics can give

.
,

on ly a sche m atic o u tli n e o f a m ode o f li fe t he observan ce ,

of which does n o t n ecessari l y make a li fe val u able altho u gh ,

i t is the pres u ppositio n of t he healthy develop m e n t of li fe .

Th e val u e of s u ch a life depe n ds upo n the n u m be r o f c on

C rete ele m e n ts w hich it co n tai n s a n d n o syste m of ethics
, ,

n ot eve n the hedo n is t ic c an u n dertake to describe t he m

,
.

Th e followi n g ill u stratio n will make ou r m ea n i n g clear .

We ca n n o t speak of on e per fec t li fe A people o r a race con .

sisti n g of t otally si m ilar copies o f a perfec t origi n al p att e rn

wo u ld s trike us as an i n n i t ely poor an d e m pty a ffair N ay , .

th e very tho u ght o f such a thi n g is horrible Im agi n e a m u l .

t i tu de o f h u m a n bei n gs wh olly alike as to t heir i n n e r n a t u r e

a n d li fe,
di fferi n g fro m each other o n ly i n th e n u m bers at
t ach e d to the m Perfectio n co n sists n ot i n th e si m ilarity b u t
.
, ,

i n th e variety o f for m s In order to gi v e a co n crete represe n ta

.

tio n of the perfec t li fe we sh ou ld h ave to tak e o u r ideal of

,

h u m a n ity an d show what di ffere n t form s of h u m an li fe are

,

possible O r n ecessary t o realize t he i dea ; th a t is we sh o u ld ,

have to describe a m u ltit u de o f n atio n s t r i bes fa m ilies i n , , ,

d i v i d u als a n d the m odes o f li fe n ecessarily resulti n g fro m

,

their n atural e n dow m e n ts This wo u ld be the f u n ction o f an

.

artistic o r creative philosophy of history ; m a n i festly an i m

possible task In deed i t i s n ot eve n possible to ded u ce th e
.
,

past li fe o f h u m a n ity which history reveals t o u s with i ts

, ,

m u lti tu des of peoples an d its historical develop m e n t fro m ,

a n ide a o f h u m a n ity m u ch l ess t o o u tli n e the fu t u re his to ry

an d its n e w for m s .
 NA T URE A ND F U N C TION OF E T H IC S 19

No expec t s aest he ti cs to represe n t beauty i n t he co n

on e

cre t e tha t is t o ded u ce all t he real an d possibl e beautif u l

, ,

pictures s t atu es poe m s a n d m usical co m positio n s from an

, , ,

idea o f the beau t i ful Th e productio n of co n cre t e beauty

.

is the busi n ess of the ge n i u s rEsth e ti cs re ects upo n t he

.

prod u cts of ge n i u s it ai m s to express i n ge n eral form ul a

,

the co n di t io n s upo n which the prod u cts depe n d o r a t leas t ,

witho u t which they can n o t arise It can n ot tha t is to say .

, ,

propose co n cre t e proble m s t o the f u t u re artist b u t i t c an ,

a ssist h i m i n gai n i n g an i n sigh t i n t o his ar t an d avoidi n g

m istakes Th e sa m e m ay be sai d of e t hi cs ; it does n o t

.

describe every possible form of good life this the m oral

ge n i u s evolves o u t of the ful n ess of his n at u re bu t u n der
ta kes t o describe an d to j u s tify the rules of co n d u ct witho u t
which a good an d beautiful li fe ca n n ot be realized A n d .

e thics t oo m ay i n dulge i n the hope that i t can i n a m easure

, , , ,

g uide t he s t ude n t i n discoveri n g his peculiar life s t ask an d

,

guard him agai n st e rror i n his a tt e m pts to solve i t .

7 It fur t her follows fro m t he above t ha t th ere can be n o

.

u n i ver sa l m or a li t
y i n t he c on cr e te T h e differe n t expressio
. n s
of the u n iversal type of m an de m a n d each its o w n particular

m orality Th e E n glish m a n di ffers fro m t h e C hi n a m a n an d

.

n egro an d desi res an d o u gh t t o di ffer fro m the m

, C on se .

que n tly each on e a m o n g the m has a di ffere n t m orality It is

, .

an u n d oub t ed fact that every n atio n has its o w n particular ideal

of li fe an d its o wn m orality Th e o n ly q u esti o n i s whether

.

what i s o u ght t o be It i s absolutely esse n tial s o it
.
,

is clai m e d th at the propositio n s of m orality be valid for all

,

ma n ki n d o r i n the words of Ka n t fo r all rati o n al crea

, ,

t u res . If we ad m it that there i s a di ffere n t cod e o f m orals
for E n glish m e n an d n egroes t he n sh all we n ot h ave to con
,

cl u de that the re i s a di ffe re n t code fo r m e n an d wo m e n fo r ,

artists an d m ercha n t s an d n ally also o n e fo r each par

, , , ,

t i cu l ar m an ?
In deed , the co n cl u sio n i s a logical on e . Bu t I do n ot see
20 I N TRO DUC TION
h ow we c an avoid i t i f o n ce we gra n t an d i n sis t upo n the
assertio n that di ffere n ces i n li fe are n ot o n ly n ot an evil b u t ,

esse n tial co n ditio n s of the perfectio n o f m a n ki n d If we j u s .

ti fy the di ffere n t for m s o f h u m a n li fe we shall als o h ave t o ,

j u sti fy t he di ffere n t r u les o f co n d u c t J u s t as the dietetics .

o f the E n glish m a n n at u rally di ffers fro m tha t o f the n egro ,

his morality which accordi n g t o ou r co n ceptio n is m erely a

, , ,

u n iversal di etetics m u s t di e r fro m his We shall th ere

, .
,

fore be c o m pelled to say tha t a mode o f co n duct whi ch is

,

suitable an d esse n tial to t he former n eed n ot be so to t he

latter A n d w e n d n ot o n ly t ha t the E n glish m a n a c tu ally
.

treats the n egro di e r en tly fro m on e of his o wn cou n try m e n ,

b u t that his relatio n s to th e n egro are gove r n ed by an e n

t i re ly di ffere n t code o f m orali t y all o f which does n ot m ea n ,

o f co u rse that I am willi n g t o justify the atroci t ies which

,

h ave bee n an d ar e s t ill bei n g co m m it t e d every day agai n s t

the savages i n the n a m e of civilizat io n by European s al a s , ,

n ow also by t he Ger m a n s .

On ly i n a li m ited se n se can we speak of a u n iv e rsal moral

ity In so far n a m ely as there are certai n f u n da m e n tal si m
.
, ,

il ar i ti e s i n t he n at u re an d li fe co n ditio n s o f all hu m a n bei n gs

-
,

i n so far will there be certai n u n iversally valid f u n da m e n tal

co n ditio n s of healthy li fe Thu s m edical dietetics m ay prese n t
.

certai n f u n da m e n tal r u l es as u n iversal t ruths : A cer t ai n

a m o u n t of food co n sisti n g say of such an d s u ch subs t an ces
, , , ,

alb u m e n fats carbo hydrates wa t er etc f u rther m ore a cer

, ,
-
, ,
.
, ,

tai n a m ou n t of work a n d res t i s n ecessary t o the preservatio n

o f bodily li fe In the sa m e se n se m orality can adva n ce u n i
.
,

versal propositio n s : Th e preservatio n Of hu m an li fe de m a n ds

t hat so m e a t te n t io n be give n t o th e care of o ffspri n g an d th e

reari n g o f th e yo u n g ; an d i n order that this e n d m ay be reached

the sexes m u st live together i n so m e perm an e n t for m Or : .

A tribe can n ot exist without so m e r egulati o n s te n di n g to

hi n der hostilities amo n g its me m be rs the i n fractio n of such
rules te n ds to bree d r u i n ; he n ce m urde r adul te ry the ft , , , ,
 N A TU RE A ND F UN C TION OF E TH I C S 21

an d p e rjury are bad ; j u stice be n evole n ce an d veraci ty th e

, , ,

i n n er dispositio n s of th e will which preve n t such acts a re ,

good .

Bu t i n orde r t h a t su ch u n iversal rules may be directly

a pplied life m u s t b e adap t ed to th e partic u lar n ature an d
,

th e par t ic u lar co n ditio n s s u rro u n di n g it . Th e die t etic rule

of n ourish m e n t m e n tio n e d above does n ot m ea n th e sa m e
fo r th e Esq u i m au as fo r th e n egro . S imilarly the rules o f,

a u n iversal hu m a n m orality m u s t be adap t ed to t h e special

historical for m s an d co n ditio n s of life be fore t hey can be

directly e m ployed i n determ i n i n g an d judgi n g co n d u c t Th e .

co mm a n d m e n t : Treat you r n eighbo r jus tly an d ki n dly ,

observ e t he rules of fa m ily an d social life does n ot mea n ,

t he sam e for an A frica n n egro as fo r a European C hristia n .

Tha t mo n oga m y is the bes t fo rm o f fa m ily life fo r a civil

i ze d n atio n does n ot prove that it i s the best form for the
e n tirely di ff ere n t co n ditio n s govern i n g the n egro t ribe We .

may say wi t h perfec t justice that m o n oga m y is th e highe r

form of fam ily li fe Bu t tha t si m ply m ea n s that i t is suitabl e
.

t o the higher s t ages of develop m e n t an d n o t tha t it is wro n g

for th e lowe r s t ages t o have a di ff ere n t for m . Perhaps polyg
a my is a n ecessary stage i n th e devel op m e n t o f the fam ily ,

j u s t as blood re v e n ge is a n ecessary stage i n the developme n t

-

of law an d sl avery i n t he develop m e n t o f society

,
.

This i m plies als o tha t di ffere n t ti m es have di ff ere n t m oral

codes That it is so is an i n disputable fact bu t it is hard to
.
,

co n vi n ce co m m o n se n se tha t i t must be so tha t it is n ot

-
,

n ecessarily a sig n of i m perfec t io n an d perversio n fo r an

earlie r age t o have other c u sto m s di ffere n t ac t s an d j u dg
,
~

m e n ts than t he prese n t
,
W e are i n cli n ed t o thi n k that what
.

ever d i e rs fro m ou r custo m s is all w ro n g We bla m e the

.

M iddle A ges for bur n i n g here t ics an d witches torturi n g sus ,

peets an d killi n g cri m i n al s by the tho u sa n ds We are right.

i n calli n g their m eth od s br u tal an d barbarous This h o w

.
,

ever does n o t prove that a bru tal age did wro n g i n e m ploy
,
22 I N TRO DU C TI ON
in g the m Perhaps it did ; perhaps at least these m e thods
.
, ,

were freq u e n tly ab u sed b u t perhaps on the other han d

, ,

proo f of course is i m possible fro m the very n at u re o f the

, ,

case this m ethod of proced u re was s u itable an d n ecessary

i n t ha t age Pe rhaps the discipli n i n g of h u m a n so u ls by
.

the ch u rch was so n ecessary a preco n ditio n o f civilizati o n ,

that t he Middle A ges sta n d j u st i ed before the trib u n al o f

history fo r s u ppressi n g with all the m ea n s at thei r co m m a n d
, , ,

every atte m p t of the i n divid u al t o e m a n cipate hi m sel f fro m

t hi s discipli n e ( which was the u sual obj ec t of heresy ) Per .

haps the e n tire ad m i nistratio n of j ustice of those days with ,

its bru tal m ethods was at leas t a t e m porarily n ecessary pre

,

co n ditio n of the co m plica t e d social life of th e medi aeval

tow n s It is co n soli n g th at o u r co u rts an d police are m ore
.

e fcie n t an d attai n th e sa m e o r better r es u lts by mea n s o f

,

m ore huma n e m eth ods b u t this does n ot prove th at the M i d

,

dle A ges could h ave preserved th e peace i n the sam e way .

Th e Middle A ges m ight m ake the followi n g a n swer t o o u r

charges : You o we it to u s tha t y ou are n o w able to get alo n g
with s u ch m ild p u n ish m e n ts ; it h as t ake n u s ce n t u ries o f
hard w ork to eradicate the ele m e n ts whic h absolutely re fu sed
to adapt t he m selves to social order To b e s u re this was n o .
,

agree able task ; b u t n ow that it is acco m plished it i s n ot ,

fai r o f y o u to ce n sure us for h avi n g u n dertaken it Besides .

,

wh o k n ows how lo n g yo u r m ethods will prove s u ccessfu l ?

A n d n o w we shall have t o go still fu rther an d say : Eve n
d i ffere n t groups of th e sa m e n a t io n an d n ally also , , , ,

d i ff ere n t i n d i vi du a ls are s u bject t o a special m oral cod e .

Di ffere n t dispositio n s an d li fe co n ditio n s de m a n d n ot o n ly

-

a di ffere n t bodily b u t also a di ffere n t spirit u al a n d m oral

,

d ie t What is be n ecial an d n ecessary t o o n e m ay be u n

.

s u itable an d i n j u rio u s to a n other We are n ever i n d o u bt

.

abou t t his fact whe n it co m es to act u al practice We d is ap .

prove an d ce n s u re o n e m an fo r so m ethi n g that we co n sider

p er m issible o r lovable i n a n other In deed we m ay say tha t
.
,
24 I N TRO DU C TION
o s e n c e an d to t he wisdo m o f th e i n dividu al to adap t t hese
c n ci

t o special c on ditio n s Whe n however he n eeds gu idan ce i n

.
, ,

t hese m att er s he will seek the help of a p er son a l cou n se llor a

, ,

s i r i tu a l a d vi ser wh o is perhaps as n ecessary as is a m edical

p , , ,

a dvise r for th e body Fo r s u rely the relatio n s of m oral li fe

.
, ,

a re n o less com pli cate d i ts proble m s n o less di fcult its n eed s

, ,

n o l ess serious i t s dis t urba n ces n o less me n aci n g tha n those

, ,

o f bodily li fe Here as well as i n the la tt er case we h ave a

.

c o n fusi n g m ix t ure of i n cli n atio n an d aversio n fear an d hope , .

All this see m ed self evide n t t o an e arlier a ge ; n othi n g

-

see m ed m ore n ecessary than t o place t he i n d i vid u al u n der th e

o i ci al care of a wis e an d e xperie n ced m oral an d S piri t u al

a dviser leavi n g i t t o cus t om an d i n dividual i n sti n c t to car e

,

fo r the body Is the p r ese n t i n creas e o f physicia n s an d th e

.

c orrespo n di n g r el at ive decre ase of spiri tu al advisers a sign

t hat we are more s olici t ous of t he body than of th e soul ? Or
a re w e i n hopes of i n ue n ci n g th e soul by mea n s o f the body ?
Or i s it becaus e the t a sk of cari n g for th e so u l i s beco m i n g
more di f cult i n con seq u e n ce of the growi n g di ffere n tiatio n of
t ho u gh t an d feeli n g an d because o u r faith i n its acco m plish
,

me n t is wan i n g ?
Th e fact r e m ai n s o n th e othe r ha n d t ha t t he rules of
, ,

m oral philosophy are n ot absol u tely valid fo r all We may .

,

as was said co n ceive of a u n iversal h u m a n m oral ity o r eve n

, ,

o f a morality fo r all r a t io n al c reatures b u t n o o n e is able t o ,

realize it Th e m oral philosophe r i s a child o f his people i n

.

thou gh t an d feeli n gs a n d is i n u e n ced by their morality ;

,

positively for he has bee n moulded by their j u dg m e n ts an d

,

ideals fro m the days o f his childhood ; n egatively fo r his n o ,

tio n s of wha t o u ght n ot to be an d hi s ideas of what o u ght to be

a r e co n ditio n ed by his t i m es Th e abstract ratio n alism o f the
.

e ightee n th ce n tury did n o t appreciate this tr u th which Ka n t , ,

too failed to observ e Th e histo rical ce n t u ry as the n i n e

,
.
,

t e e n th ce n tury m ight be called i n co n tradisti n ctio n fro m the

e ightee n th ,
the scecu lu m p hi losop hi cu m n o l o n ger n ds i t ,
 NA TU RE A N D F U N C TI ON OF E TH IC S 25

possible t o believe i n t he u n iv e rsal m an Eve r y moral

.

philosophy is therefore valid o n ly for t he sphere of civiliza

, ,

tio n fro m which it spri n gs whe t her it is con scious of t he fac t ,

or n ot . It can have n o o t he r ai m tha n t o draw th e ge n eral

outli n es of a mode of life which must be followed by the
m e m bers of the partic u lar sphere i n order t o make possibl e ,

a heal t hy vir t u ous an d h appy e xiste n ce

, ,
.

.8 In co n cl u sio n le t me say a word co n cer n i n g th e p r a cti

,

ca l va lu e of e t hics C an e t hics be a practical scie n ce n ot o n ly

.
,

i n the se n se tha t i t deals wi t h practice b u t t ha t i t i n u e n ces ,

practice ? This was i t s origi n al purpose It i s th e fu n c t io n .

o f ethics says A risto t le t o act n o t o n ly t o t heorize

, S cho
, , .

p e n h au e r begi n s his ethics ( i n t he four th b ook o f his m ai n

work ) with the a t te m p t t o disprove this vie w All philosophy .
,

he says is t heore t ical ; u po n m ature r eec t io n i t ough t

, ,

n ally t o a ba n do n t he old de m a n d t h at it become practical ,

g u ide ac t io n an d t ra n sfor m character fo r h ere i t is n ot dead

, ,

co n cep t s t ha t decide b u t the i n n e rm ost esse n c e of the hu m a n

,

bei n g the de m on tha t g u ides h i m It is a s i m possible t o teach

, .

virtue as it is t o t each ge n ius It wo u ld be as foolish t o ex .

pe ct ou r moral sys t e m s t o produce virtuous characters an d

sai n ts as t o expect t he scie n ce of aes thetics to bri n g for th
poets sculp t ors an d musici an s
, , .

I do n o t believ e t ha t e thics n eed be so fai n t hear t ed Its -

.

rst objec t i t is t rue is to u n dersta n d h u m a n strivi n gs an d

, ,

modes of co n d u c t co n di t io n s an d i n sti t utio n s as well as thei r

, ,

e ff ec t s upo n i n dividual an d social li fe Bu t i f k n owledge is .

capable of i n ue n ci n g co n duc t which S chope n hauer h i m

self would n ot de n y i t is hard t o u n ders t a n d w h y t he
k n owledge of e thics alo n e should be fruitless i n this respec t .

If a physicia n can by poi n t i n g o u t t he causal relatio n existi n g

be twee n clean li n ess an d health be t wee n the excessive use ,

of alcohol o r n ico t i n e an d th e dera n ge m e n t o f th e n e rvo u s

syste m i n duce a m othe r to u se water m ore freely o r a you n g

, ,

m an to be m oder at e why sh ould n ot a m oralis t have a righ t

,
26 I N TRO DUC TION
to hope th at the discovery o f si m i l ar causal c o n n ec t io n s exis t
i n g be twee n co n d u ct an d the for m o f li fe will i n u e n ce c o n
d u ct ? If he c an m ake clear that dissipatio n i n dole n ce a n ger , , ,

e n vy falsehood i n co n siderate n ess prod u ce certai n disturb

, , ,

an ce s i n li fe while prude n ce polite n ess m odesty uprigh t

, , , ,

n ess a m iability te n d to prod u ce good e ffects o n the life o f th e

, ,

i n divid u al an d that o f his s u rro u n di n gs why sho u ld n ot such ,

k n owledge also i n u e n ce the will Or shall we ass u m e t hat

everybody is perfectly well aware that the form er m odes of
co n d u ct are good an d the latter bad an d that we n ee d n ot ,

wait fo r ethics to tell u s these thi n gs ? A n d does experie n ce

really show that k n owledge i s u n able t o t urn th e will i n the
directio n o f the good ; is S chope n hauer right i n sayi n g ve lle ,

n on d i sc i tu r f If so I believe i t is n ot t he righ t ki n d of
,

k n owledge A r e a l i n sig ht which of co u rse does n ot co n sist

.
, , ,

m erely i n m e m orizi n g an d ra t tli n g o ff a lo t of for m ul a an d

m axi m s is bo u n d to be as fr u itfu l here as everywhere else
, .

To be s u re we ca n n ot expec t s u ch an i n sigh t t o de t er m i n e t h e
,

will absol u tely N atu ral capacities ed u ca t io n habi t exa m ple

.
, , , ,

praise an d ce n s u re the ad m iratio n an d co n t e m p t of o u r s u r

,

ro u n di n gs an d other thi n gs play thei r par t Bu t k n owledge

, , .
,

too is a facto r an d a very i m port an t factor with t he wise

,

by who m we do n ot n ecessarily m ea n t he lear n ed Bu t as .

for S chope n h auer s dog m a that the will i s so m e thi n g ab so

l u te ly xe d i n eve ry li fe I a m i n cli n ed t o regard it as o n e o f

,

th e articles o f s u perstitio n of w hich t here is n o dearth i n

S chope n ha u er s teachi n g There i s n o such rigid co n s t a n t

.
,

will n ot eve n i n the n arro wer se n se i n which S chope n hau er

,

u ses the ter m : that the relatio n betwee n egois m a n d al t ru

i s m i s u n alterably deter m i n e d a t bir th i n t he case o f every

i n divid u al .

Moral i n struc t io n h owever can h ave n o practical e ffec t

, ,

u n less there be so m e agree m e n t co n cer n i n g the n at u re of the

n al goal n ot a m ere verbal agree m e n t to be s u re b u t on e , ,

based upo n actu al feeli n g It wo u ld be f u t ile for a physici a n

.
 NA TU RE A ND F UNC TI ON o r ET H IC S 27

t o advise a m an wh o does n ot c a r e for health an d bodily

welfare t o d o certai n t hi n gs an d to abs t ai n fro m others .

S i m ilarly it wo u l d be useless for a m oral philosopher to

,

reco m m e n d m odera t io n an d prude n ce to on e whose n otio n

of a good li fe is a few years o f excite m e n t an d dissipa

t io n an d t he n a bulle t thro u gh the brai n

,
O r perh aps it woul d
.

n ot be all i n v ai n Who k n ows bu t wha t h e m ight n ally

.

s ucceed i n co n vi n ci n g such a perso n tha t h e was m istake n

abou t hi m self an d h is will an d his co n ceptio n of the

,

highes t good ; wh o k n ows but wh a t m ore care fu l reectio n

migh t S how h i m th at such a life ca n n ot be good an d the n al
goal of his o wn will We can hardly de n y th a t co n versio n s
?

have ac t ually t ake n pl ace Shall we say that m oral preach

.

'

i n g alo n e c an prod u ce t hese res u lts an d that m o r al p h i los o ph y

,

ca n n o t ? Well I do n ot k n ow whether it is possi ble t o draw

,

a sh arp li n e of separa t io n be t wee n t hem Th e preacher can .

scarcely hope to i n u e n ce an y on e witho u t appeali n g to his

i n sight A n d w h y sho u l d n ot th e i m partial prese n tatio n of
.

the relatio n s existi n g be t wee n co n d u ct an d wel fare prove t o

be an e ffective ser m o n eve n tho u gh or rather le t us say
, ,

j u s t because i t does n ot ass u m e the form of m oralizi n g

e xho r t atio n

But should an y on e still h old t he view tha t m oral p h iloso

phy is n ot o n ly fr u itless b u t d a ng e r ou s an d h a r mf u l on the
, ,

grou n d th at the fo rces regu l a t i n g li fe c u stom an d co n scie n ce

, ,

are weake n ed by spec u latio n s co n cer n i n g thei r origi n i m port , ,

an d validity we sh o u ld reply : In the rs t place s u ch r e ec

, ,

tion s are n ot prod u ced by philosophy b u t co n versely ph i los o

, , ,

phy is prod u ced by these i n evitable reectio n s Reectio n o n .

hu m a n co n d u ct an d j u dg m e n t is i n evitable Whe n ever there

.

is an y co n trove rsy co n cer n i n g a co n crete case co n cer n i n g th e

,

rightn ess o r wro n g n ess of an act a j u dg m e n t or an i n sti tu

, ,

tio n we are co m pelled t o go back to pri n ciples which will

,

decide th e ease Moral phil osophy is n othi n g b u t a radical

.

atte m pt to discover u lti m ate pri n ciples by which to deter m i n e

28 INTR DUC TI
O ON
the valu e of thi n gs i n so far a s t hese depe n d upo n t he hu m an
,

will S eco n dly it is especially n ecessary that o u r age re ach

.
,

so m e co n cl usion co n cer n i n g these pri n ciples Th e prese n t i s

.

ch a r a c t erized by a stro n g desir e to rej ec t a p r i or i all the ol d

accep t ed t ru ths There are m a n y sy m ptoms of this desire :
.

thi n k of th e a vidi ty wi th which Frieder ic h N ie t zsche s o ra

on l a r u tt er an ces co n cer n i n g t h e n ecessary t ra n s for m atio n o f

all values ( Di e Um wer tu ng a lle r W er te

) a re received by the

you n g as well a s of th e viole n t co n de m n atio n by the social

,

de m ocracy of all exis t i n g polit ic al an d social i n stitutio n s A .

p a ssio n ate m an i a for th e n e w an d u n heard o f i n thought i n

-
, ,

morals an d i n modes of life h a s t ake n hold of ou r ti m es It

, ,
.

is u tt erly useless t o a ppeal to au thori ty an d traditio n ; this

ma n i a is n othi n g bu t an o u tbre ak of fr ee i n divid u a l t hought ,

which has bee n repressed s o lo n g an d m ade dis t rus tfu l by

,

coercio n ; i t is t h e r e a c t io n agai n s t the school which force d ,

m e n n o t to t hi n k bu t t o memorize ag a i n s t t he church whic h

, , ,

a sked the m n ot t o thi n k bu t to believe These are the sym p

, .

t o m s of the A uf lclaru ng the A uf lclar u ng which was lo n g si n ce

,
'

reported dead ; i t h as come b a ck t o life an d has t ake n hold

o f t he m asses of t he you n g m e n especi a lly o f course ; they
, ,

wa n t t o do their ow n t hi n ki n g an d m oul d t heir l ives an d n ot ,

t o be govern ed bli n dly by t he traditi o n al thoughts an d ao

t io n s of o t hers A n d t o t his th ey have a perfec t right ; it i s
.

t he fu n da m e n t al righ t an d highes t d u ty of m an t o thi n k his

o wn t houghts an d t o a c t hi s o w n ac t s : i n depe n de n t self

de t ermi n atio n i s th e royal pre rogat iv e o f t he mi n d N othi n g .

will a vail here b u t free u n bi a ssed t hough t It will be the

, .

busi n ess of ethics t o i n vi t e the doubte r an d t he i n q u ire r to

a ssis t i n th e co m m on e ffor t t o discove r xed pri n ciples which
S hal l help the j u dg m e n t t o u n ders t a n d t he ai m s an d proble m s

o f life . It will n ot t ell h i m : This shalt th ou d o bu t will i n ves

,

t i gat e with hi m the q u estio n : What ar t thou s t rivi n g after ,

w hat are thy t r u e ideals n o t m erely thy te m porary m oods

,

a n d whi m s ? Perh aps he will the n n d tha t m u ch o f wha t

 NA TURE A ND F U N C TI ON OF E T H IC S 29

he was abo u t t o cas t aside as a m ere co m m a n d o f caprice , ,

is rooted i n the ve ry n at u re of t hi n gs an d co n seque n tly also ,

i n his o wn will 1
.

1
[On t h e P ro b le m an d M eth o ds of E th i cs, t h e R el at i on of E t h i cs t o oth er
'

Sci e n ces, an d ot h e r i n t ro d u ct ory m at t e r, see S i d g w i ck , The Jll e thod s cy E thi cs,

ch ap I I I
pp 1 - 2 4 ; S t e p h e n , The S c zence q thi cs , ch a
p I , p p 1 4 0 ; S ch ur

. . . . . .
.
,

m a n , The E thi ca l I mp ort q a r w i n i s m, ch a

p I , p p 1 3 7 ; M u i rh e a d , E le men ts. . .

o
f E th i cs , c h a p s I I I I , pp 1 3 9 . M .ac k e
. nz i e ,
M a
. n ua l o
f E thi c s ,
c h a
p s I
II , p p . . . .

1 3 1 , App e n di B , pp 3 2 4 x
3 2 8 ; Hy slo p The E le me nts of E thi cs, ch ap I p p
.
, . . , .

1 1 7 ; Se t h , A S t u d y of E th i ca l P r i nc ip les , ch ap s I III , p p 1 - 3 5 ; Ho ff d in g , . . . .

E tlu k, I I V .
-
.
, pp 1 54 ;
. W u n dt , E th i k ,
I n t r o d u c t i o n , pp 1 1 7 ( E n gli s h t ran s la
.

t i o n , pp . 120) Do r ne r , Das m en s chli che H a nd e ln , In t r o d u ct i o n , pp 1 - 2 3 ; S i m .

m e l, E znle ztu ng i n d i e M or a lwi sse nscha , Pre face ; M u n st e r b e r g ,

v ol
rs run I
p.
g .
,

d er S i tth chke i t, In t r o d u ct i o n , pp 1
1 0 ; Bun ze , E th ilc, vo l I , pp 1

. 1 6 , w h i c h co n . . .

x
t ai n s m an y e cell e n t b i bli og rap hi cal re fe r e n ces ; M ar i on , Le gons d e mora le, ch a
p I .

TR .
]
I ta g u a d a m n on v e r bo r u m s ed r er u m e l o gu e n ti a co n t r a r i or i u m

o
pp os i ti on s s ecu li
p u lch r i tu d o comp on i t u r .

AU G U S TI N U S .
 C H A PTER I

T HE C O C E PTIO N N OF LIFE A N D M OR AL P HI L OS OP H Y A M ONG

T HE G REE K S

I S HA LL precede m y expositio n o f ethics with an h is t orical

s u rvey of the develop m e n t of the co n ceptio n of li fe (Le be n s

a n scha u u n
g) an d m oral philosophy I sh all co
. n n e m y
atte n tio n t o the historical phe n o m e n a which are still directly
i n u e n ci n g t he l ife of the Wes t ern n atio n s No o n e will .

reach a clea r an d disti n c t k n owledge of t he m ixed an d

o fte n co n f u sed co n ceptio n s an d aspiratio n s of ou r age who
does n ot p u rs u e the great trib u taries which form t he s t ream
of o u r m oral ci vilizatio n to thei r so u rces .

Th e previo u s history of o u r m orality an d t heory o f l i fe

divides itself i n to three gre at periods Th e rs t e m brace s t he
.

develop m e n t of t he an ci en t worl d to i t s co n versio n ; t he sec

o n d the Chr i sti a n develop m e n t with its two h alves the C hris
, ,

t i an i ty o f the old world an d m e d i a v al C h ristia n ity the third ,

the devel op m e n t of m od ern ti m es which has n ot ye t co m e t o

,

an e nd .

Th e world s vi e w of life is n ai ve n a tu r a li sti c : the

a n ci en t
-

per fectio n of h u m an n atu re i n civilizati o n i s the absol u te

goal Th e C hr i sti an co n ceptio n is sup r a n a tu r a li sti c t u r n i n g
.

a w ay fro m civilizatio n it de m an ds th e d eath o f the n at u ral

,

m a n a n d his i m p u lse s i n order that a n e w spirit u al m an

, ,

m ay arise Th e m od e r n theory o f li fe i s n o t so co n siste n t

.

a n d sel f co n tai n ed
-
i t i s i n u e n ced b y both o f these opposi n g
te n d e n cies Th e n at u ralistic te n de n cy predo m i n ates ; th e daw n
.

o f the m oder n period is m arked by th e revi v al o f the a n cie n t

3
34 O RIG IN S OF MO RA L PH ILO SO PH Y
pagan co n ceptio n of li fe ( the s o called Re n aissa n ce) S till
- .
,

the m oder n view o f li fe co n tai n s m a n y esse n tial ele m e n ts of

the C hristia n co n ceptio n of li fe ; a n d the s u pra n at u ralistic
te n de n cy for m s an u n de rc u rre n t i n it o r r u n s parallel with it
,
.

Three gro u ps o f m or a l p h i l o s o h i ca l sy s t e m s
p di fferi ng in
,

for m an d co n te n ts correspo n d to the di ff ere n t co n ceptio n s o f

,

l ife.

G r ee k e t hi cs proceeds fro m the fac t of s tr i vi ng a n d a cti ng .

It asks : What is the n al goal an d how can i t be reached ? ,

Th e goal i s the highest good ; a n d he n ce the proble m is : to

deter m i n e the n atu re of the highest good an d to i n dicate the ,

way to its attai n m e n t In as m u ch as the highest goo d co n s i s t s

.

i n a for m of h u m a n li fe o r pres u pposes it as the m ea n s o f its

,

realizatio n Greek ethics esse n tially assu m es the form of a

,

d octr i n e of vi r tu e s i t describes the perfec t m an i n his di ff er

e n t phases .

C hr i sti a n e t hi cs m akes the fa ct of m or a l j u dgm en t i t s star t i n g

poi n t H u m an s t rIvm gs an d ac t s are objects o f j u dg m e n t ;
.

th e predicates goo d an d bad are applied to the m An d they .

are th u s j u dged n ot o n ly by m an b u t accordi n g to th e C hris

, ,

tia n co n ceptio n above all by God the highes t law giver an d

, ,

j u dge C hristia n ethics there fore i n q u ires : Wh at accordi n g

.
, , ,

to God s co m m a n d m e n t is d u ty an d what i s s i n ? It is a d oc

, ,

t r i n e of du ty an d as s u ch does n o t i n str u ct u s h o w t o p r o

m ote i n di vid u al an d social wel fare b u t sets u p a m oral ,

law the applica t io n of which n ecessitates i n terpretatio n an d

,

cas u istry .

What was said o f the m oder n co n cep t io n o f life i s tr u e of

m od e r n e thi cs : it is i n u e n ced by th e two precedi n g stages
o f develop m e n t an d does n ot there fore exhibit a thorough
,

goi n g u n i form ity It i s as a whole a fe w theological sys

.

te m s apart m ore cl o se l v co n n ected w ith G reek ethics .

S till th e C hristia n i n u e n ce is everywhere recog n izable

, We .

n oti ce it i n the for m o f the scie n ce : m oder n ethics i s largely

a doctri n e of d u ties We n otice it also i n th e m att er ; th u s

.
,
 TH E G RE E K C ON C E P TION 35

fo r exa m ple d u t ies towards others u s u ally occ u py the m os t

,

i m porta n t place a m o n g the d u t ies while i n Greek ethics e m ,

phasis is laid u po n the virtues an d d u ties which te n d to the -

per fectio n of i n divid u al li fe A n d whe n the highest good is .

disc u ssed the good of the i n divid u al is n ot rst tho u gh t of

, ,

as was the case i n G reek ethics bu t the good of the co m m u n ,

ity Th e i dea of the ki n gdo m of God which C hristia n ity h as

.
,

m ade the keysto n e of its theory of the u n iverse an d li fe eve n ,

per m eates the tho u ghts of those wh o k n ow n othi n g of it o r do

n o t wa n t to have a n ythi n g to d o with i t Eve n the m e n of .

1 7 8 9 ca n n ot de n y th ei r relatio n to C hristian ity They destroy .

the ch u rch b u t th e n otio n o f a ki n gdo m of G o d on earth

,

altered tho u gh it be i n u e n ce s t he m also ; fo r where else

d o th ese ideas o f the freedo m eq u ality an d fratern ity of all , ,

m e n an d all n atio n s co m e fro m

1 . THE m oral
philosophical reectio n s of the Greeks start 1

fro m th e qu estio n : What is th e u lti m ate e n d of all strivi n g

( b r e x q ) o r wh at i s th e highest good ? It n ecessarily

r o ,

1 Th e re i s no d e ar t h o f e l ab o r at e t r e at m e n t s of the su b e ct j . Be si de s Z e ll e r s

H i s tor y of G reek P h i los op hy w e m ay m e n t i on t h e t h or ou g h w o rk o f K K Ost l i n

,
.
,

Di e E th ik d es kla ss i s che n A lter tu ms Par t I 1 8 8 7 (t o Plat e ) Lut h ar d t D i e ,

.
, ,

a nti lce E th i lc 1 8 8 7 ; T h ,
. Z
i e gl e r D i e E thi k d e r G r i e chen u n d Ro mer , 1 8 8 1 An , .

e x ce ll e n t work on t he e t h i cal co nc e p t i o n s o f the Gr e e k p e op l e i s L S ch m i d t s .

D i e E th i lc d er a lte n G r i e che n ,
2 v o ls .
, 1 882 . A g o o d su r v e y o f t h e h i s t o r y o f
e t hi c s i n g e n e ral i s g i v an b y H S i dg w i ck , Ou tli n e of a H i story of E thi cs , 1 8 8 6 ;

.

a d e t ai l e d acco u n t o f t h e m o st i m p o r t a n t m o v e m e n t s , b y P Jan e t , H i sto i re de la .

p h ilo sop hi c m ora le e t p o li ti q ue , 2 v o ls 1 8 8 5 .

[S e e al so W u ndt ,
E thik , Pa rt II T h e
D e v e lo p m e n t o f t h e M o r al C o n ce p t i o n s o f th e U n i v e r se p p 2 7 0 4 3 3 ; E n g li sh
, .

t ra n slat i o n , vol . II ; J. . S e t h , A S t ud y f
o E th i ca l P r i n c ip les , P ar t I , Th e M o ral .

I de al pp , . 77 - 2 4 9 W a t s o n H e d o n i s ti c
,
Theor i e s A r i s tipp u s to S p e nce r ;
fro m
Hy s l o p E le men t s a n d De v e l o p m e n t o f E t h i cal
p I I , T h e Or ig i n
o
f E thi c s, ch a

P ro bl e m s , p p 1 8 8 9 C ald e r w o o d H a n d book of M or a l P hi los op hy, pp 3 1 8 3 6 9 ;

.
,
.

E u ck e n , Dt e Le be n s o n s cha u u ng en a er g rossen Den ke r

Th e rs t t w o ch a p t e r s o f .
Jo dl G e s chi chte der E l h i lc i n d e r P hi los op h i e , v ol I 18 5 , give

a su r
s ne u e r n pp . .
,
.

M art i n e au s

ve
y of t h e h i st o ry o f e t h i cs do w n t o t h e b e g i n n i n g o f m o d e rn t i m es .

Typ e s f
o E thica l The or y, 2 v o ls d i s cu ss e s so m e o f t h e m o st i m p o r t an t syst e m s .

Se e al so t h e h i s t o ri e s of G re e k an d G e n e r al Ph il oso p h y w h i ch a re m e n t io ne d i n
Th illy

s t ran sla t i o n o f We b e r s [l i s torg of P hi lo sop hy

, pp 8 -
16 . F o r b i bli o g ra p h i e s
on
p a r t i cu l ar t h i n k e rs , s e e t h e s t a n d a rd h is to rie s of p hilo s o p h y , e s p e c i al l y Uhe r '

w e g , E r d m an n , Wi n d e lban d We b e r , , all o f w h i ch h a ve b e e n t r an slat e d . TR .

]
36 O RIGI NS OF M O R AL PH ILO S O PHY
s u ggests itsel f to the age n t whe n he reects u po n his co n
d u ct A ristotle the fo u n der of ethics as a syste m atic scie n ce
.
, ,

gives us the followi n g l u cid expositio n o f the subj ect a t the ,

begi n n i n g of his M com a che an E thi cs l Every art an d every .

,

scie n ti c i n q u iry an d si m ilarly every actio n an d p u rpose ai m s

, ,

at so m e good A s there are various actio n s arts an d

.
, ,

scie n ces it follows that the e n ds an d goods are also vario u s

, .

Th u s health is the e n d o f m edici n e a vessel o f shipbuildi n g , ,

victory of strategy an d wealth of do m estic eco n o m y Bu t

, .

certai n arts are s u bordi n ated t o other arts th e art o f m aki n g

bridles works for horse m a n ship t he latter for strategy an d , ,

so others for others But i n as m uch as the e n d of the lead

.

i n g ar t e m braces the e n ds o f the s u bordi n a t e ar t s an d si n ce ,

the latter are desired for t h e sake of the for m er there m ust , ,

i f ou r desires are n ot to b e idle an d f u tile be an u lti m ate ,

goal o r good which is n ot i n t urn a m ea n s b u t i s desi red for ,

its o w n sake all other thi n gs bei n g desired for the sake of
,

it What i s this highes t of all prac t ical goods (T i

. w dv r co v '

'
i p or a
c /c
'
ro v 7 631) 7r
p ax ra v
'
3 d ya e v)
r

A s t o its n am e he co n ti n u es there is a ge n eral agree m e n t

, , .

Th e m asses an d th e c u lt u red classes agree i n calli n g i t h a

'

p
p i n e s s ; i t is h appi n ess (e hS t p o l ) o r wel fare ( 5 6 m y [ca t
a v a 7
3
1

65 Bu t i n wh at d oe s happi n ess co n sis t ? Here

t he views begi n t o diverge Th e m asses d e n e i t as pleas .

ure or wealth o r h o n or o r so m ethi n g si m il ar ; di e r e n t

, , ,

people give di ffere n t de fi n itio n s of it an d ofte n th e sa m e ,

perso n gives di ffere n t de n i tio n s o f it at di ffere n t t i m es ; for

whe n a perso n has bee n i ll health wh e n he is poor wealth , , ,

is the high est good C u ltivat ed people h owever the phil.

, ,

o s o ph e rs oi
( xp a le vr e s
) de n e i t as vir t ue ,
an d also as
philosophy .

We are perh aps j u stied i n sayi n g th at A risto t le e x ag

ge r at e s the di ffere n ces of opi n io n with respec t t o th e high est
good ; i n the last an alysis the Greek peopl e an d thei r m oral
W ll d
1 f A i t tl

S l ti E thi

ee t e on s ran s a on o r s o e s cs .
 TH E G RE E K C ON C E P TION 37

phil os ophers h ad esse n tially the sa m e co n ceptio n of the

n at u re o f happi n ess .

We are i n the h abit of tra n slati n g th e w ord e 8 t ao vl by a a

th e ter m happi n ess ( G li t cks e lig ke i t) We there by m ake it a .

m atter o f feeli n g Th e Greek word does n ot co n n ote a

.

subj ective state of feeli n g b u t rather an obj ective form of

,

li fe e da p w v (W ith which dy S u mv a s lu w v are co n

t a o

ac , le
/co a l ,

t raste d) i s the m an w h o i s blessed with a good Ba p w v an d

t

therefore with a good lot i n li fe fo Ba la v sig ies t he god

r w n ,
4

head w h o apportio n s to m en their fates Now what is the .

,

Greek co n cep t io n o f a happy l o t or fate

I ca n n o t descr ibe it m ore briey an d m ore forcibly t ha n by
calli n g to m i n d th e well k n ow n a n ecdote of the m eeti n g of
S olo n an d C roes s which i s arrated by Herodot s
u n u
1
It a d m i r .

ably co n trasts th e Helle n ic co n ceptio n o f wh at is a good li fe

with th at of the barbaria n s A fter sh owi n g S olo n thro u gh
.

his treas u ry the ki n g addresses h i m as follows : O stra n ger

,

fro m A the n s we h ave heard m u ch o f y o u r wisdo m a n d

,

travels we h ave bee n told that you h ave visited m a n y co u n

,

tries i n the purs u it o f philosophy for the sake of st u dy ( Hewp lns

, ,

ex )
v a N ow I sh o u ld like to k n ow w hether you h ave ever see n
.
,

a m an who m you regarded as the happies t of all (oxt m r os)?

Bu t he asked h i m ex pecti n g th a t S olo n woul d call h i m t he
, ,

ki n g th e happiest of all m e n S olo n however did n o t wish

, .
, ,

to atter h i m b u t spoke the t ruth : 0 Ki n g t he A the n ia n

, ,

Tellos . Th e ki n g was s u rprised an d asked : Why do ,

yo u estee m Tellos happier tha n all others S olo n an
?

s we re d : Tell os lived at a ti m e whe n th e c rty was prosper

i n g ; he h ad bea u ti fu l a n d good childre n an d above all lived , , ,

to see his gra n dchild re n an d all of the m were preserved to

,

h i m ; he was fo r ou r co n ditio n s i n good circ u m sta n ces an d

, , ,

n ally h e s u ffered a glorio u s death ; at E le u sis i n a battl e

, ,

betwee n the A th e n ia n s a n d their n eighbors he s u cceeded i n ,

repelli n g the e n e m y a fter a galla n t ght an d m e t a m ost ,

1 I . 30
, .
38 O RIGIN S OF MO RA L PH ILO S O PHY
beau ti fu l de ath A n d the A the n ian s b u ried h i m whe re he fell
.

at p u blic expe n se an d grea t ly ho n ored hi m

, Bu t whe n
the ki n g receive d an eq u ally u n satis fac t ory a n swer to the
q u estio n who m S olo n wo u ld r egard as the happies t m an
afte r Tellos S olo n as we k n ow m e n tio n s t wo u n k n ow n
, ,

A rgi ve y o u ths who died s u dde n ly a fter havi n g do n e their

, ,

m other an ho n o rable service C r oes u s co u ld n o lo n ger

strai n hi m sel f A n d i s o u r h appi n ess absol u tely
n othi n g i n yo u r eyes that y o u place it a ft er that of those pri
,

vate perso n s ? S olo n gave an evasive a n swer : E n vious are
the gods an d i m patie n t an d ma n y thi n gs are experie n ced i n
,

the lo n g ti m e which we do n ot desire ; an d m a n y s u e r i n g s .

A hu m an li fe may last seve n ty years which m akes n o t , ,

co u n t i n g the i n tercalary m o n th s days b u t i f we co u n t

, ,

these ,
days O f all these days n o t wo are alike th ere
.
,

fore I ca n n ot call yo u h appy u n til I k n o w tha t yo u r e n d has

bee n a happy on e .

I call it an evasive an swer ; the well k n ow n prag m atic

use which Herodo t us make s o f the a n e cdo t e n ecessi t a t es such
a reply .

Th e t rue a n swer t o t he ques t io n o f t he ki n g would ha v e

bee n as follows : 0 Ki n g what we Helle n es an d wha t you
,

here who m we call barbaria n s call happi n ess is n o t t he

, ,

sa m e You regard as a happy lo t t o h ave m u ch an d t o

.

e n j oy m u ch while for us i t m ea n s t o l i ve n obly to ac t n obly

, , ,

a n d to die n obly Whe n a m an has o u r good wish es we say

.
,

t o h im : A ct n obly ( ?) n p d r e w ) ; while y ou wo u ld have to

e r

say : May good thi n gs happe n t o yo u ( W i a xe w ) He n ce 3

61 c
'
.

I h ave calle d Tellos a happy m a n He did n ot e n joy the .

l u x u ry o f a royal h o u sehold b u t he possessed what a citize n

,

i n a Helle n ic t ow n n eeds He was a capable m an an d

.
,

gover n ed his a ffa irs wisely ; he h ad beau ti fu l an d good

childre n his city ho n ored h i m an d h is n a m e was n ot u n
, ,

k n ow n to its e n e m ies That i s o u r i dea of a happy m an

. .

This is wha t the story o f C r oe sus an d S olo n which crr ,

40 O RI GIN S OF MO RA L PH ILO S O PH Y
te m ati c treat m e n t Excelle n ce or e fcie n cy ( dp e j ) i n these
.
'
rr

arts n o w became a m atter n ot m erely o f n at u ral skill an d

practice b u t o f theoretical k n owledge : whoever d esires to ac
,

q u ire the for m er m u st possess the l atter Is n ot this t r u e o f .

all excelle n ce i s it n o t tru e also o f the excelle n ce o f the citi

,

z e n an d states m a n n ay o f the excelle n ce o f m an i n ge n eral

, ,

A ccordi n g to the traditio n al view civic an d h u m a n excel ,

le n ce is i n n ate : whoever co m es i n to the world as a good

m an an d as the desce n da n t o f good m e n an d i s reared a m o n g ,

the good possesses it as a gi ft of the gods ( eix8 ip ) Th e

,
a co v .

e n ligh t e n ed o n es o f the n e w period grad u ally co n v i n ced the m

selves tha t all excelle n ce m oral an d poli tical n o less tha n
,

tech n ical is the res u lt of i n str u ctio n an d ed u catio n : virtu e

,

c an be ta u gh t th at is the n e w co n ceptio n w hich the S ophists

,

rst adva n ced i n syste m atic for m f If you associate with .

me ,
Pro t agoras pro m ises the you n g m an i n the Plato n ic
dialog u e beari n g his n a m e on the very day yo u will ret u rn
,

ho m e a better m an than you ca m e A n d u po n bei n g asked .

by S ocrates i n wha t he would beco m e better he adds : If ,

he co m es to m e h e will lear n that which h e co m es to lear n

, .

A n d this is pr u de n ce i n a ffairs p r ivate as well as p u blic ; he

will lear n to order his o wn ho u se i n the best m a n n er an d ,

h e will b e able t o speak an d act for the best i n the a ffairs

o f the state .

By m a n y of his co n t e m poraries S ocra t es was looked upo n

as on e of the S ophists N ot altogethe r u n j u stly ; he di ffered
.

fro m the latter : he did n ot regard hi m sel f as a possessor o f

wisdo m a n d did n ot acq u ire m o n ey th ro u gh p u blic lect u res
,

b u t i n his views he h ad m u ch i n co m m o n with the m A bove .

all he believed with the m that excelle n ce o r virtu e depe n ds

,

u po n i n sight an d m ay be taught This propositio n is e m .

h as i e d i all the acco u n ts i n X e n opho n Plato an d A ris

p z n , , ,

t o tle as characteristic o f his poi n t o f view : S ocrates so A ri s

, ,

totl e declares co n si dere d the virt u es to be for m s of reaso n

,
1
.

1 N i c E th , V I
. .
,
13 .
 T HE GRE E K C ON C E P TION 41

Th e sa m e is tru e of h u m a n excelle n ce as s u ch : witho u t

k n owledge n o virt u e ; an d co n versely : right co n d u ct n e ce s
s a ri ly depe n ds upo n the proper i n sight n o on e k n owi n gly ,

a n d willi n gly does wro n g ( i B ts b o / If a m an

e /cc v

k n ows the right goal an d the right path h e will n ecessarily ,

follow i t ; his goi n g astray a n d also his m oral t r an gr e ss i on are

always the res u lt of error as the G reek word i p a p i e w, c rc v

i n dicates . This i s especially tr u e o f civic vi rtue ; he n ce

.

S ocrates co n de m n s the A the n ia n state Th e de m ocratic .

co n stit u t io n rested u po n the tacit ass u m ptio n that political

ex celle n ce was the i n herita n ce so to speak of eve ry citize n , , .

S ocrates i s co n sta n tly attacki n g this view i n a rg u m e n ts like

the followi n g : Do yo u n ot whe n y ou wish to steer a ship, ,

look arou n d fo r a m an who has lear n ed an d u n ders t a n ds

the art of n avigatio n ? A n d whe n a m an is sick you se n d
fo r so m e o n e wh o u n dersta n ds the art o f m edici n e ? Bu t
whe n it co m es to gover n i n g th e city o r the state yo u choose ,

an y o n e fo r wh o m the lot m ay decide .

He n ce k n owledge scie n tic k n owledge of tha t which i s

,

really good an d of th e m ea n s of acqu iri n g it is the great

, ,

co n diti o n of all ex celle n ce an d vi rt u e That is the view .

upo n which S ocrates b ases hi m sel f an d which places h i m a t

t h e head of th e Greek m oral phil osophers It i s the f u n da .

m e n tal co n ceptio n co m m o n to h i s s u ccessors Th e sage .

alo n e the m an who h as scie n t ic k n owledge i n this Plato

,
0

a n d A ristotle t h e S toics a n d Epicurea n s

,
agree is virt u o u s ,

an d happy i n th e fu ll se n se o f the ter m Th e wise m an .

alo n e i s capable of gover n i n g th e state ; i f we are to have a

per fect state ki n gs m ust eith e r beco m e wi se m e n or wise

, ,

m e n ki n gs to q u ote th e well k n ow n sayi n g

,
-
.

3 S ocrates s aw th e n ecessity o f a scie n ce o f right con

.

d u ct an d right govern m e n t b u t h e did n o t solve the ,

proble m which he proposed ; h e le ft it t o his p u pils to create

the scie ces o f ethics a n d politics Plato rst u n dertook
n
1
.

Di l g f P l t J w t t tr l t i
1
[S th p i lly Th

ee e a o ues o a o, o e t t s an s a on, es ec a ,
ea e e us,

P ha e d o , P h i le bu s G org za s Rep u bli c

, ,
TR ]
42 O RI G I N S OF MO R A L PH ILO S O PHY
th e task Its acco m plish m e n t see m ed all the m o r e urge n t
.
,

th e weaker t he ol d fo u n da t io n s of m orality were beco m i n g .

With th e e n tr a n ce of the Greek people u po n the period of

e n ligh t e n m e n t t he ol d civic respectability an d m orality
,

rapidly decli n ed Th e y ou n ge r S ophists as Pla t o por t rays

.

t he m i n th e perso n s of C al l i cl e s an d Th r asym ach u s (i n th e

G ory i a s an d the R ep u bli c) form ula t ed t he facts i n t o a

theory : there is n o obje ctive di e r e n ce be t wee n good an d
bad i t does n ot i n here i n the n a t ure o f the thi n gs bu t is a
, , .

m ere m atter of co n ve n tio n an d caprice Th e sa n ctio n o f cus .

t o m a n d law rests up o n fear an d s u perstitio n which res t rai n ,

th e s tro n ger fro m m aki n g u se of their n at u ral s u periority or

they are a n o ther m ean s i n the han ds of the m ighty the m sel ves
, ,

t o stre n gth e n their p ow e r f Th e e n lighte n ed o n e k n ows i t an d

acts accordi n gly ; h e obeys law an d c u sto m wh e n they are
co n d u cive t o his i n t erests he breaks the m wh e n t hey t hwar t
,

his pla n s a d whe he c do so wit i pu ity

n n ,
an h m n
1
.

Plato u n dertakes t o overcome t his e n ligh t e n m e n t n ot ,

fro m wi tho u t but from withi n by a deepe r philos ophy

, , .

This is i n deed the o n ly re m edy : half e n lighte n m e n t pse u do

, ,
-
,

e n lighte n m e n t can be des t royed o n ly by co m ple t e e n li gh t e n

,

m en t To fetter t hough t t o oppose i t with au thorities

.
, ,

is utterly useless n ay si m ply m akes m at ters worse Plato

, ,
.

there fore explicitly places hi m self u po n the s t an dpoi n t of

reaso n which th e S ophists t o o clai m t o occ u py With
, , ,
.

S ocrate s he recog n izes the n ecessi ty of b asi n g h u m a n an d

civic vir t u e u po n k n owledge V ir t u e without k n owledge .
,

virtu e resti n g solely upo n ed u catio n habit authority correct , , ,

O pi n io n is a bli n d gropi n g ; it m ay accide n tally n d the

,

righ t path bu t there i s n o certai n ty of its doi n g so O n ly

, .

the scie n tic k n owledge o f the good can m ake m an s willi n g

correct cer t ai n an d steady

, , .

1 L aas h as g iv e n us a go o d d e scr i pt i o n of t his s ce p t i cal -n ihi li s t i c s o p h i st i cal

p h ilo so p h y , w h i ch h a d a g r eat d e al t o d o w i t h p r o d u ci n g an d in g th e
u e n ci n

Plat on i c e t h i cs , as i t s a n t i th esi s, in t h e i n t r o d u ct i on t o t h e s e con d vol u m e of hi s

Ideali smus un d P os i t i vi s mu s .
 THE GREEK C O NC E P TIO N 43

Bu t is th ere such a thi n g as objective g ood n ess an d right ?

This was d e n ied by C all i cl e s an d hi s co m pa n io n s : that i s
good which happe n s t o please an d tha t i s righ t which we ,

h a ve the power of e n forci n g Th e ai m of Plat o s e n ti re .

phil osophy is t o prove i n opposi t io n to this the propositio n

, , ,

Th e good a n d right i s so m ethi n g absolu t ely i n depe n de n t

of opi n io n s so m ethi n g deter m i n e d by the n a tu re of t he thi ngs
,

t he m se lve s Wha t is t he good an d right a s such ?

.

Th e Pla t o n ic philosophy gives an a n swer t o t his ques t io n

that far t r an sce nds t he h orizo n of the healthy co m m o n se n se -

which we n d i n S ocra t es Th e good is n othi n g b u t th e .

world o r r e a li ty i tse lf Bu t Pla t o i m medi ately adds : reality

, .
,

as it is i n i tself that is i n i d ea Tha t which co m m o n se n se

, , .
-

regards as t he real reality the su m to t al of these se n suo u s , ,

par t ic u lar t hi n gs is n ot the good ; the world o f se n se is full

,

o f i m perfectio n s Bu t i t is n ot t he t rue reality it has n o

.
,

bei n g i n the re al se n se of th e t er m ; i t s bei n g is mixed wi t h

n o n bei n g ; i t is i n a s t a t e
-
of co n s ta n t growth an d decay .

Th e t rue reality on t he oth er h a n d o f which bei n g c an

, ,

really be predicated is an a bsolutely existi n g absolu t ely , ,

u n itary ideal spiri t ual bei n g an d t his i s n o thi n g bu t the

, , , ,

good itself or G od , G od i s bo t h th e absolu t ely good an d

.

the absol u t ely r eal says sch ol a s t ic philosophy follo wi n g i n

, ,

th e foo t s t eps of Pl a t o .

Now t he questio n arises Wha t is good an d righ t for a ,

par t icul ar bei n g ? This will n a t urally depe n d upo n his r e

lat io n t o t h e A ll Good an d A ll Re al ; o r s tat ed i n di ffere n t
-
-
,

la n guage t he val u e of a par t ic u l ar ele m e n t of reality can

,

u ou s episodes bu t t he u n itary realizatio n of an i dea the

, ,

idea of the good which u n fol ds i t sel f i n a variety o f q u alities

,

o r ide a s an d so for m s a cos m os of ideas an i n tellige n t

, ,

orga n is m i n which every ele m e n t of re alit y like every sce n e ,

i n a good dra m a occupies the positio n o f a n ecess a ry

,
 44 O RIG IN S OF MO R AL P H ILO S O PH Y
m e m ber . too the i dea of m an m u st be de n ed by his
So, ,

place i n the cos m os i f we are to reach a k n owledge of what

,

m an i s i n reality or i n idea
,
If the philosopher the dia
.
,

le ct i ci an wh o has the gi ft o f seei n g thi n gs i n thei r logical

,

relatio n s s u cceeds i n reachi n g this de n itio n he m ay say

, ,

that he has obj e cti ve ly de n ed the esse n ce of good n ess an d

right .

Th u s Plato bri n gs e thics i n t o th e m ost i n ti m ate co n

n e cti on with m etaphysics ; he makes it a part of the on e
un itary scie n ce of the real or the good ,
.

What n ow is fou n d to b e t he i dea of m an i n th e i dea of

t he u n iversal reali t y ? In t he Ti nioeu s of which parts o f the ,

P haed r u s for m the prelude Pla t o has m ade the m os t elabo

,

rat e attem pt to explai n m a n s place i n the cos m os Th e

.

h u m an soul is derived fro m t he w orld sou l ; it i s like th e -

,

l att er a mix t ure of t wo ele m e n ts ; o n the on e han d i t

, ,

p a r t icip at es i n t he re a l reali t y i n t he world of ideas the , ,

w orld of existe n t thoug h t s o r the life of God ; o n the other

, ,

i n the world of o rigi n an d decay i n the corporeal w orld , .

With the r e ason ( vo c) i t belo n gs t o t h e w orl d o f i d eas w itli

, ,

t he a n i ma l i mp u lses arisi n g fro m its u n i o n with

t he body it belo n gs t o the corporeal world These two dis
, .

si m ilar par t s o r ph ases of t he so u l are co n n ecte d by an

i n t erm edia t e for m : Plat o c alls i t ovate o r r ? ) Ovao e i oe s ; it

embr a ces th e higher n obler i m pulses th e a e cti on s of t he

, ,

he a r t moral i n dig n a t io n courage t he aspiri n g love of ho n or

, , , ,

m oral awe ; perh aps t he Pla t o n ic ter m m ay b e best tra n s

l a t ed by o u r word will Th e organ iza t io n o f the i n n er m an
.

is m ade visibl e i n t h e organ iza t io n of th e outer m an ; th e

head is t he sea t of reaso n t he ci t adel of th e ruler ; i n th e
,

breast dwells the h ear t the sea t of t he affec t io n s as co m m o n

, ,

se n se looks a t it ; it Is so to speak t h e wat ch ho u se i n which

, ,
-

co u rage an d an ger d w ell ready to break forth a t the beck

,

o f the r u ler ; u n der the di aph rag m at last are sit u ated the , ,

o rga n s o f a n i m al desire the orga n s o f n u tritio n a n d repro

,
 TH E G RE E K C ON C E P TI ON 45

duction Th e fu n ctio n of m an i s t o represe n t a cos m os on

.

t he s m all scale af t er the patter n of t he large r cos m os : as the

m acrocos m i s fashi o n e d i n to bea u ty an d order by the ideal
ele m e n t s o t he m icrocos m m ust be fashio n ed i n to proportio n
,

an d har m o n y order an d beauty by reaso n

, the ideal ele m e n t
, ,

pec u li ar to it .

Th e a n thropological e t hical applica t io n o f t his m e t aphysic a l

-

pri n ciple of th e sc ie n ce of the good i s m ade i n t he dialogu e

on the S t ate It begi n s with a disc u ssio n of the n otio n
.

o f the just m an Ho w sh all w e de n e a jus t m an a m an

.
,

wh o realizes the i dea t he n atur a l o r divi n e voca t io n o f m an ?

,

He is o n e i n whom the t hree eleme n t s de n ed above b ar m o , ,

n i ou sly co operate to perfor m t h eir special fu n ctio n s

-
We .

t h u s a rrive a t the scheme of t he s o called cardi n al virtues -

w i s dom ( o o qbla ) , cou r a

g e an d s e l f con tr ol o r h ea lthy
-

mi n d e d n e ss which th ree co m bi n ed give us j u sti ce

( Si xa i oo uvn) A m an is wi se
. i n wh o m reaso n realizes i t s
,

pur pose the k n owledge of t he t r u e r eality an d as the ruli n g

, ,

pri n ciple reg u lates his e n t ire life ; h e i s cou r ag e ou s whe n

the will does its w ork assisti n g t he reaso n i n gover n i n g
,

a n d bridli n g t he irra t i o n al ele m e n t ; h e is h ea lt h m i n d ed

y
-

w he n t he a n i m al imp u lses peace fully perfor m their fu n cti o n s ,

without disq u ieti n g an d dis t urbi n g the spi ri t S u ch a w ell .

regul at ed soul deserves t o b e calle d a j u st so u l ; i t typies

hu m a n n at ure o r t he ide a of m an In i t the exercise of
,
.

r easo n for m s t h e r eal esse n t ial co n t e n t of li fe ; reaso n as

,

such co n sis t s i n k n owledge ; perfec t k n owledge however is , ,

philosophy that is the dialectical re c rea t io n o f the ab sol u te

, ,
-

ideal real ity i n co n cepts Th e oth er ele m e n ts an d their fu n c

.

tio n s a re subordi n at e to i t A n d he n ce w e m ay say : Philo

.

S ophy is t he t ru e f u n c t io n t he highes t co n t e n t a n d p u rpose

, ,

o f huma n life .

This w ould a n swe r th e questio n co n cer n i n g objective good

n ess : such a li fe is good i n itself good fo r m an n o t accord , ,

in g t o accide n tal O pi n io n an d co n ve n tio n b u t i n the n ature ,

46 O RIGIN S OF MO RAL PH ILO SO PH Y
of thi n gs i n which philosophy for m s th e ce n tral p u rpose t o
,

which all the o t h e r fu n c t io n s an d actio n s a re s u bordi n ated as

m ea n s .

Tha t such a
j u s t li fe i s a t the sa m e t i m e a h appy an d
desirable life h ardly see m s to n eed proof Jus t as the s o u n d .

n ess of t he body is s u bjecti vely experie n ced as good health ,

diseas e as poor health s o jus t ice which is n o thi n g b u t the
, ,

heal th of the s ou l or th e s t ate e xpressi n g i t s tru e n ature

, , ,

n ecess a rily p rocures the grea t es t sat is fac t io n A n d so the .

Opposi t e o f j u s t ice ( i Sm la ) will n ecessarily be t he great es t

c

s u bjective evil for a m an n o t because of so m e accide n t al

,

e e c ts,
like pu n i sh m e n t an d disgrace bu t on acco u n t of ,

t he ugli n ess which ch a r a c t erizes an u n jus t li fe ( wa hn

s cha e n
m i
,
s sh ap e n
'

w e m igh t call
, i t e m ployi ng a ter m ,

pec u lia r t o the N or ther n l an guages ) With i n co m parable

skill Pla t o portrays the life of s u ch a m isshape n soul an d
i t s i n n er discord i n hi s pic t ure of the tyra n t who satises all ,

his desires an d e n j oys the p rivilege which t hose i llu m i

n at or s e n vy him of p e r pe t r at i n g all ki n ds o f wro n gs an d
'

viole n t deeds with i m pu n ity .

Le t m e also briey m e n t io n tha t the sa m e fu n da m e n tal

t rai t s re appe a r i n t he co n stit u t io n of the j u st st a te m an o n ,

the l arge scale A s t a t e i s j u st i n which the wise r u le the

.
,

s t ro n g an d courageous ( a m ili t ary n obility ) disi n terestedly

an d sub m issively serve th e gover n m e n t an d n ally the , ,

produci n g classes peacefully an d m odestly perfor m their

t asks.

We see Pla t o doe s n o t di ffe r very r adically i n his views

,

from the popul a r Greek c o n cep t io n of j u stice an d happi n ess .

It is t rue he e m phasizes the ele m e n t of k n owledge i n his

,

sche m e an d the ki n d of k n o wl e dge which he has i n m i n d

,
'

the specula t ive k n owledge of the real reality is of co u rse , , ,

so m e thi n g wholly foreign to the pop u lar idea .

We m u st n ot however lose sight o f a n oth er f act Ou r

, , .

e xpositio n o f Plato s ethics has n o t s u fficie n tly e m phasized a

48 O RIGINS OF MO R A L PH ILO S O PH Y
bear his isola t io n with equa n i m i ty m ay be i nferred fro m his
harsh criticis m of the perso n s who took a pro m i n e n t part i n
p u blic li fe the states m e n S ophists an d rhetoricia n s H e r e
, , , .

garded the m as th e represe n tatives of the m ost u n wor thy art

the ar t n a m ely o f cateri n g to the whi m s o f the great an i m al
, , ,

c alled De m os an d thus acq u iri n g ad va n t ages an d fam e ;

,

whoever i n t erferes wi th their sche m es an d re fu ses t o beco m e ,

a p a r t y t o t hei r cri m e s is doomed A n d s o the u n ti m ely .

philosopher like o n e wh o i n the s t or m of d u s t an d sleet

,

,

which the drivi n g wi n d hurries alo n g re t ires u n der the ,

shelte r of a wall wi thd rew fro m public li fe an d so u gh t ,

refu ge i n the soli t ude o f the A cade m y his life was e n riched
an d blessed by t he co n t e m platio n of the true reality an d he ,

looked forward t o his deliver an ce i n peace an d good will wi th -

,

bright h Ope s 1
.

Th u s Plato like every h o n es t philosopher utilized his ow n

, ,

perso n al e xperie n ces as th e key with which t o i n terpret

h u m a n life n ay all t hi n gs i n ge n eral Y et h e w as too m u ch
, ,
.

o f a Greek t o re j ec t t his n atural se n suous world altogether -

.

He was a pessi m ist i n his j u dg m e n t of m en bu t he re m ai n ed ,

an opti m is t i n his j u dg m e n t o f m a n In t he passage of the .

R ep u bli c q u oted above he adds that t he solitary philosopher ,

will not d o t he greates t work u n less he n d a s t a t e s u itable

t o h i m ; for i n a state which is s u itabl e t o h im h e will have
a larger g r ow t h an d be th e savio r of his co u n try as well as
,

o f hi m sel f .

4 A ristotle i n Da n te s words the m aster of those who

2
,
.

k no w t he e t ern al pri n ce of all t rue thi n kers a s C o m te
,

calls him i n the 0 a te chi sm e p osi ti vi ste was the rs t to stake

o ff practical philosophy as a separat e eld o f k n owledge a n d

to discuss i t as a syste m atic whole i n its three par t s ethics

, , , ,

politics an d eco n o m ics His works lack the wo n derfu l char m

,
.

1 Rep u blic , 4 9 6 D .

2
[N ico ma chea n E thi cs ,
t r a n sl . by W e ll d on F o r o t h e r t r an sla ti o n s
. an d

b i b li o g rap h y, se e m y t r anslat i on of We be r H is tory of P hilosop hy p 1 04 ,

T
, ,
.

not e 4 . R .
]
 T H E G R EE K C ON C E P TION 49

of the Plato n ic expositio n s b u t we are co m pe n sate d for this,

loss by a wealth of great tho u ghts I sh al l gi v e an o u tli n e .

o f his ethics ; i n the m ai n i t follows the li n es m arked o u t by

the Plat o n ic syste m .

He begi n s with the questio n co n cer n i n g the highes t good ,

which all agree to design ate as happi n ess ( ebB i u o i ) an d a v a ,

n ds by m ea n s of on e of those S ocratic i n d u ctio n s which are

,

so co m mo n i n h i s writi n gs that it m u st co n sist i n the exercise

,

o f t he specic excelle n ce o f t he hu m a n soul : for as with a ,

u t e playe r a statuary o r a n y artisa n or i n fact a n ybody

-
, , ,

who has a de n ite f u n ctio n an d actio n ( py v T L ic l wp afi s)

o a .
,

his good n ess o r excelle n ce ( aw n y x a l 7 6 e a) see m s to lie T

?

i n his f u n cti o n so it wo u l d see m to be with m an if i n deed

, ,

he has a de n ite fu n ctio n Wha t the n i s this f u n ctio n o r .

, ,

actio n of m an ? A risto tle co m pares m an with organ ic bei n gs

a n d n ds tha t he shares with all bei n gs t he vegetative fu n c

tio n s an d w ith all a n i m al s se n satio n an d desire bu t t hat h e

, ,

alo n e possesses reaso n ( r b xy u ex ) Th e pec u liar f u n c o

au .

tio n o f m an the n is an activity of so u l i n accorda n ce with

, ,

reaso n o r n ot i n depe n de n tly o f reaso n (d vxc p ye i a x a r

,
r v r

ci
' '
X y u i) p i) d e X yo v)
of o This bei n g S O th e good o f m an is an
v v or .
,

activity of so u l i n accorda n ce with virt u e o r if there are , ,

m ore virt u es tha n o n e i n accorda n ce with the best an d m os t

,

co m plete virtue 1
.

No w tha t the li fe which i s objec t i v ely th e bes t also pro

,

c u res the grea t est s u bj ective satis factio n n ecessarily follows

fro m A ristotl e s great psych ological ge n eralizatio n : all u n

i m peded s u ccessfu l exercise of the po w ers n at u ral to a bei n g

,

is acco m pan ied with feeli n gs of satisfactio n Th e li m bs take .

pleas u re i n the m ove m e n ts the eye i n sigh t the u t e playe r

, ,
-

i n the m u sic t he orator i n the speech a n d so every bei n g i n

, ,

the exercise o f its specic f u n ctio n h e n ce the m ost ple as u ra

ble thi n g fo r m an i s the ex ercise o f reaso n .

At the co n cl u sio n of the work he agai n tak es u p the s u b

1 N ic E thi cs B oo k I
.
, ch a
p 6 . . W e ll do n s
t ra n slat i o n .

4
50 O RIGIN S OF MO RA L PH ILO SO PH Y

j e ct : 1
Sin cereaso n whethe r it be di vi n e itsel f o r the m ost
,

divi n e p a rt of o u r bei n g is the high est fu n ctio n o f m an per

, ,

fe e t h appi n ess will co n sist i n t h e exercise of th at which is

pec u liar t o it that is the o r e ti ca l a cti vi ty A n d this is a co n
, , .

e l u s io n which wo u ld see m t o a gree with o u r previo u s arg u

m e n t s as well as with th e tr u th itsel f F o r o f a ll activ i ties .

co n te m platio n is the m ost co n ti n u o u s an d the m ost i n de

pe n de n t of the n ecessaries o f li fe ; th e exercise o f the other
faculties is depe n de n t upo n opport u n ity b u t th e wise m an is ,

al ways an d u n der all ci rc u m sta n ces capable o f spec u latio n

hi m sel f It al o n e is sel f s u f ci e n t it alo n e h as its e n d i n

.
-
,

itsel f ; all practical activities eve n those O f the states m a n ,

a n d ge n e ral w hich are regarded as t he high es t an d m os t

,

bea u tif u l h ave exter n al e n ds ; con t e m pl atio n alo n e i s n o t ex

,

e r ci se d fo r th e sake o f an exter n al e n d It is also ad m itted .

tha t there is n o vir t u ous activity so pleasa n t as phil osophic

reectio n a t all eve n ts it appears that philosophy possesses
pleas u res of wo n derf u l purity an d certai n ty He n c e s u ch .

a life m ay see m t oo good fo r a m an He will e n j oy s u ch a .

li fe n ot i n virt u e of his h u m a n ity b u t i n virtu e o f so m e ,

divi n e ele m e n t i n h i m If the n the reaso n is divi n e i n com

.

pariso n with the rest of m a n s n at u re th e li fe which accord s

,

wi th reaso n will be divi n e i n co m pariso n with h u m an li fe i n

ge n eral Nor is it right t o fol l ow the advice o f people wh o
. .

say that t he th o u ghts o f m e n sho u l d n ot be too high for

h u m a n ity o r the thou ghts o f h u m a n ity too high fo r m ortali ty ;
,

for a m an as far as i n h i m lies sho u ld seek i m m ortality

, ,

n d d o all i n his power t o live i n accorda n ce

(a d r ig
)

a va e w a

with the highest part of his n at u re .

Wh o does n o t feel i n these words the e m otio n with which

the u s u ally so placid thi n ker expresses his deepest li fe
experie n ces
To be s u re the p u rely theoretical li fe i s u n attai n able by
,

m an ; G od s li fe alo n e co n sists i n p u re tho u ght In m a n

.

1 B X ch a
. .
, p 7
. .
 THE G RE E K C ON C E P TION 51

reaso n is i n separably co n n ected with the f u n ctio n s w hich he

possesses i n co m m o n with the a n i m als an d pla n ts w ith se n ,

satio n an d desire wit h n u tritio n an d reprod u ctio n Fro m

,
.

this it follows that h u m a n li fe is co n fro n ted with a n u m be r

o f proble m s ,
which m ay be characterized i n ge n eral as the
orga n izatio n o f the lower fu n ctio n s by reaso n an d i n har m o n y
with the e n ds o f reaso n Th u s arise the so called e t hi ca l
.
-

virt u es or excelle n ces which are dis ti n guished from t he i n

,

t e lle ctua l o r t he or e t i ca l virt u es .

There will t herefore be as m a n y e thical vir t ues as there

are separate S pheres of proble m s arisi n g fro m th e se n s u o u s
side o f hu m a n n at u re A m o n g the m we may m e n tio n : ou r
.

a t ti t u de to the a n i m al desires o u r behavi or with respect to ,

eco n o m ic co m m odities ho n or a n ger fear soci al a n d eco n o m ic

, , , ,

i n tercourse with m e n etc There is a virt u e for every sphere

,
. .

V irt u o u s co n d u c t i n refere n ce t o the satisfactio n of a n i m al

desires is so called healthy m i n ded n ess ( w gbp b n) ; i n r e f
- -
a oo v

e re n ce to wealth liberality (eXev d p t ry e) i n re fere n ce t o

,

e
-

ho n or high m i n ded n ess an d l ove of ho n or (p e y k owl vxl an d

,
-
a r a

a i i refere n ce t o da n ger co u rage etc

(ba
-
ar
p ) ;
er n , .

V irtue as la n guage too s u gges t s is always a m ea n b e

, , , ,

twee n two e xt re m e s b e t w e e n excess an d d ecie n cy C o u rage

, .
,

for exa m ple is the n or m al state i n regard to the fearfu l

, ,

bei n g a m ea n betwee n the state of the coward who

st u pidly r u n s away fro m da n ger an d the state o f the fool ,

hardy m an ( dp a a bs) who bli n dly r u shes i n to it Te m per

, .

a n ce is the n or m al h abit o r state i n regard t o se n s u o u s

pai n bei n g a m ean betwee n th e state of the lice n tio u s m an
,

( d
e b k -
a a ro
c ) who
,
is i n capabl e o f resisti n g se n s u o u s feeli n gs ,

an d the state which w e m ight call u n feeli n g n ess (d Qn l ) -

ua i o o a ,

which howeve r h ardly exists whe re fore la n g u age has n o

, , ,

real n am e fo r the opposite o f lice n tio u s n ess ; an d the sa m e

is tru e o f the rest .

Th e n or m al state i s the res u lt o f practice a s A ristotl e ex ,

pressly declares taki n g issue w ith S o c rates w h o ide n tied

, ,
52 O RIG IN S OF MO RAL PH ILO S O PH Y
the ethical vir t ues with i n sigh t or pr u de n ce Prude n ce .

b ) u n doubtedly also play s a par t i n the ethical vir

( pp y
c m o i q

t u es fo r i t sho ws which is t he n or m al state fo r eve r y on e i n

,

every case A n d so we obtai n t h e de n itio n of ethical virtu e

.

whic h A ristotle places at the head of his discussio n of th e

virtu es : V irt u e is a state of deliberate m oral purpose con
sisti n g i n a m ea n that is relative to ourselves the mea n ,

bei n g deter m i n ed by r easo n or as a p rud e n t m an woul d

,

deter m i n e i t 1
.

It is evide n t t ha t t his de n i t io n does n ot ye t f u rn ish us

with an obj ective Stan dard Fo r wha t is th e m ea n o r n or m al
.
,

o r what i s the sta n dpoi n t from which reaso n o r t he prude n t

m an deter m i n es it ? A ristotle did n o t a n swer this ques t io n ,

becau se so it see m s he did n ot believe an a n swer co u ld be

, ,

fo u n d He repeatedly acce n tuates the di ffere n ce be t wee n

.

this el d o f k n owledge an d t h e theoretical scie n ces which ,

treat of thi n gs which ca n n o t be o therwise while th e pr ac ,

tical scie n ces deal wi t h t hi n gs which can be o therwise
.

In the sixth book where h e discusses the ques t io n o f pru de n c e

,

as O pposed t o t heore t ical k n owledge (o o dnfa ) h e ,

eve n see m s t o i n cli n e to t he vie w t h at the for m er n ever gives

u s u n iversal j u dg m e n ts but o n ly partic u l ar decisio n s ; which
,

would be equivale n t to de n yi n g the possibility of a scie n tic

ethics A n d i n deed we m u s t ad m it tha t A ristotle s doctri n e
.

o f the ethical virt u es fails t o m eet the de m a n ds which m u st ,

be m ade u po n a scie n tic t reat m e n t o f the s u bject ; h e

m akes n o atte m pt whatever t o e xp la i n the di ffere n ce i n
value betwee n vir t u o u s c o n d u ct an d vicio u s co n d u ct as was ,

do n e later say by S pi n oza wh o e n tertai n ed the sa m e ge n eral

, ,

v ie w
. He co n n es hi m self to a descriptio n o f virt u o u s m odes
o f co n d u ct which draws m ai n ly u po n G reek pop u l a r u sage
, ,

an d does n o t care fo r syste m atic co m plete n ess Of real val u e .

is the ac u te expositio n of the m ea n i n g of the words which

th e Greek people used to express m oral disti n ctio n s .

1 1 1 0 6 b 3 6 , B II ,
. . . c h ap . 6 .
 TH E G REE K C ON C E P TION 53

In this way Plato an d A ris t o t le m ee t the S ocr at ic dema n d

fo r a scie n ce o f the good They t ake i n to acco u n t the plac e .

o f m an i n the cos m os an d t h e n att e m p t t o de n e his ide a

, ,

t hat is his n atu ral an d divi n e pu r pos e an d t o show how h e

, ,

m ay realize t his purpose Th e c o n cep t io n of t he perfec t m an

.

which they a dva n ce esse n tially r esembles the popula r Greek

,

ideal There is o n ly on e marked di ffere n ce : i n t he sche m e

.

of the philosophers the purely th eore t ical exercise of t h e

i n tellect co n stitutes the chie f ele m e n t of hu m a n perfec t io n ;

the philosophical ideal n ot o n ly e m bodies th e ge n eral feat u re s
of the G reek cha racter but also e m braces t h e perso n al fea t
,

ures of the philosophers which give s th e co n cep t gre at e r ,

precisio n .

5 Th e post A ristotelian m oral phil osophy c an hardly b e

.
-

said t o h ave crea t ed an y n e w co n ceptio n s ; o n the whole i t

follows i n th e t races of its gre a t predecessors Bu t i t i s .

lacki n g n ei the r i n grea t an d fruitfu l tho u gh t s n o r i n s t r o n g

a n d forcibl e m oral preachi n g I m us t co n n e m y e ffor t s t o .

a mere outli n e of th e s t a n dpoi n t s of t h e t wo chief schools ,

which fo r a lo n g t i m e form ed th e chief subj ec t of i n t eres t i n

philosophy the S toics an d Epi c u rea n s
,
.

Th e Stoics 1
lik e Plato an d A ristotle regard t he realiz a
, ,

t io n of his n a t ural p u rpose as t he highest good an d highes t

h appi n ess of m an They for m u lat e this idea i n to a pri n ciple
.

life a cco r d i n
g to n a tu r e
( ba c k o o v vco s
l y u
f
r
(turr e t On
t he basis of the u n us u ally co m prehe n sive an d val u abl e ex t racts
fro m th e ethical writi n gs of the S toics which we n d i n Di o ,

ge n es Lae r ti u s we m ay outli n e their ethical philosophy

,

about as follows Th e u n derlyi n g though t i s the propositio n

.

Th e f u n da m e n t al i m p u lse of every livi n g bei n g aims a t self

'
preservatio n ( in p n n dp uiyv 0 gaio i xe w (3 2 T O np ei u
T ) rr a
'
v 7 u

a 77 T

vr b) t o which i s added th e pole m ical state me n t : an d n o t

a ,

1
[Se e Di og e n e s Lae rt i u s Boo k V II ; ,
. St ob ae u s Eclog u es , I I ; C i ce ro , Dc ni bus
,
.

Bi bli o grap h y i n W e b e r Th illy p 1 4 0 p-

146 TE ]

. . .
, , .

2 V II , 8 4 1 3 1 .
54 O RIGIN S OF MO RA L PH ILO S O PH Y
at pleas u re Th e law o f its n atu re is therefore t o avoid th e
.
, ,

har m fu l an d to strive fo r what is appropriate to it ( r o ix e i a )

ci .

Pleas u re however arises as an acco m pa n i m e n t wh e n a bei n g

, ,

obt ai n s what is appropriate to it which calls t o

m i n d A ristotle s rr uy y bu e v r h e) Eve n pla n ts act i n

i v v vo o .

this way altho u gh they are u n co n scio u s o f the i m pulse which

, ,

is also the case with o u r o w n vegetative fu n ctio n s A n i .

m als however are co n sci o u s of t he i m p u lse an d he n ce it is

, ,
-

the la w of their n ature to follow their co n scious i m p u lses

(for the m 7 6 lcd (p i n i s equal to 7 0 [ca r d r ip
ro !d i
pu yv !

am n e t ) e
-
Bu t m an i s e n dowed with reaso n ( 6 Ni yo e)
a .
f
,

besides i m p u lse ; he n ce to li ve a ccor di ng to n a tu re m ea n s for

h i m to live a ccor di n g t o r e a son ( t f a b yo v) fo r reaso n i s by a
-
,

n a t u re t he regul ator o f desire ( M57 0 9 e v i m e 7r t ylve r a t T s

- ' '
x r r

dpp c) It would be co n trary to n a t ure for m an to follo w

.

i rratio n al desire Bu t i n so far as th e n ature o f each

.

\
-

i n divid u al bei n g is deter m i n ed by th e n ature of the A ll t o live ,

accordi n g t o reaso n m ean s for m an : to O bey t he u n iversal

law or which is t he sa m e thi n g J u piter the highes t regula
, , , ,

t or an d ruler A n d thi s is e u d ce m on i a a n d w e lfa re ( ebp ova

.

r o i! l v ) n a m ely to d o
o ,
everythi n g i n har m o n y with ou r
de m o n accordi n g to t h e will of th e u n i versal govern o r an d
,

ma n age r of all thi n gs A n d the n atural dispositio n of every

.

bei n g is i t s vi r tu e or p e rf e cti on (r ek e iwo i s) ; an d this we

ough t t o seek for i t s o wn sake withou t bei n g i n u e n ced by ,

t h e fear or h ope of an y ex t er n al e ffe c t s : for i t i s i n i t th a t

happi n ess co n sists If n ow we c all a m an who lives accord
.

i n g t o reaso n a wise m an we m ay say : Th e wise m an an d , ,

the wise m an alo n e is virt uous an d h a ppy , .

These t hough t s m ay all be regarded as a pplica t io n s an d i n ,

part m ore de n i t e expressio n s of A ristotelian pri n ciples

,
.

Re fere n ce is o fte n m ade to th e rigoris m of the S toic ethics ,

which h olds th a t virtu e al o n e i s a good b u t t his i s i n th e , ,

last a n alysis exactly what Plato an d A ristotle teach : that

,

h appi n ess does n o t co n sist i n pleasure bu t i n the exercise of ,

56 O RIG IN S OF MO RA L PH ILO S O PH Y
cal ac t ivity i s l esse n ed whil e th e e xercise of th e e thical
,

vi rtu es the e ld of actio n espe cially actio n de ali n g with

, ,

hum an r el ation s the fa m ily an d the st a te gradually beco m es

, ,

m or e p r o m i n e n t Bu t the de m a n d t hat we keep ourselves

.

free r e m ai n s t he chief a n d the highest de m an d .

6 Ep i c u r u s
.
1
t oo an d his disciples are i n search of the
, ,

highes t good an d n d it i n e u d ae m bn i a ; b u t thei r d e n i

tio n of it di ffers fro m that of th e philosophers me n t io n ed
above n ay e ve n fro m the popu la r G reek co n cep t io n : for
, ,

t h e m e u d ae m o n i a is a f e e li ng of p le a su r e This vie w leads .

to a chan ge i n t he positio n o f vir t ue o r excelle n c e : virt u e

beco m es a m ea n s to the e n d of pleasure 2
.

Th e di ffere n ce bet wee n th e t w o sta n dpoi n ts i s perfectly

appare n t Th e Stoics agree with A ris t otle an d Plato i n d e n
.

i n g happi n ess a s an objective co n d itio n of the soul : a life

that realizes the n at u ral purpose of m an o r per fectly realizes ,

his idea is itself the highest good To be sure the s u bj ective

,
.
,

satis factio n follows th e obj ective co n stitu tio n as the sh ado w ,

follo w s the body bu t the sati sfactio n is n ot itse lf th e good

, .

Th e Epic u rea n s o n th e othe r ha n d regard the feeli n gs of

, ,

pleas u re w hic h li fe proc u res as the good itsel f an d th e con ,

s t i tu t i o n o r characte r o f w h ich they ar e the e ffect as the ,

mea n s .

Whe n we disregard t his ques t io n of pri n ciple an d exa m i n e

t he cou n sel s which Epi c u rus gi ves t o his p u pils co n ce r ni n g
thei r m ode o f li fe (fo r exa m ple i n his letter to Me n oi ke u s ) 3

th e di ffere n ce largely disappears yes we m igh t al m os t be , ,

t e m p t ed to v i e w i t as a purely sch olas t ic or t ech n i cal di ffer

e n ce Epicuru s by n o m ea n s advises us to choose every
.

pleasure n ay h e expre s sly w a r n s us agai n s t it

, ,
Whe n .

,

1
[Di og e n es Lae rt i u s, X ; C i ce r o , De n ibus ; Lu cre t i u s, De re r u m na t ura
.

(t ran sl at e d by M u n ro ) Bi bl io g rap h y i n W e b e r Th i lly p 1 9 4 , n ot e

.
-
, .

2 K O t li
s n s h o w s u s i n h i s e ce lle n t e x x
p o s i t i o n o f t h e De m o cri t e an e t h i cs ,
Gesch i chte d er E thi lc, I , 1 9 6 , h o w e v e n i n hi s e t h i cs, E p i cu ru s w a s for e stal l e d
.
,

by t h e fo r ce fu l t hi n k e r w h o m h e fo llo w e d i n h i s p h y si cs De mocr i t u s , .

3 Di o
g e e s Lae r t i u s, t ran slat i on b y
n
g Y
o n e i n Bo h n s lib r a r , X , 1 2 2 1 2 5

y .
-
.
 T HE G RE E K C ON C E P TI ON 57

therefore we say t ha t pleasure is a chief good w e are n ot

, ,

speaki n g of the pleas u res of the deba u ched m an o r those w h o ,

lie i n se n s u al e n j oy m e n t as so m e thi n k wh o are ig n or a n t an d

, ,

who do n o t e n tertai n o u r O pi n io n s or else i n terpret t he m per ,

v e r s ely ; but we m ea n the freedom o f the body from pai n an d ,

o f the soul fro m c o n fusio n By happi n ess h e says he
.
, ,

mea n s t he heal t h of the body an d t he freedom from disquie t

u d e o f the soul ( r ip) r o i! O bua ro c iryie ta v K a i r ip Tij e v ij c
p x
' '
c )

d r a p a fia v r ek o c e lva t r o i) p a fca p i co e Cv) H e n c e t he esse n c e .

of wisdo m is i n his O pi n io n t o a void th e c a uses of co n fusio n

, , .

S u ch are t he loss a n d wa n t o f t hi n gs which we ar e i n t he

habi t of possessi n g an d e n j oyi n g a s well as th e fe a r of ,

losses . To accusto m o n eself t herefore to simple an d i n e x , ,

pe n sive habi t s is a gre at i n gredie n t i n t he perfec t i n g of

health an d makes a m an fr ee fro m hesitati on wi th re spec t t o
,

the n ecessary uses of life A n d whe n we on cer t ai n occ a .

,

sio n s fall i n with m ore su m p t uous f a re i t m akes us i n a

, ,

better dispositio n t owards i t an d re n ders us fearless wi th ,

r espec t t o for t u n e He n ce we regard co n t e n t m e n t (a br ci p /cet a )

.

as a grea t good A bov e all we m u s t rid ourselves of va i n

.

d e si r e s .Epicurus di sti n g u i shes betwee n n at u ral or n eces
sa ry an d vai n or emp ty desires ( m dvu la t (pva uca i x eva l) e

'
.

Th e for m er he n ds are easily s at i s e d n a t ur e doe s n ot

, , ,

make great de m a n ds while t he la t ter th e desires of l u xury

, ,

an d va n i t y ar e i n n i t e an d n ever t o be sa t ised
,
Ph ilos o .

phy frees us from this t rouble by t e a chi n g us wh at w e should

'

a void an d wha t we shoul d s t rive aft er .

A n other so u rce of t rouble is the f e a r of d ea th an d of wha t ,

co m es after death From this to o philosophy frees us by

.
, ,

showi n g tha t death is n o thi n g terrible si n ce whe n we exi st , , ,

death is n ot prese n t to us an d whe n death is prese n t the n , ,

we have n o existe n ce A n d there is n ot hi n g terrible i n livi n g

.

t o a m an who righ t ly co m prehe n ds t h a t there i s n othi n g t er

rible i n ceasi n g t o live . A n e n th u siastic discipl e of Epicurus ,

Lucre t ius e m phasizes this phase ; every book of his work on

,
58 O RIGIN S OF MO RA L PH ILO S O PH Y
the N a tu r ef o si n gs n e w praise s t o the m an who
Thi ng s 1
freed m a n ki n d fro m the i m agi n ary terrors with which super
s ti ti on had peopled heave n an d earth .

He n ce it Is n ot co n ti n u e d dri n ki n gs an d revels o r t he ,

e n j oy m e n t o f fe m ale society o r feasts o f sh an d other such

,

t hi n gs as a costly t able s u pplies that m ake li fe pleasa n t , ,

b u t sober co n te m platio n whic h e xa m i n es i n to th e reaso n s fo r

all choice an d avoida n ce an d whic h puts to ight the vai n
,

O pi n io n s fro m which th e grea t er p a rt o f t he co n f u sio n arises

which tro u bles th e so u l N ow the begi n n i n g an d the greatest
.

good of all these thi n gs is p rude n ce o n which ao

co u n t prude n ce is so m e thi n g m ore valuable tha n eve n phil

osophy i n as m uch as all t he other vir t ues spri n g fro m it
, ,

t eachi n g us t ha t i t i s n ot possibl e t o live pleasa n tly u n less

o n e also lives prude n tly an d ho n orably an d j ustly
,
an d tha t ,

o n e ca n n ot live prude n tly an d ho n es t ly an d jus t ly witho u t

, ,

livi n g pleasa n tly for the virtues a re co n n a t e with livi n g

,

agreeably an d livi n g agreeably i s i n separable fro m the

,

virt u es . A n d s o Epic u rus t o o, re a ches the pop u lar Greek
,

co n ceptio n that vi r t u e an d happi n ess are i n sep a rable a s the ,

li n e i n the poe m ex presses i t :

Os dy a dds re Ka i e bda ip co v dp a y i ver a t du ij p .

7 . S u m m arizi n g th e m ai n
features of Greek ethics w e m ay ,

s ay : It agrees with the pop u lar Greek vie w tha t the highest

good co n sists i n t he p e rf e cti on of m a n a s a n a tu r a l be i ng .

S pecial stress is laid u po n t he devel op m e n t o f t he i n te lle ctu a l

side Eve n t h e pop u l ar co n ceptio n recog n izes the great i m
.

por t a n ce of the i n tellec t for h u m a n perfectio n a fact t o which ,

the above m e n t io n e d work o f L S ch m id t o n th e popula r .

m orali ty o f the Greeks repeatedly calls a tte n tio n 2

Th e .

philosophe rs the s pecic types o f the Greek people as the

, ,

prophets are o f t he Israelites go still fu rther a n d m ake , ,

r easo n th e root an d crow n o f all h u m a n excelle n ce F o r the m .

wisdo m or p hi losop hy is both the m ecn s an d the con ten t of

1 De rer u m n a tura . 2 I .
,
1 5 6 , 2 3 0 ff .
 THE G REE K C ON C E P TION 59

e u d ce m on i a t he for m er so far as it acqu ai n t s us with

,
in
t he highes t good an d reg u l ates practical life to the e n d o f
r ealizi n g it the latter i n so fa r as phi losophy o r th e seie n
, , ,

t ic co n te m platio n of the u n iverse i s the highest freest fu n c , ,

t io n of h u m an n a ture o n e th at is desi red solely fo r its o w n

s ake . It is sai d tha t A n axagoras bei n g o n ce asked for wha t ,

e n d h e h a d bee n bor n a n s w ered : For the con te m platio n

,

of t he s u n a n d m oo n an d heave n an d the orde r gover n i n g

, , ,

the e n t ire u n iverse This i s really the a n s w er which t h e
.

e n tire Greek phil osophy an d th e Greek mi n d i n ge n eral

, ,

gives to th e questio n .

At rst sigh t th e co n cep t io n strikes us as a rather s t r an ge

,

on e . We are n ot i n th e h abi t o f a ttachi n g so m uch i m por

t an ce t o the i n tellect u al fu n ctio n ; we n either expec t tha t
prude n ce or i n sigh t will always result i n righ t actio n n o r ,

are w e ready t o believe tha t th e true m issio n of m an co n sis t s

i n t h e co n t e m pl atio n o f t hi n gs o r i n p hi l os op h y Perh aps

, .

we shall u n dersta n d both poi n ts be t ter whe n we re m e m be r

h o w d i e re n t w as the positio n occ u pied by scie n t ic k n owl
edge a m o n g the Greeks fro m that which it h olds i n m oder n .

life I n o u r worl d n ot o n ly the s o called l ear n ed professio n s

.
-
,

b u t eve n scie n tic research itself w hich has bee n orga n ized ,

by the state i n u n i ve rsities a n d acade m ies h ave beco m e ,

bra n ches o f i n dustry A s i s th e case with th e m an u facture

.

o f shoes an d wa t ches a m a n m ay a t prese n t m ake his liv

, , ,

i n g a n d a good l ivi n g at that u n der favorable co n ditio n s by

, , ,

tur n i n g o u t m athe m atical a n d philological scie n tic an d ,

philosophical i n vestigatio n s Thi s was n ot the case i n G reece

.
,

at least n ot whe n philosophy rst arose Th e philosophers .

e m phatically declare that scie n tic co n te m platio n an d pro

fe s s ion al i s m are absol u tely i n co m patible : the S ophis t wh o
atte m pts t o co m bi n e the m thereby l oses philosophy ; he i s as
, ,

Plato sh ows with bitte r s a rcas m i n his S op hi s t a deale r i n ,

sha m wisdo m Heraclitu s an d Par m e n ides Plato an d A ris

.
,

t ot l e did n o t e n gage i n t h e co n te m platio n o f reality fo r th e

,
60 O RIGIN S OF MO RAL PH ILO S O PH Y
sak e of a cquiri n g m o n ey or professorships but solely for its ,

o w n sake : we work says A ristotle i n orde r t o have leis u re

, , ,

bu t t h e m os t bea u ti ful way o f lli n g o u r lei s ure is philosophy .

This di ffere n ce i n th e o u tward positi o n o f scie n tic research

is i n ti m at ely co n n ected with its altered i n n er co n stitu tio n ;
m od e r n s cie n tic research is as co m pared with Greek phil
, ,

osophy m o re like labo r o fte n like pe t ty an d ard u ous labor

, , .

Th e physic a l o r historical i n vesti ga t o r of o u r ti m e e m ploys

an e n ormous a pparat u s o f lear n i n g an d t ech n ic a l s kill col ,

lectio n s an d i n s t r u m e n t s i n order t o t hrow ligh t upo n so m e

,

obscure n ook of reali ty which is of little i n t eres t i n itsel f an d ,

d o e s n ot e v e n i n teres t t he i n vestiga t o r very m u ch Th e .

r esul t of hi s work may a t so m e t i m e i n so m e co n n ec t io n o r

,

o the r assis t u s so m ewha t i n u n ders t a n di n g r e a lity

,
o ft e n we
ca n n o t see t he co n n ec t ion an d i t i s a bsol u tely i m m a t erial t o
,

ma ny an i n vestigator whether his work will co n t ribu t e an y

thi n g t o ou r k n owledge of the whole o r n ot .

Th e Gree k philosophers o n th e o t he r ha n d were h appy i n

, ,

the belief th a t i t was possible an d tha t each o n e of the m

,

wo u ld be able t o u n r a vel t he ul t i m a te mys t eries o f the u n i

verse by pure co n t e m pl a tion Eve n A ris t o t le th e great
.
,

observer declares th at of all ac t ivi t ies scie n tic i n vestiga t io n

, ,

i s i n leas t n eed of ex t er n a l aids ; s o co n vi n ced is he that the

apparatu s of rese a rch is a purely se co n dary affair It i s plai n .

tha t a theoretical fu n cti on which ai m s t o solve all t he grea t

p r oble m s of t he u n iverse an d of life with its world e n co m pass -

i n g thoughts has grea t e r S ig n ica n ce fo r t he perso n al li fe

,

o f a m an tha n the i n vestig at io n o f Plau ti n i c metres an d the

discove ry o f n ew m ethyls an d phe n yl s Whe n the occ u patio n .

with suc h t hi n gs become s a S port an d i s p u rsued as a sport ,

i t may lik e all spor t s chess pl ayi n g o r sta m p collecti n g

, ,
- -
,

beco m e a m att e r o f im m ediate i n teres t ; b u t a m an will

hardly b e i n cli n ed t o r egard s u ch work eve n t hough he fol ,

lows i t per m an e n tly as the real ob j ec t o f his existe n ce If

, .
,

however we co u ld hope t o u n ravel the m ysteries of the world

,
 TH E G REE K C ON C E P TI ON 61

an d o f life by s t udyi n g philosophy who w o u ld n o t be i n ter

,

e s t e d i n it wh o wo u ld regard it as too trivial ? Let n o

,

one ,
so Epic u rus begi n s the letter q u oted above delay to ,

study philosophy while he is y o u n g an d whe n he is o ld le t ,

h i m n o t beco m e weary of the st u dy ; fo r n o m an ca n ever

n d the ti m e u n suitable o r t oo late to s t u dy the health o f his
so u l A n d he who asse r t s either that i t is n ot yet ti m e to
.

philosophize o r that th e hour i s passed is like a m an wh o

, ,

s h o u ld say th a t th e t i m e is n o t ye t co m e t o be happy o r that ,

it is too late .

Th e belief i n the i r r e si sti ble p ow e r of kn ow le dg e which i s ,

expressed i n the S ocratic state m e n t th at k n owledge deter

m i n e s co n d u ct fo r it i s i n co n ceivable t h a t an y o n e sho u ld do
,

what he hi m self regards as wro n g ( a state m e n t which reap

pears i n so m e for m o r o ther i n all t h e philosophers ) h as ,

ma n ifestly a g reat deal t o d o with th e positio n which philos

o ph y occupied i n the i n tellec t ual li fe o f t h e Greeks We are .

perfectly awar e th a t a m an may k n ow wha t t o do an d still

n o t do it . From our earlies t childhood we have bee n told an d
h ave k n ow n th a t we ough t n ot t o req u i t e evil with evil bu t with
good eve n i n the case of ou r e n e m ies b u t who acts accord
,

i n gly ? Bu t S ocrates wo u l d h ave asked us what d o you

, ,

m ea n by k n owi n g S urely n o t the ability to repeat a l ot
o f words a fter a perso n ? F or m e o n ly a livi n g co n victio n is

k n owledge . K n owledge as we o fte n u n dersta n d it was

, ,

so m ethi n g wholly foreig n to the Greeks : they had n o school

i n s t r u ctio n i n which th e me m ory was c ra m m ed with the

k n owle dge o f others partic u larly n o i n str u ctio n i n m oral s
,

a n d religio n Bu t whe n ever m oral m axi m s an d j u dg m e n ts

.

were i n c u lcated i n their yo u th as for exa m ple by the st u dy

, , ,

of Ho m er they e m bodied ethical co n ception s which were

,

thoro u ghly i n telligible to the n atural m an They did n ot .

discri m i n a t e as we do be t wee n a m oral creed co n n ed by ro t e

, ,

an d a m orality o f the hear t Whe n howeve r his r e e c

, ,

tio n s c arried a philosophe r beyo n d the pop u lar co n ceptio n s

62 O RIGIN S OF MO RA L PH ILO S O PH Y
to n e w views ; whe n S ocrates fo r exa m ple fou n d tha t i t , ,

was n ot as disgrace fu l to s u ffer i n j u stice as to d o i n j u stice ,

these were n ot m ere e m pty wor d s fo r school childre n to

learn by heart b u t represe n ted the perso n al co n victio n s of
,

the thi n ker which co u ld n ot fail to i n u e n ce hi m i n his

,

actio n s .

A n d whe n Epicte t us tells his p u pils t ha t t he wise m an is

i n depe n de n t of fate becau s e everythi n g tha t really co n cern s
,

h i m is i n his power while whatever is n o t i n his power does ,

n o t co n cer n h i m his words are n ot merely i n te n ded to be

,

m e m orized a n d recited at co n r m atio n s o r at n al college

exa m i n atio n s bu t t hey s t an d for real experie n ces an d are
, ,

there fore capable of arousi n g stro n g co n victio n s He n ce I .

a m i n cli n ed to believe t ha t there was fo r the Greeks an d ,

partic u larly for th e Greek philosophers m ore tr u th in the ,

p ropositio n N 0 on e i s vol u n tarily bad tha n it see m s to u s to

, ,

co n tai n Mere sch ool an d w ord k n owledge of co u rse is

.
, ,

powerless b u t real k n owledge k n owledge that represe n ts real

, ,

perso n al co n victio n s ca n n ot fail t o i n u e n ce life ,

.

S cie n tic research t herefore o r philosophy occ u pi ed a , , ,

positio n i n the perso n al li fe o f the Greek philosophers which

it does n ot n ecessarily hol d at pres en t the positio n n a m ely , , ,

o f an e n d i n itself Bu t a n other factor helped to m ake spec

- -
.

u l a t i v e li fe val u able For the Greek p r a cti ca l li fe was syn

.
,

o n y m o u s with p oli ti ca l li fe He e n tertai n ed a low O pi n io n of .

i n d u strial activity it was regarded as v u lgar ; eve n the pro

,

fe ss i on o f the artis t did n ot escape his co n t e m p t 1

N o on e .

The Drea m

1 Th i s i s cl ea rly s h o w n in a l i t t l e t r e at i se of Lu c i an s, a w ork, by
,

t h e w ay , w hi ch i s ver
y c h a r act e r i st i c of t he Gre e k m o d e of t h ou g h t . S c i e nc e
an d A rt a p p ear d r ea m b e fo r e t h e b o y L u ci a n ; e ach t ri e s t o p e rs u ad e
in a

h i m t o d ev ot e h i m se lf t o h e r In re s p o ns e t o t h e s p e e ch o f Pl as t i c A r t , w h o
.

h o lds t h at sh e h as a cla i m u po n h i m , b e cau se h i s an ce st o rs we r e fo ll ow e rs of

h e rs , S c i e n ce an sw e rs : Yo u h a ve h e ar d fr o m t hi s p e r so n h e e w h at a d van r
t ag es y o u co ul d h o p e t o o b t ai n if yo u w e r e t o b e co m e a s t on e m as on Yo u w o ul d -
.

e v e n t u all b e n o t h i m o t h a a b u re m a n u al l a b o r e r w h o d e p e n ds
y n
g r e n n o sc ,

s o l e ly u p o n h i s h a n d s fo r h i s s u cce ss , re c e i v i n g n o t m u ch m o r e p ay t h an a

r
d ay l a b o r e , b a s e an d n a r ro w i n y o u r m o d e o f t h o u g h t , h a vi n g n o i n u en ce i n t h e
-

64 O RIGINS OF MO R A L PH ILO S O P H Y
which the drivi n g wi n d h u rries alo n g retiri n g u n de r t he
,

shelter of a wall withdrew fro m p u blic li fe Reec t io n s

, .

u po n the the m e that the philosopher ca n n o t be a politicia n

(7 5 1;a o c bv
b p iy woM r e e d t

a
)
a are co m m o n a m o n g the later

philosophers He n ce t her e was b u t on e t hi n g left t o t he m

.

philosophy .
 C H APTE R II

THE C HR I S TI AN N
C O C E PTIO N OF LIFE 1

1 . co n versio n of the a n cie n t world to C hristia n ity w as

THE
the greatest revol u tio n which E u ropea n h u m an ity experie n ced .

It m ea n t the co m plete overthrow o f all thei r theories o f li fe ,

the tra n s form atio n of all val u es ( Di e Um wer t u ng a lle r
Wer te) to u s e N ietzsche s expressi o n In order t o draw the
,

.

li n es as S harply as possible I shall atte m pt rst of all t o co n , , ,

t rast the C hristia n doctri n e o f self de n ial i n its harsh gran de u r -

with the Greek doctri n e of sel f preservatio n Th e world -

.

always te n ds to co m pro m ises an d co n ciliatio n s ; they are n ot

wan ti n g i n a n cie n t C hristia n ity an d i n the Middle A ges they ,

are v ery co m m o n still m ore s o i n the develop m e n t o f the

,

C hristia n ity o f m oder n ti m es as w ill be see n l ater o n Here ,

.

I sho u ld like to acce n t u ate the f u n da m e n tal d i ffere n ce betwee n

the Greek an d the C hristi a n co n ceptio n S harply an d o n e
sidedly if you pleas e as C hristia n ity itsel f co n ceived it at its
e n tran ce i n to th e a n cie n t world The G r e e k afr m a ti on of t he .

w or ld ( We ltbej a hu ng ) an d the C hr i sti a n n eg a ti o n of the w or ld

( W u r w n d ng ) these are the two paths ope n to m

2
e l t be i u ,
an .

1
[Se e ,
b e s i d e s t h e w o rk s of Si dg w i c k , W u n dt , Jo d l, Ja n e t E u ck e n , m e n t i o n e d
,

on
p 35. G a ss , Ge schi chte de r hr i s tli chen E thik ; Be st m a n n , Geschi ch te d e r
c

chr i s tli che n S i tte Zi e gl e r , Ge s chi chte de r chr i s tlt che n E thi k Lu t h a r d t , Ges ch i chte
der c hr i s t
li che n E thik ; L e ck y H is tory q/
,

E urop e a n hf o r a ls ; U e b e r w e g H i s tor y ,

f P hi lo sop hy v o l II
o , 4 a n d 5 ; Ba u r
.
, Da s C hr i ste nthu m d e r d r e i e rs te n J a hr
hu n d er te (E n gl t ransl b y A ll an M e n z i e s ) ; Harn ack Dog m e nge schi chte ; F i sh e r
. .
, ,

The Beg i n n i ngs of C hr is ti a n i ty C o n su l t also t h e st an dar d Li ves of C hr i s t a n d

.

ch u r ch h i st o r i e s . F o r f u r t h e r b i bli o g r a p h i ca l re fe r e n ce s , se e t h e b eg in n i ng of t he

s e co n d v ol u m e o f U e b e r w e g ; a ls o W e b e r-Th illy , p 9 , n o te 2 .

2 Th e
x
e p o s i t i o n w h i c h fo ll o w s h a s b ee n c r i t i c i s e d , o n t h e g r o u n d t h a t i t re p

r e se n t s C h r i s t ia n i t
y a s a w e a k , m e e k , w o r l d w e a ry , d o w n t ro dd e n asce t i c affa i r :
- -
,

Th a t i s n ot t h e i m p r e ss i o n w h i c h I i n t e n d e d t o cre a te . C h r ist ia n i ty w a s at rs t

5
66 O RIGIN S OF MO RA L PH ILO SO PH Y
Greeks regarded the perfec t develop m e n t of the n atu ral
Th e
powers of m an as the great a im o f li fe C hristia n ity on th e .
,

other han d clearly an d co n scio u sly sets u p the opposite as the

,

goal o f li fe : the death of the n atu ral an d the res u rrectio n of ,

a n e w s u per n atural m an
,
Excep t a m an be bor n agai n so .
,

C hrist teaches N icode m u s h e ca n n ot see the ki n gdo m of ,

God the repe n tan ce ( as r tr a ct ) which C hrist de m a n ds with -

e ,

Joh n the Baptist is i n t r u t h a rege n eratio n Th e old an d

1
,
.

the n e w m an are O pposed to e a ch other as the esh ( c ap s)

a n d t he spiri t Pa u l logically de n es this an ti th e
sis : there is a t wofold life the life a ft er the esh an d the li fe ,

after the spirit ; the for m er the life of the n atural m an the ,

latter the e ffect o f grace ; the for m er i n t e n t upo n perishabl e

,

thi n gs an d leadi n g t o dea th the latt er t ur n ed toward eter n i ty ,

an d leadi n g t o eter n al li fe : for he t ha t s owe t h t o his esh

shall o f the esh reap corr u p t io n ; b u t he that soweth to th e

3
spiri t shall of the spiri t reap li fe eve rlasti n g Th e n e w life
is the death of the old ; thro u gh t he spirit t he deed s of th e
body are m ort i e d 4
.

This character o f th e n ew religi o n is expressed i n its sacred

acts We e n t e r i n to C hristian ity th ro u gh baptism ; i t is
.

c alled by Pa u l a like n ess ( bu lwu ) of the deat h of Jesus

5
o a

ce r t ai n ly n ot n e g at i v e ,
a but a v e ry p osi t i v e t hi n g ; i t w as n ot ch ar act e r i z e d b y
fe e l i n g s of d e p re s si o n an d de j e ct i o n , b u t b y a fe e li n g o f ch e e r fu l c e r t ai n t y, t h e
ce rt ai n t y of
p o s se s s i n g a t re asu r e b e y o n d al l o t h e r t r e asu r es . A n d fr o m t h i s
c o n v i c t i o n sp r a n g t h e p r o u d fe e li n g of fr e e do m , w i t h w h i c h t h e C h r i s t i a n Opp o se d

th e w or ld an d i ts
g u lat i on s , so c i e t y an d i t s co n v e n t i o n al
re l
va u es, t h e l a w an d

i t s p e d an t i c fo r m al i s m Bu t m y m ai n p u r p o se h e r e w as t o co n t r a s t it pl y
sh a r

w i t h t h e G r ee k c o n ce p t i on of li fe an d m or ali t y , and h e n ce I r s t co n s id e r e d

C h r i st i an i t y fr o m i t s n e ga t iv e Sd i e, the s i de w h i ch d i st i n g u i s h e s i t as s o m e th in g

e n t i r e ly n e w i n t h e w o r ld . Be s i d e s , C h r i s t ia n i t y n o w an d t h e n b e c o m e s c o n s c io u s
of i ts or i g i n al n e g at i v e r e l a t i o n to th e w o rld an d t h e ki n g d o m w h i ch i s of t h is

w orl d, an d so , i n m y o p i n i o n , r e g a i n s s o m e o f i t s p r i s t i n e e s se n ce an d st r e n g t h .

A C h r i st i a n i t y e n t i re ly re co n c ile d a n d a t p e ac e w i t h t h e w o r l d i s a w e a k an d
p o w e rl e s s affa i r , an d su r e ly n ot t h e r eal a n d o r ig i n al C h r i st i a n i t y T ru e C h r i s .

t i an i t y m ay al w ays be r e co
g n i ze d b y t h e fact t h at i t se e ms s t r an g e a n d d an g e r
ou s t o t h e w o rl d .

1 IMa th i v V
.
, 17 .

2 J ohn iii ,
.
,
6 .
4
Rom .
, vi ii .
, 13 .

5
3 Ga l .
,
vi .
, 8 . Ro m .
,
vi , 5 .
 THE C H RI S TI AN C ON C E P TI ON 67

a very i n t elligible sy m bol so lo n g as C hristian i ty was a t w ar

,

with the world ; it was a serio u s re m i n de r of the bloody bap

t i s m which m ight follow the water baptis m Th e other sacra .

m e n t is n o less s u ggestive o f death ; by eati n g t he body an d

dri n ki n g the blood of Jes u s t he believers celebrate the m e m
,

o ry o f his sacricial death the m selves formi n g a co mm u n ity

,

co n secrated t o a bloody sacrice It is likewise worthy of .

n ote that th e n e w churches us u ally also served a s b u rial

places that the bo n es of the m artyrs were i n terred i n t he
,

altar itsel f Th e n at u ral m an d reads co n tact with death ; it is

.

a poll u tio n accordi n g to the Greek as well as t h e Jewish con

,

ce p t i o n ,
eve n i n the religio u s se n se while t o the C hristian , ,

death is a fa m ilia r tho u ght ; it is the e n tra n ce i n to li fe .

.2 Th e e n tire C hris tia n li fe is per m eated with t his co n c ep

tio n Wha t the ol d o r t he n atu ral m an d esires o r val u es is
.

regarde d by th e n e w m an as worthless o r da n gero u s ; a n d

co n versely the s u fferi n gs an d privatio n s which the for m e r
,

seeks to escape the l atte r regards as sal u tary an d be n ecial

,
.

Le t m e poi n t o u t the m ai n di ffere n ces betwee n the t wo theories

o f li fe.

Th e perfectio n an d ex ercise o f the i n te lle ctu a l c ap a ci ti e s

see m ed to the G reeks a highly i m porta n t to their philosoph ers ,

an absol u tely n ecessary f u n ctio n o f h u m a n li fe

,
Th e attit u de .

of pri m itive C hristia n ity t owards reaso n an d n atu ral k n owl

edge i s o n e of co n te m pt an d distr u st Th e poor i n spi ri t are .

blessed by Jes u s ; the people wh o follow h i m are poor an d

u n c u lt u red ; wha t is hidde n fro m t he wise an d pr u de n t is
revealed to childre n N ay n at u ral reaso n an d wisdo m are
.
,

really a stu m bli n g block to the ki n gdo m o f God th e preach

-
,

i n g o f the cross i s foolish n ess to it Where is th e wise ?
.

Pa l asks the co gregatio n at C ori th

u n n
1
where i s t e scribe
h 9
,

where is the disp u ter o f this world ? hat h n o t God m ad e

foolish the wisdo m o f this world ? For a fter that i n th e
wisdom of G o d the world by wisdo m k n ew n ot God i t pleased ,

1 1 C or i . . 20 .
,
68 O RIGIN S OF MO R A L PH ILO S O PH Y
God by the foolish n ess of preachi n g t o save t he m th at
believe .

Th e ch u rch did n o t strictly adhere t o thi s view ; as a ch u rch

sh e co u ld n o t adhere to it Whe n she bega n to do m i n ate the
.

e n tire li fe of the peoples she was co m pelled to press i n to her

,

service the m ost i m porta n t i n str u m e n t o f te m poral powe r ,

k n owledge Bu t pri m itive C hristian ity s t ood i n n o posi

.

t ive relatio n to worldly scie n tic k n owledge ,

Th e for m o f .

a serva n t the spi rit u al for m disappeared i n th e t hird ce n t u ry

, ,

whe n brillia n t teachers o f the ch u rch a n d eve n rich bishops

appeared ; b u t i n its poo r for m C hris t i an ity o verca m e the
1
world . A n d we m ay n ote the after e ffects of this origi n al -

rel ati o n i n the e n tire history of the C hristia n ch u rch li fe : I

am thi n ki n g n ot m erely o f t he C hris t ia n s distrus t o f scie n tic

i n vestigatio n an d the l aw of obedie n ce which t he i n tellec t t oo , , ,

was ex pected to observe a l aw it is t ru e which ofte n spra n g , ,

from very worldly m otives bu t above all of t hat si m plicity , ,

o f heart whic h always s u cceeded i n m i n i m izi n g a m o n g all ,

t ru e believers i n C hris t t hose di ffere n ces of cu lt u re an d

,

k n owledge which hi n der th e free i n tercha n ge of tho u ght i n

,

the perso n a l i n tercourse of the worldly m i n ded A n d deeply -

.

religio u s n atu res have always show n an aversio n to p u ffed u p -

l ear n i n g t o the spirit of cri t icis m an d n egatio n which spri n gs

, ,

fro m arroga n ce an d begets arrogan ce to t he m an i a for ,

sys t e m s an d t o scie n tic pride

, .

He n ce th e vi rtues of the i n t ellect freedo m an d bol d n ess of ,

t hou ght an d t he powe r t o do u bt the vital pri n ciple o f s ci e n ,

t i c research are i n the eyes of pri m itive C hristia n ity ;

, ,

worthless an d dan gero u s Faith an d obedie n ce are beco m i n g

.

t o the C hristia n ,

3 Like the virt u es o f the i n tellect so are also the e thi ca l

.
,

vi r tu e s o f the Greeks which are n othi n g b u t n at u ra l i m p u lses

,

ed u cated an d discipli n ed by the reaso n worthless a n d d an ,

g e r o u
, s a ccordi n g to the co n ceptio n o f pri m itive C hristia n ity
1 Hase, K i rchengeschi chte , 1 , 2 58 .
 TH E C H RI S TIA N C ON C E P TI ON 69

the m ore
da n gerous becau se they see m good : they are sp len
di d vi ce s Tho u gh it m ay see m la u dable that the so u l gover n
.

the body an d reaso n the vicio u s i m p u lses yet the so u l an d

, ,

reaso n itsel f ca n n ot by a n y m ea n s u n less it serve God as

, , ,

God hi m sel f h as prescribed it gover n the m i n the right way , .

For what ki n d of a lord o f th e body an d of the vices can a

m i n d be which bei n g ig n ora n t o f the tr u e G od a n d n ot su b
, ,

j e ct to his gover n a n ce i s prostituted a n d corr u pted by the ,

de m o n s poll u ted with all th e vices ? A n d the virtu es the m

selves if t hey bear n o relatio n to God are i n truth vices
, ,

rather tha n virt u es for altho u g h they are regarded by m a n y

as tr u ly m oral whe n they are desired as e n ds i n the m selves
a n d n ot for th e sake of so m ethi n g else t hey are n evertheless , , ,

i n ated an d arroga n t (i nfla toe a c sup e r boe) an d therefore

n o t t o be viewed as virt u es b u t as vi ces This i s S t . .

A ugu sti n e s O pi n i o n o f all p u rely h u m a n vir t ues 1

.

4 In the opi n io n of t he n at u ral m an cou r ag e i s t he chief

.
,

1 De C i vi ta te De i ,
xix .
,
25 .
I n h i s C onf ess i o ns h e m orali ze s u p on h i s o w n p as t
l ife fro m t h i s st an dp oi n t : e v e ry t h i n g n at u r al an d h u m an i n i t w a s an a li e n a t i on

fr o m G o d an d t h e r e fo r e r e p r e h e n s i bl e . W it h
t i r e s o m e m o n o t o n y h e p as s es f r o m
one p e r io d o f h i s li fe t o t h e ot h er, an d sh o w s t h e e m p t i n e s s a n d b as e n e s s o f all

t h e se act s o f h i s w h i ch sp ran g f ro m h i s n a t u r al i m p u lse s . Th at t h e n u r s li n

g
cr i e d fo r t h e b r e ast , t h a t t h e b oy t ook p le asu r e i n h i s sp o r t s a n d t h e y o u t h i n
x
rh e t o ri cal e e r c i se s , t h at h e w as a m bi t i o u s fo r d i st i n ct i o n a n d fa m e , t h at h e w a s

d e v o t e d t o fr i e n d s an d foll o w e d h i s n atu ral s e x u al i m p ul ses, t h at h e a dm i r e d

d i st i n gu i sh e d t each e r s an d d e di ca t e d h i s m aid e n w o r k s t o a r e ve r e d m an , t h a t as a

t e ach e r h e g at h e r e d yo u n g m e n ab o u t h i m an d o yf u lly an d z e al o u sly i n st r u ct e d j

q
t h e m i n k n o w le dg e an d i n e lo u e n ce , t h at h e p as si o n at e ly s e ar ch e d fo r t h e t r u t h
an d b e l i e v e d t h at h e w ou ld n d i t i n t h e p h il o so p h e r s all t h i s h e n o w c o n de m n s
fro m h i s n e w ly acq u i r e d C h r i st i an -e ccle si as t i cal st an dp o i n t : i t w as n o t h i n g b u t
va n i ty, fo o l is h n e ss , an d car n al corru p t i o n . On e p o i n t a l o ne , w h i ch t h e p u r e ly
h u m an j
g m e n t w o u ld p e r h aps r e g ar d as t h e b lac k e s t sp o t i n t h e p re v i o u s l i fe
ud

o f t h e S a i n t , h e p ass es o v e r w i t h ou t a s i n g l e w o r d o f b l am e ; h i s r e so l u t i o n ,

na m e ly, t o ab an d o n a w o m a n w h o h a d b e e n h i s m i s t r e s s fo r y e a r s a n d w h o h a d ,

bo r n e h im a s o n , an d , a t th e i n st i g at i o n of h i s m o t h e r , t o m a r ry a w o m an of h is
o w n r an k Th i s res o l u t i o n w hi ch
h i s m i s t re ss p re v e n t e d h i m fr o m c ar ry i n g
t h i
.

ou t s i n t e n d e d a ct o f fa i t hl e ss n e s s t o a w o m an w h o m h e l o v e d , b u t co u ld
n ot m arry fo r s o c ial re a so n s , h e p a s se s o v e r w i t h o u t a c o m p l a i n t , w i t h o u t a w o r d
o f se l f-r e p r o a c h , o n l y to co n d e m n h i m se l f v i o l e n t ly i m m e d ia t e ly a ft e r fo r h i s i n

ab i l i t y t o r e s i s t h is lo n g i n g fo r h e r e v e n a ft e r t h e se p arat i o n . So co m p le t e ly do
h is fe e l i n g s d iffe r fro m t h e n at u ral h u m a n fe e li n g s .
70 O RIG IN S OF M O RA L PH ILO SO PH Y

virtu e ; i t is as Greek an d Ro m a n pop u lar u sage i m plies

, ,

the vir tu e or excelle n ce as s u ch an d its abse n ce is equivale n t

,

to absol u te u n w orthi n ess C o u rage i s based u po n the i m p u lse

.

of self preserva t io n ; it e n s u res the success of the ego an d its

-

clai m s i n the s t r u ggle with those opposi n g i t Th e C hristia n .

,

w h o obeys the law o f God

resists n ot evil h e does n ot
, ,

co m bat it but e n dures it ; patien ce or pa t ie n t waiti n g (in r p j)

,
o o vr

is his co u rage He does n ot wield the sword Th e sword is

. .

t he i n stru m e n t by which to ob t ai n o n e s share of the world

the C hristia n has an d desires n o part i n the world ; his

heritage is i n the fu tu re world it ca n n o t be w on or l ost by
,

the sword Th e old ch u rch is thoro u ghly i m bued with the

.

thou ght tha t a C hristian c an n o t wield the sword Eve n .

tho u gh the ti m es soo n acco m m odat ed the m selves to the

n ecessi t ies of li fe we can hardly suppose tha t th ey did so
,

withou t so m e m isgivi n gs C hristia n soldie rs were beyo n d

.
,

do u b t regarde d as an an o m aly i n t he co n gregatio n d u ri n g

, ,

the earlier cen t uries Tertullian expresses the co n vic t ion of

.

t he pri m itive C hris t ia n though i n a m ore e m ph atic an d

,

ca t egorical a er whe n h e says : It is i m possible t o swear

m n n ,

fealty to God an d to m an to serve u n der th e ban n er o f C hris t

,

an d u n der t he sta n dard o f the devil i n the ca m p o f ligh t an d,

i n the ca m p of dark n ess ; o n e so u l c an n o t serve t wo m asters ,

God an d the E m peror Whe n the Lord deprive d Peter of the

.

1
sword he disarm ed all
, It s u rely see m ed an absol u te con
.

t rad i cti on for a cler i cu s t o wear the sword A m o n g all the .

sects which re n ew the old C hris t ia n m ode of li fe the dread ,

o f sheddi n g blood at o n ce reappears i n i t s origi n al s t re n gth .

Th e sa m e feeli n g asserts itself agai n s t capital pu n ish m e n t .

How far re m oved the m oder n world is fro m the ol d C h ris t ian
con ceptio n i s perh aps n owhere so clearly see n as here : the
fear o f the s word a n d o f bloodshed has wholly disappeared
disappeared eve n fro m t he ch u rch Th e great military .

heroe s are t he n atio n al sai n t s of the m odern n atio n s th e ,

1 De i d olola tr i a ,
ch ap t e r 19 .
72 O RIGIN S OF MO RAL PH ILO S O PH Y
also ,wh osoever sh all co m pel thee to go a m ile go with
an d ,
1
h i m twai n A n d a fe w verses fu rther back w e read : 2
.

A gree with thi n e adversary ( d; d um bin g ) quickly whil e r

,

thou art i n the way with h i m He n ce n ot o n ly a n ger an d .

hatred an d private reve n ge b u t l aw s u its are explicitly pro ,

-

Th i s is also St Pa u l s n otio n o f it : he strictly fo r

h ib i te d . .

bids the C ori n thia n s to go to la w be fore heathe n j u dges ,

be fore th e u n j u st who are n o t estee m ed i n the church ,

Is it so that there is n ot a w ise m an a m o n g yo u ? n o n ot ,

o n e that shall be able to j u dge bet w ee n his brethre n ? And
the n he proceeds : No w there fore there is u tterly a fa u lt

a m o n g yo u beca u se ye go to law with o n e a n other Why do

, .

ye n ot rather take wro n g ? Why do ye n o t rather su ffer

3
yo u rselves to be defrau ded ? Eve n th o u gh this law was n ot
always observed a m o n g th e old C hristia n s it was u n do u btedly ,

recogn ized as bi n di n g ; they fel t the sa m e dread of the law

s u i t as a m ea n s of defe n di n g t heir i n dividual rights as of
the sword 4
.

In this respect t oo t he differe n ce be t wee n moder n an d

, ,

pri m itive C hristia n ity i s appare n t e n o u gh We regard i t as .

the m ost n atural thi n g i n the world to go to law fo r ou r

rights o r to t u rn over to the j u dge fo r p u ni shme n t a m an
,

who h as damaged o u r body an d li fe ou r h o n or an d p roper ty ,

.

I am n o t sayi n g t h at this i s right o r w ro n g ; all I mea n t o

i m ply is t hat i n doi n g these thi n gs we are u n do u btedly a cti n g
co n trary to t he spirit of pri m itive C hristian ity .

6 This de t er m i n ed t he at ti t ude of the C hris t ia n t owards

.

1 M a tt ,
v .
,
3 841 .
2 V er se 25 .
3 1 C orn, vi .
, 7 .

4 It m u st h e co n fe sse d , h o we v e r, t h at p assag e i n t h e G o sp e l
a ( M a tt , x vi i i .
,

1 5 - 1 7 ) i n cli n e s t o m o r e p o si t i v e
a M o reo ve r , i f
t r e at m e n t o f t h i s s i de o f l ife :
t h y b ro t h e r sh all t r e sp ass ag ai n st t h e e , g o an d t e ll h i m h i s fau l t b e t w e e n t h e e

a n d h i m al o n e : i f h e s h all h e ar t h e e , t h o u h ast g ai n e d t h y b o th e r Bu t if h e r .

w ill n o t h e ar t h e e , th e n t ak e w i t h t h ee o n e o r t w o m o re , t h at i n t h e m ou th o f
,

tw o or t h r ee w i t n e sses e v e ry w o r d m ay b e es tabli sh e d . A n d if h e sh all n e g l ect

t o h e ar t h e m , t e ll i t u n to t h e ch u r ch ; b u t if h e n e g le ct t o h ear t h e ch u rch , le t
h im be u nto t h e e a s a h e at h e n m an an d a p u bl i can . Howe v e r ,
n o t a. s i n
gle
w ord i s sa i d o f t h e l aw -
s u i t an d t h e law .
 THE C H RI S TI AN C ON C E P TION 73

th e s ta t e . Greek an d Ro m a n rega rd ed par t icipat io n i n

Th e
the a ffairs of state as the highest an d m ost i m porta n t d u ty of
m an . Th e pri m itive C hristia n wh o did n o t value the fu n d ,

a m e n tal political virtues co u rage a n d th e se n se of j u stice

, ,

looked u po n th e state as so m ethi n g alie n to hi m sel f an d the

i n n e r pri n ciple of his li fe i n the state m en wra n gle over th e
thi n gs of this w orld e m ployi n g t he m ea n s of this world w ar
,

an d co u rts o f justice are its two fu n da m e n tal fu n ctio n s Th e .

pri m itive C hristia n s attitude to thi s e n tire i n stit u tio n was o n e

o f forbeara n ce He form ed a par t of it as h e form ed a part

.
,

of t he world i n ge n eral as a stra n ge r an d a pilgri m

,
he h ad
eve n less i n terest i n it tha n the m e m ber of a n o ther state .

A S a passive citize n h owever hi s co n d u ct was exe m pl ary

, ,

he was obedie n t i n all thi n gs which were n ot co n trary to hi s

divi n e m issio n ; h e willi n gly paid t axes ; h e obeyed all l aws
which prohibite d wro n g doi n g n ot o n ly o n acco u n t of the
-
,

p u n ish m e n t b u t fo r co n scie n ce sake an d i n s o far as th e

,

,

m agistracy realized j u s t ice i t was recog n i zed as the order an d

,

i n str u m e n t of G od Whe n howeve r he was aske d to act i n vio

.
, ,

lati o n o f his co n scie n ce the n of co u rse he co u ld n ot obey ; h e

, , ,

wo u ld n ot sacrice t o t he gods o r t o t he E m peror n o r swea r ,

i n thei r n a m e h e t hereby decl ared t ha t t here was so m ethi n g

higher fo r h i m tha n the s t a t e n am ely the ki n gdo m o f God o f , ,

which he co n sidered hi m self a citize n an d h e wo u ld allow n o ,

co m m an d o f earthly r u lers t o t u r n h i m asid e fro m th e d u ties

which this citize n ship i m posed u po n h i m Bu t here t oo .
, ,

he re n dered obedie n ce i n s o far as he accepted the p u n ish m e n t

which was i n icted u po n h i m without oppositio n an d co m plai n t
, .

He n ce the C hristia n s were both s u b m iss i ve to a u thority an d

yet i n wardly free i n th eir attit ude to the state so m ethi n g which ,

the a n cie n t citize n n either co u ld be n o r cared to be C an a .

C hristia n be an oi ce r o f the state In the earlier ti m es there

was little occasio n fo r disc u ssi n g the q u estio n it was n o t the
power fu l an d the n oble a fte r the esh who rst ca m e to the
co m m u n ity o f C hrist b u t t h e ig n oble an d the despised i n the
,
74 O RIG INS OF MO R A L PH ILO S O PHY
eyes of t he world It wo u l d u n do u btedly h ave bee n regard ed
.

as a stran ge co n tradictio n to serve both the cr u cied o n e an d

the lord o f this world In T ert u llia n the spirit o f pri m itive .

C hristia n ity s t ro n gly protests agai n st the grad u al sec u lariz a

tio n o f t he ch u rch By despisi n g the power an d the glory
.

o f this world h e declares the Lord rejected it an d
1
, ,

co n de m n ed it an d recko n ed i t a m o n g the thi n gs which are

,

th e pride of t he devil If t hey were his h e would n o t h ave .

,

co n de m n ed t he m b u t that which is n ot of God can belo n g to

n o o n e but the devil A n d t his t oo m ay re m i n d you t ha t all
.
, ,

the powers an d dig n ita ries of this world are n ot o n ly foreig n

t o G od bu t hostile to h i m the fact n a m ely t ha t they co n de m n
, , ,

the servan ts o f God t o death bu t forge t t he p u n ish m e n ts ,

which are i n t e n ded for cri m i n als Eve n as late as th e yea r .

3 0 5 th e sy n od o f Elvi ra decreed : Whoeve r holds th e o f ce

o f d u u m vi r m u s t sta n d aloof f ro m t h e church d u ri n g his t er m

o f o fc e
2
Not u n ti l t he co n versio n o f C o n sta n ti n e whe n
.
,

C hristia n i ty beca m e a state religio n did a co m plete chan ge ,

take place : n o w th e o fcers o f the state beca m e th e r e pre

s e n tati ve s an d the de fe n ders o f C hristia n ity an d t he clergy ,

i n a s e n se beca m e state O fcers A n d at prese n t m a n y are .

perhaps i n cli n ed to believe reversi n g the words o f Pau l 3 tha t , ,

the preservatio n o f C hristia n ity is th e especial b u si n ess of the

wise an d po w erfu l the c u ltu re d an d high bor n an d that i t
,
-
,

wo u ld die o u t i f the pri n ces an d lords of this worl d an d their

s erva n ts did n o t take care Of it .

7 Th e fo u rth cardi n al vi rt u e after wisdo m co u rage a n d

.
, , ,

j u stice is accordi n g to the Greek co n ceptio n w qbp i n or

, , ,
o
-
oa zv ,

t e mp e r a n ce It i s the state of the h ealthy m i n ded m a n wh o

.
-
,

u n dersta n ds the art o f m oderat e an d bea u ti fu l e n j o y m e n t a n d ,

c an also do witho u t thi n gs wh e n n ecessary G reek ed u catio n .

e n deavored t o c u ltivate this vir t ue : by m ea n s of t he gym

1 D e i dol , ch ap . . 18 .

2
U hlh o rn , D i e chr i stliche Li e bestha t iq ke it i n d er lte n K i rche, p 3 56
a . . S ee also

G as s, Ges chi chte d e r chri stli chen E thik i

.
,
9 2 ff .

3 1 C or .
, i 26. .
 THE C H RISTIAN C ON C E P TIO N 75

n astic an d m usical arts the t wo phases of ed u cat i o n it strove

, ,

to i n c u lcate i p the body a n d the s o u l of th e yo u n g the power of

sel f co n trol an d the faculty o f e n joyi n g the m selves bea u ti fu lly
-
.

Th e gy m n astic an d m u sical co n tests for m ed the cli m ax of

n atio n al pleasure ; to participate i n the m as a co m petitor for ,

the wreath an d as a spectator was c u lt u re ( a ibe v t c) , n a .

Th e attitude o f pri m itive C h ristia n ity towards e n j o y m e n t

was an e n ti rely diffe re n t on e an d he n ce co u ld n o t recog n ize
,

this virtu e o r o n ly recog n ize its n egative side as i n th e case

, ,

of j u stice : the ability t o resist the all u re m e n ts of pleas u re .

Th e C hristia n ed fro m e ar thly se n s u o u s ple as u re i n every -

for m ; eve n tho u gh it m igh t n ot be si n ful i n itself it was ,

t oo ap t t o e n dan ge r the so u l by fetteri n g it t o th a t which

,

is earthly an d pe rishable an d i m pedi n g the free igh t of the

,

S pi ri t t o eter n ity With fe arf u l ear n es t n ess Jes u s co m m a n ds

.

us to pl u ck ou t an d cas t fro m u s every me m ber t hat o ffe n ds

'

us : fo r i t is bette r t o e n t e r i n t o glory la m e an d disgured

a n d withou t eyes t ha n th a t t hy wh ole body S h o u ld be cas t

,

i n t o hell . Love n ot t h e world n eithe r the thi n gs th at are ,

i n t h e world If any m an love th e world the l ove of the Father

.

is n ot i n h i m Fo r all th a t i s i n th e world th e l u st of the

. ,

esh an d t he l u s t o f t he eyes a n d th e pride o f li fe is n ot of

, , ,

the Father b u t is of t he world
,
S o th e A postl e Joh n a d
.

mo n ishes the C hristia n s i n his rs t lette r debarri n g n ot ,

merely coarse se n s u o u s pleas u re b u t also aes t hetical pleas u re

,

h e l u s t of t h e ey e s) a n d everythi n g th at m akes this li fe

( t

glorio u s an d gran d ( axa t ve ta T i) Bi ) i n th e eyes o f the

o o ov

childre n of this world S o t oo th e rs t letter o f Peter

.
,
1
,

beseeches the breth re n : as stra n gers an d pilgri m s to abstai n

fro m e sh ly l u s t s which war agai n s t the so u l A n d Pa u l does
,
.

n o t weary o f ad m o n ishi n g th ose wh o are o f C h rist to cruci fy

the esh N owhere howeve r are we exhorted to m ak e the

.
, ,

body an d th e so u l capabl e o f e n joyi n g the bea u ti fu l pleasures

o f li fe o r t o t rai n the physical a n d S pi rit u al powers for par
,

1 ll , . 11 .
76 O RIGIN S OF MO RAL PH ILO S O PHY
gy m n astic exercises an d gam es or i n the cheerf u l
t i ci p ati o n i n ,

play of poetry an d art Th e e d u catio n of a C hristian has an

.

e n tirely di e r e n t obj ect i n view fro m the ed u c atio n o f th e
Greek : it m ust ope n our eyes to the va n ity an d tra n sitori n ess
o f this li fe an d to its aw fu l serio u s n ess
,
i n as m u ch as th e ,

eter n al life depe n ds u po n h ow we live here M u sical an d .

gy m n astic arts h owever are n ot suited to prepare u s for

, ,

eter n al life ; they are sow n i n the esh an d are raised i n cor
r u pti o n How c an a C hristia n who aspi res to the i m perish
able crow n strive a fte r th e virt u es by which wreaths are
w o n at h eathe n ga m es ? Wh o can n d pleasure i n the fabl es
o f the poets whe n h e can he a r the words o f the Lord a n d
,

the apostles ? How can he strive for c u lt u re who i s

struggli n g for holi n ess ? A ll thi s i s so sel f evide n t tha t -

it does n ot eve n h ave to be m e n t io n ed : i n a tr u e C hristia n

eve n the desire for s u ch thi n gs i s i n co n ceivable .

A m o n g t h e C hris t ia n s i t is n ot cul t u re an d eloque n ce th a t

are prized b u t si len ce S ile n ce is the rst d u ty reco m m e n ded
, .

by A m brosi u s i n his work on the d u ties of the clergy : 1

It i s
writte n : By thy words thou shalt be co n de m n ed He n ce why .

wilt tho u r u sh i n to t h e da n ger of perditio n by S peak i n g wh e n ,

tho u m av s t be safe by keepi n g sile n ce I h ave see n m a n y fall

i n to s i n by S peaki n g b u t hardly a S i n gle on e by keepi n g
,

sile n ce He n ce he i s wise wh o can be sile n t
. A n d s oo n after .

he says 2
There m ay be dece n t an d a m iable j ests b u t they ,

are n ot co m patible with t he r u les o f the church ; h ow can

we m ake use of that which does n ot appear i n the S cri pt u res .

We m u s t also avoid the fables of the poets lest they weake n ,

the rm n ess of o u r resol u tio n s Woe u n to yo u th at lau gh .

n o w fo r ye sh all m our n an d weep : so says the Lord ; a n d

,

shall we seek fo r m atter to lau gh at here that we m ay weep

hereaf t er ? I believe we m u s t n ot o n ly avoid wan to n jes t s ,

but all jests ; o n e thi n g alo n e is proper : a m ou th f u ll of

swee t n ess an d grace .

1 De o l mi n i str or u m I ,
.
, 2 .
2 I .
, 23 .
 TH E C H RIS TIAN C ON C E P TION 77

8 . Thisalso de t er m i n es the at t it u de of C hristia n i ty t o

e a r t h ly g ood s . S i n ce weal t h is rs t of all a m ea n s to se n
, ,

s a ous good livi n g an d seco n dly t o beau t i fu l e n j oy m e n t an d

, ,

c u lt u re he who does n ot val u e these thi n gs c an n ot approve

, ,

o f th e m ea n s which m ake the m possible Riches h ave n o .

val u e for the C hristia n ; he has e n o u gh whe n he possesses

wha t suffices t o satis fy his daily n eeds Bu t riches are n ot .

o n ly worthless they are da n gero u s There is of course

, .
, ,

n othi n g si n ful i n possessio n as such i n i t sel f i t i s ab s o ,

l u t e ly i n di ff e re n t ; bu t wealth is a serious m e n ace t o t he

ow n er i n so far as i t con stan tl v te m pts h i m t o use it an d th u s
, ,

e n sl a ves the so u l N othi n g recurs S O freque n tly i n th e Gospels

.

as the warn i n g agai n st th e da n gers of rich es It see m s .

al m ost i m possible to Jes u s tha t a rich m an sh o u l d e n t er i n to

the ki n gdo m of God ; it is easier for a ca m el t o go t hrough
the eye of a n eedle W e alth m akes u s eager for t hi s world
.

a n d careless of t he hereafter as th e rich m an lear n ed whe n

,

he reaped a good h arves t an d soo n bega n t o m edita t e wha t

t o do a n d where to bes t ow his frui t s ; weal th sat es us an d
m akes us i n di ff ere n t t o t h e wa n ts of o u r n eighbors as ,

Dives lear n ed before wh ose door poor Lazarus lay ; wealth

alie n at es God from u s for he allows n o othe r G od beside
,

hi m sel f : ye ca n n o t serve God an d m am m o n Therefore .

,

Jesus co m m an ded his discipl es t hat they sho u l d take n oth

i n g for their j our n ey : n o scrip n o bread n o m o n ey i n thei r
, ,

purse whe n he se n t the m ou t to preach ; an d it s u rely was

,

n ot an accide n t th at J u das who carried t h e purse m ost likely

, ,

becau se he was th e ablest n a n cier o f th e twelve shoul d h ave ,

turn ed traitor He n ce the u rge n t e n tre aty t o the good yo u n g

.

m an to give u p his riches : Go thy way sell whatever th ou ,

hast an d give t o the poor an d t ho u shalt have treasure i n

, ,

h ea ve n .

I n terpreters o f the Gospel are i n th e habit o f pro t esti n g

a gai n st the m isco n ceptio n that C hrist act u ally co m m a n ded

the you n g m an to give u p his riches C le m e n t o f A lexa n dria .

78 O RIGIN S OF MO RA L PH ILO S O PH Y
e arl v poi n t ed o u t i n his disc u ssio n of the questio n Wha t Rich
, ,

Man will be S aved ? that the co m m a n d t o sell everythi n g

an d g ive to the poor did n o t m ea n as so m e h astily ass u m e
, , ,

that he S ho u ld aba n do n his possessio n s b u t m erely his false

,

opi n io n s with respect to the m h i s love an d gre ed fo r the m

, .

This i n ge n io u s d isco very has bee n m ade over a n d over agai n .

A ccordin g to the sa m e art o f i n terpret a tio n we m ight reaso n ,

Whe n a m other tells her child who has take n hold o f a sharp
k n i fe to lay the k n i fe aside this does n ot m ea n that he sho uld
, ,

put it d o wn b u t o n ly that he sho u ld n ot c u t hi m sel f with it

,

that he m av keep the k n i fe Wo u ld the you n g m an h ave

.

go n e away grieved i f Jes u s hi m sel f h ad th u s i n terpreted his

sayi n g fo r h i m ? I believe he wo u ld at o n ce h ave re plied

This h ave I observed fro m m y youth .

Here agai n I a m n ot decidi n g w hether the co m m a n d of

, ,

Jes u s o u ght to be obeyed or whether it co u ld possibly be

,

obeyed u n iversally ; I am si m ply de fe n di n g its true an d u n

m ist akable m ea n i n g a gai n st all sor t s o f i n terpretati o n s which
atte m pt to b ri n g the Gospel i n to har m o ny with the world .

We h ear it sai d that the fu ll m e n t of this law wo u ld destroy

o u r e n tire civilized li fe It is very probable that it wo u ld
. .

Bu t what does t hat prove ? Where is it writte n that it

sho u ld be preserved ? Ter t ullian a n swers the obj ectio n of
th os e wh o ref u sed to obey the law agai n st the purs u it
o f h an dicra fts o r t rades relati n g t o heathe n worship o n t h e ,

gro u n d that they m u st l ive by aski n g the q u estio n : Mu s t

,

y ou li ve ? What co m pa n io n ship have y ou with G od if

y o u ,

desire to live accordi n g to your o wn l aws ? Yo u will s u ffe r

wa n t ? Bu t th e Lord calls those that s u ff er blessed Yo u .

ca n n ot s u ppor t yo u rselves ? But the Lord says : Take n o

thought fo r yo u r life ; co n sider the lilies of the eld .

9 Let u s n o w co m pare the Greek with th e C hristia n vie w

.

o f hon or A ccordi n g t o the G reek co n ceptio n the love of

.
,

hon or is a virt u e : the j u st m an desires t o be the rs t i n his

S phere (n p w r e u w ) a n d to be estee m ed as s uch
e ,
N oble pride .
,
80 O RIGI N S OF MO RAL PH ILO S O PH Y
ho n est fearless n ay dean t pride towards the grea t an d the
, , ,

respectable the S add u cees an d Pharisees the high

,
priest an d ,

the Ro m a n gover n or A n d we also occasi o n ally n d this

.

pri de in l ater disciples of Jesus w h o have t u r n ed their backs ,

u po n the w orld an d n ow fran kly tell it that they n either

d esire n or estee m its glory an d i ts ho n or its virtu e an d its ,

gr an de u r ; for which the world as i s to be expected pays , ,

the m back i n hatred an d disgrace .

S o lo n g as C hristi a n ity retain ed i t s origi n al relatio n to the

world to b e disgraced i n th e eyes of th e world was t he m ark
,

o f a C hristia n ; whe n ever th e ch u rch m ade her peace with

th e world an d sects bega n to separate fr o m her i n order t o

, ,

live after th e pri m i t ive C hristia n fashio n m e n agai n began to ,

re gard i t as a n ecessary test of tr u e C hristia n ity to s u ffer

dis grace i n th e n a m e o f C hris t A H Fra n cke tells u s i n his
. . .

au tobi ography that wh e n he was a dilige n t an d respec t abl e

stu d i o s u s t heo log i ce i n te n di n g to b eco m e a very elega n t an d
,

lear n ed m an th e world was well pleased with h i m I

,

.

loved th e world an d the worl d loved m e I was e n tirely free

, .

fro m persec u ti o n the n A fter his co n versi on however
.
, ,

h e tells u s thi n gs chan ged ; the n for t he rs t t i m e he dis

, , ,

covered wh at th e worl d was an d i n wha t it d i ff ere d fro m the

,

childre n of God for soo n it bega n to d espi se an d to h ate

,

It is therefore tru e tha t all Greek vi rtu es are i n the li gh t

, , ,

o f C hristi a ni ty sple n di d vices ; they are all rooted in the

,

n a tu ral m a n s i m p u lse o f sel f preservati o n i n the i m p u lse o f

-
,

k n owledge i n the i m p ul se of reve n ge in the desire for c u lt u re

, , ,

i n the love o f ho n or ; they represe n t the perfectio n o f his

n atu re i n perfect civilizatio n It is tr u e that n othi n g less
.

than the death of th e old an d th e birth of a n e w m an is n e ce s

sary to tra n s for m a Greek i n to a C hristi an N othi n g that .

was prized a m o n g the Greeks w as prized by the C hris tia n s ,

a n d co n v ersely n oth in g th at was prized b v the latter w as

,

prized by t he form er It is tr u e th at the v irt u es of the G reek

.
 THE C H RIS TIAN C ON C E P TION 81

ar e an i m pedi m e n t to rege n era t io n : the p u blica n s an d si n n ers ,

those wh o have failed with their n at u ral stre n gth an d virt u e ,

an d n o w look back upo n a wrecke d li fe are fa r m ore ap t to ,

s n e r a grea t an d radical ch a n ge of heart tha n the j u st .

Thro u gh s i n an d s u fferi n g leads the path to co n versio n .

1 0 For the n atu ral virt u es o f the G reeks C hristia n ity

.
,

substit u tes a si n gle n ew o n e : p i ty o r m ercy To l ove you r .

n eighbors t o t ake pity u po n t heir m ise ry to feed the h u n gry to

, , ,

give dri n k t o t he thirsty to visi t t he ou t cast n ay n ot eve n to

, , ,

r esis t the evil t o forgive a n d t o d o good u n to those th at hate

,

you an d persec u te you that is th e ideal which Jes u s places

,

be fore hi s disciples an d lives ou t hi m self By this pity we

,
.

a r e n o t t o u n dersta n d weak hearted dole fu l n ess -

n o r by the ,

love o f e n e m y t e n der hearted co m plia n ce Th e obverse o f

,
-
.

these vir t u es is a passio n a t e a n ger agai n st those who cau se

s u ch m isery or a t least h arde n t heir heart s agai n st it agai n s t
, ,

t he u n j us t an d selsh l ords wh o d evour the s u bsta n ce of th e

widows an d orpha n s agai n s t those well fe d an d self righteou s
,
- -

r espec t abl e perso n s wh o see the wretch ed n ess o f the peopl e

,

an d co m plaisa n tly say : It is t heir o w n fa u lt ; why are they

n o t vir t uo u s like us for t he n th ey wo ul d prosper as we do

, .

C o m passio n at e love is th e great virt u e which Jes u s preaches ,

an d self righteous h ard n ess o f hear t the g reat vice u po n which

-

he pro n ou n ces harsh j u dg m e n ts For all he has a word of .

p i t y a n d love t he ,
los t so n s an d da u ghters of his people h e

t akes t o his h eart th e wo m a n wh o has si n n ed m uch h e raises

,

up th e thief o n the cross wh o co n fesses his si n s he pro m ises

,

to m eet i n paradise : o n ly for the virtu ou s an d sel f ri ghteo u s -

Pharisee wh o is n ot as other m e n are extortio n ers u n j u st , , ,

ad u lterers or eve n as this p u blica n he has harsh w ords ; o n ly

, ,

fo r the serva n t wh o ca n n o t forgive h i s fellow serva n t he has -

n o forgive n ess .

No w the Greeks are as u n fa m il i ar with the vice o f sel f

,

righteo u s n ess as with th e vi rtu e o f pity .

A s the n or m al co n ditio n of the feeli n g of sel f estee m th e -

(3
82 O RIGIN S OF MO RA L PH IL O SO PH Y
Greek regards the co n scio u s n ess of i n divid u al powe r an d e x
c ell e n ce it is the n ecessary acco m pan i m e n t o f the thi n g
itsel f His m orality war n s h i m agai n st arrogan ce ( p w)
. ,

whic h m akes a m an despised be fore gods an d m en b u t it war n s ,

h i m n o less agai n st the O pposite lowli n ess of mi n d (r a w e w m,

Th Greek is pro u d o f his virt u es he has a cq u ired

p ove 2v ) e.
,

the m hi m self they are th e fru i t s o f h ard labor

,
In o n e r e .

spect says S e n eca 1 the wise m an excels G od ; th e l att e r

, ,

owes it t o his n atu re that h e fears n o thi n g the wise m an owes ,

i t t o hi m self
I die withou t re m orse
. sai d t h e dyi n g ,

J u lia n as I h ave lived withou t si n
,

On th e o t her h a n d . ,

lowli n ess of m i n d (r a zr e w o cbp o vei v) is the begi n n i n g of C hris

'

t i an i ty C o n versio n begi n s with re m o rse an d pe n i t e n ce an d

.
,

the feeli n g of powerless n ess an d si n ful n ess is on e of the fu n da

m e n t al m oods o f the C hristia n ; he prays every day wi t h th e
p u blica n Go d have mercy u po n m e a si n n er A re m ark able .

state m e n t by the Pri n cess A v on G ali t zi n expresses this .

m ood i n a so m ewha t m orbi d for m an d a t t he sa m e t i m e b e ,

trays the c u rio u s logic pec u lia r t o C hris t ia n h u m ility : A n

i m por t an t el e m e n t of Ha m a nn s spi ri t an d teachi n gs h as clu n g

to m e th e co n victio n n a m ely tha t t he desire for a good con

, , ,

scie n ce wo u ld be a very da n gerous leave n i n me an d that on e ,

o f the chief feat u res of fai t h m u s t be tha t I s u ffer the tho u ght

of m y n othi n g n ess an d c o m ple t ely tr u s t i n God s m ercy

I .

plai n ly s aw tha t the feeli n g of co m pl a ce n cy aro u sed by m y dis

satis factio n with my o wn i m perfec t io n an d weak n ess wo u l d be ,
2
the m os t co n cealed an d da n gero u s hidi n g place of m y pride -
.

J u st as self righ t eo u s n ess i s n ot o n e of the vices of the

-

Greek pi ty i s n ot o n e O f his virtues In the list i n which

, .

A ristotle e n u m erates the q u alities estee m ed as virt u es by

3

the Greeks m ercy n ds n o pl ace In its stead we discover a

, .

ki n d of heathe n cou n terpar t to it : li bera li ty ( el ev dep cr m) ,

1 E p i st , 5 3 .

2 C o rr e sp onde nce d Dia r y of the P r i nces s Ga li tz i n,

an n e w s e ri es , 1 8 7 6 , p 8 59
. .

Bo o k I V .
, N i coma cbea n E thi cs .
84 O RIG IN S OF MO RAL PH ILO S O PH Y
love ? Th e n atu ral m an a n swers : My fa m ily m y childre n , ,

m y pare n ts m y wi fe m y rel atives the m e m bers of m y ho u se

, , ,

hold m y n eighbors fellow co u n try m e n an d co religio n ists

, ,
-
,
-
.

That m u st have bee n the O pi n io n of the scribe also Jes u s .

e n lighte n s h i m : Not these b u t the very first m an who m yo u

,

happe n to m eet an d who i s i n wa n t For this is evide n tly

,
.

the m ea n i n g of the so m ewhat perverted e n di n g O f ou r acco u n t .

Th e co m m e n tary t o it m ay be fo u n d i n th e verses which

substitute the co m m a n d m e n t of brotherly love for the c om
man d m e n t of Moses i n the Gospel o ,
f M a tthew Moses has
1
.

c om m an ded y ou to love yo u r n eighbors an d hat e your e n e m ies .

Bu t what wo u ld there b e s o re m arkable i n t ha t ? Do n ot eve n

th e p u blic an s the s a m e ? A n d if ye sal u t e your bre t hre n o n ly ,

w hat do ye m ore t ha n others ? DO n o t eve n the heathe n the

sa m e ? Be ye t herefore perfec t as yo u r Father which is i n
heave n is perfec t He m akes n o dis t i n c t io n s i n his b e n e
.

ce n ce he n ce you sho u ld n ot do i t either u n less i t be perh aps

, , , ,

t o give s t ran gers p re fere n ce over you r frie n ds : Whe n th ou

m akes t a di n n er or a supper call n ot thy frie n ds n or thy , ,

brethre n n either t hy ki n s m e n n or thy rich n eighbors ; les t

, ,

also they bi d thee agai n an d a reco m pe n se be m ade thee ,

.

Bu t whe n th o u m akes t a feas t call the poor the m ai m ed t h e , ,

2
l am e the bli n d an d t ho u shalt be blessed
, ,
Th e highes t .
,

however is t o do good eve n t o yo u r e n e m ies ; to s u ffer evil

,

fo r the sake o f the good an d n ot to bear m alice : t hat is per

,

fe cti on S avo n arola o n ce s u m m ed up C hristia n i ty i n th e

.

se n te n ce : My s on to be good m ea n s t o do good an d t o

,

s u ffer evil an d n ot to weary o f it t o the e n d

,
.

1 1 We m ay n o w co n sider the a t tit u de O f C hris t ia n i ty t o

.

f a m i ly if
l e T h e f.a m ily i s the begi n n i n g of all n at u ral charity

o r love of n eighbor C h ristia n ity which n ever ai m s a t the

.
,

develop m e n t O f n at u ral i m p u lses ca n n ot as m igh t a t rst be , ,

s u ppose d fro m th e esti m ate it places o n love regard t he ,

fam ily as a thi n g o f absolu t e worth For i t t he co m m un ity .

1 v .
, 43 .
2 Luke, xi v .
,
12 .
 THE C H RIS TI AN C ON C E P TION 85

of the esh i s fa r i n ferior to the co m m u n ity of th e S piri t .

Jesus left his fa m ily an d gathere d aro u n d h i m a n e w family ,

o n e n ot u n ited by the ties of blood b u t by spi rit u al t ies ; which .

ca u sed at least a t e m porary es t ran ge m e n t from his bl ood

relat i ves He de m a n ds that th ose wh o follow hi m likewise
.

sever their n atu ral ties wherever occasio n may de m a n d If

,

a n y m an co m e t o m e an d hate n o t his father an d m othe r an d , ,

wi fe an d child re n an d brethre n an d sis t ers yea an d his o wn

, , ,
1
li fe also h e ca n n o t be m y disciple
,
He k n ows th at his .

preachi n g will break n a t ural bo n ds : For from he n ceforth

there shall be ve i n o n e house divided three agai n s t two -

, ,

an d t w o agai n st three Th e father shall b e divided agai n s t

.

th e s on an d the s o n agai n s t t he fa ther ; t he mo ther agai n st

,

the dau gh t er an d the da u gh t er agai n s t the m othe r ; the

m other i n law agai n st her dau ghter i n
- -
law an d the daugh t er -
,
2
i n l aw agai n st h e r m other i n law
-
N a t ural ties lose their - -
.

i m por t a n ce fo r th ose who n o lo n ger live i n the esh .

Th e abili t y t o sever them al t oge t h er has always bee n

regarded by the followers o f C hrist as a cri t erio n o f p e rfe c
t io n Th e sai n t s ar e ofte n O pe n ly praised because t he t ies
.

o f blood h ave n o power ove r the m In Har t pol e Le cky s .

I Es tor y f
o E u r op e a n M or a ls f r om A u g u s tu s t o C har lem ag n e ,3
we n d a n u m be r of passages fro m th e literatu re of the
sai n ts which sh ow by way of ex am ple the m eri t orious n ess
, , ,

o f a bsol u te i n di ffere n ce t o bl ood relatio n ship Let me quote -

.

o n e o f the ex a m ples In C assia n s work De e oen obtor u m

.
,

tn st tt u tts 4 we read t h e followi n g story

, A m an n a m ed .

Mu ti n s acco m pa n ied b y his o n ly child a little boy eight

, ,

years old aba n do n ed his possessio n s an d de m a n ded ad m is

,

sio n i n to a m o n astery Th e m o n ks received h i m b u t th ey .

,

proceeded t o discipli n e his heart He h ad already forgo t te n .

that he was rich he m u st n ext be t a u gh t t o forge t tha t h e was

a father His l ittle child was separa t ed fro m h i m clo thed i n
.
,

1 Lu ke , x iv .
, 26 so m e w h at we ak e n e d i n M a tt , x .
,
34
3 L uke, x ii .
,
52 ff .
3 V o l II . .
 86 O RIGIN S OF MO RAL PH ILO S O PH Y
dir ty rags subjec t e d to every for m o f gross an d wa n t o n h ard
,

ship spurn ed an d ill treated Day after day the fathe r was
, ,
.

co m pelled t o look upo n his boy wasti n g away wit h sorrow ,

his o n ce happy cou n te n a n ce forever stai n ed with tears dis ,

to r te d by sobs of a n g u ish Bu t s u ch was his love for C hrist

.
,

an d fo r the vir t ue of O bedie n ce tha t the father s heart was

,

r igid an d u n m oved He t ho u ght li t tle of th e t ears o f his

.

child He was a n xious o n ly for his o wn h u m ility an d per

.

fect i o n i n vir t ue A t last th e abbo t t old h i m to t ake his
.

child an d throw i t i n t o t he river He proceeded wi thou t a .

m u r m u r or appare n t pan g t o obey an d i t was o n ly a t the , ,

last mo m e n t tha t the m o n ks i n terposed an d on the very ,

bri n k of t he r ive r saved the ch ild .

Th e s t ory may h ave bee n i n ve n t ed i n i m i t a t io n of the

s a crice of Isaac ; bu t the a d m ira t io n which the n arrator

e xpresses i s n ot an i n ve n ti o n This co n d u ct is doubtless .

, ,

n o t i n a ccord wi t h t he views of Jesu s We m us t co n fess .

,

ho wever tha t i t m ay be deduced a s an ex t re m e co n seque n ce

,

from cer tai n p a ssages i n t he G ospels To the ques t io n of .

P e te r Behold we h a ve forsake n all an d followed thee ;

wha t sh al l we h a ve t herefor e ? Jes u s a n swers n ot reb u k
i n gly bu t w i t h th e promise t ha t they shall be n earest t o
,

him i n h is glory an d ev e ry o n e t ha t has forsake n houses ,

o r bre thre n o r sis t ers

, o r fa t he r o r mo t her o r wife or
, , , ,

childre n or la n ds for m
y n ame s sak e shall receive a h u n

, , ,

d re dfold an d shall i n herit everl asti n g life 1
, .

S u ch a mode of tho u gh t is o f co u rse n ot co n d u cive t o the , ,

for m atio n O f family ties Jes u s hi m sel f re m ai n ed u n m arried

.
,

an d s u gges t s t ha t others t o o may dispe n s e wi t h ma rriage for

, ,

t he ki n gdo m O f he ave n s sake 2

.

A lthough the A pos tle Paul t hi n k s high ly e n o u gh o f th e

i n s t itutio n of t r u e ma r ri age to refe r t o i t i n ill u stratio n o f
C hris t s rel atio n t o t he church h e n evertheless shows a de

,

cid e d prefere n ce fo r u n m ar r i e d life Th e church at C ori n th .

1 M a tt , x ix .
, 2 7 ff .
3 Ma tt , xix 12 .
 88 O RI GINS OF MO RA L PH ILO S O PH Y
earthly world they are stran gers an d pilgri m s A t ravelle r .

does n o t take an y active i n terest i n the a ff airs o f a foreig n

cou n try b u t bears the m as best he can SO the C hristia n s
,
.

behave with respect to this world They are i n the world i n .

the esh o n ly an d their spirit i s n o t at ho m e i n it ; they live

,

i n the world b u t their hearts are i n heave n ; they d o the

,

work which livi n g i n the world i m poses u po n the m b u t they ,

have n o i n teres t i n i t Pleas u re an d desire are the bo n ds

.

with which th e worl d strives to fetter t hei r hearts ; there fore

the C hristian s co n sta n tly cruci fy the esh with its l u sts an d
desires ; the n atu ral m an loves pleasure an d ies fro m pai n ,

as fro m so m ethi n g evil ; the C hristia n on t he o ther ha n d , ,

looks u po n pai n as wholeso m e an d u po n pleas u re as dan gerous

pleas u re is the bait with which th e devil e n s n ares the so u l
i n order to chai n i t t o the world To be dead t o th e pleasures
.

an d the pai n s o f th e earth is the m ark o f per fectio n .

Bu t i t wo u ld be a co m ple t e m isrepre se n tatio n O f the C hris

tia n m ood t o co n cl u de that i t s chie f characteristics are dis
co n te n t an d gloo m Nay the fu n da m e n t al feeli n g is rather
.
,

on e of d e e t r an u i l ea ce i n which are m i n gled n otes O f

p q p ,

sorro w for the va n ity an d n othi n gn ess o f the world n otes ,

of divi n e sad n ess bu t which also co n tai n s cheerfu l s t rai n s
,

of heave n ly j oy an d hope Worl d sorro w an d pessi m is m

.
-

van ish as soo n as earthly thi n gs cease t o excite an d to alar m

the heart with fear an d hope pleas u re an d disappoi n t ,

m en t . He n ce C hristia n ity i s n ot esse n tially n egative like ,

pessi m is m b u t positive the eter n al li fe which is to co m e an d

,

is C lose a t ha n d oversh adows the te m poral li fe Th e car n al .

m a n s n atural i m p u lse o f sel f preserva t io n gives way to the

-

s u pern atu ral i m p u lse o f sel f preservatio n of the spi ritu al m an

-
,

i n accorda n ce with th e words o f Jesus : Whosoeve r shall seek

to save his life sh all lose it ; an d whosoever S hall lose his life
shall preserve it 1
or He th at loveth his li fe shall l ose it ;
a n d he that hate t h his life i n this world sh all keep i t u n t o l ife

1 Lu ke , x vn 33
,
. .
 T HE C H RISTI AN C ON C E P TI ON 89

1
e t ern al Bu t the t ra n s m u n da n e e t er n al life i n u e n ces ou r
.

earthly li fe : i t creates a n e w will which strives after holi ,

n ess an d per fectio n as the Father i n heave n is per fec t ; i t

,

crea t es a n e w feeli n g o f self relia n ce : t he feeli n g that we are -

childre n o f G o d i t cre a tes a n e w for m o f hu m a n i n terco u rse

th e co m mu n ity u n ited i n bro t herly l ove ; l as tly i t creates ,

a n e w r ela t io n t o t he earth an d its goods : the C hristia n is

t he m aster of all t hi n gs capabl e of e n j oyi n g all i n n oce n t ,

pleasures an d ye t r m ly a tta ched to n o n e Pau l o ft e n aptly

,
.

describes this paradox i n th e life of the C hris t ia n A s sor

r o wfu l ye t always rej oici n g ; as p oor y e t m aki n g m a n y rich ;
, ,

2
as havi n g n o thi n g an d y e t possessi n g all t hi n gs
,
.

18 . Ma n y
will fail t o recogn ize i n the above expositio n of
C hristia n ity an d its co n ceptio n of li fe the pic t u re which they ,

may h ave for m ed of it Ma n y believe tha t C hristi a n ity an d .

Greek h u m an ity are if n ot absol u tely ide n tical a t least , ,

closely aki n to each other It is n ot u n us u al eve n i n ou r day .

, ,

t o n d Jes u s described as an a m iable cheerful an d m ild , ,

m oral teacher who m ade i t the object of his li fe to re m ove all

,

hat red an d e n m ity fro m th e world an d to establish a ki n g ,

d o m of peace a n d love He was hi m self capable o f e n j oyi n g

.

everythi n g beau tif u l an d good an d therefore did n ot begru dge ,

his disciples an y p u re pleasure w h i ch life o ffered H ase so .

portrays h i m i n his Lif e of C hr i s t Jes u s n ai v ely e n j oyed the

goods of t h is world althou gh he did n ot b u rd e n hi m sel f with
,

their possessio n on acco u n t of hi s highe r m issio n Like a

,
.

bridegroo m he lived a m o n g hi s disci ples ; h e did n ot eve n

abstai n fro m i n d u lgi n g i n a social cup of wi n e : i n short n ever ,

3
was a religio u s hero less O pposed t o th e pleas u res o f li fe .

That h e did n ot t ak e a wife m u s t h ave bee n d u e t o accide n tal

ca u ses : le t u s ass u m e s ay that hi s a fan ce d died O r

, ,
.
,

this t oo m ay be co n ject u red : th at h e fro m wh ose religio n

, ,

t he ideal co n cep t io n of m arriage foreig n t o a n t iquity was , ,

1 J ohn, xi i . 25 .
2 2 C orn, vi 10 .
3 53 .
,
90 O RIGIN S OF MO RA L PH ILO SO PH Y
derived fo u n d n o on e i n his ti m es whose hear t w a s wor th y
,
1
of such a u n io n He speaks of the t rue hu m a n i t arian
'
.

S pi r it which Jes u s showed with respect t o asce t ic r ules an d ,

n ds t hat the peculiar cult re o Jes s co n sis ts i n h i s

u f u

2
religious perfectio n the owe r of all p u rely human s t r ivi n g , .

S i m ilarly Kei m i n his Hi story f o

,
J e su s :
3
NO r eligious t e
,

form er eve r t ook s u c h lovi n g i n t eres t i n all th e forms of

earthly li fe as he did n o on e lived so like a m an of th e ,

world 4 i n a n other place he eve n speaks

of a comfo rt able ,

easy goi n g co n ge n iality ( behag li che sti llsi tzen de G emuthli ch
-

h ei t) which the charac t e r o Jesus e couraged

f n
5
In the con .

i ct with t he Ph a risees co n cer n i n g t he S abba t h he comes ou t

victorious because he modes tly an d overwhel m i n gly u n folds

,
6
t he ban n er of hu m an ity .

It is u n doub t edly true t h at the wri t i n gs of t he Ne w Tes t a

me n t t ran s m i t fea tures of the life of Jesus an d sayi n gs from
his teachi n gs which may be u t ilized for such a pic t ure ,
.

Whe t her they i n dic at e di ffere n t stages of devel op m e n t i n

the lif e o f Jesu s i t self as Re n an for ex ample assumes or , , , ,

whe the r his t e a chi n gs an d the co n cep tio n we have of h i m

h a ve bee n dis t or t ed by tradi t i on s ay by Ebio n i t ic i n t e r ,

1 45 .

2
29 .

3 3d ed 1 875 .
[ g
E n l t ran sl at i on by R ansom
. an d G el dart , 1 8 7
4 5 P 145
P 165. .
. .

6 P 1 99
. . D av i d S t rau ss do es g n ot f ar i n h i s Life o
o so f J e sus [ t r by Ge org e .

E li o t] i n mi sr e p re se n t i n g t h e esse n ce o f C h r i st i a n i ty Bu t h e , t o o, s p eak s o f t h e
.

h u m an e l o v e of Je su s , of t h e ch e e rfu l s ou l at p eace w i t h G o d , an d e m b r aci n g

t hi s act in g from
all men as b rot h e r s , an d calls th is ch ee r fu l , vi go ro u s e l e m en t ,

t h e p le as u re an d j o y f ul n e s s o f a b eau t i fu l s o ul , th e Helle n i c e le m e nt i n Je su s . To
be s u re , he also e m ph asi ze s t h e fact t h at t h e re ar e e ss e n t i al de fe ct s in t h e h u m an

i ty of Je s u s fa m i l y , st at e , acq u isi t i o n , art , an d b e a u t i ful j

e n oy m e n t do n ot fall
w it h i n i ts sco p e . Bu t t h i s i s p artly d u e t o t h e Je wi sh
o n e -s i d e dn e ss , he says ,

n at i o n al i t y p art l y t o t h e co n d i t i o n s o f t h e t i m e s
,
b e sid e s i t can e as ily b e re m e d i e d ,

b y d i ffe r e n t t e m p o r al , p ol i t i cal a n d e d u cat i on al c on d i t i o n s , a n d r e m e d ie d i n

,

aft e r w e h a v e co m e t o u n d e rst an d t h e w o rk Of J
t h e b e st w a e sus as a
onl
.
y y
h u m an ach i e v e m e n t , h e nc e a s cap ab l e a n d in fu rt h e r d e v e l o pm e n t ( Life
n ee d o f

o
f J es u s , 4 th cd .
, I 2 6 2 II
.
, . In h i s last w o r k ( The Old a n d the N e w F a i th,
2 4 , t r by . M Bl i n d ) S t rau ss i n
.
, ,
u e n ce d b y S ch o p e n h au e r, see ms t o dr aw t h e

li n es m o re s h arp ly b e t we e n C h ri st i an i ty an d th e w orld .
92 O RIGIN S OF MO RA L PH ILO S O PH Y
No will hesi t ate for an a n swer Hearts bowed d own by
on e .

su fferi n g an d oppressed with s i n world weary an d life weary ,

- -

hearts t hese have i n variably so u ght an d fou n d co n sola

,

tio n an d relief i n the Gospels Th e powerful an d victorio u s

.
,

the hopeful an d prospero u s are m ore apt t o n d their feeli n gs

,

ex pressed i n Greek philosophy an d i n the O des of Horace .

Nor is there an y doub t i n m y m i n d t ha t the so u l of Jes u s too , ,

w a s att u n ed n ot to h appi n ess an d victory an d li fe of li fe bu t

, ,
'

t o dea t h an d world de n ial A n d w ould it n ot have bee n a

-
.

most re m arkable co n f u sio n i f C hris t ian ity had take n as its

star t i n g poi n t the Jesus of H ase Hase believes t ha t i f Jes u s
-

had bee n a disciple of th e Esse n es they w ould h ave cursed ,

h i m as an apostate How these gloo m y pi etists woul d h ave

shake n their pio u s he a ds an d rolled their devo u t eyes a t this

cheerful an d e n erge t ic m an Bu t h ow stra n ge the n tha t
.
, ,

thi s m an l ooked u po n t he Bap t is t tha t powerfu l gure so , ,

u n iq u e i n his rugged great n ess as his foreru n n er t hat he ro

, p ,

d u ce d a Paul wh o m ade such a sharp disti n c t io n betwee n the

,

esh an d the spiri t tha t the apos t olic church lean i n g as it

, ,

d i d towards Ebio n itis m t he e n tir e pri m itive ch u rch wit h its

, ,

ethical supern at u ralis m followed his ban n er Was all tha t a

, .

si n gle gra n d m is t ake It see m s s tra n ge to m e t ha t an y o n e

S hould atte m p t to correc t this livi n g t raditio n by m ea n s o f the

sca n ty frag m e n ts of the grea t livi n g traditio n which have ,

bee n preserved i n the Gospels If th e O ldest co m m u n ities .

,

whi ch cou n ted a m o n g their n u m ber the livi n g wit n esses of the
li fe t eachi n gs an d death of Jesus did n ot k n ow what these
, , ,

thi n gs m ea n t the n it i s n ot probable th a t we Of the n i n etee n t h

,

ce n tury S hall discover it by historical i n ves t igatio n s .

This i n ability to u n dersta n d C hristia n ity is evide n tly du e

to the fact that it has n ot yet beco m e historic
If it t o .
,

gether w i th its e ects were a thi n g of t h e past a p u rely

, ,

hi storical i n vestigati o n wo u ld n ot lo n g re m ai n i n do u bt as
to i t s fu n d am e n tal characte r Bu t s u ch i s n ot the case ; we
.

are still s u rro u n ded o n all S ides i f n o t by pri m itive C hr is

, ,
 T HE C H RIS TIAN C ON C E P TION 93

t i an i ty i t self a t least by its e m bodied e ff ects Ou r very l an

, .

g u age betrays the i n u e n ce whi ch C hristia n ity has exercised

u po n it fo r ce n t u ries : n o o n e wo u l d be willi n g to dispe n se with

at least the n a m e of a C hristia n This explai n s th e te n de n cy

.

which every m an has t o i n terpret C hristia n ity co n for m ably

with his ideal of li fe It also explai n s why we discover i n
.

the writi n gs o f the N ew Testa m e n t th e very views of li fe an d

the world which we o u rselves e n tertai n with a t m os t a fe w , , ,

slight ch an ges h ere an d there For th e cha m pio n of a con

.

se r v ati ve state ch u rch the fun da m e n tal d octri n e o f C hristia n i t y

co n sists i n s u bj ecti n g o n es el f to th ose i n power i n respecti n g ,

the i n stit u ti o n s o f the state an d the ch u rch th e fa m ily an d ,

property Liberal Protesta n tis m on th e oth e r ha n d sees i n

.
, ,

Jes u s the m an wh o preached fr ee d om w h o broke th e fetters ,

o f Jewish orth od oxy who despised the ascetic ordi n a n ces ;

,

he n ce he was evide n tly an advocate of th e pri n cipl e of free

research on e of the great h eroes Of civilization who delivered
, ,

m an fro m the y oke o f s u perstitio n an d t u r n ed h i m i n the

directio n o f progress ; i n ou r ti m es he wo u ld h ave bee n a
liberal pro fessor of th eology or accordi n g t o others a social
, , ,

re for m e r .

Est li b e r hi e, i n q u o q u aer i t su a d o g m a t q
a ui s q ue ;
In ve n i t i n q q
i llo d o gm at a u i s u e su a .

Bu t yo u will s ay i s it n ot tr u e tha t Jes u s had a low

, ,

opi n io n of ascetic practices ? Di d h e n ot i n co n trast with ,

the Baptist absolve his disciples of the d u ty of followi n g

,

the m ? Di d he n o t thereby gi ve s u ch o ffe n ce to th e Pharisees

that th ey called h i m a gl u tto n a n d a wi e bibber
n ? It i s -

tr u e ; altho u gh h e did n o t p rohibit ascetic practices b u t took ,

fo r gra n ted th at h i s disciples wo u ld fast w hi ch they act u ally

,

does h t e force s ch practices ?

Pe rh aps
did . Bu t w h y e n o n u ,

beca u se they are a hi n d ra n ce to th e e n j oy m e n t of li fe N ot

at al l b u t si m ply beca u se they d o n ot s u f ce ; h e regar d s the m
as a part Of those works w hich th e Pharisees o f all ages have
94 O RIGINS OF MO RA L PH ILO SO PH Y
O ffe red to God to t ake th e plac e of t rue worship : al m s an d
p ra y ers an d tithes of m i n t an d a n is e an d c u m i n i n stead of ,

righteous works of j u stic e an d lov e o f n eighbor ; exter n al

abs t i n e n ce i n lieu of th e s a cric e of o n e s e n t ir e life J esus

.

did n ot fail t o see how pro n e th e hu m an he a rt is eve n the ,

si n cere an d well m e an i n g hear t t o deceiv e G od an d itself

-
,

i n this m a n n er an d he n ce he t ook i t upo n hi m sel f to break

,

his disciples of t he h abit of p rizi n g such thi n gs He de .

m an d e d m ore he dema n ded t he co m plete separatio n of the

,

hear t fro m the world an d e n tire devotio n t o G od Th e pe r .

feet m an n eeds n o fur t he r prep a ra t io n ; h e wh o is i m bued

with the n e w spiri t n o lo n ger n eeds t o prac t ise those little
abs t i n e n ces he has n o use for t he m ; which of co u rse does
, , ,

n ot m ea n tha t they ca n n o t be of service an d o f be n et to

t he n ovice Paul describes the life of the perfec t C hri stia n

.

It remai n eth th a t both t hey th at h ave wives be as tho u gh

,

they had n o n e ; an d those tha t weep a s though they wep t n ot ;

an d the y tha t rej oice as th o u gh t hey rej oiced n o t ; an d they

t ha t buy as t ho u gh t hey possessed n ot ; an d they t h at use this

world as n ot ab u si n g i t : fo r the fashio n of this worl d passeth
l
a way . Whoever h as so thoroughly e m a n cip at ed hi m self
from t he world does n ot s t a n d i n n eed of su ch pre paratio n .

No w t ha t such a s t a t e is n ot adap t ed t o pro m o t e wha t i s

,

c alled civil i zatio n can hardly be do u bted : he whose heart i s

i n he ave n will n ot be very apt t o m ake t his ea rt hly life ric h
an d b e a u t if u l an d gra n d n o r will h e o n tha t accou n t h av e
,

an y ce n sur e to fear from Jes u s Th e Gospels n owhere say :

.

A ccumul at e weal th an d save care fo r your own an d the

,

e co n o m ic welf a re of your fa m ily Bu t they do say : Take .

n o t ho u gh t o f your life Wh at ye shall ea t or what ye sh a ll

, ,

d ri n k ; n or ye t for your body wha t ye shall pu t on ; lay n ot

,

up for yourselves t reasures u po n earth where m o t h an d r us t ,

do th corrup t an d thieves break th rough an d s t eal

, We n o .

where read : Have a care fo r the developme nt of y ou r n atu ral

1 1 C on , VI I . 2 9 ff
.
,
96 O RIGIN S OF MO RAL P H ILO S O P HY
ha n d ,
can there be C hristia n ity withou t an ad m ixture o f co n

te m tu s m u n d i .

Bu t th e m an wh o is u n able t o glea n the m ea n i n g of C hris

t i an i ty either fro m the ser m o n s o f Jes u s hi m sel f o r fro m the
i n terpretatio n s o f th e apostles m ay lear n so m ethi n g fro m
,

the w ay i n which it was received by the world Had Jes u s .

bee n such an a m iable preache r o f hu m an world wisdo m his -

,

co n te m poraries wo u l d m ost likely n ot have co n sidered it

n ecessary t o n ail h i m to a cross : the a m iable proper an d , ,

C har m i n g people who live an d le t live

,
who u n dersta n d the ,

art of co m bi n i n g religi o n wi th cultu re

who i n cli n e

,

t oward easy goi n g co n ge n ial ity an d e n j oy the pleasure s

-

o f a social c u p have n eve r bee n regarded as d an gero u s
, ,

a n d n ailed t o crosses If the C hristi an ity o f the early t i m es

.

had bee n wha t the i n terpreters of lat er ages have n o w an d

the n m ade of it the deadly e n m ity which it aroused i n the
,

world wo u ld be absol u t ely i n co n cei vable Th e apostles d i d .

n ot co n sider i t so the y evide n tly regarded the treat m e n t they

received as perfec t ly i n order Jes u s h ad prophesi ed i t : Y e
.

shall h e hated of all m e n fo r m y n a m e s sake If ye were

.

o f th e world t he w orl d wo u l d l ove his o w n ; bu t because y e

,

are n ot of the world b u t I have chose n you ou t of the world

, ,

therefore the world hat e th y ou Th e ti m e co m e t h tha t
.

whosoeve r killeth yo u will thi n k tha t he do t h God service .

N othi n g was proph esied of t e n er an d m ore disti n ctly by Jes u s ,

an d n o n e o f his prophecies was ever m ore accura t ely f u llled .

- Why this h atred ? Because t he C hristia n s despised wha t

t he world co n ceived t o be the highes t good There was n o .

better reaso n for h a t i n g an y o n e H e tha t did n ot look .

upo n the E m pero r an d t he E m pire as the highes t good did ,

h e n ot deserve t o h e h at ed ? He t hat despised culture

a n d scie n ce did he n ot deserve t o h e hated ? He that de
,

S p i s e d wealth an d good livi n g an d social recog n i t io n who ,

withdrew fro m socie ty an d a m use m e n ts did he n ot d e ,

s erve t o be hated Was h e n ot really scorn i n g others if n ot ,

 THE C H RIS TI AN C ON C EP TION 97

in wo ds a t leas t by his
r ,
He that is n ot for m ode of li fe ?

m e is agai n st m e Thi s is t h e m a xi m which has always .

govern ed the feeli n gs a d ac t io s o

n n f m e n
l
.

1 Th e r e i s no b e t t er co m m e n t a ry on the G o s p e ls t h an t h e l i fe of S a vo n ar ol a
as i t i s d e s cr i b e d i n t h e a d m i r ab l e w o rk of th e It a li a n Vill ar i [En g l i sh t r a ns la

t i o n by L . V i ll ar i ] . T h e li fe of J e su s i n t h e G o s pe l s i s l i k e a s e r i e s o f sa i n t l
y
p i ct u r es d raw n p o n a g o ld e n b ack g r o u n d , i n w h i ch t h e c h i e f gu r e st an d s o u t
u
in b old r e li e f, b u t w i t h ou t i t s b ack g ro u n d ; t h e life o f S a v o n a r ol a, o n t h e o t h e r
h and , r e se m bl e s g r e at h i s t o r i cal p ai n t i n g w i t h a m u l t ico lo r e d b ack g r o u n d
a .

Th e fu n d a m e n t al o u t li n e s a r e t h e sa m e ; t h e p art i cu l ar fe at u r e s re cu r w i t h as
t o n i sh i n g r e g u l ar i t y : t h e p r eachi n g o f t h e k i n g d o m Of G o d an d t h e v an i t y o f
t h e w o r ld a n d i ts p l eas u re s , i t s p o w er an d g l o ry , i t s c i v i l i zat i o n a n d ar t, at r st
p x
r o d u ce s a s t r an g e e c i t e m e n t e s p e c i al ly i n t h e h e ar t s Of t h e c o m m o n
,
p eo pl e

t h e y app l au d t h e g r e at p r e ac h e r a n d m i r acl e w o r k er T h e n t h e l or ds Of t h i s -
.

w o rld , p i r i t u al a n d s e cu lar , g e t t o g e t h e r a n d d e l i b e rat e h o w t o c h e c k t h e

s

scan d al w h i ch i s d e s t ro y i n g p e ace an d p r o g re s s ; t h e y c o n v i n ce t h e m s e l v e s t h at

i t c a n o n ly b e do n e b y r e m o v i n g t h e di st u r b e r He i s b rou g h t t o t ri al am i d t h e .

a p p la u s e of all t he e d u cat e d o n es, an d is n all

y e x e cut e d as fa ls e p r o p h e t ,
a

s w i n d le r , an d p ret e n de d m i racl e w o rk e r , w h o
-
can n o t sav e hi m s e lf, w i t h t h e
cu rse s o f t h e fan at i c al p o p u lace r i n g in g i n h is ear s . Here agai n m o r e ov e r , ,
we
m ay n d t h e w o r d of A r i s t o t l e co rr o b o r at e d , t h at p oe tr y i s m o r e p h i lo so p h i cal
t h an hi s t o ry . Th at t h e G o sp e ls a re n ot h i s t o r i cal a cco u n t s li ke t h ose w e h av e o f
t h e l i fe Of S a v ona r ol a or Goet h e , no on e w ill d o u b t w h o i s w i lli n g t o foll o w a

c r i t i cal i n v e st i g at i o n l i k e t h e on e Offe r e d by S t r au ss . Th ey are h i st or i cal p o e m s

b o rn of t h e fai t h t h at t h e li fe a n d d eat h o f Je su s are t h e ab s ol u t e ly i m p o r t an t

fact s of To t h i s d ay t h e y h av e s h o w n a u n i
h i s t o ry . q u e an d i n c o m p a r ab l e p o w e r
x
i n e p r e ss i n g an d p r op ag at i n g t hi s fai t h If w e h a d . a


s ci e n t i c bi o g rap h y Of
Je s us , o n e b as e d u pon t h e m o st t h o r ou g h r e sear ch an d d r aw n fr o m t h e m ost
r e li a bl e a n d co
p i o u s s o u rce s , an d w r i t t e n i n t h e m o s t a d m i ra ble m a nn e r , l ike t h e
ab ov e x
m e n t i o ne d li fe o f S a vo n aro la , fo r e a m p l e , i t s i n u e n ce w ou l d , as co m
p a r e d w i t h t h at of the G o s p e ls , s t ill be e q u al to z e ro . If e ffi c acy Wi rks a mke zt ) i s

t h e s t a n da r d o f y Wi rkli chke i t) , as t h e G e r m an l a n g u ag e see m s t o i m p ly ,

r ea l i t

t h e n t h e t r u t h w i l l r e m a i n t h at t h e G o s p e l s a re t h e g r ea t e st r e ali t
y (d a s Wi rk
li chs te ) e ve r m ad e by h u m an h an d s I t se e m s t o m e t hi s i s o cc as i o n ally fo rg o t
.

t e n by t h e cr i t i cs Of t he G o s p e ls as w e ll as by t h ose w h o a r e a frai d o f c r i t i ci s m
as t h o u g h th e G os p e ls cou l d b e d e s t r oy e d by i t . F o r t h e le t t e r k ill e t h, b u t

t he sp i rit g i ve t h l ife .
 C H APTER III

T HE C O NVE RSION OF T HE OLD WORLD TO C HRISTI ANITY 1

1 A MONG all the occurre n ces recorde d by his t o ry n o n e i s
.

m ore asto n ishi n g tha n the co n versio n o f the O ld world to

C hristia n ity N ever was there a spiri t ual m oveme n t which
.

see m ed so lacki n g i n everythi n g calc u lated to co n quer the

world as C hris t ian ity Whe n Jesus died he left behi n d a
,
.
,

han d ful o f followers n o t a gre at frui t i t see m ed of such a

, , ,

li fe work A n d t hese followers were poor u n educa t ed people

- .
, ,

without scie n ce without wealth wi thou t f am e withou t cour

, , ,

age except i n s u fferi n g with o u t a si n gl e p a ssio n exc e pt a

, ,

s t ra n ge fa n atical e n thusiasm fo r a ki n gdo m i n a tr an smu n dan e

world This is the i m pressio n which C hristia n ity m ade upo n
.

those wh o wit n essed its birth an d early growth Origi n ati n g .

a m o n g the mos t despised o f all n at io n s the Jews co n sisti n g , ,

i n the worship o f a m an who had bee n cas t o u t by this people

as an i dle drea m er an d deceiver an d had died o n the cross it , ,

see m ed that w eighed dow n with the co n t e m p t an d hatred of

,

the cultured it would like so m an y other superstitio n s of

, ,

the age s oo n S i n k i n to an i n gl orious oblivi o n

, .

I n a posthu m ous work o f Th Kei m R o m e an d Chri sti a n .

,

i ty 2
,
m ay be fou n d re fere n ces fro m Gracco Ro m a n litera -

ture which describe the fe eli n gs which C hristian ity aro u sed
a m o n g its co n te m poraries : they are con te m pt an d hatred .

Th e C hristia n s s o s ays the philosopher C els u s ( u n de r

,

1
[L e ck y H i story of E urop ea n M or a ls vol I ch ap III ; F ri e dl an de r Dee
, , . .
, . .
,

S i ttenq eschi chte Ram s (t ranslat e d i n t o F re n ch ) ; K e im Ro m u nd d a s C hr i s ten

TE ]
,

th u m ; Bau r (s ee p P art I .F i sh er (s ee p . . .

2
P ub li sh e d by H Zi e gle r, 1 8 8 1
. .
1 00 O RI G IN S OF MO RAL PH ILO SO PH Y
u po n worship par tly as the d u ty o f the s u b j ect par tly as t he ,

satis factio n of har m l ess private desires co u ld n ot b u t regard ,

s u ch refu sal as m ere obsti n acy as Marc u s A u reli u s con

,

t e m p tu ou sly calls the a t tit u de o f the C hri stia n s l

.

A n d yet the i n credible happe n ed C hris t ia n ity grad u ally

.

S pread u n til it n ally beca m e th e r u li n g religio n i n th e grea t

federatio n o f n atio n s o f the Ro m an E m pire How was i t .

possibl e fo r the ol d world to desert its religio n ? How did i t

co m e abo u t that the Greeks an d the Ro m an s were co n verted
to a religio n whi ch d espised everythi n g that n o Greek an d n o
Ro m a n co u l d despise witho u t rep u diati n g hi m sel f : scie n ce
an d philosophy poetry an d art fatherla n d an d gods ?
, ,

.2 Every atte m pt t o u n de rs t a n d this p rocess will al ways

n d itself drive n to co n cl u sio n s which have o fte n bee n draw n .

Th e ol d world had outli ved itself ; th e pri n ciple o f its li fe

was dyi n g Th e city state was th e for m of a n cie n t li fe free
.
-
,

sovereig n citize n ship was the bearer of the a n cie n t vi rt ues .

Th e C ity states had bee n r u i n ed i n ter n ally an d exter n ally ;

-
,

i n ter n ally by the splitti n g u p of the ci tize n s i n to the t wo fac

,
-

tio n s of the rich an d the poor which an tago n ized each o ther
"

i n bloody co n i cts ; ex t er n ally by their i n corporatio n i n

,

the Ro m a n E m pire Th e e n tire world was r u led by the

.

Ro m a n court
.Have I n ot so S e n eca lets the E m peror
,

say i n his work On Me r ey with which he atte r i n gly gree t ed

2
,

the you thf u l N ero u po n the latte r s accessio n t o the t hro n e

,

h ave I n o t bee n ch ose n fro m all m ortals to gover n as t he

represe n tative of the gods upo n earth ? A m I n ot j u dge
over the life an d death of n atio n s ? DO n ot the fate an d
the positio n of every i n divid u al res t i n m y ha n ds ? Does n ot
Fort u n e proclai m thro u gh m y m outh what she i s willi n g to
bestow u po n every o n e ? A re n o t o u r decrees the ca u se of
j u bilatio n a m o n g n ati o n s an d cities ? C an an y par t of the
e m pire thrive withou t m y will witho u t m y favor ? Thes e,

m a n y tho u sa n d swords which are kep t i n their scabbards by

2 De d e me nti a , I , . 2 .
 C H RIS TI ANIZA TION OF T HE OLD IV ORLD 1 01

my decrees peace are they n o t draw n at m y beck an d

of ,

co m m a n d ? Is i t n ot at m y behest th at n atio n s are exter

m i n at e d o r t ra n spl a n t ed t hat freedo m is give n or t ake n
,

away that ki n gs are se n t e n ce d t o slavery or crow n ed that

, ,

cities are destroyed an d b u ilt ? A n d n o w whe n t his s u pra
h u m an po wer as O fte n happe n ed beca m e the spor t of freed
, ,

m e n an d co u r t esa n s wha t an aw fu l abyss of corr u ptio n

,

yaw n ed before the Ro m a n s an d poiso n ed a ll n a t io n s an d

pri n ces with its fo u l O dors .

In such an e m pire t here was n o m ore room for the ol d

vir tu es A m o n g the a n cie n t n at io n s all vir t u es an d excel
.

le n ces were co n n ected with the state totally di fferi n g from ,

t h e m oder n virt u es i n this respect Th e fo u r cardi n al vir t u es .

,

pr u de n ce courage j u s t ice te m pe ra n ce are esse n tially civic

, , , ,

virtues Th e des t r u ctio n of t h e O ld co m m u n ities deprive d

.

t he m o f the soil u po n which they o u rished an d were p r ac

t i se d
. In pl ace o f courage an d j u s t ice s u bservie n cy an d the ,

arts o f at t ery treachery an d viole n ce beca m e the m ea n s

, ,

o f acquiri n g wealth power an d dig n ity ; i n th e i m perial

, ,

period the good n ess of a few e m perors co u ld n ot preve n t

these thi n gs excep t t o a very li m ited degree an d withi n
,

n arro w circles With the a n ci e n t m a n li n ess (vi r tu s) an d

.

h o n orable n ess t he virtue of t e m pera n ce passed away Po m p

, .

an d l u x u ry on the o n e side an d proletaria n wretched n ess

,

o n t he o t her took the place o f beau t i fu l an d m oderate

,

e n j oy m e n t .

Friedl an der has give n us i n his H i story of the M or a ls of

R om e an au t he n tic accou n t of t he life of the i m perial city

1

d u ri n g the rst t wo ce n t u ries If I c an t r u s t m y o w n i m .

pressio n s n o o n e will lay the book aside witho u t a feeli n g of

,

horror al t ho u gh i t was n ot writte n with the i n te n tio n o f

,

p roduci n g tha t e ffec t : with so m u ch wealth an d power so ,

m uch sple n dor an d great n ess such a terribl y e m pty an d ,

desol ate li fe ! Th e chie f p u rpose of this vast e m pire see m s to

S i ttenge schi chte Ram s

1 .
1 02 O RIG IN S OF MO RA L PH ILO S O PH Y
h ave bee n t o feed an d a m u se the pop u lace of the m etropolis .

Ro m e was n ot an i n dus t rial city she really had n o co m m erce ,

an d m a n u facture but o n ly an e n ormou s i m port : from all parts

,

o f the world co m m odities were brough t t hi t her fo r con s u m p

t io n Th e dis t rib u tio n of these co m m odi ties by shopkeepers

.

co n stituted on e of the m os t desired so u rces of reve n u e of th e

third estate Th e public ad m i n is t ratio n see m s t o have bee n
.

essen tially an i n stitutio n for the expl oitatio n of t he provi n ces

by th e relatives of the fa m ilies who belo n ged to good society ,

the se n atorial an d eq u estr i a n classes Th e populat io n of th e .

city was divided i n to t wo halves : the ruli n g fa m ilies wh o ,

drai n ed the provi n ces an d th e m asses wh o i n tu r n lived as

, ,

parasi t es upon these va m pires A ll t he people who m y ou see

.

i n this city wri t es Petro n ius are divided i n t o t wo parti es
, ,

they are either a n gli n g for so m ethi n g or bei n g a n gled ; o r ,

usi n g a n other gure : Y ou will behold a ci ty t hat rese m bles

a eld duri n g a pestile n ce which co n tai n s n othi n g b u t corpses
, ,

1
an d rave n s which are devouri n g the m Th e rave n s w ere .

the swarm s of clie n ts beggars legacy hu n t ers si n gers ac t ors

, ,
-
, , ,

ar t ists astrologers parasi t es of all ki n ds ; the c orpses u po n

, ,

which they fed were the ow n ers of l arge esta t es t he large ,

capitalis t s who sq u an dered at Rom e what their a n cestors

,

h ad m ade by ad m i n isteri ng the provi n ces o r wha t th ey ,

h ad t he m selves i n turn acqu ired through gi fts legacy h u n t ,

-

ing etc
,
Every n oble h o u se s u pported besides i t s ar m y of
.
,

slaves an ar m y of clie n ts whose sole fu n ctio n co n sisted

, ,

i n provi n g by their m or e prese n ce t he n oble ra n k of the m an

i n whose atri u m th ey appeared early i n th e m or n i n g an d ,

who m they acco m pan ied o n h is walks They were rewarded .

fo r their services by receivi n g board o r ali m o n y an d occasio n al

prese n ts n iggardly e n ough of course i n the opi n io n of those
, ,

wh o received the m .

In additio n t o this the masses of the me t ropoli t a n p op u l a

,

t io n were direc tly fe d by the state eve n duri n g the lat te r ,

1 F ri e dl an der, I , 3 7 1
. .
1 04 ORI GI N S OF MO R AL PH ILO S O P H Y
Dacia n ctory Traj a n gave a festival lasti n g o n e h u n dred
vi

an d twe n ty three days A ll the greater per for m a n ces b e

-
.

gan at daybreak an d lasted till s u n set Th e n u m ber o f .

seat s i n t he three theatres togeth er was in the

a m phitheatre i n the circ u s u n der C aesar , ,

u n der V espasian i n the fo u rth ce n t u ry

, ,

Th e e m peror freq u e n tly also provided the spectators with r e

fr e sh m e n ts At a festiv al which Do m itian gave i n the
.

,

year 88 the n u m ber of yo u n g beau ti fu l an d richly attired

, , ,

i m perial serva n ts who waited u po n the people i n the a m phi

,

theatre was accordi n g to Stat i u s s acco u n t as great as th e

,

n u m ber o f spec t ators S o m e bro u ght costly v ia n ds i n baskets

.

a n d white t able cloths oth ers ol d w i n es C hildre n an d

-
,
.

wo m e n th e populace the n obles an d the se n ate everybody

, , , ,

feasted as a t a table ; the E m peror hi m sel f co n desce n ded to

t ake part i n th e m eal an d the poorest m an felt happy i n the
,
1
k n owledge tha t he was his gu est .

Th e festival was h eld i n the a m phitheatre ; the ce n tre

arou n d which the large com pa n y gathered was the are n a the ,

great slau ghter ho u se i n which cr im i n als slaves an d n ally

-
, , ,

above all priso n ers Of war fro m all n atio n s after rst h avi n g
, ,

bee n trai n ed for the p u rpose i n the gladiatorial sch ools killed ,

each other for the delectatio n o f the g u ests of the e m peror .

U n der A u g ustus a total of m e n fo u ght i n t he eight

,

co m bats which he arra n ged ; i n the festival lasti n g fo u r

m o n ths w hich Traj a n gave a fter th e co n q u es t o f Dacia as
, ,

m an y as m en Th u s the captives o f war of all n atio n s

.

had th e ho n or o f ghti n g o n ce m ore be fore the lord Of the

'

earth an d of dyi n g u n der his very eyes With th e blood of .

all th e n atio n s w as m i n gled i n th e are n a the blood o f all the

a n i m al species of the earth In the gam es o f Po m pey .

were see n 1 7 elepha n ts 5 0 0 to 6 00 lio n s an d 4 1 0 other , ,

A frican be as t s I n the 2 6 ga m es alo n e i n stit u ted by

.
,

A ugus tu s abo u t , A frica n a n i m als were hu n t ed an d

1 F r i e d lan d e r, IL, 2 7 7 .
 C H R I S TI AN IZA TION OF TH E OLD W O RLD 1 05

sl au ghtered ; at the dedicatio n o f the Flavia n a m phitheatre ,

u n der Tit u s abo u t

,
ta m e an d wild a n i m als Ne w .

an d m ore re n ed setti n gs were i n ve n ted : n oct u r n al co m bats

were added sea gh t s alter n ated with la n d battles the

,
- -
,

are n a bei n g ooded with water A n d aro u n d this sce n e of

.

blood an d h orror were gathere d t h e e m peror a n d the se n ators ,

the people an d n obility m e n an d w o m e n eati n g an d dri n ki n g

, , ,

lau ghi n g an d co u rti n g S h o u ti n g an d roari n g : a sce n e of

,

horror a city of h orror the like of which h as n ever bee n

, ,

wit n essed u po n this earth Th e history o f the morality o f

.

Ro m e i s the co m m e n tary t o th e A pocalypse .

Th e provi n ces followed the exa m ple o f the capital the ,

gover n ors the ex a m ple of t he e m peror In all the cities we .

n d the sa m e divisio n o f society i n to va m pires an d parasite s .

By distrib u ti n g o ffi ces an d h o n ors th e m u n icipalities the m

,

sel ves S po n ged u po n the wealth of th e fe w ; i n additio n t o this ,

a co u n tless trai n of clie n ts faste n ed itself u po n the rich house

h olds In all the cities we n d gl ad i atbri al co n tests an d
.

an i m al h u n ts : There was n o t a si n gl e city fro m Jer u sale m

-

t o S eville fro m E n gla n d to N orther n A frica i n whose are n a

, ,

n u m ero u s victi m s we re n ot slau gh t ered year after year .

Th e Greek pop u lace alo n e re t ai n ed a t race of its for m e r

re n e m e n t an d c u lt u re an d o n ly grad u ally an d with di f c ulty
,

fo u n d pleasure i n these ga m es while th e c u lt u red cl asses i n

1
Greece held the m selves e n tirely aloof fro m the m N or is it .

likely that they took greater pleas u re i n the theatrical perfor m

a u ces with which the l ords of th e world were e n tertai n ed ,

the A te llan ae an d m i m es the pan to m i m es an d ballets

,
By .

the S ide Of the viole n t excite m e n t fu r n ished by the ci rc u s an d

the are n a the stage co u ld n ot retai n its attractio n for the
,

m asses except by o fferi n g br u tal e n j o y m e n ts a n d tickli n g th e

se n ses : an d so i n ste a d Of co u n teracti n g the per n icio u s i n
,

u e n ce o f these other spectacl es it co n trib u ted n o t the least

,

2
part i n corr u pti n g a n d br u talizi n g Ro m e Wh at an awfu l .

1 2 II
F r i e dla nd e r, II 3 80 ff
.
,
. 3 91 .
1 06 O RIG IN S OF MO RA L PH ILO SO PH Y
s t at e of debauch ery res u l t ed fro m all t hi s is shown wi t h
photographic exactn ess i n a descriptio n which we have o f th e
life of a little It alia n t ow n dati n g from t he t i m e o f N ero
,

The F e as t of Tr i m a lch i o by Petro n i u s 1 Th e coarse n ess o f .

t as t e an d feeli n g displaye d by th e host an d the gues t s at t he

t able of the freed m a n of C u m ae wh o had grow n rich by com ,

m e r ci al speculatio n s m os t l ikely surpasses a n ythi n g t hat h as

,

e ve r b ee n wi t n essed i n t he circles of the parve n u an d th e

p arasi t e .

3 It i s n ot s t ra n ge t h at a feeli n g o f profo u n d disco n te n t

.

acco m pa n ied such a li fe Pleas u re accordi n g t o the well

.
,

k n ow n A ristotelia n dict u m follows e f cie n t acti o n ; a life of

,

idle n ess an d a m u se m e n t e n ds i n pai n an d n a u sea .

Philosophy is a m i rror of t he feeli n gs of an age It i s n ot .

those addicted t o the life we have d escribed who phi l osophize

I mea n seri ou sly philosophize fo r of co u rse there is a , , ,

philosopher a m o n g the parasites of every n oble ho u se
hold bu t those wh o e n deavor t o y fro m it an d ye t can n ot
e m a n cipa t e the m selves fro m their t i m es They feel t he u t te r .

n othi n g n ess an d e m p t i n ess of t heir exis t e n ce ; t heir ph il oso

phy is a philosophy o f rede m p t io n Th e van i ty o f all thi n gs .

which everybody is ru n n i n g after an d the possibili ty of bei n g ,

delivered by philosophy th at is th e fu n dame n tal t he m e o f

,

the reectio n s o f S en eca Epic t etus Marcus A u reli u s : S eek

, ,

the secl u sio n of your o w n so u l do n ot desire what i s n o t i n ,

yo u r power le t th e w orld go i t s way an d you will be a t

, ,

peace .S eek n o t th at th e thi n gs which happe n sho u ld h appe n

as yo u wish b u t wish the thi n gs which happe n t o be as t hey

are an d you will have a tra n qu il ow of li fe
,
Whe n a .

rave n h as croaked i n au spiciou sly le t n ot the appearan ce ,

hurry yo u a w ay w ith it ; b u t s t raigh t way m ake a disti n ctio n

i n yo u r m i n d a n d say N o n e of these thi n gs i s sig n ied to
,

m e b u t to m y poor body o r to m y s m all property or t o m y

, ,

repu t atio n o r t o my child re n o r to m y wi fe ; but to me all

, ,

1
[E ngli sh t r a n sl at i o n b y H T P e ck , Ne w
. . Y o rk , 1 898 ]
1 08 O RIGIN S OF MO RA L PH ILO S O PH Y
free fro m viole n ce an d u n har m ed s u perior t o pai n s an d pleas ,

ures d oi n g n othi n g with o u t a p u rpose n or yet falsely an d

, ,

with hypocrisy n ot feeli n g the n eed Of a n othe r m an s doi n g

,

o r n ot doi n g a n ythi n g ; an d besides accepti n g all th at hap ,

pe n s an d all t hat i s allotted as c o m i n g fro m the n ce where

, , ,

ever i t is fro m whe n ce he hi m self ca m e an d n ally waiti n g

, , ,

fo r d eath with a cheer ful m i n d as bei n g n othi n g else tha n ,

a dissolutio n o f t h e ele m e n t s of which every livi n g bei n g is

1
co m pou n ded C o n s t a n tly co n sider h ow all thi n gs as they
.

n ow are i n t i m e past a ls o were ; an d co n sider tha t they

,

will be the sa m e agai n An d place before thi n e eyes e n tire .

dra m as an d stages O f th e same form what ever tho u hast ,

lear n ed fro m thy experie n ce o r from O lder history ; for ex

a m ple t h e whole cour t of Hadrian u s an d the whole co u r t
, ,

o f A n t o n i n us an d the whole cour t o f Philipp u s A lexa n der

, , ,

C r oes u s for all t h ose were such d ra m as as we n ow see o n ly ,

2
with d i e re n t ac t ors Th e idle busi n ess of S how pl ays on
.
,

th e sta ge ocks o f sheep herds exercises with spears a

, , ,

bo n e cas t t o li ttle dogs a bi t of bread i n t o sh po n ds ,

-
,

labori n gs o f a n t s an d b u r d e n carryi n gs ru n n i n gs about o f -

,
-

frigh t e n ed li t tle m ice puppets p u lled by stri n gs , It is

thy du ty t he n i n the mids t of s u ch thi n gs to S ho w good
hu m or an d n ot a p r ou d ai r ; t o u n derstan d h owever that every , ,

m an is w or t h j u st so much a s the thi n gs are worth abo u t

3
which he b u sies hi m self
Wha t the n i s tha t abo u t .
, ,

which we ough t t o e m ploy ou r serio u s pai n s ? This o n e

thi n g : th o u ghts j u st an d acts social an d words which n ever
, ,

lie an d a dispositio n which gladly accep t s all that h appe n s

, ,

as n ecessary as us u al as owi n g fro m a pri n ciple an d so u rce

, ,
4
o f the sa m e ki n d C as t away O pi n i o n tho u art saved
.
,
.

5
What the n hi n ders thee fro m casti n g it away ? C on

sider that every thi n g is O pi n io n an d opi n io n is i n thy power , .

Take away t he n whe n t hou ch oosest t hy O pi n io n an d lik e

, , , , ,

1 II , 1 7 5
. . X II, 25 .

2 X ,
27 .
 C H RISTI AN IZA TION OF THE OLD W O RLD 1 09

a m ari n er wh o has doubled the pro m o n tory tho u wil t n d ,

1
cal m everythi n g stable an d a waveless bay
, ,
.

S eldo m i deed
n , says Lecky 2
,
has s u ch active a n d u n ,

relaxi n g virtu e bee n u n ited with so little e n th u si as m an d ,

bee n cheered by so li ttle ill u sio n o f s u ccess .

We m ee t the sa m e feat u res i n the philosophy o f t his period .

Th e m ove m e n ts whic h Zeller e m b races u n der t he title : P r e

cu r sors of Ne o P la to ni sm i n the last vol u m e of his Hi s tory of
-
,

G r eek P hi losop hy t he N eo Pythagorea n s t he later C y n ics

,
-
, ,

the Esse n es the Jud a Greek philosophy o f Philo all o f

,
-
,

the m have thei r origi n i n the sa m e mood of life an d S how the

sa m e t raits ; th ey preach s u bm issio n an d resig n atio n absteu ,

tio n fro m the world suppor t ed by asceticis m a ret u r n t o the

, ,

s u prase n s u ous w orld to which the so u l really belo n gs Th e

,
.

li fe i n th e body they regard as a li fe i n a priso n h o u se -

,

de ath as the e m an cipatio n o f the j u s t This last o ffshoot of .

the old tr u n k of philosophy N e O Plato n is m has show n a r e ,

-
,

markable power i n u t ilizi n g th e res u lts of all previous phil

o s oph i cal i n vestigatio n s a n d has co n structed a sys t e m of the
,

u n iverse based upon this m ood Th e goal of the philosophy .

of Ploti n u s is a p u rely supra n aturalistic ethics By freei n g .

i tsel f from the se n s u o u s i m p u lses an d se n suo u s k n owl edge ,

the soul i s e n able d wholly to give u p its te m poral perso n a l -

sel f co n scious n ess an d t o raise itself i n to co m m u n io n wi t h

-
,

th e divi n e by m ea n s of ecs t asy Thus it ret u r n s t o its origi n .

an d f u llls i t s highest m issi o n It i s said that Ploti n u s r e .

fused to allow a pai n ti n g t o be made of hi m sel f beca u se h e ,

was asha m ed of his body Thus philosophy ca m e to be .

ex ac t ly what S ocrates o n ce called i t : t he study of death

(ush er ?) Ca var o v ) .

It would O f course be a m is t ake t o suppose that this phil o

, ,

sophical m ove m e n t reected the ge n eral co n ceptio n of the

ti m es In the sec t io n o f his work which deals with the rela
.

tio n of philosophy t o the age Friedl an de r has b ro u ght t o ,

'

1 X II , 2 2 .
2 H i story of E urop e a n hf o ra ls I ,
.
, 2 53 .
110 O RIGIN S OF MO RA L PH ILO SO PH Y
gether a m ass o f evide n ce t o S how tha t philosophy was n ot
withou t its e n e m ies an d despisers Ed u cated an d u n ed u cated
.

p eopl e derided t he philosophers as ridic u lo u s fools who with

,

their breadless ar t acqu ired n either adva n ce m e n t n or reputa

t io n n ei ther m o n ey n o r favor ; t hey a t the sa m e t i m e h at ed
,

the m as m e n wh o by thei r words an d their m ode of life dis

dai n e d an d ce n sure d their fell ows an d thei r aspira t io n s By .

man y th e occu pat io n wi th philosophy was r egarded as a t

l eas t i m proper for the s t at es m a n ; at t i m es i t was eve n con
s i d e r e d da n gero u s t o t h e s t a t e ; duri n g t he rst ce n t u ry th e

philosoph ers were t wice drive n fro m Ro m e Th e rel atio n .

o f a philosophy to i t s age by n o mea n s co n sists i n ex pressi n g

t ha t which its age possesses bu t ra ther i n expressi n g wha t

,

i t lacks ; i t sho ws wha t t he m os t re ec t iv e an d the m os t

s e n sitive a m o n g t hose livi n g at t he t i m e desire an d s t rive

af ter ; t heir ideal co n t a i n s t he fe a tures of th e prese n t bu t o n ly

,

a s a n egative pic t ure Bu t i n so far as all his t orical progress

.

has i ts origi n i n t h e feeli n g of w an t or disco m for t we m ay ,

also say : Th e philosophers a re divi n ers o f th e fut u re ; we can

lear n from the m n o t wh a t i s an d wha t i s estee m ed bu t wha t ,

i s to co m e .In this se n se we m ay regard the philosophy

Of t h e E m pire as a sig n tha t a radical cha n ge is abo u t to t ake

pla ce i n th e i n n e r life of th e a n cie n t peoples ; thei r deepest

lo n gi n g i s n o lo n ger fo r t he develop m e n t an d perfectio n of
the n atural li fe ; exhau sted by the pleasures an d su fferi n gs of
this w orld th ey are begi n n i n g t o crave with secre t year n i n gs
,

for delivera n ce .

4 By O e r i n g th e m delivera n ce an d besides an e t er n al
.
, ,

life i n tra n s m u n da n e s u prase n suo u s glory C hristia n ity satis

, ,

e d the m os t secret an d deepest year n i n gs of the age That.

which th e philosophers bro u ght partic u l arly t o th e educated

an d high bor n was pro m ised by C hristian ity t o the poor an d
-
,

wretched the weary an d heavy lade n : deliveran ce fro m the

,
-

bo n dage of earthly fear an d desire i n wh ich the sou l is hel d by

,

t he world an d outward show Th e for m er pro m ised delive r

.
112 O RIGIN S OF MO RA L PH ILO S O PH Y
th e pu n ish m e n ts awaiti n g the i m pe n ite n t O ffe n der i n the
hereafter H u m a n sacrices an d sel f m u tilatio n are custo m ary
.
-

i n m a n y o f these c u l t s Th e tho u ght o f a li fe a fter dea t h

.

was rather foreign t o the classical age : this earthly li fe was

t he true li fe th e li fe afte r death a shadow o f the prese n t li fe
, .

Th e o n ly co n cer n which m e n felt fo r th e herea fter w as to

preserve a good rep u tatio n a m o n g th e livi n g Du ri n g the
1
.

e m pire a chan ge gradually took place the hereafter ass u m ed

greater an d greater i m por t a n ce at the expe n se of this world .

A n d n o w t he O ld gods w ould n o lo n ge r s u fce Not o n ly to .

the m en of t he classic age b u t t o thei r gods also the here

, ,

after was an u n fa m iliar thought ; they were the gods of the

livi n g n ot of the dead ; they were the givers an d preservers
,

o f earthly gifts ; health an d beauty victory an d wealth they , ,

bestowed u po n t hei r favorites a n d w e r e h o n ored with cheerfu l

,

festivals i n ret u r n With t he dead they had n othi n g to do

. .

Th e age showed its solicit u de fo r th e futur e life by seeki n g

n e w gods an d for m s of worship an d fou n d t hem i n the O ld ,

religio n s of t he Eas t .

5 Th e C hristia n religio n gai n ed t he vic t ory over her

.

rivals Wha t mad e h e r victorious ? We a re sure ly j u sti

.

e d i n believi n g : h er i n n er wor th Perhaps i t was rs t of .

,

all the se n suous suprase n suo u s co n victio n of the i m m ediate

,
-

return of th e Lord to judge the earth an d t o es t ablish the

ki n gdo m Of glory which gave the m e m be rs of the ch u rch
,

the s t re n gth t o despise th e world an d i m bued their preach

i n g o f the ki n gdo m with such overpoweri n g force More .

Over the esp r i t ole corp s was for thi s very reaso n much
,

stro n ge r a m o n g the pro fessors of C hris tia n ity tha n amo n g

the other religious co m m u n ities ; they looked upo n the m
selves n ot without a feeli n g Of pride as a co m m u n ity of
, ,

sai n t s chose n fro m th e world as the m e m bers of the ki n gdo m

,

o f glory wh ose soj our n here i n t he esh was a m ere accide n t

, .

This s e para t io n fro m the world was e n couraged by t he

F i dl d r I II 5 1 r e an e ,
.
,
.
 C H RIS TIAN IZA TION OF TH E OLD W O RLD 118

jealo u s excl u sive n ess of their worship a heritage of Jewis h

,

m o n otheis m which bra n ded all adoratio n o f other gods as

,

Of idolatry Th e powe r Of a religio n to gai n adhere n ts is i n

.

i n verse proportio n to its te n de n cy to m i x with others The n .

,

agai n th ere was m ore o f th e sel f s acr i ci n g devotio n o f the

,
-

fo u n der i n the C h ristia n co m m u n ities tha n a m o n g the fol

lowers of the other c u lts altho u gh all Of the m de m a n ded
,

sacrices an d n o n e was witho u t its m artyrs Bu t n o n e of

,
.

the m had s u ch a host of m artyrs as C h ristia n ity It is a .

won derfu l fac t o n e t hat does ho n or t o h u m a n n at u re th at

, ,

n o ser m o n m akes a deeper i m pressio n upo n it than that

preached fro m a cross Fi n ally the C hristia n belie f also
.
,

satis ed the reaso n i n a cer t ai n se n se ; the ratio n al mo n o

theis m of the n e w religio n whi ch worshipped God as a
,

S pirit was m ore acceptable tha n the m yths o f the ol d pop u lar
,

religi o n s which were n o lo n ger believed o r th a n man y of

, ,

t he absurd superstitio n s of the Eas t .

6 Perhaps the co n versio n of th e Greeks an d Ro m a n s to

.

C hris t ia n ity also ad m its Of a f u rther expla n atio n We m ay .

regard the co n ve rsio n O f a people to a r e lig i on of r ed emp ti on

as the n al stage i n the develop m e n t of its e n tire S piritual
li fe I ve n t u re m erely t o s u ggest this view for a k n owl
.
,

edge of the l aws o f the evol u tio n of a popular l ife si m ilar ,

to tha t which we have of th e develop m e n t O f an i n dividual

life is of cou rse ut t erly ou t o f the q u estio n Let us say the n
, .
, ,

th at the religio n of rede m ptio n is the prod u c t of a n atio n s

se n ility : i t prod u ces m ythology an d the tales of heroes i n

its yo u th philosophy an d scie n ce i n its m an h ood a philo
, ,

s oph y o f co n sola t io n an d a religio n of rede m ptio n i n i t s old

age We m ight co m pare the st ages o f d evel op m e n t i n the
.

world o f ideas with parallel stages o f develop m e n t i n the

practical world : yo u th year n s fo r actio n i n the chase an d
war ; m an hood t u r n s t o work an d acquisitio n to co m m erce ,

a n d i n d u stry ; o l d age lays asid e its tasks an d feeds o n th e

,

prod u cts Of its for m er achieve m e n ts ; it year n s fo r rest an d ,

8
114 O RIGIN S OF MO RA L PH ILO SO PH Y
/

w i thdraw s fro m th e prese n t it lives i n the m e m ory of the ,

p ast an d i n the t ho u gh t o f the hereafter T h e n e w religio n .

,

t herefore o ffers i t sel f as a s u bs t itu te for poetry an d scie n ce

, ,

fo r work an d co n ict hopefu lly t r an s gu r i n g t he eve n i n g,

o f li fe as with a so ft twiligh t .

Th e sa m e develop m e n t of the grea t Eas t er n bra n ch of t he

A ryan s t ock also see m s to favor such a view o f the co n ver
sio n of the O ld n at io n s to C hristia n ity Th e Hi n doos t oo .
, ,

had o n ce started ou t u n der the protec t io n o f ki n dred m art ial

,

gods u po n a career of co n q u es t an d victory an d h ad bat tled

, ,

fo r their habitatio n s on the ba n ks o f the In dus a n d the

Gan ges They t oo had reached a high s t age of me n tal an d
.
, ,

eco n o m ic evol u tio n A n d a m o n g the m also a t las t t he

.
, ,

desire for civilizatio n cha n ged i n to religiosity Br ah m a n is m .

,

an d s t ill m ore B u ddhis m bo t h of the m products o f i mm a n e n t ,

develop m e n t are t o the O rie n t al s w h at C hristian ity was i n

,

t he Gracco Ro m a n world Th e t wo co n cepti o n s of li fe show

-
.

such an a s t o n ishi n g si m ilarity i n their details t h at the ,

belief i n t he deriva t io n of C hris t ia n i ty from In dia n sources

co n sta n tly forces i t sel f u po n us Th e co m m a n ds Of t he .

Dh am m ap adam a collectio n of wise B u ddhistic sayi n gs

,
1
,

ofte n exac t ly agree i n m ea n i n g an d i n lan g u age with the

, ,

c ollectio n o f sayi n gs of t he so c alled S er m o n on the Mou n t -

.

To ex t er m i n a te t he desi res t o s u ffer wro n g wi th ou t a n ger ,

an d reve n ge t o be pure i n heart an d pe a ceful i n disposi t io n

,

t hes e are the co m m a n ds which are give n t o the believers i n

th e fo rme r c a s e a s well a s i n the lat t er Th e forms of life .
,

G erm an t ran sl at i on se e W W e b e r s H i n d oo S tu d ies (I n d ische S tu d ie n ),

1 F or a .

I .
,
2 9- 8 6 . Th e ab le work o f H Olde n b erg , Bu ddha , h is Liz hi s Doctr i ne , hi s
. ,

Or der (B u ddha , s e in Le ben , s e i ne Lehre , i

s e ne Ge me i n d e ) [E n glish t r ans la t i o n ,

Lo n do n , 1 8 8 2 ] 1 8 9 0 ) g i ve s t h e h i st o ri cal b as i s for t h e i n t e rp r e tat i on a n d

(2 cd .
,

In t h e t h i r d vo l u m e o f Du nck er s H i s tory of

u n d er st an d i n g o f t h e se s ayi n g s .

A n ti q u i ty w e h av e an att e m p t t o tra c e t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f t h e Hi n doo po p u la r

sp ir i t , i n w h i ch t h e co n t ast r b et w e e n a s t ag e o f c i v i li zat i o n a n d a r e li gi o us s tag e

of de ve l o p m e n t i s v e ry m a rk e d .
[Se e the e x ce lle n t li t t le w o rk of P aul C aru s ,
The G osp el of B u d dha an d h i s Ta ble of Refe re nce , on pp 2 3
. 1 -
2 4 1 ; als o t h e

b ibli og r ap h y gi v e n b y hi m on p ag es 2 4 1
242 TE ] . .
 C H APTER IV

THE M ID DLE A GE S A ND THEIR C O C EPTIO N N OF L IF E 1

1 . TH E Middle A ges see m at rs t sigh t t o h ave bee n ab so

, ,

lu te ly r u led by the C hristia n co n cep t io n o f li fe Th e church .

represe n ts the fra m ework i n which their e n tire spiritu al li fe

was e m braced Th e church doctri n e gover n ed k n owledge ; the
.

v i t a r e li i o s a the m o n astic li fe which res t s u po n the pri n ciple

g , ,

o f world estra n ge m e n t a n d self de n ial

-
was u n reservedly ac
-
,

ce p t e d as the id eal o f co n d u ct In deed poverty chastit y .

, , ,

an d obedie n ce the three m o n as tic vows mean t n othi n g b u t

, ,

the exter m i n at io n o f the t hree s t ro n gest i m p u lses o f the

n at u ral m an : the i m p u lse s which ai m a t possessio n fa m ily , ,

rep u tati o n an d powe r In reality t he e n ti r e clergy were

.
,

a m e n abl e t o the rules of the vi ta r e lig i osa ; thei r missi o n

co n sisted i n exe m plifyi n g to the peopl e the C hris t ia n life ;
b u t the ch u rch n eve r wholly succeeded i n i m posi n g m o n achis m
upo n th e clergy livi n g outside of t h e m o n as t eries ; celi bacy
alo n e was gradually e n forced .

N evertheless i t would be an error t o suppose t h at m e d i mv al

,

li fe was really th e sa m e i n charac t er as the li fe of the O ld

C h ristia n co m m u n ities i n the G ra e co Ro m a n world If there -
.

is any tr u th whatever i n the view s u g gested above co n cern i n g ,

the n at u re of the religio n o f rede m ptio n thi s ca n n ot have bee n ,

the c ase Th e Middle A ges do n o t represe n t the se n ility of

.

th e G er m a n ic n atio n s b u t i f we m ay be all owed t o co n ti nue

, ,

o u r co m pariso n o f a collec t ive life with an i n dividual li fe ,

their sch ool days ; t hey we n t t o school to an t iqu i ty le a r n i n g

-
,

1
[S f i t 3 5
e e r e e r e n ce s
pp d 6n5 T ]
no e s o n . an . E .
 THE M E DIE VA L C ON C E P TION 1 17

la n gu age an d scie n ce philosophy an d religio n usef u l an d

, ,

beauti fu l arts No w th ese y ou thful n a t io n s c ou ld n o m ore

.
,

be co n verted i n th e real se n se o f t he t er m tha n a sch oolboy

, ,

can be co n verted He alo n e can be co n ver t e d wh o has lived

.
,

a n d n o w discovers t ha t li fe does n ot keep wh a t it see m ed t o

pro m ise Th e ol d n atio n s were co n verted t hey made this

.
,

discovery at the e n d of a lo n g an d brillia n t career of civili

zat i o n ; after h a vi n g failed t o n d h appi n ess by satis fyi n g

their desi res they n o w sou gh t peace thro u gh delivera n ce

,

fro m desire Whe n the Ger m an s beca m e C h ri stia n s they

.
,

had h ardly e n t ere d upo n t he path of civilizatio n ; they coul d

n o t receive the baptism wi t h the sa m e feeli n gs as th e
a n cie n ts .

Of this the his t ory o f t hei r C hris t ia n izati o n does n ot leave us

i n do u bt .In the old world th e co n versio n t o C hris t ia n i ty was
absol u tely spo n ta n eous an d from withi n C hris t ian ity h ad .

co m e t o the a n cie n ts n ot wi th the force of ar m s like Isla m

, ,

la t er on n or with s u perior cul t ure an d scie n ce ; i t possesse d

,

n o n e of th ese thi n gs n ay the l ack o f t he m co n sti t u t ed on e of

, ,

its esse n t ial t rai t s It tri u m phed n ot by t he m e t hods of pol

.

i t ies bu t con trary to the will O f the political powers To be

, .

s u re after its establish m e n t after i t beca m e a power t his s t a t e

, , ,

of a ai r s soo n ch a n ged ; the politicia n s wh o m ake e very t hi n g ,

subserve thei r e n ds also u tilized C hristia n ity the sta t e i t self

, ,

becam e C h ristia n or C hris tia n i ty was orga n ized i n to a s tat e

, ,

a n d th e last re m ai n s o f paga n is m were n ally eradica t ed by

the gover n m e n t A ll this of course co u ld n ot fail to i n

.
, ,

u e n ce th e i n n er esse n ce of C hristia n i t y ; ever si n ce t he

exi ste n ce o f C hris t ia n e m perors which Tertu llia n h ad d e ,

cl ar e d to be a co n tradictio n i n terms the ch u rch could n o

1
,

lo n ger ass u m e th e h arsh oppositio n t o the world which

the pri m itive co m m u n ities assu m ed ; a ki n d of co m pro m ise

was m ade be t wee n C hris t ia n i ty an d t he world : i t assi m ila t ed
so m uc h of th e world a s was n eeded n ot t o overco m e b u t t o ,

1 A p ol ,
. c . 21 .
 118 O RIGIN S OF MO R AL PH ILO S O PH Y
rule t he world In this way t he ch u rch developed i n to a n e w
.

world power d u ri n g the lat ter days of a n tiq u ity n ot however

-
, , ,

w i t ho u t h avi n g rs t created a ki n d of re fu ge i n the m on

aste r i es for an u n worldly o r extra worldly C hristia n ity ; a n d
-

t he high es t i m ate whic h the ch u r ch places u po n th e m o n astic

life shows that she is still co n scio u s of t he t r u e relatio n of
C hris t ia n ity to th e w orld .

Th e co n versio n o f t he Ger m a n ic peoples was a process

e n tirely di ffere n t fro m the o rigi n al co n versio n Of the O ld
n atio n s t o C hristia n ity ; t hey were we m igh t say n o t really
, ,

con ver t ed t o C hristia n ity b u t to th e ch u rch Politics an d

, .

coercio n always played a par t i n the recep t io n o f baptis m ,

a n d o fte n cas t the decidi n g vote Th e Ger m a n ic t ribes fro m

.
,

who m the G er m a n people S pra n g were all of the m co m,

p e l l e d by t he force o f ar m s t o j oi n C hristia n i ty or rather t he

poli t ical ecclesiastical syste m of the Fra n kish E m pire Th e

-
.

his t ory of the wars an d a d m i n istratio n of C harle m ag n e tells

bloody t ales of the co n versio n of the S axo n s He tha t

.

re fu ses baptis m so i t is decreed i n the cap i tu la r e o f Pader

,

bor n o r wa n to n ly eats m ea t d u ri n g Le n t or b u r n s a ,

corpse after th e c u sto m o f the heathe n s sh all die Whoever , .

can n o t recite t he Lord s p rayer o r t he creed so a later

,

ca i tu la r e decrees shall be p u n ished wit h blows o r by fast

p ,

i n g whether it be a m an o r a wo m a n
,
.

2 Jus t as t h e co n versio n o f t he Ger m a n s was di ffere n t

.

fro m tha t of t he a n cie n t s so t hei r co n ceptio n s an d m ode of

,

life di ffered fro m those o f pri m iti ve C hristia n ity Th e Middle .

A ges were n ot t i red O f the world a n d sated with life but f u ll ,

o f e n ergy an d t he desire t o achi eve great deeds In divid u als

.

were n ot wa n ti n g i n who m the t r u e C h ristia n m ood asserted

itself ; i n m an y a m edi aeval church hy m n the feeli n g of world
weari n ess an d the year n i n g for d eliveran ce fro m this m isery
an d fo r t he heave n ly fatherla n d is pathetically expressed .

Bu t tha t was n ot the prevaili n g m ood By the side of the

.

church poetry o u rished the pop u lar ep i c or heroic poe m ; .

120 O RIGI N S OF MO RA L PH ILO SO PH Y
ce n tres o f ci vilizatio n an d occasi o n ally also t he sce n es of
,

l u x u riou s an d u n holy e n j oy m e n t Th e Be n edicti n es a n d

.

C istercia n s carried h a n d icra ft s a n d arts hortic u lt u re an d agri ,

c u lt u re wh erever they w e n t E ve n the treas u res of heathe n

,
.

scie n ce an d literat u re so u ght re fu ge i n the m o n asteries an d ,

were preserved by the m fo r posterity a ser vice for w hich they ,

h ave Ofte n bee n extolled Th e p r aise is well deserved b u t it

.
,

i s stra n ge n evertheless that the b rotherh oods o f C hristian

, ,

asceticis m sho u l d h ave so u ght a n d fo u n d praise n ot o n ly fo r

tran scribi n g the verses o f O vid a n d Horace th e writi n gs of
A ristotle an d L u cre ti u s b u t also fo r st u dyi n g ex plai n i n g
, , ,

i m itati n g a n d so co n sta n tly keepi n g the m alive A n d n o

,
.

l ess stra n ge see m to u s l ooked at fro m this poi n t o f view

, ,

those m ilitary orders th e m e m bers of which as the so l diers ,

o f C hrist ,
wore the s w ord an d the cross the coat Of m ail ,

an d the cassock an d i n icted as well as bo u n d u p wo u n ds

,

i n his ser vice .

Th e i n te llectu a l life O f the M iddle A ges which was directly ,

do m i n ated by the ch u rch also di ffered fro m that o f pri m itive

,

C hristia n ity A stro n g yo u th fu l cravi n g fo r k n owledge was

.
,

u n m istakable ; the age still distr u sted i ts o w n powers an d ,

dre w u po n others for its scie n ce b u t i t took i t wherever it ,

fo u n d it ; fro m the books o f t h e h e at h e n s J e ws a n d S arace n s , , ,

the scholars of the m ed iaeval u n i versities derived thei r k n owl

edge O f t h i n gs S cholastic theology Itsel f is a rs t m odest
.

atte m p t t o ratio n alize th e sacred t e achi n gs Th e sayi n g o f .

A n sel m I believe i n order th a t I m ay u n ders t a n d is char ,
~

a ct e r i s t i c of medi aeval theology ; the latte r does n o t ai m to

create a n e w t r u th w e h ave the tru th ; b u t it desi res to ap

,

r o r i at e a n d as it were to master by the n at u ral re aso n the

p p , , ,

t r u th which was origi n ally accepted on faith That was the .

high goal O f the i n tellect u al strivi n gs of the Middle A ges a

goal however whi ch was fo u n d to be m ore an d m ore u n att ai n
, ,

abl e as th e work progressed We ca n n ot say that this ai m was

.

i n h ar m o n y with the spirit Of pri m itive C hristia n ity Pa u l at ,

 TH E M EDIE VA L C ON C E P TION 1 21

le a s t i n who m t he foolish preachi n g o f the cross was rs t

,

co n fro n ted with Greek wisdo m does n o t dream o f a com ,

pro m ise betwee n the two o r of re n deri n g th e tr u th of salva

,

tio n i n telligible to t he n at u ral reaso n ; Tert u llian with his I

be li eve be ca u s e i t i s a bsu r d evide n tly co m es n earer to his way
,

o f looki n g a t thi n gs tha n A n sel m Th e d esire t o co m prehe n d

.

the faith is i n a certai n se n se t he rst begi n n i n g of the

, ,

desire to be e m an cipated fro m it t o rise above it S o L u ther, .

felt abo u t the m atter ; h e h ated scholastic t heol ogy an d

phil osophy because they m i n gled with t he C hristian faith
,

the heathe n wisdo m of A ristotle ; h e desired t o restore the

for m er i n its p u rity .

He n ce m edi aeval C hristia n ity was n ot the sa m e as pri m itive

C hristia n ity N ot o n ly were the Ger m a n s C hristia n ized bu t
.
,

C hristia n ity was also Ger m an ized ; i t appropri ated the n at

ural desire fo r civilizatio n o f t h e yo u th fu l n atio n s an d was ,

thoro u ghly i m b u ed with thei r spirit Moreover it had as has .

, ,

already bee n poi n ted out grad u ally ass u m ed a m ore p ositive
,

relatio n to t h e world an d its ai m s eve n d u ri n g a n tiqu ity , ,

a n d was th u s prepared fo r t h e task Of bri n gi n g to the n e w

n atio n s the ele m e n ts o f the ol d civilizatio n alo n g with the

n e w faith .

.4 What sh all we say of this m ix t u re o f C hristia n i t y an d

th e world ? Th e sects which separated fro m th e tri u m pha n t
ch u rch h ave always regarded it as a corr u ptio n o f C hris
t i an i ty they we re u n able t o recogn ize i n a state ch u rch the
co m m u n ity o f s ai n ts wh o had gathered aro u n d the word
of th e cross i n th e pri m itive t i m es Th e pec u liar esse n ce
.

an d stre n gth o f C hris t ia n ity see m ed to the m to have bee n

lost whe n th e ch u rch divided with the state th e power over the
world eithe r r u li n g it as the C atholic ch u rch always ai m ed
, ,

to do o r bei n g r u led by it as i n the case o f Protesta n tis m

, ,
.

Fro m th e st an dpoi n t of pri m itive C hristia n ity it wo u ld be

hard to co n tradict this view C hristia n ity was origi n ally a
.

battle with the world A C hristia n ity witho u t battle a

.
,
122 O RI GI N S OF MO RAL P HILO S O PH Y

C hristian ity recogn ized by the world approved an d a u thor ,

i ze d by the state is n o lo n ge r the sa m e thi n g ; o r if all m e n

,

had beco m e C h ristia n s there wo u ld n o lo n ger be an y world ,

o r state ; th e t i m e s wo u ld be f u llled history close d It is ,

also certai n that a type o f characte r h as bee n prod u ced by

the m ixt u re o f C h ristia n for m s an d m odes O f S peech with
worldly m an n ers which is o n e of the m ost repulsive de fo r
,

ities ever s u ffered by the n ature O f m an ; it is called Pf a e n

'

tu m : haughti n ess a n d greed for power assu m i n g the for m

o f C hristia n h u m ilit y harsh n ess an d pres u m ptio n disgu ised ,

as love an d care for the so u l o f th e brother Th e a n cie n t .

worl d was u n fa m iliar with this type b u t it i s as O ld as th e ,

ch u rch an d is fo u n d m oreover n ot o n ly a m o n g the ser v a n ts

, , ,

o f the ch u rch b u t also a m o n g the serva n ts o f the state an d

,

scie n ce i n deed a m o n g all who have spiritu al o r worl d ly

,

power If we look u po n the priests as the represe n tatives o f

.

the ch u rch we can h ardly reg ard the ch u rch as an y t hi n g b u t a

,

grea t dege n eratio n 1

.

1 As an at t e m p t t o w ri te a h i s to r y o f n on - e ccl esi ast ical C h ri st i an i ty, t h at i s , t h e

t ru e e v an g el i cal C h ri s ti an i ty, a w o r k by L . K ell er The R efor m a ti on
,
an d the Old er
R efor m P a r ti es (D 1 6 Refor ma ti on a n d d 1 6 fi lter e n Refor mp a r te i e n ) 1 8 8 5 , i s Of i n t e r e s t
-
, .

r r
Th a t t h e a u t h o h as su cce e d e d i n p o v i n g a n u n i nt e rru p t e d , h i st o r i c al co n n e ct io n

i n th e
e v an g e l ica l co m m u n i t i e s fr o m t h e t i m e w h e n C h r i s t i an i t y b e ca m e a

s t at e reli g i o n u n d e r C o n st an t i n e , d o w n t o t h e R e for m ati o n an d be y o n d it t o our

t i m es , th e e xp e rt m ay w e l l d o u b t . We m u st n o t, h o w e v e r , fo rg e t t h at n o t e v e ry

t h i n g t h at h as h app e n e d i s t o b e fo u n d i n t h e fr ag m e n t a r y r e co r d s w h i ch h av e
co m e d o w n to A p a s si o n a te p r o t e st i s r a i s e d ag a i n s t s t a t e C h r i s t i an i t y fr o m
us .

th e s t an d p o i n t o f p r i m i t i v e C h r i s t i a n i t y b y t h e Dan e , S o e re n K i e r k e g aar d , i n h i s

l at e r w r it i n g s . In t h e i n t e n s e ly s arcas t i c a r t i cl e s p u bl i s h e d b y h i m i n t h e ve a r
1 8 55, in a n u m ber o f j o u r n als , a n d e n t i tl e d M om e n t
(G er m an t r an slat ion Ih
S oe ren K i e r kega a rd , A tta ck up on C hr isti a n i ty , e d i te d by A . Do rn e r an d C hr .

S c h re m p h , he ag a i n an d ag ai n co n t rast s t he o ri
g i nal p r each e rs Of C h r i s
t i a n i t y, w h o g a v e u p t h e i r l i v e s fo r i t , w i t h t h e t h o u s an ds o f w i tn esses o f t h e

t r u t h , e m p lo ye d b y t h e ro yal D an i sh g o v e r n m e n t , w h o b y p re a ch i n g t h e p as si o n
of C h r i s t w i n p o si t i on s, d e co r at i o n s s i l v e r t a ble ,
-
s e r v i ce s ,
g il de d r e cl i n i n g ch a i rs ,
an d o t h e r
gl o r i e s Th e t ru e C h ri st i an i s e v e n t o t h i s d ay re cog n i ze d b y t h e
.

C ross n ot b y t h e g o l d o r s il v e r cro s s wh i ch i s w o rn o n a co l o r e d r i bb o n a r o u n d
the n e ck o r
p on t h e b o s o m an d m a r k s i t s w e are r a s a k n i g h t o r a c o m m a n d e r
u ,

b u t b y t h e C ro ss w h i ch i s i m p o se d as a m arty r do m an d a di sg r ace by t h e s e lf .

a p p o i n t e d an d o f ci al r e res e n t a t i ve s Of t h e w o r l d u o n t h ose w h o d e s i s e t h e
p p p

w o rld fo r C h r i st s sak e . In de e d , i t i s p er h a p s t h e st r an g est i r o n y o f h i s t o ry
th a t t h e cro s s, o r , t ran sl a t in g th e Rom an cu st o m i n to m o de rn l an u a e , t h e
g g
1 24 O RIGIN S OF M O RA L PH ILO S O PH Y
grafted u po n the m ili t ary vir t u es o f the Ger m a ic a t io s p n n n ,
r o

d u ce d s u ch a pec u liar type o f m oral n obility i n their k n ight

hood ; an d the m erci fu l treatm e n t o f the poor an d wre t ched a ,

for m of b e n e ce n ce which e m bodie d i n thousa n ds o f charit

,

able i n stitu tio n s h as co m e d ow n to u s an d to this day

, ,

alleviates su e r i n g an d dries tears I also call t o m i n d .

their spiritu alized rel ati o n s to wo m e n an d their aversio n to ,

all sex u al u n chastity altho u gh the latter frequ e n tly failed

to preve n t what is hardly rep u lsive to the n a tu ral m an an d ,

the for m er res u lted i n stra n ge aberratio n s i n the M i n n e di en st ,

ye t the t e n dern ess an d rigor of t he Middle A ges co n trast

favorably with the frivol o u s n ess an d s u pe rci ality o f the
a n cie n t world I call t o m i n d the grad u al growth of t he
.

se n ti m e n t th at S lavery the order of society accordi n g to

,

the n at u ral righ t of th e stro n ger does n ot agree with the ,

co m m an d m e n t of love A lthough the church di d n ot abolish

.

slave ry b u t per m itted i t to exist like other worldly i n s ti t u

, ,

tio n s as an i n di ffere n t for m by the side of the order i n the

,

ki n gdo m of heave n n ay expressly recog n ized i t an d bo u gh t

, ,

an d ow n ed slaves hersel f she was n ei t her able n o r willi n g

,

to hi n der the spiri t of the Gospel wh erever i t t ri u m phed , ,

fro m e n tirely tra n sfor m i n g t he rela t io n bet wee n m asters an d

slaves so that eve n the legal form ulti m ately beca m e i m p os
,

sible 1
I n ally c all t o m i n d t he u n io n o f t he n atio n s i n
.

the ch u rch which so m ewhat so ft e n ed the n at io n al an tag

,

o n i s m s ; n ot s u fficie n tly it is t ru e to preve n t w ars bu t y e t

, , ,

s u f cie n tly t o rob the m of the character O f wars of an n ihila

tio n i n which these an tago n is m s res u l t accordi n g to the
,

n a t u r a l order o f eve n ts We can n o t fail to recogn ize i n all

.

these thi n gs th e i n ue n ce of orga n ized C hristian ity which ,

h ad by assi m il at i n g ele m e n ts Of civilizatio n of all ki n ds

, ,

beco m e a worl d power A n d the glorio u s develop m e n t of

-
.

1 S ee t h e i n st ru ct i v e e ssay b y F Ove r b e ck
. on th e r e l at i on of th e Ol d ch u r ch

to y i n t h e Ro m a n E m pi r e i n h i s S tud i es on the H i s tory qf the A nci ent

s l av e r

C h urch (S tu d ien z ur Ges chi chte d er a lten K i rche ) , 1 8 7 5 .

 TH E M EDIE VA L C O NC EP TION 1 25

medi aeval a r t the pro m isi n g begi n n i n gs of scie n tic st u dy

, ,

wo u ld they have bee n possible witho u t t he ch u rch ? Th e

evan gelic a l co m m u n ities which cl u n g to th e Old co n ce p ,

t io n co n cer n i n g th e relatio n of C hristi a n ity t o th e world h ave ,

always show n i n di ffere n ce or aversio n t o art an d scie n ce .

He n ce w h oeve r does n o t regard all civilizatio n as a m istake

, ,

o r t he participa t io n Of t he Ger m a n i c n atio n s i n C hristia n ity

an d a n cie n t civilizatio n as an aberratio n i n co n siste n t with

their o w n i m m a n e n t devel op m e n t a vie w which i s possible ,

b u t which o f co u rse can n either b e proved n o r refu ted

, ,

can n ot regard the m ixture of C hristia n ity with civilizatio n as

a m ere corruption of the Gospel 1
.

1
Th b x p iti g i it h i t ri l
e a ove e os
p t i w
on a l l i i
r ee st b int i s s o ca con ce on as e as n s r

ca l t i m t w it h t h
es i w h ld b y H
a e k i h i H i t y f th D g m
e v e e Afw ar n ac n s s or o e o a . e

p ass a
g f m t h es t l m
ro f t hi we k w h i
rsh g i vo ul i d e f t
o h s or , c v es u s a c e ar ea o e

g r o w t h o f t h e t h e o r e t i cal s i d e o f e ccle s i ast i cal C h r i st i an i t y m ay s u ffi c e t o s h o w ,

i
th s

B y su rr ou n d i n g t h e G o sp e l w i t h a p r o t e ct i n g sh e ll C at h oli ci s m at t h e
.
,

sam e t im e o b scu r e d It p re se r v e d t h e C h r i st i an r e li g i on ag ai n st acu t e He l~

it .

le n i zat i o n ( Gnost i ci s m ), b u t w as at t h e s am e t i me fo r ce d t o p e r mi t a co n
s t an t l
y i n cr e asi n g m e asu r e of se cu l ar i za ti o n . In t h e i n t e r e st s of i t s w o rl dly
m i ssi o n , i t d i d no t , i n de e d , e x act ly d e st roy t h e aw fu l e arn e st n e ss o f t h e r e li
gi on ,
b u t i t m ad e i t p o ss i bl e fo r t h ose w h o w ere le ss se r i o u s i n t h e i r co n v i ct i o ns to be

reg ar d e d as C h r i st i an s a n d t o r e gar d t h e m se lv e s as s u ch b y p e r m i t t i n g a l e ss ,

r i or o u s i d e al o f l i fe
g It all o w e d a ch u rch t o a ri s e w h ich w as n o l on g e r a co m
.
.

m u n it y fa i t h , h op e , an d d i sc i pli n e , b u t a p oli t ic al co m m un i ty , i n w h i ch t h e
of

G o sp e l si m ply co n s t i t u t e d o n e of m an y i m p o r t an t e l e m e n t s It i n v e st e d all .

for m s w h i ch t h i s w o rl dly co m m u n i t y n e e d e d , w i t h ap o s t oli c t h at i s, i n d i r e ct ly ,

w it h d i v i ne au t h o r i ty , in an i n cr e as i n g m e asu r e , an d t h e re by c orr u p t e d

C h r i st i an i ty a n d ob scu r e d an d r e n d e r e d d iffi cu l t t h e k n o wle d g e of wh at w as

C h ri st i an . Bu t i n C at h oli ci sm t h e r eli
g i on for t h e rs t t im e r e ce i ve d a sy s t e m at i c

fo r m . In C a t h o li c C h ri s t i a n i t y t h e fo r m u l a w as fo u n d w h i ch r eco n ci l e d fai t h
an d sc i ence . T hi s fo rm u l a s at i s ed m an ki n d fo r ce n t u rie s, a n d t h e ble ssi n g s
w h i ch i t b r o u gh t co n t i n u e d e v e n aft e r t h e r
fo m u la i t sel f h a d b eco m e a fe t t e r .

(I .
, C a t h o li ci sm , t h e p r o d u ct o f t h e m os t i n t i m at e fu si o n o f C h r is t i a n i t y
w it h an t i q u i ty , c o n q u e re d th e w orl d a n d b eca m e t h e fo u n d at i o n fo r a n e w

p h a s e o f h i s t o ry i n t h e M i d d l e A g e s T h e u n i o n o f t h e C h r i s t i a n r e l ig i o n w i t h a
.

r
p a rt i c u lar h i s t o i cal p h ase o f k n o w le d ge an d c i v i li z at i o n o f h u m a n it y, m ay b e
d e p lo re d i n t h e i n t e r e s t s o f t h e C h r i s t i a n r e l ig i o n w hi ch w a s t h e re b y m ad e ,

w orl d ly , and i n t h e i n t e rest s o f c i v il i zat i o n , w h i ch w as t h e re b y i m p e d e d . Bu t

co m p l a i n t s h e r e b e co m e p re su m p t u o u s fo r w e ar e i n d e b t e d fo r n ot h i n g l ess t h an
e ve ry t h i n g w e oss ess a n d i t t h i w h i h h b e e fo r me d b e tw e e n
p p r z e o e u n o n c a s n

C h r i s t ia n i t y an d a n t iq u i ty , a u n i o n i n w h i ch n e i t h e r e l e m e n t h as b ee n ab le t o
o v e r co m e t he ot h e r . Bu t u po n t h e co n i ct s r e s u l t i ng fr o m t h i s r e l at i o n o u r

i nne r an d sp i r i t ual li fe d e p e n d s t o t h i s d ay .
(p .
 C H A PTER V

THE M ODE R N C ONC E PTION OF LIFE

1 . THE e n d oft he ft ee n t h ce n tury marks a n ew epoch i n

the life of the Wes t er n world ; the m odern era beco m es the
heir of t he Middle A ges Th e li n e of de m arkatio n is clear
.

an d dis t i n c t ; i t is de n ed by t w o power fu l S piritual m ove

me n t s : by t he Re n aissa n ce an d the Re form a t ion Ne w .

form s of li fe an d a n e w co n ceptio n of the u n iverse were s u b se

que n tly devel oped Th e s t at e t he i n s t itu t io n of the m oder n
.
,

ti m es gradually s u ppla n t ed t he church the do m i n an t i n s ti

, ,

t u ti on of the Middle A ges : th e i n ue n ce of the l at t er decli n ed ,

the i n dividual becam e self depe n de n t i n his highes t relatio n s

-
,

i n his relatio n to God an d gradually shook OH the gu ardia n

,

ship of th e ch u rch i n m atters of faith an d salvat io n Th e state .

,

o n t he o t her ha n d was co n s t a n tly expa n di n g

,
It deprived the
.

church of on e fu n ctio n a ft er the other : the school the prom o ,

t io n of scie n ce an d art the care o f the poor an d weak legisla

, ,

t i on an d th e ad m i n istra t io n of j u stice a eld which had bee n

,

largely appropriated by the church Th u s the state beca m e a

.

compreh e n sive i n stit u t io n for the adva n ce m e n t of civilizatio n ; it

was rm ly pl an t ed i n this world while t he church h ad its deep
es t roots i n t he t r an s m u n da n e world There is a reciprocal
.

relat io n be t wee n t h e develop m e n t of the world of i n stitutio n s

an d t he worl d of t ho u gh t s Th e ol d co n ceptio n o f the u n i
.

verse based upo n authorities an d t reat i n g of heave n ly thi n gs

, ,

was gradually overthrow n by t he n e w philosophy which h ad ,

its for m al basis i n the pri n ciple of ratio n alis m the pri n ciple of
,

free i n vestigatio n an d i t s m at eri al basis i n the n e w cos m ol ogy

,
128 O RIGIN S OF MO R A L PH ILO S O PH Y
an d th e you n g n atio n s h ad d erive d i n stru ctio n an d pleasu re
fro m the m ; n ot with o u t so m e m isgivi n gs o f co u rse : th ey
,

k n ew (th e ch u rch told the m so ) th at it was heathe n ph ilo so

phy an d literat u re an d th at it was really n o t prope r for
,

a C hristia n to e n j oy the m These do u bts a n d fears were

.

wholly give n u p i n th e ti m e of the Re n aissa n ce Th e age .

e m a n cipated itsel f fro m the old m orose school an d task

m aster the discovery was m ade that a n tiq u ity had itsel f bee n
,

yo u n g be fore it beca m e O l d an d crabbed an d the yo u t h fu l

,

heathe n a n tiqu ity was fo u n d to be m u ch m ore attractive

an d gra n der than C hris t ia n ized a n tiquity A ll m i n ds were
.

lled with a passion ate ad m irat io n fo r a n tiq u i ty ; the pro

d u cts of i t s literature its art its phil osophy were arde n tly
, , ,

so u ght after studied i m i t ated an d thoro u ghly assi m ilat ed

, , , .

Th e literary an d ar t is t ic prod u c t io n s of th e Middle A ges were

throw n aside with the co n te m pt with which the schoolboy
casts aside his school exercises an d tex t books a t th e close-

o f his course ; everythi n g m edi a e val was n o w desig n ated as

Go t hic barbaris m Th e age was a n xious t o thi n k an d t o feel

.
,

t o m ake poetry an d t o create t o live an d t o e n joy like the

, ,

m odels placed before i t by classical a n tiqui t y Th e p u tt i n g .

o n o f the n e w m an received its sy m bolical expressio n i n the

rej ectio n of the O ld an d i n the adoptio n o f n e w L ati n ized or

Helle n ized n am es . It m u st be co n fessed however tha t t he
, ,

Re n aissan ce reached i t s highes t per fecti o n o n ly i n Italy From .

J Bu r ckli ardt s C i vi li za ti on of the R en a i ssan ce i n I ta ly we m ay

.

,

glea n what the rebirt h the birth of the n e w m an sign ied
, ,
.

In Italy the evol u t io n was a n ecessary on e On this side of

.

the A lps the move m e n t was n ot spo n tan eous n o r did i t take ,

s u ch deep roo t i n the hearts of th e people here i t w as s om e

what i m itative i n character A n d here t he con ict betwee n
.

the old an d the n e w c u lt u re afte r the latter h ad j u st gai n ed

a foothold i n the u n iversities was cu t short by t he breaki n g
-

o u t o f a n e w co n ict the co n ict which L u ther i n a u gu rated

,

agai n s t the ch u rch i n the n am e of th e Gospel Thi s str u ggl e .

 THE MO DE RN C ON C E P TI ON 129

so th oroughly absorbe d the a tte n tio n of the Ger m a n people an d ,

soon after also of the other n ati o n s that the Re n aissa n ce was,

co m pletely overshado w ed O n ly after the at l east provisio n al

.

settle m e n t of th e co n ict i n the seve n tee n th ce n t u ry afte r ,

a certai n equ ilibri u m had bee n restored betwee n the C atholic

a n d Protesta n t powers t here arose i n t h e m iddle o f th e eight
,

e e n th ce n tury ,
an d n o w origi n ati n g i n Protesta n t Ger m a n y ,

a ki n d of literary an d artistic af t er bloo m of the Re n aissa n ce

-
.

Th e t rai t co m m o n t o the rs t an d the seco n d Re n aissa n ce was

a p a ssi on a te cr avi ng f or f r ee d om on the p a rt of the i n di vi d u a l
he was n o lo n ger willi n g to be bou n d by established opi n io n s
an d i n stitutio n s but desired the c o m plete an d free develop
,

m e n t of his partic u lar n a t u re the co m plete a n d free exercise

,

o f all hi s i m p u lses an d powers ; i n the str u ggl e fo r freedo m h e

opposed n at u re to co n ve n tio n an d t raditio n Bu t this was ex .

a ctly wh at t he Greeks h ad ai m ed at : the freest develop m e n t

o f the i n divid u al ; an d for t h at re a so n Helle n is m bec am e the

ideal of hu m an i ty .

3
. Th e R ef or ma ti on In its ori gi n it was qui t e di ffere n t
.

fro m t he precedi n g m ove m e n t Th e de e ply religio u s p as

.
,

s i o n ate ly t r u th fu l th oro u ghly n a t i o n al so u l of Luther r e

,

belled agai n st th e syste m of dead work s an d dead dog m as ,

welded t oge ther by reaso n an d au thority which as he b e , ,

l ie ve d h ad i n the for m of rit u alis m a n d scholastic theology

, , ,

stied th e si m pl e livi n g vigoro u s an d h appy fai th of ol d

, , ,

C hristia n i t y ; i t rebelled as well agai n st th e worldly aristo ,

cra t ic life of pleas u re an d cul t ure p u rs u ed by the high clergy ,

wh o were per m e ated with t he c o n ce p t i o n s o f the Re n aissa n ce

agai n s t the n e e paga n is m of Leo X an d A lbrech t o f M aye n ce
-
. ,

which see m ed to h im a m ocke ry u po n C hristia n ity L u ther .

w as by n o m ea n s a m an o f m oder n c u lt u re a n d lear n i n g
these w ould h ave be e n m u ch m ore i n keepi n g with the Medi
cea n Pope at leas t with the i n c u m be n t i f n ot with the fu n c
, ,

tio n o f th e o ffi ce N or w as he a l ove r o f e n j oy m e n t an d a

.

worshippe r of civilizatio n ; th ese too we re thi n gs fo r which Leo

, ,
1 30 O RIGINS OF MO RA L PH ILO SO PH Y

s howed a more re n ed tas t e an d a d ee per apprecia t io n than

he Lu t h e r did n o t look u po n the ch u rch doctri n e as n o t r a~
.

t i on al e n o u gh n or u po n t he church li fe as n o t worldly e n o u gh ;
-

n ay t he reverse was the case : b e abso l u tely rep u diated reaso n

,

i n ma tt ers of f a ith an d h e had o n ly a very m oderate O pi n io n

,

o f t he v a lue of this earthly life an d its civilizatio n He did .

n ot absol u t ely co n de m n pleasure an d he de m a n ded t hat m en

,

labor t o p e rfor m their e arthly task s ; bu t he would by n o

m ea n s have bee n willi n g t o espouse t he e m a n cipa t io n o f th e
esh an d the co m plete devo t io n t o the proble m s of civiliza t io n .

Though he e m ph asized the p osi tive side he did n ot d o thi s ,

fo r t he sake of civiliza t io n an d h appi n ess b u t i n opposi t io n ,

to the o fcial view of t h e church which charac t erized t he ,

mo n as t ic life as i n itself meri t orio u s an d holy Luthe r saw .

i n i t a false self sac rice which eve n whe n si n cerely m ad e

-
, , ,

hi n dered the t rue sacrice of the he a r t an d whe n n ot s i n , ,

cere e n couraged a base worship of the esh u n de r t he g u ise

,

o f self de n ial
-
.His a t ti t ude to t he ch u rch was si m ilar i n this
respec t to th at of Jesus t owards the self righ t eous n ess an d -

worship of the Pharisees : he de m a n ded n ot t ha t we w orshi p

G od less bu t tha t we worship Hi m m ore an d more deeply
, ,

an d t ha t we prac t ise sel f de n ial -

.

Th e di ff ere n ce betwee n th e Reform atio n an d the Re n ai s

sa n ce is also c learly see n i n their historical rela ti on We can .

s ay t ha t t he Refor m a t io n robbed the R e n aissa n ce o f the victory

which the latt e r already saw withi n he r grasp Th e Reform .

a t io n at rs t i n Ger m a n y an d the n i n the o th er cou n t ries

, ,

forced th e t h ough t s of m e n fro m worldly t hi n gs fro m ,

li t e rary an d artis t ic cul tu re to which the higher classes of

,

socie ty h a d d evoted themselves back to religio u s a ff airs

,
.

Th e H u m a n is t s wh o a t rs t h ailed Luther with delight

, ,

s e e n al m os t e n t irely desert ed h i m agai n They saw t ha t.

they h ad bee n m is t ake n i n the Witt e n berg m o n k tha t ,

there was a di ff ere n t spiri t i n h i m t h a n they had i m agi n ed .

Bu t whe n we exa m i n e th e t wo m ove m e n t s n ot merely i n ,

1 32 O RIGIN S OF MO RAL PH ILO SO PH Y
tha t h ad beco m e u n n ecessary Ne w ch u rches were of.
,

course a t rst established i n the for m of state ch u rches ; b u t

, ,

they did n ot possess the i m porta n ce o f the O ld ch u rch Th e v ,

.

we re n ot a grea t i n depe n de n t i n stitution b u t have always ,

form ed a ki n d o f appe n dage to the s t ate Th e sovereig n .

is the head of a stat e ch u rch th e clergy are O fcials whose , ,

n u m ber is li m ited t o the de m a n d the m edi aeval clergy o n the ,

other ha n d co n stitu t ed a separate class withi n o r rather o u t

,

side of society : their fu n c t io n was n ot t o t ran s ac t o fci al

b u si n ess b u t to glorify the n a m e of God for which reaso n
, ,

t here could n ever be too m an y pr i ests churches an d altars , , .

This ch a n ge m a n ifests itsel f i n all the for m s of o u r li fe A .

m edi ae val ci ty received its character from i t s churches ; the

ho u ses of th e peopl e were ga th ered arou n d the ho u ses o f w or
ship as t he ce n tres of life ; t he old Rhe n ish ci t ies an d the
, ,

ol d Harz a n d Baltic cities C olog n e Maye n ce Hildeshei m

, , , ,

Halberstad t Wis m ar Ros t ock t o this day t ake t hei r i m press

, , ,

fro m t hei r church buildi n gs In m odern ci t ies like Berli n .

,

Han over A l t o n a Darm stadt Ma n n hei m th e s t a t e buildi n g

, , , ,
-

predo m i n ates : the palace the gover n m e n t b u ildi n g th e co u rt

,
-
,

o f j u stice th e pos t ofce

,
th e railw ay statio n t he barracks
-
, , ,

t he pri so n C h u rches are n ot o fte n see n an d wh at few there

.
,

are look e m barrassed an d cram ped i n the m id st of the i m

me n s e houses which over t ower t he m o r they sta n d upo n great ,

vaca n t places which they ca n n o t co m m a n d .

Bu t n ot o n ly t he archi t ec t u re of ou r cities ou r e n tire m ode o f ,

life h as bee n secul arized A sceticis m h as p assed away with

.

the m on as t eries ; through m arriage the clergy have beco m e

m e m bers o f society Th e sacra m e n t al acts the tho u sa n d

.
,

sacred cus to m s an d cer emo n i es with which the e n tire m edi ,

ae v al li fe was i n t erwove n h ave with the ex ceptio n o f a fe w

, ,

s u rvivals which are also o n th e poi n t of dyi n g o u t disap ,

p e ar e d ; the n u m erous holidays have bee n tra n s for m ed i n to

worki n g d ays an d the d aily divi n e service has bee n s u s
,

pe nd ed O n ly on on e day of the w eek have we church
.

,
 THE M O DE RN C ON C E P TION 1 33

as popula r us a ge ch arac t eris t ically expresses i t an d as the ,

church itself proves ; on the other days it is closed u p an d

deser t ed A ll t his see m s to sig n i fy t hat we are livi n g on the
.

earth an d desir e t o live on t he earth For m erly everythi n g

,
.

re m i n ded us of t he Beyo n d n o w everythi n g re m i n ds u s of the

,

Here .

It can h a rdly be doubted t hat t he though t s an d feeli n gs

o f t he age have also bee n sec u larized with the o u t ward for m s .

However ar t i cial th e religio u s li fe of m an y m ay h ave re m ai n ed

i n t he Middle A ges the cou n tless refere n ces to t h e herea fter
,

a n d e t er n ity could n ot fail t o m ake a n i m pressio n upo n the

hear ts of m e n . With t he disappeara n ce of the o u t ward

ecclesi a s t ical for m s the hear t s of the m aj ority were wea n e d
,

fro m the though t s of e t ern ity ; t hey co n n ed the m selves more

closely an d exclusively t o t he ear t h It surely was n ot Lu ther s
.

i n t e n t io n t o exhor t the m t o do this He favored the aboli .

t io n of asce t ic i n s t itu t io n s b u t n o t i n t he i n t erests of ci vi l i z

,
.

at io n an d good livi n g ; on the co n t rary the li fe of the can o n s ,

an d m o n ks see m ed t o h i m a for m o f in dole n ce co n ge n ial to

t he esh labor an d m arriage more sui t able t o th e l u sts He

, .

approved of the res t ric t io n of ecclesias t ical exercises an d acts ,

n ot i n order t o gai n t i m e fo r m ore i m port a n t worldly a ff airs

;
on the co n t rary he looked upo n t hem as a m ere co m pro m ise
,

with he a ve n t o which after all ou r e n t ire li fe ought to be

, , ,

devo t ed Fo r Lu th er heave n re m ai n ed t he ho m e the earth a

.
,

vale of t ears ; an d t hes e co n ceptio n s an d feeli n gs were for a

lo n g t i m e if n ot t he prevaili n g se n ti m e n ts a t leas t pec u li ar
, ,

to partic u lar i n dividuals i n Protes t a n t is m N evertheless if

, .
,

we co n side r the t o tal e ff ects we can say tha t the Refor m atio n
,

helped t o t u rn m a n s life ear thward t owards civili zatio n an d

, ,

away fro m the hereafter an d salvatio n Howeve r u n tru e .

m o n asticis m m a
y o fte n prove t o its ideal it n evertheles s ,

co n t ribu t es t o keep alive i n t he C atholic world the feeli n g

weak though i t m ay o ft e n b e that the goal of li fe is n o t
an ear t hly on e It still retai n s so m ethi n g o f the S piri t o f
.
1 34 O RIGIN S OF MO RA L PH ILO SO PH Y
u n worldli n ess characteristic of pri m i tive C hristian ity A n d .

those ch u rch exercises an d d u ties the co n fessio n al an d pe n i

,

t e n t i al sys t e m th e prayers an d fasts h ave th e sa m e c e ct ;

, ,

s u percially t hough t hey are us u ally perform ed a n d great ,

t ho u gh the dan ge r may be of m aki n g t he religious life ex

t er n al an d shallow n ay o f corr u pti n g the m orality they still
, ,

direc t t he gaze t o so m ethi n g beyo n d t his life an d its ai m s .

We are i n t he h abit of sayi n g that L u ther carrie d C hristia n ity

fro m the clois t ers i n to t he world t hat he exalted deli ty t o
,

t he daily calli n g i n to a divin e service This was certai n ly his

.

a i m an d we u n doub t edly n d somethi n g of t hi s spiri t eve n i n

,

o u r t i m es
. On t he other ha n d it would n ot be doi n g j u stice
,

t o the t r u th were we t o de n y t ha t the great m ajori ty u sed

t heir freedo m from t he d u ties of ex t ern al worship to n eglec t
every for m of divi n e worship ; eve n Luther repea t edly co m
plai n s tha t t he freed o m of the Gospel is abused as a free
d o m of t he esh . Mela n chtho n praises L u ther i n his fu n eral
ser m o n for havi n g delivered us from the p ae dag ogi a p u e r
i li s o f the o l d ch u rch It is however n ot ye t se t tled that
.
, ,

religi o n can dispe n se with such a p a e d ag og i a p u er i li s which ,

ad m o n ishes us daily by m ean s o f petty practices It is .

also a peculiar fac t t ha t m e n are m ore ready to believe i n

t hi n gs an d i n s t i t u t io n s which req u i re so m ethi n g of t he m :
they m eas u re t heir val u e accordi n g to t he m agn i tu de of the
i n ves t m e n t This s u rely has so m ethi n g to d o with the stro n g
.

att ach m e n t of the m asses to the C atholic church Th e Protes .

ta n t ch u rch de m an ds n othi n g tha t is n othi n g o u twardly b u t

, , ,

faith alo n e ; t he co n cl u sio n which s u ggests i t sel f t o co m m o n

se n se i s : he n ce i t has n o thi n g t o o ffer u s n o thi n g at leas t ,

for which we care .

Ju st as little can we o r will we de n y tha t the Reform a t io n

fu rthered t he develop m e n t of s u bj ective tho u gh t of t he cri ti ,

cal ratio n alis t ic S piri t Th e down fall of the church shat tered
, .

t he grea t a u thori ty whi ch had co n t rolled the t ho u ghts of m e n ,

n ot o n ly ou t war dly b u t in wardly for a thousa n d years

, ,
Th e .
136 O RIGIN S OF MO RA L PH ILO SO PH Y
thi n g so foreign to t he ch a m pio n s o f the m oder n era th at
t hey are u n able to u n dersta n d h ow an y o n e can feel an d live
i n that way ; t hey regard it as extravaga n t idealis m an d
e n th u sias m as a sy m pto m of disease which has o n ly a
, ,

pathol ogical i n t ere st Eve n the C ath olic world which has

.
,

preserved the ascetic li fe i n the cloisters is n ot very ou t ,

spoke n i n co n fessi n g its pri n ciple It is a n oteworthy fac t .

tha t the C atholic histori an s d o n ot an swer the charge that the

C atholic co u n tries h ave n ot kep t abreast of the Protes t a n t
n atio n s i n ci vilizatio n by declari n g that it is to t he C atholics

credit to h ave still so m e t ho u gh t of eter n ity u n like t he ,

Protesta n t s wh o bei n g m erely i n te n t on the m u n da n e world

, , ,

n at u rally excel the m i n tha t world s civilizatio n In s t ead t he

.
,

reproach is really fel t as a reproach an d the a t te m pt i s m ade ,

t o show that it i s n ot well fou n ded t ha t the church h as really

-
,

do n e t h e m os t for civilizatio n .

Th e es t i m ate which i t places upo n sci en tic kn owle dg e may

be used as a cri t eri o n of th e spiri t of an age A ccordi n g t o .

the ol d C hristia n co n cep t io n the wor t h of a m an i s absol u tely

,

i n depe n de n t of t he k n o wledge an d cul t u re he possesses ; i n

the eyes of Go d faith an d l ove an d n ot c u l t ure an d ph il oso
, ,

phy have worth Th e m oder n era u n reservedly re t u r n s t o th e

, .

Greek co n cep t io n t ha t th e highest an d m os t i m porta n t fu n c

tion of m an is t he exercise of reaso n i n scie n tic k n owledge .

Th e scie n ces a re t he pride of t he m odern t i m es Th e Mid dle .

A ges are despised as a barb a rous an d be n ighted period b e ,

cause t hey have do n e n o t hi n g for scie n ce Bu t we also n d .

i n the m oder n es t i m ate Of k n owledge a n other peculiar trait ,

which i s lacki n g i n the Greeks : fo r th e G reeks k n owle d ge was ,

the highest good as s u ch an d desired for i t s ow n sake ; the

m oder n s pri ze it especi ally for its pr a ctical utility For the m .

physics is a prac t ical scie n ce n ay t he prac t ical scie n ce ; for

, ,

the cha m pio n s of m odern civilizatio n do n ot thi n k very m u ch

o f th a t practical philosophy o f which the Greek philosophers

expec t ed so much Mor ality B u ckle believes has always

.
, ,
 THE MO DE RN C ON C E P TION 1 37

bee n t he s am e i t has al w ay s bee n very m u ch approve d an d

,

very little followed ; the progress of t he h u m a n race depe n ds

upo n the progress of the n a t u ral scie n ces S O a great m an y .

of the leaders o f moder n culture believe with B u ckl e Whe n .

ou r n ewspapers which reec t the opi n io n s o f thei r readers

, ,

by pre establishe d harm o n y le t u s say desire to praise the

-
, ,

n i n e t ee n t h ce n t ury t hey at o n ce begi n t o speak o f railro a ds

,

a n d stea m ships t elegraphs an d electro t ech n ics armor clads

, ,
-

a n d breechloaders .

5 It is wor t h observi n g h ow soo n t he m oder n age beca m e

.

co n scious i n s t i n ctively on e i s t e m p t ed t o believe of its

-
,

peculiar charac t er Fra n cis Baco n dat es t he begi n n i n g of

.

t he m oder n era fro m t he thre e grea t i n ve n tio n s of the m ag

n etic n eedle gu n powder an d pri n ti n g
,
These achieveme n ts
,
.

charac t erize t h e spiri t of t h e n e w e poch of th e his t ory of

hu m an ity ; i t s m o tt o i s : K n owledge is power In ve n t io n s .

( p
o er a
) are n o w m a de t he t es t of k n owledge Th e ol d .

scie n ce gave i t s possessor skill i n va n quishi n g oppo n e n ts i n

deba t e ; t he n e w scie n ce gi ves hi m the powe r to co n q u er
n a t ure by art ( p hy si ci e st n on d i sp u t an d o a d ve r sa r i a m s e d ,

n a tu r a m o e r a n d o vi n ce r e ) Baco n has at t e m pted i n his t w o

p .
,

mai n works t o lay th e fou n dation an d t o outli n e the method

,

o f this n e w scie n ce In a little u n n ished essay which is

.
,

fou n d a m o n g his works u n der the title Nova A tla n ti s he has ,

draw n a pic t ure of t he perfec t civilizat io n of the fut u re Th e .

u n der t aki n g h a s freq u e n t ly bee n repeated si n ce t he n ; i t i s

worth while h oweve r t o cas t a gla n ce at the rs t at t e m pt
, ,

o f this ki n d . Th e Nova A tla n t i s is an isla n d i n the far Wes t .

Th e n arrator wh o had bee n drive n o u t o f the righ t co u rse

,

a n d carried t o its sh ores tells us tha t t h e n oblest i n stit u tio n

,

o f the e n t ire cou n t ry is a n at u ral s ci e n t i c s ociety fo u n ded -

by a n a n cie n t ki n g an d called Dom u s S a lo m on i s o r the C ol ,

lege of the S i x Days Works Th e e n d o f the fo u n datio n

.

,

s o th e g u ide explai n s is th e k n owl edge o f causes an d the

,

,

s ecre t n o t io n s o f thi n gs an d the e n l arge m e n t o f the bou n ds

1 38 O RIGIN S OF MO RAL PH ILO S O PH Y
of hu m an e m pire to the e ffecti n g of all thi n gs possible
, .

A m o n g the grea t n u m ber of partic u lar i n stit u tio n s which

serve this purpose are large a n d deep caves u n der the earth ,

so m e of the m three m iles i n depth ; they are u sed fo r all

coag u latio n s i n d u ratio n s re frigera t io n s an d co n serv atio n s
, , ,

o f bodies ; as well as for prod u ci n g n atural an d n e w arti
ci al m etals fro m m a t erials which lie there for m a n y years ;
,

also fo r c u ri n g certai n diseases ; an d for prolo n gat io n of

li fe i n som e her m its th at choose t o live t here an d i n deed live ,

v ery lo n g a n d possess wo n derf u l k n owledge

, There are also .

high towers the highes t abo u t hal f a m ile i n height or i n

, ,

cl u di n g t he heigh t of the hill abo u t th ree m iles which are ,

used especially for m e t eorol ogical observat io n s ; lakes both

salt an d fresh for the produc t io n o f sh an d water fowl as -

well as for experi m e n ts i n the wat er ; articial wells an d

fo u n t ai n s with all ki n ds of m i n eral waters a m o n gs t them the ,

s e called Water of P aradise ( a q u a P a r a d i si )

-
which is n u ,

u s u ally e f c aci o u s fo r the preservat io n of heal t h an d the

prolo n gatio n o f life They have also grea t an d spaci ous
.

hou ses i n which t he m eteorological occurre n ces s n o w hail

, , , ,

rai n an d thu n der s t or m s are i m i t ated an d all ki n ds of

,
-
,

a n i m als are prod u ced ; large an d vari ou s orch a rds an d gar

de n s wherei n we do n ot so m u ch respect bea u ty as variety
, ,

o f gro u n d an d soil proper for divers t rees an d herbs
,
bear ,

i n g the richest fr u i t ; we have also m ea n s to m ake divers

pla n t s rise by m ixtures of ear th withou t s eeds We h a ve .

also parks an d e n closures of all sor t s of beas t s an d birds ,

which we use n ot o n ly for view o r rare n ess but likewise for

, ,

dissectio n an d t rials ; t hat thereby we m ay take ligh t what

m ay b e brough t upo n the body of m an Wherei n we n d .

m an v s t ra n ge e ff ec t s ; as c o n ti n u i n g li fe i n them though ,

divers parts which you accou n t vi t al be perished an d t ake n

, ,

forth ; res u scitati n g o f so m e that see m dead i n appeara n ce ;

an d the like We also try all poiso n s an d o ther medici n es
.

u po n t hem a s w el l of chir u rgy as ph ys i o By art likewise

, .
, ,
1 40 O RIGIN S OF MO RAL PH ILO SO PH Y
n o thi n g t o heave n an d its suprase n s u o u s gl ory Th e n e w
, .

age is looki n g fo r heave n upo n earth ; it hopes t o attai n t o

the perfect civilizatio n thro u gh scie n ce an d expects th at thi s ,

will m ake life healthy lo n g rich bea u ti fu l an d happy

, , , , .

Baco n o n ce called hi m sel f the herald of the n e w era In .

deed i t is a S ple n did arm y that follows h i m to the co n q u est

,

of heave n upo n earth Let u s hear a n other an d still an other

.

l eade r of the host i n regard to the goal an d the m ethods of

th e e n terprise .

6 Descartes who has a grea t er clai m t h an an y other t o be

.
,

called the leader of m odern philosophy for m u lates the pro ,

gra m m e o f his philosophical re for m s i n t he little treatise on

M e th o d In the las t part he te ll s that by his m ethod
h e reach ed n e w n oti o n s i n m etaphysics an d m orals which
pleased h i m greatly ; b u t tha t owi n g to his hostili ty t o writ
,

i n g books he h ad n ot p u blished the m

,
Bu t as soo n as I .

h ad acq u ired so m e ge n eral n o t io n s respec t i n g Physics an d , ,

begi n n i n g to m ak e t rial of the m i n various p articular di di

c u lt i e s,
h ad obse rved h ow far t hey can carry u s an d h o w ,

m uch they di ffer fro m the pri n ciples th a t h ave bee n e m ployed
up to th e prese n t t i m e I believed t ha t I co u ld n ot keep th e m
,

co n cealed witho u t s i n u i n g grievously agai n st the law by

which we are bo u n d t o pro m o t e as far as i n us lies t he g e n
, ,

eral good of m an ki n d Fo r by the m I pe rceived i t t o be

.

possible t o arrive a t k n owledge highly usef u l i n li fe an d i n ,

roo m of t he Speculative Philosophy u sually taugh t i n the

S chools to discover a Prac t ical by m ean s o f which k n owi n g
, , ,

the force an d actio n of re water air the stars the heave n s

, , , , ,

a n d all the other bodies th a t surro u n d u s as disti n ctly as we ,

k n ow the vario u s cra fts of o u r artisan s we m ight also apply ,

the m i n the sam e w ay to all th e u ses to which they are

adapted an d th u s re n der ou rselves the lords an d possessors
,

of n ature A n d this is a res u lt to be desi red n o t o n ly i n

.
,

orde r to t he i n ve n tio n of an i n n ity Of arts by which we

m igh t be e n abled to e n j oy witho u t an y trouble the fruits of
 TH E MO DE RN C ON C EP TION 1 41

th e earth an d all its co m forts but al so an d especially for

, ,

th e preservatio n Of health which i s witho u t do u bt o f all th e

, ,

blessi n gs of this li fe the rst an d f u n da m e n tal on e ; for the

,

m i n d is so i n ti m ately depe n de n t u po n the co n ditio n an d

relation of t he organ s of t h e body that i f an y m ean s can ,

ever be fou n d to re n der m e n wiser an d m ore i n ge n io us tha n

hitherto I believe that i t is i n Medici n e they m u st b e so u ght
,

fo r
. It i s true that the scie n ce o f Medici n e as it n o w exists , ,

co n tai n s fe w thi n gs wh ose u tility is very re m arkable ; b u t

withou t an y wish to deprecia t e it I am co n de n t that there ,

i s n o o n e eve n a m o n g those whose pro fessio n it is wh o d oes

, ,

n o t ad m i t that all at prese n t k n ow n i n it i s al m ost n othi n g

i n co m pariso n of what re m ai n s to b e discovered ; an d that

we co u ld free o u rselves fro m an i n n ity of m aladies of body
a s well as of mi n d an d perhaps also e v e n fro m the debility
,

o f age if we had su f cie n tly a m pl e k n owledge of th eir ca u ses

,

an d o f the re m edies provided for us by N at u re But si n ce I .

desig n ed t o e m ploy m y wh ole li fe i n the search aft er so meces

sary a Scie n ce an d si n ce I had falle n i n with a path which see m s
,

t o m e Such t h a t if an y o n e follow i t h e m ust i n evitably reach

,

t he e n d desi red u n less he be hi n dere d either by the sh ort n ess

,

o f li fe or the wa n t o f experi m e n ts I j u dged that there co u ld,

be n o m ore effectual provisio n agai n st these t w o i m pedi m e n ts

tha n if I were faithfu lly t o co m m u n icate to the p u blic all the
littl e I m ight m yself have fo u n d an d i n cite m e n o f s u perior
,

ge n i u s t o strive t o proceed farther by co n trib u ti n g each accord

, ,

i n g to hi s i n cli n atio n an d ability to th e experi m e n ts which it

,

wo u ld be n ecessary to m ake an d al so by i n form i n g the p u blic

,

o f all they m igh t discove r so that by the last begi n n i n g

, ,

where those be fore the m h ad le ft O ff an d th u s co n n ecti n g the ,

lives an d l abors of m a n y we m ight collectively proceed m u ch

,

farther tha n each by hi m sel f co u ld do A n d i n the pre face .

t o his syste m (P r i n cip i a P hi losop hi a e 1 6 4 4 ) he says speak , ,

i n g o f the u tility o f the n e w philosophy as opposed to the

philosophy o f t he school that it i s by it we are disti n guish ed

,
 42 O RIGIN S OF MO RAL PH ILO S O PH Y
fro m savages an d barbaria n s an d th at th e civilizatio n an d ,

c u lt u re of a n atio n is reg u lated by the degree i n which tr u e

philosophy o u rishes i n it an d accordi n gly th at to co n tai n tr u e
, ,

philosophers is the highest privilege a sta t e can e n j oy Th e .

philosophy however which h e m ean s he describes soo n

, , ,

after : A ll philosophy is like a t ree o f which Me t aphysics ,

is the roo t Physics the tr u n k an d all the other scie n ces

, ,

the bran ches tha t grow ou t o f this tr u n k which are r e ,

d u ce d to three pri n cipal n a m ely Medici n e Mecha n ics a n d

, , , ,
1
Ethics .

We m ay say I believe that n o age h as ever h ad a clearer

, ,

idea of its goal an d of the road leadi n g to i t : th e goal i s

heave n on ear th t he road to it n at u ral scie n ce Thro u gh
, , .

tech n ology an d m edici n e the t wo great applicatio n s of n at u

.

ral scie n ce th e f u tu re will reach a state i n which m e n w ill

, ,

witho u t work an d i n per m an e n t health of body an d soul ,

e n j o y th e fru i t s of the earth ; perhaps a s the serious De s ,

cartes n o less tha n the so m ewhat charl a tan istic B aco n a n tici
pates m edici n e m ay eve n bri n g abo u t a prolo n gatio n of li fe
,

a n d a n i n crease o f all i n tellect u al an d m oral powers .

Th e fearless n ess n ay we m ay say the bold reckless n ess

, , ,

with which the co n trol an d u se of n at u re by scie n ce i s pla n n ed

fo r m an sta n ds i n re m arkable co n trast to the awe wi th which
,

the Middle A ges co n te m plated n at u re Th e M iddle A ges too .

, ,

sough t to gai n co n t rol over thi n gs they too s u spected th at i t ,

m igh t be ob t ai n ed th ro u gh k n owledge Bu t they had a t the .

sa m e t i m e a secret dread of t hi s k n owledge an d ac t ivi ty ; they

regarded it as an u n holy b u si n ess as a black art as the , ,

w ork of the d evil wh o as the pri n ce an d lord of this world

,

co u ld i n deed gra n t sway over it A ll those wh o had the repu .

tati e n o f possessi n g s u ch e ff ec t ive k n owledge were looked ,

u po n as m agici a n s : A lbertu s M ag n u s Roge r B aco n Pope , ,

Sylvester II S olda n q u otes a very ch aracteristic n arrative

.

fro m Gregory of To u rs H i s tory of t he F r an ks i n his H i story

[Tran sl at i o n fr o m V e i t e h ]

1 s l 0 th e d i t i o n
1 44 O RIG IN S OF MO R A L P HILO S O PH Y
physiology with Harvey while th e scie n ce of the st ate is n o
,

older tha n his o w n book De ci ve He h as th e highest O pi n

1
.

i on o f the pract cal val u e o f this scie n ce In the dedicatory

i .

epistle which acco m pa n ies his work on the state we read ,

Fo r every t hi n g i n which th e prese n t excels the barbaris m of

the past we are i n d ebted to m athe m atical physics ; whe n
m oral philosophy will have solved its proble m s with the sa m e
certai n ty it will be hard to see what h u m a n labor can farther
,

acco m plis h fo r the happi n ess of this li fe For Hobbes the .

state is th e e arthly provide n ce ; e n dowe d with u n li m ited

rights an d powers it bestows pe ace an d wel fare upo n its s u b
,

j e ct s

o u tside o f the state there is passi on war fear , ,

poverty u gli n ess solit u de barbaris m ig n oran ce fe rocio u s

, , , , ,
~

n ess ; i n the state reaso n peace sec u rity wealth beauty

, , , , , ,

society elega n ce scie n ce be n evole n ce 2
, , , .

S o there i s n o do u bt th at if t o th e perfec t m ech a n ics a n d

,

m edici n e we add th e perfect politics we shall realize heave n ,

on earth .

8 Fi n ally a m an m ay be m e n tio n ed wh o paved the w ay

.
,

fo r these views i n Ger m a n y : I m ea n Leib n iz There was .

hardly a eld of h u m a n th o u gh t an d h u m an actio n whi ch

Leib n iz le ft u n to u ched with his pla n s for th e pro m otio n of the
happi n ess o f the h u m a n race With feverish haste he was .

co n stan tly devisi n g n e w p roj ects : fo r the establish m e n t of an

i m proved Germ a n E m pi re of a political syste m for E u rope Of
, ,

a pe ace fu l ch u rch u n i o n fo r the codicatio n of all scie n tic

,

a n d tech n ical k n owledge i n e n cyclopedias fo r th e re for m o f ,

the syste m o f ed u catio n for the orga n izatio n o f the book

,

t rade for the care of the poor by e m ployi n g the m i n p u blic

,

worksh ops for the i m pro v e m e n t o f m i n i n g Bu t on e proj ect

, .

especially occ u pied hi m d u ri n g his e n tire li fe : the organ iza

t io n of scie n tic rese arch Leib n iz e n dea v ored to es t ablish
.

i n sti t u ti o n s i n the N orth an d i n the East after the pattern o f ,

the Lo n do n an d Pari s societies A s his n al goal he perhaps .

1 Pr e face to De corp or e , 1 6 55 .
2 De c i ve , X .
, 1 .
 THE MO DE RN C ON C E P TION 145

had i n view an i n tern atio n al federat io n o f societies i n to a

great associatio n whose ai m S ho u ld be to preserve all the
,

k n owledge o f the h u m an race to reg u late all research an d so , ,

to exte n d the e m pire of reaso n on earth as far as possible ,

.

His e n d e a vors i n regard to th e i n ve n tio n o f a philosophic al

calc u lus an d a u n iversally i n telligible i n ter n atio n al sign ,

la n guage sugges t s u ch a proj ect Th e O b j ect of al l scie n ce

,
.
,

however co n sists i n its applicatio n n ot c u ri osity b u t u tility

, ,

deter m i n es th e value o f every scie n ce In the m e m orial to .

t he Elector of Bran de n b u rg i n which h e proposed the estab

li sh m e n t of a S ociety o f S cie n ces at Berli n we read

S uch an el ectoral S ociety S h o u ld n o t be gover n ed by m ere

curiosity o r desire for k n owledge an d occ u py itsel f with fr u it ,

less experi m e n t s or b e co n te n t with the m ere i n ve n tio n o f

,

usefu l thi n gs with o u t applyi n g the m as has bee n the e ase i n ,

Lo n do n Paris an d Flore n ce b u t the O b j ect sho u ld be u tility

, ,

i n both theory as well as i n practice fro m the very start Th e .

ai m wo u ld there fore be to co m bi n e t he or i a m cu m p r ax i an d ,

n ot o n ly to i m prove t h e arts an d th e scie n ces b u t also th e ,

co u n try an d the people agric u lture m a n u fact u re an d co m

, , ,
1
merce an d i n a word t he articles of food
, , ,
We are .

r e m i n ded o f wha t the scie n tic society i n th e No va A t la n ti s

acco m plish ed fo r th e i m prove m e n t Of articles of foo d .

These are the vi ews of th e leaders o f tho u ght with respec t

to the aim of thei r age civilizatio n ; above all tech n ical s ci e n ,
-

t ic civilizat io n base d upo n scie n tic k n owle d ge an d sec u red

,

by perfect political i n s t itu t io n s th a t is the progra m m e o f

the m odern e ra .

9 We m u st co n fess it has labored ear n estly a n d s u ccess

.
,

fu lly fo r t he executio n o f its progra m m e A s fo r the con .

ques t of n at u re by scie n ce eve n Baco n who was n o t m odest

, ,

i n his clai m s wo u ld hardly ref u se to ad m it that asto n ishi n g

,

res u lts have bee n achieved It is tr u e th e elixir o f li fe an d

.
,

the p e rp e tu u m m obi le have n ot yet bee n fo u n d an d the yi n g ,

1 Le i b ni z, Ge r m a n Wr i t i ng s , p u b lish e d b y G u h r au e r , I I .
,
2 67 .

10
1 46 O RIGIN S OF MO R AL PH ILO S O PH Y
m achi n e an d t he art o f m aki n g gold are still i n t he fu t ure ;
b u t m an y o f o u r i n ve n tio n s wo u ld m ake a creditabl e S howi n g
by the S ide o f those i n the A tlan ti s A n d i n the eld of poli .

tics an d l a w so m e ve ry serio u s begi n n i n gs have bee n m ade

, ,

to say the least Th e e n tire seve n tee n th an d eightee n th ce n

.

t u r i es were lled with the desire to bri n g abou t the ratio n a l

S tate by m ea n s o f the scie n ce o f the state an d t hereby to ,

pro m ote th e wel fare o f all Th e n a m es Of Frederick Willia m

.

II an d Frederick II M ari a Theresa a n d Joseph II prove

. .
, ,

the si n cerity a n d th e ear n est n ess of these efforts A n d th e .

Fre n ch Re vol u tio n really desired the sa m e thi n g th ough i n a ,

di ffere n t way the s t ate i n which reaso n an d la w sh ould rule

for the co m m o n good .

With u n m ixe d feeli n gs of satisfactio n an d pride t he

A nf /rlam ng c o n t e m plated its achieve m e n ts at the e n d o f t he ,

eigh t ee n th c e n t u ry A fe w y ears ago a doc u m e n t was t ake n

.
'

fro m the steeple k n ob o f S t Margaret s C hurch a t Go t ha

-
.
,

which had bee n placed there i n th e ye ar 1 7 84 t his pape r

co n tai n s the testi m o n ial which th e m oder n era gave itself a
h u n dred years ago Ou r age
. it declares occ u pies t he , ,

happiest period o f t he eightee n th ce n tury E m perors ki n gs .

, ,

a n d pri n ces h u m a n ely desce n d fro m th ei r dreaded heights ,

despise po m p an d sple n dor beco m e the fa thers frie n ds an d

, , ,

c o n d an t s of their pe ople Religio n re n d s its priestly garb

.

an d appears i n its divi n e esse n ce E n lighte n m e n t m akes gia n t

.

strides Thousan ds O f ou r brothers a n d sisters who for m erly

.
,

lived i n sa n cti ed i n activity are give n back to the s tate ,

.

S ectaria n h atred a n d persec u tio n fo r co n scie n ce sak e are

v a n ishi n g ; l ove O f m an a n d free do m o f tho u ght are gai n i n g

the s u pre m acy Th e arts an d scie n ces are o u rishi n g a n d

.
,

o u r gaze is pe n e trati n g deeply i n to the workshop o f n at u re .

Ha n dicra fts m e n as well as artists are reachi n g perfectio n ,

u sef u l k n owledge is growi n g a m o n g all classes Here y ou .

have a faith fu l descriptio n o f o u r ti m es Do n o t h a u gh til y .

look dow n u po n u s i f y ou are higher a n d see farther tha n we

 1 48 O RI G INS OF M OR A L PH ILO S O PH Y
poets an d litterate u rs hav e s tu died h i m an d h a ve lear n ed ,

fro m h i m the great tr u th the obverse represe n ts the esse n ce of

th i n gs th e fa cade is m ere sha m an d ill u sio n
,
What Ro u sseau .

h u rled i n to the face of his ti m es as an u n heard of paradox -

,

n a m ely t hat c u lt u re an d civilizatio n do n o t m ake m e n better

,

an d happier S chope n ha u er t eaches as a philosophical theore m

,

C ivilizatio n i n creases o u r m isery civiliza t io n is o n e great f anx

,

as
p .

What is the m ea n i n g of th ese phe n o m e n a ? Is pessi m ism

a S ign that t he E u ropea n fam ily of n atio n s is n eari n g its old
age ? Have the modern n atio n s reached that poi n t i n their
history which the old world had reached at the begi n n i n g
of the Ro m a n E m pire ? A re t he pessi m istic poets an d philo

sophers the prec u rsors an d predic t ers of the e n d of the dis ,

appeara n ce of civilizatio n ? Is the year n i n g fo r delivera n ce

t aki n g possessio n of our age as i t t ook possession of th e ,

Hi n doos an d an tiqu ity ? Does t he phrase n d e si ecle with ,

which ou r n eighbors are playi n g sig n i fy n ot o n ly the ce n t ury ,

whic h is drawi n g to a close bu t the e n d of this occide n tal,

world epoch i n ge n eral n i s sa ccu li ?

-
,

Whoever lea n s to pessi m is m hi m self will a ffirm t he q u es

tio n ; every philosopher of hi story O btai n s the key fo r the
i n terpretatio n of t hi n gs fro m s u bj ective feeli n gs He h ow .
,

ever whose perso n al feeli n gs pro m pt h i m to take the other

,

side will de n y it ; h e will see i n pessi m is m n othi n g b u t an

,

expressio n of m orbid disco n te n t on the part of partic u lar

i n divid u al s fro m which n o age is eve r free b u t which
, ,

h appe n s t o strike a m ore respo n sive chord t o day owi n g to -

,

certai n c o n ditio n s of social eco n o m i c as well as political li fe

-
.

A p u rely theoretical philosopher of history o n e who does ,

n ot allow his perso n al i n cli n atio n s an d m oods to warp hi

j u dg m e n t will perhaps regard both of th ese i n terpretatio n s

,

o f the sig n s o f the ti m es as t o o extre m e U n do u btedly he .

,

m ight say fo r exam ple m an y phe n o m e n a m ay be observed

, ,

i n the li fe o f t h e prese n t which re m i n d u s o f the Ro m a n

 THE M O DE RN C ON C E PTI ON 1 49

E m pire i n the eld of art an d literat u re as well as i n t he eld

,

o f eco n o m ic a n d politica l activity : the S hallo w e m pty headed ,

-

virt u osity i n the arts which labors to satis fy the parve n u s

,

cravi n g fo r po m p the ro m an tic love o f the old Germ a n
,

,

whi ch bears s u c h a c u rio u s rese m bla n ce to the E m pire s

ro m a n tic m an i a fo r the O ld Ro m a n ; the la b orio u s an d ai m

less learn ed research whic h i n reality cares absol u tely n oth
,

i n g fo r scie n ce itsel f b u t which does care for the rewards

,

O ffered fo r scie n ti c work ; the li terat u re which see m s to ,

i n dicate ex t re m e n ervo u s weak n ess i n the a u thors as well as

i n the readers ,
j u st look at t he o u tside o f o u r books the ,

covers m arked with i n scriptio n s r u n n i n g i n all directio n s a n d

showi n g all the colors of the rai n bo w the titles haili n g the ,

reader with excla m atio n poi n ts an d q u estio n m arks ; the

l u x u ry a n d the proletaria n is m of the great cities ; the ce n
t r al i zat i o n Of o u r e n tire li fe by whic h the stre n gt h an d i n di
,

v i d u ali ty Of c u lt u re is s u ppressed ; the co n sta n tly growi n g

n ecessity of basi n g the existi n g order which ca n n ot always ,

depe n d u po n its i n n er p u rposive n e ss u po n political military

,
-

powers ; an d the like .

On the other ha n d th e sa m e philosopher of his t ory m igh t

,

co n ti n u e there is n o lack of vital e n ergy or of i m porta n t

,

proble m s to occ u py the f u t u re li fe of the civilized n atio n s of

E u rope i n th e m ost worthy m a n n er Perh aps he will say .
, ,

the whol e phe n o m e n o n is to be i n terpreted as a passi n g stage

o f depressio n ,
ca u sed by the prevaili n g l ack o f u n iversally
recogn ized h opes an d i d eals to u n ite t he hearts o f all
,
.

N atio n s like i n di v id u al s are kept alive by hope an d year n i n g ,

n o t by their fu l l m e n t ; wh e n the i deals are realize d there ,

co m es a ti m e o f restless seeki n g fo r a n e w goal A n d it .

m ight perhaps be sh ow n th at we are at prese n t passi n g

th ro u gh s u ch a peri od Th e Ger m an people partic u larly wh o
.
. ,

see m to be m ost a ffected by the feeli n gs m e n tio n ed have had ,

thei r l o n g year n i n gs satised by e n or m o u s achieve m e n ts :

they a t last h ave thei r e m peror an d e m pi re an d parlia m e n t s ,
1 50 O R IGIN S OF M O RA L P HILO SO PH Y
in ple n ty ; a n d the year 1 8 7 0 has at least freed o u r n eighbors
fro m a hated regi m e fro m C ae saris m a n d pope ry Both n atio n s
,
.

are n o w repeati n g the experie n ce w hich is so co m m o n , ,

that th e hope was m ore beau ti fu l tha n the realiz atio n Th u s .

o u r philosopher o f history m ight reaso n an d add his belief ,

that n e w proble m s which are already begi n n i n g to a n n o u n ce

,

the m selves will a w ake n n e w feeli n gs of power an d love

,

o f li fe : that they will bri n g m ore j u stice i n to o u r S ocial

i n stit u tio n s m ore serio u s n ess an d tr u th m ore s u bsta n ce
, ,

a n d bea u ty i n to th e i n tellect u al li fe eve n o f the m asses an d

, ,

n o t m erely o f the m asses N ay perh aps so he m ight pro

.
, ,

c e e d we m u s t regard the e n tire previo u s develop m e n t o f the

,

m oder n n atio n s as havi n g bee n m erely the prel u de to an ab so

l u t e ly i n depe n de n t m oder n civilized li fe ; for evide n tly these
n atio n s , i f we co n si der th e Middle A ges as thei r app re n
t i ce sh i p an d school days h ave j u st le ft sch ool o r ra ther
-
, ,

h ave n ot eve n yet le ft it altogether for do n ot all of those wh o ,

are desti n ed for the higher pro fession s still go thro u gh the
school o f a n tiq u ity He nce if the period o f se n ility is n o t to
,

co m e i m m ediately after th e period of b o vh oo d i n th e m oder n

n ati o n s ,
we m u st ex pect that thei r e m a n cipatio n which is ,

pres u m ably close at ha n d will be followed by the period ,

of per fect m at u rity A proo f h owever s o o u r philosopher

.
, ,

wo u l d m ost likely add i n co n cl u sio n tha t will bi n d the ,

i n tellect i s i m possible h ere i n the very n at u re of thi n gs

,

n atio n s are still m ore i n th e dark co n cer n i n g the f u t u re

of their co u rse tha n i n divid u als A l ittle piece of the .

traversed road i s fai n tly ill u m i n ated by history an d a dis ,

m al ray perh aps falls u po n th e steps i m m ediately be fore u s .

Bu t soo n the path l oses itsel f i n the illi m itable dark n ess
with which eter n ity e n co m passes th e prese n t .

Let m e here say a word co n cer n i n g a n othe r phe n o m e n o n ,

which h as bee n exciti n g the Ger m an yo u th of the m ost rece n t

y ears Ni e tz s c h e a n i s m the twi n brother an d a n tipode of S ch ope n
, ,

h au e r i s m Th e ideas by which Fried erich N ietzsche w h o had

. ,
1 52 O RI GIN S OF M O R AL P HILO S O P HY

u po n the Ro m a n s : it poi so n ed the m m orally so to S peak , ,

co m pelled the m i n t u r n to regard the stro n g h ealthy brave , , ,

an d pro u d as the bad ; th e weak h u m ble cr u shed a n d s u b , , ,

m issive as th e good with wh o m Go d was well pleased

,
Th e .

n al delivera n ce of th e Wester n m i n d fro m t his i n fec t io n ,

that wou ld be N ietzsche s m issio n

.

It is n ot m y i n te n tio n to criticise these t ho u ghts ; a ph o r

is m s ca n n ot i n th e n ature of the case be exa m i n ed as to
, ,

their ob j ective validity ; they d o n ot ai m t o give an exhau stive

ex pla n atio n of the esse n ce o f the s u bj ect b u t to view it fro m , ,

so m e sta n dpoi n t o r o ther i n a startli n g li gh t ,

which o f , ,

co u rse does n ot hi n der u s fro m looki n g a t it fro m other poi n ts

,

o f view i n a differe n t light Had n ot this thi n ker who was

.
,

e n dowed with s u ch brill i a n t b u t da n gero u s tale n ts falle n i n to

, ,

utter m e n tal dark n ess m an y sy m pto m s of which are e s p e ci

,

ally discern ible i n his las t w ork he wo u ld we m ay ve n t u re t o , ,

believe soo n have followe d di ffere n t c h a n n els si n ce f u rthe r

, ,

exaggeratio n s alo n g the li n es p u rsued by h i m were i m possible .

Wha t n o w we m igh t ask beco m es o f the s u perh u m a n bei n g

, ,

( Uber m e n sch) a fter h e h as exh au s ted hi m sel f i n thi n ki n g

, ,

a n d has realized hi m sel f ? What i s his real work i n this

w orld ? It u sed t o be regarded as the m issio n of heroes an d
grea t m en t o lead their brothers to ligh t an d li fe This .

n e w s u perh u m a n bei n g see m s to despise s u ch a task ; he

holds hi m sel f al oof fro m the m asses an d co n siders hi m self
s u perior to the m he will have n othi n g to do with these
,

w orthless creat u res wh o si m ply exist to m ake h i m possible

, .

Bu t h o w does h e spe n d his ti m e ? Does he co n te m pl ate

hi m sel f write aphoris m s an d m arvel at the dista n ce betwee n
, ,

hi m self an d the m asses ? IS tha t all he can n d to d o ?

That would be rather trivial fo r a s u perh u m a n bei n g ; an d I
a m i n cli n ed t o t hi n k that th e philosopher hi m sel f wo u ld soo n

have sh u ddered at t he e m pti n ess of s u ch an exis te n ce A n d .

the n perhaps h e m ight have u n derstood the little n ess Of his

, ,

a n ti C hrist as co m pared with the C hrist i n who m there was

-
,
 TH E MO DE RN C ON C E P TION 1 53

s u rely so m ethi n g m ore of the tr u ly s u perh u m an ele m e n t tha n

i n this s w aggeri n g despiser o f h u m a n ity an d sel f co n ceited -

boaster 1
.

However le t all t ha t be as it m ay Th e qu es t io n that i n

,
.

te r e sts us is What do these i deas sig n i fy as a S ig n of the

,

t i m es ? Wha t m akes t he C be r men s ch so attractive to the

you n g ? N ietzsch e h as beco m e a staple article i n the peri
o d i ca l s a n d n ewspapers ; o n the applicatio n bla n ks of o u r -

public libraries t he n a m e of N ietzsche occ u rs m ore freq u e n tly

perhaps tha n an y other ; yes I have bee n tol d by teachers i n
, ,

t he gy m n asi u m th at t races o f N ietzsche s S pirit an d w riti n gs

may occasio n ally be fo u n d i n the Ger m a n co m positio n s of

their p u pils by n o m ea n s of th e le ast tale n ted a m o n g the m
,
.

What draws t he m t o N i etzsche ? Is i t his i m pressive style ?

Is i t his dazzli n g ble n di n g light n i n g like i n sta n ta n eo u s ill u
, ,
-
,

m i n a t io n of t hi n gs ? O r is it the fac t th at all the ol d tr u t h s

h ave co m e t o be regarde d a s trite by o u r y o u t h an d tha t ,

t hey are i n sa n ely fo n d of th e m os t u n h eard of paradox es ? -

1 An art i cl e b y G all w i t z h as j u st falle n i n t o m y h an d s : N i etzsche a s a P r ep a

r a ti on f or C hr i s ti a n i ty (N i e tz sche a ls E rz i e her z u m C hr i s te nt u m ) (P re u ss i s che
J a hrbu cher , F e b ru ary , Th e a u t h o r a d m i rably Sh ow s h o w far Ni e t zsch e

m i sse s t h e m ar k , w h en h e a b so lu t e ly Op p o s e s h i s i d e al Of l i fe t o t h at of J esu s .

T h e re i s a far g fo r m al ag r ee m e n t b e t w e e n t h e m
r e ac h i n Th e g r e g ar i ou s i m
-
.

u l se m a f r e q u e n t l y p lay a p r o m i n en t p ar t i n t h e ch u r ch e s w h i ch cal l t h e m
p y
s e l v es C h r i st i an ; n o o n e w h o i s acq u ai n t e d w i t h t h e m w il l l ook fo r i t i n Je su s

an d h is r st d i sci p le s ; on the c on t r ar y , p r i mi t i v e C h r i s t i an i t y i s r e ally c h ar

ac t e ri ze d by i ts e xt y i n d e p e n de n t
r e m el a t t i t u de t o w ar d s t h e e s t a b li s h e d a n d

p r e v aili n g O
pi n i on s a n d c u s t o m s , a n d e v e n t o w ar d s co n v e n t i on al v al u e s an d

st a n d a r d s . No r i s i t i n cli n e d t o o v e r e s t i m at e m o r al s an d m o rality ; o n t h e c on
t rary , t h e r e all y i m p o r t an t t h i n g i s , t o u se Ni e t zs c h e s

w o r d s, m o ral i n fre i e

[m oral i n l e ss
-
v i rt u e ; l e gali ty , h as n o v al u e ; as th e so n of God, as th e fr e e
c h i ld o f the F at h e r , t h e S o n of M an k n o w s t h at h e i s su p e r i o r to th e la w .

A n d Ni e t zsch e co u l d al so h av e fo u n d i n J e sus an d h i s t e ac h i n g t h e t ru t h t h at
to r i se ab ove t h e w o r ld o f s e n se an d d e si r e i s t h e fu n d a m e n t al ch a r a ct e r i st i c o f

p e r fe ct i o n . On e t h i n g, t o b e su r e , h e w ou ld n ot h av e b e e n a b le t o n d t h e re

s e l f- ad o rat i o n , h au g h t i n e ss t o w ar ds t h e p e o pl e , co n t e m p t fo r t h e m asse s Th e se .

q u ali t i e s h e w o u l d h a v e b ee n m o r e l ik e ly t o n d a m o n g t h e P h a r i s e e s H e fou n d .

t h e m i n S ch o p e n h au e r , n ot i n S c h o p e n h a u e r t h e t h i n k e r , b u t i n S ch o p e n h au e r
t he m an . A n d h e a l w a y s r e m a i n e d a t ru e fo ll o w e r o f S ch o p e n h au e r t h e m an,
lat ter s p h i loso p h y

e v en a ft er h e h ad re p u d ia te d t he .
1 54 O RIGIN S OF MO RAL PH ILO S O PH Y
Th e yo u n g always h ave a predilectio n fo r the n e w an d n u
heard of ; i t has at le as t the m eri t Of bei n g opposed to t he
-

ol d an d established for m s u n der th e weigh t o f which we ,

are groa n i n g t o th e t rivial tr u ths of the S u n day S ch ool class

, ,

the trivial truths of m orals an d those upo n which ca n didates ,

fo r degrees are exa m i n ed S ocrates the rst G reek deca .

de n t ; Ka n t a defor m ed i n tellectual crippl e ; a good co n scie n ce

,

the res u l t of a goo d d igestio n ; m orality the c as t ra t io n of

n at u re by decade n ce philosophers i n dee d th i s is sayi n g
-

so m ethi n g so m ethi n g differe n t fro m th e old t ireso m e stories

, ,

which h ave bee n heard an d repea t e d a d n a u sea m A re t hese .

paradoxes i n toxicat i n g ou r yo u n g m e n wh o have grown t ired ,

o f th e everlasti n g discipli n i n g an d exa m i n i n g ? A re we like

the A the n ian s can we n o lo n ger bear the c u sto m ary an d have
, ,

we therefore beco m e t he slaves of every n ewes t fad ? O r 1

has the biti n g s arcas m with which all th e ol d heroes an d

t i m e ho n ored tru ths are cas t aside a pleasan t r i n g i n the
-
,

ears of an age th at has bee n lled with dis t rust of all estab
l i sh e d i n stit u tio n s by th e d i n of t he pe n n y a li n ers an d t h e - -

o fci o u s n e s s of th e b u sybodies wh o are fo r stii n g t ruth ?

O r is it the obsc u re prophecy of so m ethi n g n e w an d grea t

that is to co m e tha t i s maki n g an i m pressio n ? Perhaps
so m ethi n g of all of this A n d the n al an d deepes t reaso n .

is perhaps th e o n e to which we all u ded be fore : th e la ck of

a n i de al of a r u li n g ideal an ideal to elevate the hearts
, , ,

to i n spire the will an d t o give the m u ltitu de a co m m o n ai m

, .

He n ce the i m patie n t u n res t of th e t i m es the feverish searchi n g ,

a n d gropi n g after so m ethi n g grea t a n d u n us u al a ft er a g u ide

,

t o n e w an d higher for m s o f li fe What was it that attracted .

S O m an y readers to R e m br a n d t a s a n E d u ca t or i f n ot the ,

pro m ise to S how the h elpless an ideal an i deal o f a freer , ,

richer greater G er m a n li fe ? Wh at i s it that gai n s c re d u

,

lo u s hearers an d adhere n ts for the other p rophets who spri n g ,

1 calls the
A o ii Ao t fi x
/r es r aw Ci e l d'r drrwv, n ep dr r a t 5 S 7 651! e i wd'r wv, so C l e on
At h e n i a n s, i n Th u cy d i d es, III .
,
38 .
1 56 O RIG I N S OF M O R AL P HI LO S O PHY
rese m bli n g t ha t o f the rst C hristia n co m m u n ities the n we ,

ca n n ot call ou r m oder n life C hristia n To abstai n fro m the .

world to shri n k fro m civilizatio n to t u r n to the Beyo n d

, ,

these are the characteristic traits of old C hristi an ity n o o n e

will regard t he m as characteristic o f the m odern period o f
history .

Bu t if we do n ot t ake C hristia n i t y i n this its n arrowes t

se n se if we apply t he t er m to the e n tire historical m ove m e n t
,

which begi n s wit h the life an d death of Jes u s an d th at too

w e have a good his t orical right t o do the n the case is d if
fe re n t The n we shall have t o co n fess w hethe r we like it o r
.
,

n ot ,
th at the m oder n er a i s still so greatly do m i n ated by
C hristia n ity th at i t s his t ory can an d m u st be regarded as a
part of the his t ory of C hris t ia n ity David S trau ss propou n ds .

the questio n i n his Old an d Ne w F a i t h A re we C hristia n s

1

He a n swers i t i n th e n ega t ive an d shows tha t th e old creed ,

n o lo n ger ex presses the prevaili n g co n vic t io n s of the m oder n

ti m es Herei n h e is u n d ou b t edly right Does i t n ot follow

. .
,

the n that w e are n o lo n ger C hristian s ? C ertai n ly if th e

, ,

creed has the force of a de n itio n excl u di n g every o n e fro m ,

C hristia n ity whose belief i t does n ot express which was ,

-

i n deed its origi n al p u rpose Bu t the i n fere n ce would be .

m isleadi n g if we w ere to co n cl u de f u rther : he n ce C hris

t i an i ty has beco m e ex t i n c t I n a n s wer to this propositio n
.

we sho u l d have to say : C hristia n ity is older t han th e creeds

an d is m os t likely desti n ed to o u tlive the m ; it h as beco m e a

reality i n the historical li fe of the E u ropean n atio n s an d can ,

n eve r agai n beco m e u n real ; it can o n ly perish with these

n a t io n s the m selves It has helped t o fashi o n th e will an d

.

th e heart of these n atio n s i n t o wh at they are an d has le ft its ,

m ark i n delibly i m pressed u po n thei r character Eve n those .

wh o feel decidedly O pposed to C hristian ity ca n n ot escape its

i n u e n ce ; i t co n ti n u es t o deter m i n e thei r thoughts feeli n gs , ,

an d v olitio n s .

1 Der a lte un d neu e G la u be . t r ansl a t e d b y M Bli n d

. .
 TH E M O DE RN C ON C E P TIO N 1 57

Th ei n u e n ce of C hristian ity upo n the li fe an d m orals of

th e n atio n s which d u ri n g the Middle A ges were bei n g pre
, ,

pared for their fu ture m issio n withi n the boso m of the ch u rch ,

has already bee n slightly to u ched u po n above (page I

do n ot wish to rec u r to i t 1
Here however I sho u l d like to .
, ,

call atte n tio n to so m e traits i n o u r m ode of feeli n g an d o u r

co n ceptio n o f li fe which have th eir origi n i n C hristia n it y .

Three great tr u ths C hristia n ity h as e n grave n u po n the hearts

of m en .

Th e rs t i s : S u er i ng i s a n e ssen ti a l p ha se of hu m a n lif e .

This tr u th really escaped the Greeks They were fa m iliar with .

su fferi n g b u t o n ly as a fact which o u ght n ot to be Their

,
.

philosophers at l east n ever go t be y o n d this view ; altho u gh

, ,

the tragic poets divi n ed its deeper m ea n i n g C hristia n ity has .

ta u ght u s to appreciate s u fferi n g ; s u fferi n g is n ot m erely

a brutal fact bu t esse n tial to th e per fect develop m e n t of t he
,

i n n e r m an : s u fferi n g withdraws the soul fro m too co m plete

d evotio n to th e te m poral an d perishable ; i t is the a n tidote to
va n ity an d the love o f show ; i t is i n C hristia n phrase the , ,

great m ea n s o f ed u catio n by which God t u r n s ou r hear t s

fro m the earthly an d te m poral u pwards to the eter n al to , ,

Hi m self A n d so s u fferi n g leads to i n n er peace Whoever is

. .

fa m iliar with s u fferi n g will u n ders t an d the sig n ica n ce of

1 Le t m e re fe r t h e re ad e r t o a w o r k t h at sh o w s t h e e n o r m o u s p o w e r w hi ch

C h r i st ian c h ar i t x x
y h as e e rc i s e d a n d co n t i n u es t o e e r ci s e e v e n i n o u r d ays, t h e
ad mi r ab l e w o r k o f U hlh o rn , H i s tory of C hr is t i a n B e ne vole nce ( Ge schi c hte d cr
ch r cs tlzchen L i ebe s tha t zgke i t )

. T h e t h ird p t h e p e r i o d fr o m t h e
v olu m e t ak e s u

R e fo r m at i on t o t h e p res e n t I t s h o w s h o w m an y d e e d s o f c h a r i t y, n o t o n ly
.

m o n e y o ffe r i n g s , b u t al so p e rso n al m i n i s t r at i o n s , h av e b e e n p e fo r m e d e s p e ci al ly
-
r ,

i n t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u ry , t h e l i ke o f w h i c h h as p e r h a p s n e v e r b e e n se e n s i n ce
t h e d ay s o f p r i m i t i v e C h r i st i a n i ty ; t h e P ro t e s ta n t w o r ld p a rt i cu la rly w h i c h fo r , ,

a l o n g t i m e h as b e e n
, s o m e w h a t b e hi n d h a n d i n t h i s re s p e ct i s n o w r i v alli n g t h e

May
,

C a t h oli c ch u rc h we n ot se e i n t h e i m p ar t i ali ty W i t h w hi c h t h e w o r k of

b o th ch u r c h e s i s h e r e d e scr ib e d a s ig n t h at t h e t i m e w i ll c o m e a g a i n w h e n t h e y
w i ll re s p e c t an d e st e e m e ac h o t he r as d i ffe r e n t fo r m s
p of u re C h r is t i an i ty ?

P r o t e st a n t i s m u n d o u b t e d ly n d s l e s s d ifc u l ty i n m ak i n g t h is a ck n o w l e dg m e n t
th a n C at h o l i ci s m ; s h o u ld i t e xe r m ee t w it h a sy m p at h e t ic re s p o n se fro m t h e
C at h o l i c c h u rc h , th en
y W i ll t h e fo r m e r d e fe c t i o n , w h i c h cau s e d
o nl so m u ch
blo o ds h e d a n d s u ffe r in g am o n g t h e G e r m an p e o p le , b e w h o lly Ju s t i ed .
1 58 O RI GINS O
o r M R A L PHILOSOPHY

C hristia n ity Whereve r sorrows are born e a cravi n g a n d

.
,

seeki n g fo r C hristian ity u s u ally soo n m an i fests itsel f ; a

healthy vigoro u s an d active life is m ore apt to cli n g to th e
, ,

Greek co n ceptio n of li fe Bu t i n as m u ch as n o l ife is wholly

.
,

free fro m s u fferi n g there will be ti m es i n every life whe n the

,

hear t i s susceptible to the i n fl u e n ces o f C hristian ity .

Th e seco n d great truth which C hristia n ity has i m pressed

upo n h u m an ity is this : S in a n d g u i lt a r e e s sen ti a l p ha se s
T his tr u th too the Greeks did n o t see o r a t
o
f h u m an l f
i e .
, , ,

least n ot i n its e n tire force They were fa m iliar with the u gly
.

an d the base their co m ic poets ridic u le these a n d their philos ,

Op h e r s show how m e n err with respect to the highest good an d ,

how they m iss the right road to happi n ess For C h ri sti an i tv .

it is the m ost serio u s an d m os t aw fu l tru th that the i n cli

n atio n to evil is deeply roo t ed i n t he esse n ce o f the n at u ral

m an . Theology has for m u la t ed this co n ceptio n i n the d o c

tri n e of origi n al s i n whether happily o r n ot n eed n ot c on
,

cer n u s here b u t it is an u n do u bted truth that hu m an n atu re

co n tai n s besides bea u t if u l an d good capaci t ies an d i m p u lses
, ,

i n cli n atio n s which j u s t ify the harsh re m ark t ha t m an i s the

wicked a n i m al l a n i m a l me cha n t p ar ex ce llen ce Man is bor n
,

, .

with two ve n o m o u s teeth which are wa n t i n g i n t h e o ther an i

m als : th ey are called e n vy an d m alice Th e Greeks too were .
, ,

skilled i n thei r u s e as th e horrible pict u re proves which

,

Th u cydides gives o f t he sel f laceratio n o f this n at io n - Bu t .

with the e xceptio n of par t icular perso n alities like Th u cydides

a n d Plato the a n cie n ts were n o t co n scious o f th e awfu l n ess
,

o f the thi n g ; i t did n o t see m to be i n co m patible with their

de m an ds u po n h u m an n at ure C hristia n ity has raised the .

sta n dard ; it m easures m an by th e j u stice an d h oli n ess of

G o d which have beco m e i n car n ate i n Jesus
, This w ay o f .

feeli n g t o o has bee n i n delibly i m pressed upo n u s

, , It is .

i m possibl e fo r us to accept evil as c o m pl ace n tly as did the

Greeks to co n te m plate o u r lives with su ch sel f satis factio n as
,
-

was possible to the Greeks an d Ro m a n s O ccasio n ally a t .

,
160 O RI G I N S OF MO RA L P H I LO S O PHY
C hrist ; fo r which reaso n the o l d ch u rch followed the su gge s
tive cu sto m of placi n g the sy m bol o f th e eter n al sacrice i n
the ce n tre of the religio u s ch u rch li fe Th e q u estio n has .

ofte n bee n debated : What is th e secre t of the power of the

C atholic church which has o fte n bee n reported dead an d
,

regarded as dead ? Th e s u p e rstitio n an d ign ora n ce o f the

m asses ? Thei r childish fear o f thi n gs which do n ot exist ?
O r the r m n ess o f the ch u rch orga n izat io n ? Th e prude n ce
o f its leaders Th e s u ppor t which it receives fro m the lords
o f this earth ? Perh aps all o f these co n trib u te so m ethi n g ,

al tho u gh we m ight also s ay these are the very thi n gs which

m ore tha n o n ce bro u ght the ch u rch to the verge of r u i n Th e .

real secret m ost likely is that m en an d wo m e n have always

fo u n d i n it the stre n gth to sacrice th eir lives Eve n tho u gh .

their n u m ber was n ot great yet so precio u s an d effective is

,

sacrice that it has bee n able to co u n teract t he debasi n g an d

per n icio u s i n u e n ce o f the m a n y who used the ch u rch as a
m ea n s of good livi n g Pro t estan tis m t oo owes wha t livi n g
.
, ,

force it possesses t o this fact A n d so i t will also be i n the

.

fu tu re C hristia n ity will n ot be preserved by privy co u n sel

.

lors an d pro fessors it can o n ly be prese rved by t hose wh o are

,

ready to work to su ffer an d t o die fo r it

, , .

That is the eter n al m ea n i n g of the belie f i n the divi n i t y o f

Jes u s Pagan is m e n dows its gods with happi n ess bea u ty
.
, ,

S ple n dor a n d ho n or ; the ki n gs an d lords o f the earth are

,

m ost like the m C h ristia n ity recog n izes God i n the for m o f
.

the l owlies t of all the childre n of m e n ; He was the m ost

despised an d m ost u n worthy a m o n g th e m fu ll o f s u fferi n g ,

an d sick n ess .Thi s for m God chose whe n he beca m e esh .

Whoeve r wishes to i m agi n e God as m an says th e C hristia n ,

faith let h i m n ot thi n k o f the victor o n the eld o f battle

, ,

o f the ki n g i n his p u rple o f a wise an d ho n ored m an who m
,

every o n e ad m i res bu t let h i m pict u re to hi m sel f a m an who

,

s u ffers e verythi n g an d e n d u res everythi n g who bears the s i n ,

of the whole race u po n his sho u lders an d who re m ai n s c on ,

 TH E MO DE RN C ON C E P TIO N 1 61

sta n t i n all his s u fferi n gs wh o exhibits i n n ite patie n ce an d

,

ki n d n ess wh o t u r n s e v e n u po n his tor m e n tors a look o f

,

i n n ite love an d pity That is the pict u re o f th e all good

.
-

i n hu m a n for m that is G od hi m sel f

,
To be good is to d o .

good an d to su ffer evil an d to persevere therei n to th e e n d
, , .

Joi n ed with these three el e m e n ts i s a fo u rt h : t he long i ng

,

for t he tr a n sce n d en t A n tiq u ity was satis ed with th e e arth

.

the m oder n e ra h as n ever bee n wholly free fro m th e feeli n g

that the give n reality is i n adeq u at e S o m ethi n g o f the m o od .

which C hristia n ity i n trod u ced i n to th e Occide n t the feeli n g

that the real h o m e of th e so u l is n ot on earth th at this li fe is ,

a pilgri m age i n a foreig n la n d co n sta n tly co n fro n ts us i n the

poetry an d i n the li fe of the m odern age an d n ot o n ly a m o n g ,

those who accept the teachi n gs of pri m itive C hristia n ity b u t ,

also a m o n g th e childre n of the world Th ere are people .

who believe th a t the ti m e for tra n sce n de n t religio n has

passed that a religio n of m orality will take its place I do n ot
, .

believe that the fut u re will bear the m o u t Th e Old th eolog .

ica l m etaphysic of the dog m a m ay i n deed pass away an d I ,

fo n dly hope with the frie n ds o f ethical c u lt u re that religio u s

livi n g will m ore an d more t ake the place of religio u s b e li e v
i n g ; b u t I do n o t believe that the Wester n n atio n s will ever
be wholly free fro m the n eed o f creati n g with prophetic lo n g ,

i n g a reality o f a h i gher Order beyo n d the give n world

, Eve n .

fo r a m an like Goethe who s t a n ds r m ly u po n the earth an d

,

j oy fu lly appropriates it with his e n tire bei n g i t has al ways ,

bee n the deepest year n i n g of his heart to gaze i n to a bo u n d

less purer real m i n which everythi n g that th e hazy at m o
, ,

s phe re oi o u r n arrow ear thly existe n ce e n co m passes dissolves

a n d va n ishes .

A fter all this we m ay say Th e m ixt u re a n tago n is m an d

, , ,

reco n ciliatio n Of C h ristia n an d G reek ele m e n ts i s characte r

i s t i c o f the m oder n co n ceptio n o f li fe a n d the world The re .

are ti m es whe n the for m er a n d there a re ti m es whe n the

,

latter prepo n derates ; the ti m e fo r which Pa u l G erhardt sa n g

,

ll
1 62 O RIGIN S OF MO RAL PH ILO SO PH Y
felt otherwise tha n the age of e n lighte n m e n t an d the ge n era ,

tio n for which IVi lhelm M e i ster an d the R om a n E leg i e s were

writte n Bu t eve n here hearts have n ever bee n wan ti n g that
.

have sought an d fo u n d co n solatio n an d d elivera n ce fro m

earthly sorrow i n the h arsh s u bli m ity o f th e ch u rch hy m n s .

A n d n ot o n ly do these co n trasts exist together i n the sa m e

age : they also exis t togeth er i n the sa m e h eart Friederich .

La n ge the a u tho r o f the H i story of M a te r i a li sm who was a

, , .

thorough goi n g discipl e o f the m ode rn co n ceptio n of the u n i

-

verse an d life o n ce so we are told i n his biography 1 had a

, , ,

co n versatio n with the philosopher Oberweg co n cer n i n g th e

f u t u re o f religio n o r th e religio n of the fu t u re La n ge .

de m a n ded that there b e adde d to the cheer fu l m oder n b u ild

i n g i n the Greek te m ple style a t least a Gothic chapel fo r
,

tro u ble d h earts an d to the n atio n al worship certai n festivals

, ,

d u ri n g which the happy m ortal t o o m ight learn to pl u n ge i n

, ,

to the abyss o f m isery an d agai n n d that he was as n eedy of

salvatio n as the u n happy an d e ve n the wicked In our m oder n .

C hristia n ity m isery an d co n tritio n are t h e r u le the feeli n g of ,

cheerf u l exaltatio n an d the j oy of victory the exception : he

desired to reverse this order b u t n o t to ig n ore th e gloo m y
,

shadow which after all acco m pa n ies o u r e n tire li fe

, ,
Th e .

ch u rch hy m n s too he wished to adopt i n to th e n e w

, ,

worship ; an d to Obe r we g s pro t esti ng q u es tio n : Which on e

,

fo r exa m ple ? he a t o n ce replied : 0 Ha up t voll B lu t u n d
Wu n den .

It see m s to m e we m ay regard La n ge as a typical r e p re

,

s e n t ati v e of the m oder n m an i n his attit u de to the O ppositio n

bet wee n Helle n is m an d C hristia n ity as a m ore typical r ep re ,

s e n t at i ve tha n the so m ewh at on e sided Hb e r w e g who i n cli n es

-
,

to a harsh logical dog m atis m For the i n tellect u ally trai n e d

.
-

logician the di ffere n ces are i rreco n cilable an d he sees i n the ,

atte m pt to reco n cile the m a lack of co n siste n cy ; the p sych ol o

g ist an d sociologist to who m
,
n othi n g hu m a n is alie n sees the ,
'
1 By E lli s o n , 2 1 4 .
1 64 O RI GINS OF M O R AL PH ILO SO PH Y
worl d an d all li fe i n its color w e m ay say that the te n de n cy
,

is te m porarily prese n t i n every m an to prod u ce these t w o

syste m s the opti m istic an d the pessi m istic Every o n e has
,
.

i n his o w n experie n ces the fu n da m e n tal co n ditio n s at least

,

for u n dersta n di n g both syste m s It will depe n d u po n his

.

te m pera m e n t an d his experien ces which of the m will gai n ,

th e s u p re m ac v an d n ally beco m e habitual with h i m Bu t

, .

i n so m e for m or other both will be prese n t ; i n so m e for m

o r other he will e m pl oy the m both to u n i ve r s a l i z e his t e m

p o r ar
y m ood To m e n like G oethe a n d Wilhel m vo n H u m
.

boldt who were able bea u ti fu lly to develop an d happily to

,

exerci se healthy an d re m arkable n at u ral powers u n d er happy ,

an d appropriate c o n ditio n s the Helle n ic co n ceptio n o f li fe a

, ,

worldly opti m is m was beco m i n g an d n atu ral Bu t m o m e n ts

,
.

were n ot wa n ti n g eve n i n Goethe s li fe whe n h e e n tertai n ed

other feeli n gs towards C hristia n ity tha n aversio n to the c ross ,

for did h e n o t o n ce call S ai n t Filipo N eri his sai n t ? A n d

perhaps H u m bol dt was n ot al w ays i n the m ood which o n ce
pro m pted h i m to write that eve n i n the ho u r o f death a fe w
verses fro m Ho m er eve n th o u gh th ey be take n fro m the cata
,

logu e of ships wo u ld be m ore co n soli n g an d elevati n g tha n

,

a n ythi n g i n the world On the other ha n d wh oever is

.
,

e n dowed with a gloo m y te m pera m e n t an d has s u ffered great

m is for tu n es whoeve r h as bee n disappoi n ted a n d ill treated
,
-

by m e n whoever h as erred m u ch an d si n n ed m u ch or
, ,

perhaps looks back u po n a wrecked li fe will be m ore i n ,

cl i n e d to seek an d n d rest i n a view that absol u tely

rep u di ates this te m poral li fe an d l ooks forward t o deli er
,
v

a n ce an d the hereafter ; Ha m a n n an d S chop e n h au er were

n at u res o f t his ki n d Bu t thei r lives too were n o t de v oi d
.
, ,

o f experie n ces w hich e n abled the m to appreciate the Helle n ic

co n ceptio n of the u n iverse In th e represe n tatio n s of art at

.

least S chope n hau er co n te m plates reality w ith pleas u re an d

,

love .

Moreover the sa m e mixture of opposites is n ot wa n tin g i n

,
 TH E MO DE R N C ON C E P TION 1 65

th e earlier civi lizati o n s Th e Greeks too were n ot u n fam iliar

.
, ,

with th e feeli n g o f the tra n sitori n ess a n d n othi n g n ess o f th e

earthly How o fte n the feeli n g of world sorrow an d weari
.
-

n ess of li fe strikes a respo n sive chord i n their poetr y i n ,

Ho m er i n the tragic poets ! A n d so co n versely a n ai ve

, , ,

love o f n at u re is n o t wa n ti n g i n the Gospels ; Jesus i n the

parables lovi n gl y co n te m pl ates t he li fe o f n at u re ; an d with
what love an d pleas u re hi s gaze rests u po n th e childre n !
A n d S ai n t A u g u sti n e s u rely di d n ot always t hi n k i n his ,

direct daily i n terco u rse with m e n o f the sys t e m accordi n g ,

to which t he n at u ral virt u es are sple n di d vi ces .

We sh all there fore have to say th e syste m s of ethical n at ,

u r ali s m an d s u ra n at u ralis m carried o u t co n siste n tly are

p , ,

logical sche m es that do n ot like n at u ral historical de n i

, ,
-

tio n s directly ex press the li fe thou ghts an d feeli n gs o f th e

, , ,

actual m an They m ark a rel ati on of the so u l to reality as

.

it would be i f certai n experie n ces an d m oods were the o n ly

o n es Th e real life oscillates betwee n extre m e m oods an d
.
,

the j u dg m e n t o n life an d reality correspo n di n gly wavers b e

twee n these extre m e for m u l ae This is true Of th e li fe o f i n di
.

v i d u al s as well as of th e life of n ati o n s an d ti m es Th e .

t heoretical val u e of s u ch co n cept u al sche m es co n sists i n this ,

that they are an i n direct m ea n s of u n dersta n di n g an d deter

m i n i n g reality They have the sig n ica n ce o f articial li n es
.
,

o f c o ordi n ate axes by which we m ay deter m i n e fo r the i n n ite

-
,

variety o f livi n g form s thei r place i n th e historical m oral world -

.

It is th e sa m e here as with th e de n itio n s of the te m pera m e n ts

o r the for m s o f the state which d o n ot as we k n ow i m m e d i
, , ,

ately express o r describ e th e co n crete reality b u t serve as , ,

logical sche m es i n directly to co m prehe n d an d describe it

, .

More i m port an t tha n th e theoretical val u e of these sche m es

i s the practical val u e o f the two great for m s o f li fe an d thei r
sel f expressio n i n poetry a n d art They s u pply th e m ode rn
-
.

n atio n s with t h e spi rit u al for m s fo r the g r eat m odes a n d

m oods o f li fe In the history o f th e G ospel i n the li fe o f the
.
,
166 O R IG I N S OF MO RA L P HILO SO PH Y
sai n ts the sis te r o f charity n ds th e m odels which elevate
,

an d stre n gthe n h er i n her calli n g ; fro m the so n gs o f Pa u l

Gerhardt the sick an d tro u bled so u l d erives co n solatio n a n d

co m fort I wo n der h ow a Greek co n soled hi m self whe n h e
.

was sick an d weak O r were the Greeks n ever sick ? A n d

.
,

co n versely i n the great g u res o f Greek an d Ro m a n his t ory

, ,

i n the vigoro u s eloq u e n ce o f De m osthe n es the Ger m a n s ,

s o u ght an d fo u n d the m ea n s to revive the courage of a

van quished people an d to direct it towards the goal o f free
,

d o m a n d g r eat n ess A n d so eve n n o w t h e poe m s of Ho m e r

.

m ay i n c u lcate i n th e souls o f o u r boys the rst exa m ples o f

youthf u l love of ho n or an d pr u de n ce m a n ly vigor an d dig ,

n i ty . Th e adva n t age o f this lo n g an d varied preli m i n ary his

tory is th at it o ffers us clearly de n ed co n ceptio n s accordi n g ,

to o u r di ffere n t n atures an d t ale n ts ou r di ffere n t for t u n es ,

a n d life experie n ces-

A n d we are the refore u n q u estio n ably
.

j u stie d i n i n trod u ci n g ou r yo u n g m e n t o both worlds t o ,

that O f a n tiq u ity an d that of C hristia n ity n ot m erely i n ,

order to give the m his t orical k n owl edge bu t to e n able the m ,

to co n te m plate the di ffere n t lots of li fe so tha t each on e m ay ,

prude n tly selec t that which is tti n g for h i m Bu t fo r tha t .

very reaso n we sho u l d n ot obliterate a n d d u ll the oppositio n

betwee n those great historical for m s of life bu t sh o u ld clearly ,

d e n e it Each of the m can s u pply us with g u res o f i n n e r

.

grea tn ess an d perfectio n which as typical exa m ples will

, , ,

foreve r preserve thei r powe r o f attrac t io n .

S o m u ch for the su bj e cti ve co m patibili ty O f the t wo types o f

a perfect life It is really possibl e to ad m ire S ai n t Fran ci s
.

an d at th e sa m e ti m e to feel a hearty an d gra t e fu l sy m pathy

with a n at u re like Goethe s h o w ever far apar t t heir ideals of

,

li fe m ay be objectively co n sidered O n ly we m u s t n ot desire

, .

t o ca n o n ize Goethe o r look fo r philosophy an d c u lture i n the

sai n t ra the r we S h o u ld see th e positi v e ele m e n ts i n both
,
-
.

Y es we shall be co m pelled to say that a world co m posed o f

,

n othi n g b ut holy beggars woul d be as t ireso m e as it is i m o s

p
1 68 O RI GIN S OF M O RAL PH ILO SO P HY
cordi n g t o the pri n ciple of broth erly l ove the perfectio n Of a ,

ki n gdo m of God on earth Th e l ove o f n eighbor beco m es a

.

de n ite an d ta n gible thi n g o n ly i n case a n earthly goal is pre

s u pposed which i t is the fu n ctio n o f love to assist i n attai n i n g
,
.

A n d a C hristi an doctri n e a ki n d of scie n ce also existed eve n

, ,

at the begi n n i n gs of C hristia n ity ; an d blessed n ess co n sists

i n co n te m p l ati n g God Whe n C hristia n ity bega n to develop
.

as a per m a n e n t historical for m o f li fe n he n the ex pectatio n ,

of an early e n d of the world failed to be realized the pos itive ,

ele m e n ts were u n folded ; i n the ch u rch a u n iversal for m o f

life was prod u ced i n theology a C hristian scie n ce i n wor
, ,

ship a m otive an d te n de n cy to art That the Gracco Ro m an .

-

exa m ple exercised a highly i m porta n t i n u e n ce i n all this

was n at u ral an d i n evitable livi n g i n th e w orld an d attem pt
i n g to pervade the world C hristia n ity adopted so m e o f the
,

for m s of the world .

Th u s we h ave an approxi m atio n of the ex t re m es fro m both

si des Th e i n n er fu n da m e n tal oppositio n re m ai n s the ideal
.
,

Of per fectio n i s q u ite di ffere n t i n either case ; b u t still there

are approxi m atio n s an d agree m e n ts n ot o n ly i n m i n or poi n ts ,

.

A n d this m ade it possible whe n the ch u rch aba n do n ed its

,

origi n al excl u sive n ess as a co m m u n ity of sai n ts for a broad ,

strat u m t o be for m ed withi n the ch u rch betwee n p u re G reeks

, ,

an d p u re C hristia n s co m posed o f s u ch as so u ght to co m bi n e

,

i n thei r lives C hristia n an d Helle n ic ele m e n ts h oli n ess a n d ,

worl dly beau t y an d c u lt u re fait h an d philosophy We can

, .

readily u n derstan d why s u ch perso n s S ho u ld have felt i n cli n ed

to m i n i m ize as m u ch as possible th e di ffere n ces betwee n the
, ,

t wo ele m e n ts o f thei r souls Whoever l ooks at thi n gs bistori

.

cally will i t is t r u e de n y th e S i m ilarity betwee n Helle n ic

, ,

h u m an ity an d C hristia n holi n ess b u t he will n ot d o u bt th e

,

s u b j ective si n cerity Of co n victio n i n those who d o m i n i m ize

the di e r e n ce s an d he will recog n ize the s u b j ective possibility
,

o f reco n cili n g these O pposites i n h u m a n n at u re a s well as its ,

Obj ective possibility i n the two great historical for m s o f li fe .

 C H A PTE R V I
ME DIE VA L A ND M ODE RN M ORA L P HILOSOPHY 1

1 . The t heolog i ca l m or a l p hi losop hy .

Th e s u pra n at u ralistic religi o u s co n ceptio n of li fe an d co n

-

d u ct represe n ti n g as it does o n e of the two possible co u rses

, , ,

o f li fe is o f very great i n terest t o every thi n ki n g m an

, Not .

S O great is o u r i n terest i n th e atte m pts o f th e theol ogia n s t o

co n stru ct a syste m atic ethics u po n this view These atte m pts .

l ack th e f u n da m e n tal preco n ditio n of theoretical i n terest

the desire to solve by m ea n s Of an u n prej u diced i n vestigatio n
, ,

the proble m s which li fe propo u n ds to the acti n g an d j u dgi n g

m an Theology n ds an a n swer fo r all q u estio n s i n revela
.

tio n ; the S acred S cript u res deter m i n e w ith absol u te au th o r i tv

n ot o n ly the faith b u t also th e r u les O f life
, Th e proble m is .
,

there fore S i m ply to establish t o u n dersta n d a n d to arra n ge

, , ,

the give n co n te n t to d e fe n d it agai n st paga n an d h eretical

,

errors an d n ally an d above all to m ake it fr u it fu l fo r life

, .

Th e m oral ser m o n the edi fyi n g i n terpre t atio n p u ts a check

, ,

upo n scie n tic research .

Th e possibility Of a really scie n t ic ethics a n i n d epe n de n t ,

theory of actio n i s absol u tely precl u ded by the f u n da m e n tal

,

pri n ciple of ch u rch C hristia nity G reek ethics tries to dis .

cover by what c o n d u ct the goal of all h u m an strivi n g e u da e ,

m on i a ca n be n a t u r a lly r e a li ze d
, Th e C h ristia n too strives .
, ,

fo r happi n ess i f we take thi s ter m i n the widest se n se b u t

, ,

1 m e di ae v al e t h i cs se e an d a ls o t h e w o rks
[Fo r the f
r e e re n ce s on pp . 35 65 ;
of S t o c k l, B an t ea n , an d R o u sse lo t on the h is t o ry o f s c h o las t i c p h i lo s o p hy
.

TE .
]
1 70 O RIGIN S OF MO RA L PH ILO S O PH Y

he n ds i t n ot i n this earthly life b u t i n t ra n smu n da n e ,

blessed n ess of which i t m u st be co n fessed h e already r e

, , ,

ce i v e s a fore t aste i n this life i n t he happy feeli n g Of peace

,

with G od Eter n al blessed n ess is n o t however like Greek

.
, ,

eudae m o n ia the n atural e ffec t o f a cer t ai n m ode of li fe bu t

, ,

is bestowed by God as an ac t of grace u po n those wh o d o

His will His w ill however He has declare d i n the S acred
.
, ,

S crip t u re s Th e fu n c t io n of t he m oralis t i s therefore n o t

.

scie n tically t o i n ves tigate the co n di t io n s o f happi n ess which

are n ecessary i n the very n ature of thi n gs bu t t o i n t erpret ,

an d sys t e m atize t h e exis t i n g divi n e co mm a n ds If the will .

of God is pos i ted as the n al an d sole ca u se of the di ffer

e n ce be t wee n good an d bad the n there i s n o recogn izable

,

n a t ural co n n ectio n be t wee n the goal o f life a n d t he co n duct

o f li fe .Th e n al co n seq u e n ce of this co n cep t io n is dr a w n

i n t he doctri n e o f predes t i n a t io n .

I S hall co n n e m yself t o m e n tio n i n g a few of th e mos t i m

por t an t ph e n ome n a i n this gro u p of litera t ure .

We may regard as the rst a t te m p t a t a sys t e m a tic ex

positio n Of C hris t ia n e thics the t reatise of S t A m brose on .

the d u ties of th e clergy (d e oi ci i s m i n i str oru m) In for m he .

follows C icero s work on d u t ies t he n e w co n t e n t is so far as

,

possibl e i n ser t ed i n to the sche m e of t he four cardi n al virtu es

, .

Th e author ca n didly d eclares that he cares very little for the

for m O f the i n vestigatio n ; to the objectio n th a t h e does n ot
proceed sys t e m atically i n his co n str u ctio n of ethics h e an ,

s w e rs :

Bu t that is the b u si n ess O f the ar t o f logic rst to ,

de n e t h e co n cept of d u ty an d t he n to divide i t i n to its ki n ds

we h owever sh u n th eory ( n os a u te m f ug i m u s a r te m) we
, ,

bri n g t o vie w the exa m ples of the a n ces t ors i n order thereby ,

1
m ost e e ct u ally t o u rge others t o i m itate the m Th e ex .

a m ples are m ostly take n fro m the writi n gs of the O ld Testa

me n t This is q u ite n at ural ; th e N ew Testa m e n t does n ot
.

aim at th e est ablishme n t o f a worldly order ; far from i t In .

1 I . 25 .
,
1 72 O RI GIN S OF MO R A L PH ILO S O PH Y
as w as poss i ble Th e m o n astery was the citadel i n which th e
.

warriors o f C hris t de fe n ded the m selves u n der the m ost favor ,

able co n ditio n s agai n st the attack s which S atan directed

,

agai n st the m i n the for m of the esh an d the world .

Th e m o n astic r u les circ u m scribed the li fe O f C hristia n per

fe ct i o n while a low e r li m it was reached fo r the average C hris

t ia n li fe i n the co n fessio n al an d the pe n ite n tial syste m ,

which were grad u ally m ore den itely for m u lated Whe n the .

ch u rch becam e state an d e n tire n atio n s were received i n to

,

C hristia n ity it was of course n o lo n ger possible to carry o u t

,

the de m an d of a separatio n fro m the w orld A s the world .

becam e less O bj ecti o n able especially o n acco u n t of the dis

,

appeara n ce Of idolatro u s sacrices the ch u rch gre w less ti m id

,

i n recog n izi n g the i n stitutio n s an d asp i ratio n s o f th e world .

Worldly feeli n gs an d a worldly m ode o f li fe beca m e m ore O

an d m ore co m patible wi th m e m b e r sh i p i n the ch u r ch

'

On .

t he o ther h an d a m i n i m u m of righteo u s n ess was de m an ded

,

fro m all m e m bers as a n e w law an d ecclesiastical pe n alties

,

were i m posed upo n u n lawf u l acts an d o m issio n s III the .

pe n an ce books which beca m e n ecessary especially whe n

-
, ,

C hristian ity was t ra n spla n ted t o Ger m a n ic soil we have the ,

origi n of a ch u rch m orality i n the for m o f a legal syste m .

2 It i s n ot m y p u rpose n o r a m I able to give eve n a n

.
, ,

o u tli n e of the history of t he olog i ca l e thi cs d u ri n g the Mid d le

A ges an d m oder n ti m es I sh all co n te n t m ysel f with i n d i
.

cati n g the n at u re of this scie n ce It was as a r u le character

.
, ,

i ze d by the desire t o co m bi n e C hristia n h oli n ess an d h u m a n

perfectio n B oth the lea: d i vi n a t he divi n e law give n by
.
, ,

revelatio n an d au the n tically i n terpreted by the ch u rch an d ,

t he less n a tu r ce the law o f perfectio n i m pressed u po n the

,
.

thi n gs by the C reator an d recog n ized by th e reaso n w ere ,

accepted as s o u rces o f k n owledge Th e u n iversal h u m a n .

d u ties m ight be ded u ced eve n fro m the latter ; here the
atte m pt o f A ristotle served as the patter n ; besides this law ,

was the s u bsidiary so u rce i n all cases where revelatio n failed

 M E DIZEV A L A ND MO DE RN SY S TE M S 1 73

to give express co m m an d s Th e specically C hristia n relig

.
-

io u s d u ties o n the other ha n d were derived fro m the S crip

, ,

t u res an d the l aws Of the ch u rch .

Withi n the C a t ho li c ch u rch this for m o f m oral theol ogy has

co n ti n u ed with o u t chan ge dow n to th e prese n t ti m e Whe n .

we take u p o n e o f the m ore m oder n works i n this e ld for

exa m ple the widely read an d m u ch ad m ired book o f the Jes u it
,
-

P G u ry what rst s u rprises o n e n o t acq u ai n ted with

.
l

this literat u re i s its i m perso n al j u ristical character ; the author

-

prese n ts a legal syste m givi n g proo fs an d m otives i n te r p re

, ,

t ati o n s a n d precede n ts Th e seco n d s u rprisi n g fact is that

.

ti m e see m s to have m ade n o i m pressio n u pon s u ch works .

A n u m ber of au thorities co n ti n u i n g witho u t i n terr u ptio n fro m

,

the begi n n i n gs o f schol astic theology down to the prese n t ,

acco m pan y the e n tire ex positio n ; writers o f the twel fth an d

thirtee n th ce n t u ries are q u oted by the S ide o f those of the
seve n tee n th an d eightee n th as livi n g an d recogn ized au th or i
,

ties It i s as tho u gh history had le ft n o trace u po n this sys

.

t e m ; o n ly occasio n ally do we n otice that we are de ali n g with

a work o f th e n i n etee n th ce n t u ry : n a m ely whe n an i n st i tu ,

tio n or a de fect of the prese n t gives rise to a q u estio n an d a

respo n se This bra n ch O f scie n ce owes i t s origi n t o the con
.

fe ss i o n al a n d the pe n i te n tial syste m It is n ecessary for the .

father co n fessor to k n ow w hat is d u ty what s i n wha t is the

-
, ,

degree o f the S i n an d where on the othe r ha n d the do m ai n

,

of th e allowable begi n s This determ i n es the for m : sharply

.

de n ed de n itio n s their logical co n seq u e n ces n ally the solu

, ,

tio n O f proble m s an d di fc u lties Th e for m al pri n ciple of .

au thority i n this syste m is the will o f God as expressed i n ,

the t en co m m a n d m e n ts an d the S acred S criptu res i n ge n eral .

Th e a foresaid lea: n a tu r ae is recog n ized as a s u bsidiary so u rce .

There is m a n i festly a serio u s d a n ger i n s u ch an exact j u rist

ical for m u latio n o f m orality : it te n ds to m ake o u r e n tire
m oral li fe articial Th e n atural i n cli n atio n is apt to i n ter
.
~

1 C om d i u m the o log iu e mo m li s , '

p en ed \ i .
, I i o ma e , 1 880, 2 vo ls .
1 74 O RIG IN S OF MO RA L PH ILO SO PH Y
pre t the syste m a n d its applicatio n i n the co n fessio n al to m ean
that the fu ll m e n t o f the req u i re m e n ts will perm it the age n t
to m ake the m ost o f the allowable A n d si n ce owi n g t o the .
,

n at u re o f m orality the li n es ca n n o t be draw n as sh arply as i n

,

the case o f the positive la w a wide m argi n is le ft fo r those

,

i n cli n ed to exte n d the bo u n daries o f the per m issible to ,

evade the real de m a n ds by m aki n g n e disti n ctio n s an d i n

t e r p re t at i on s a n d to rest satised with m ere appeara n ces
,
A .

l arge part of the Jewish form alis m which Jes u s O pposed w ith ,

t he tru e a n d spiritu al worship has agai n fo u n d its way i n to

the C atholic ch u rch It ca n n o t fail to act accordi n g to the
.

te n de n cy peculiar to it : an d this t e n de n cy is to e n tice s u ch

n atures as are n o t protected by an origi n al si n cerity o f heart

to deceive God an d the m selves with a statu t ory pse u do

worship ( Af te r d i e n st) to use Kan t s ex pressio n
,

.

Th e sectio n i n P G u ry s work o n the d u ty of H e a r i ng M a ss

.

may serve as a sa m pl e o f this m oral theology s m ethod Of

t reat m e n t Three thi n gs are n ecessary for th e perfor m a n ce o f

.

this d u ty : ( I) Bodily Prese n ce ; ( II) A tte n tio n o f the S pirit ;

I
( )II T h e A ppropriate Place A s fo r th e rst poi n t two thi n gs
.
,

are de m a n ded (1 ) Th e Mo ral an d ( 2 ) Th e U n i n terr u pted Pres

, ,

e n ce (1 ) Moral Prese n ce that is the perso n m u st be prese n t

.
,

i n s u ch a way that h e c an be regarded as o n e o f th e partici

pa n ts i n t he sacrice ; it s u fces h owever that he be i n a , ,

p l a c e fro m which he c a n foll ow t h e m ass i n its three m ai n

parts eithe r as a S pectator o r as an a u ditor or by watchi n g

, , ,

t h e sig n s m ade by the other participa n ts ( 2 ) U n i n terr u pte d

.

Prese n ce tha t is fro m be gi n n i n g to e n d so that h e co m m its

, ,

a se r i o u s S i n who m isses a co n siderable part Of the m ass a ,

s m all s i n wh o m isses an i n co n siderable part u n less exc u sed ,

by a good reaso n . No w foll o w sol u tio n s o f do u bts : (1 ) Th e

prese n ce at the m ass is valid eve n whe n the pe rso n does
n o t see the priest o r hea r his words b u t still disti n g u ishes
, ,

the parts o f the sacred act by the so u n d o f the he l l the so n g ,

of the choi r a n d the m ove m e n ts o f the participa n ts

,
an d ,
1 76 O RIG IN S OF MO RA L PH ILO S O PH Y
extern al a tt e n t io n i s an a ctu s sui ci en te r r e lig i osu s In pra e
,
.

t ice the a u t hor adds the differe n ce i s n ot gre at For eve n

, ,
.

accordi n g to the stricter view a m odera t e atte n tio n ( a tten ti o ,

i n g r a d u r e mi sso ) s u f ces th a t is i f directed u po n the m ai n

, ,

parts of the m ass Bu t accordi n g to the other the req u isite s

.
,

a r e : ( 1 ) a pio u s e m otio n or the real i n te n tio n to ho n or God ;

,

( )2 s u c h atte n tio n that the participa n t c an say to hi m self

that he is a real par t icipa n t an d co n seq u e n tly that he pays ,

atte n tio n t o the m ai n parts a t least co n fusedly (i n conf u s o) ,

.

He n ce believers sho u ld n ot be lightly acc u sed of a lac k O f

,

atte n tio n while atte n di n g m ass b u t S ho u l d rather be ad m o n ,

i s h e d lovi n gly devo u tly a n d dilige n tly to t u r n their m i n ds to

, ,

the divi n e m ysteries It is evide n t that a ll this is n ot m u ch

.

u n like a code o f etiquette : fo r a social call a black coat a ,

high hat an d gloves are req u isi t e b u t o n e o r the other m ay

, ,

be dispe n sed with u n der cer t ai n circ u m s t a n ces .

Th e e n tire eld of d u ties is go n e th ro u gh i n the sa m e way

the d u ty of j u stice whi ch i s really s u scep t ible to this t rea t
,

m e n t likewise the d u ty of love of e n e m y the d u t y Of charity

, , ,

the d u ties o f m arried li fe ; everywhere we n d the sa m e

atte m pt t o stake Off exactly th e bo u n daries O f tha t which is
req u ired (r e gu i r i tu r ) everywhere the un fort u n ate sui ci t ,

accordi n g to the p r oba ble o r m or e p r obable o r accordi n g to ,

the op i n i on of a ll Th e advi ce too co n cl u di n g t he exa m i n a

.
, ,

tio n of the O bligatio n s i n regard to the m ass is n o t i n freq u e n tly ,

repeated : Do n o t i n terrogate p u n ctilio u sly an d frighte n the

co n scie n ce b u t ad m o n is h lovi n gly Bu t o n the wh ole this
, .
, ,

j u ris t i cal treat m e n t o f m orality will leave a pai n fu l i m pressio n

o n o n e n o t a cc u sto m ed to it n o t o n a cco u n t o f the harsh n ess
,

o f its de m a n ds o n the co n trary t he suj ci t o fte n co m es ,

s u rprisi n gly soo n b u t o n acco u n t of its e n ti re m ethod Of

xed prescriptio n s an d o u tward co m plia n ce an d its atte m pt to ,

appraise th e m ost spirit u al thi n gs i n the world 1 .

h t xt b k
'
1 It i t m
s
y t
cus o iti i
ar o cr c sely su c t f th i e - oo s se ve r e Ou accou n o e r

t r e at m e n t of th e s e v e n t h co mm an d m e n t . W e ll ,
t h e p e r u sa l of t h i s p o rt i o n is ce r

t ai n l v n ot an edi f i n a m als o o f
y g t as k , an d I t h e Op i n i o n t h at t h e p rescr i p t i o n an d
 M E DIZEV A L A N D M O DE RN S YS TE M S 1 77

S uch a m oral
theology is o f co u rse a n ecessary cou se , ,

q u e n c e o f the e n tire co n fessio n al a n d pe n ite n tial syste m

it was n ecessary to fu r n is h th e fathe r co n fessor who did n ot -
,

hi m self have the experie n ce or the ability to settle s u ch

di fc u lt m atters with the m ost care fu l possible i n str u ctio n s
,

for his g u ida n ce Bu t it i s u n do u btedly well that the Prot

.

e s t an t ch u rches are relieved o f this n ecessity by the abolitio n

Of the e n tire syste m Th e i n dividual co n fessio n i s of course

.
, ,

theoretically th e o n ly real co n fessio n ; b u t the regular e n

,

force m e n t o f the i n divid u al co n fessio n was an awfu lly d an

e r o u s step T h e power o f t he church over so u ls m a have
g .
y
bee n stre n gt he n ed by t h e practice an d perhaps i t also helped
to establish exter n al obedie n ce an d discipli n e ; bu t i t is
m ore tha n do u b t fu l whether i n n e r piety an d co n scie n tious
n ess have bee n pro m o t ed by i t A n d on e t hi n g s u rely has n ot
.

bee n pro m oted by the co n fessio n al t ha t is m an s t ruth fu l ,

n ess to hi m self an d t o his God .

Moreover t wo thi n gs m us t n ot be forgo tt e n here : rs t

, ,

t ha t t hese m oral books are n ot i n te n ded fo r the lay m a n

a s t ext books an d books of devo t io n ; thei r obj ec t is to
-

give i n str u cti o n s to the father con fessor S eco n dly this -
.
,

m orality d oes n o t for m u late the ideal b u t the m i n i m u m ,

o f what i s de m a n ded o f every o n e o n pai n O f p u n ish m e n t .

Th e ideal to which t he ser m o n co n sta n tly re fe rs is the life

o f the sai n ts Th e I m i ta ti on of C hr i st by Tho m as a Ke m pis
.

describes i t : a book of s u ch S i m pli city an d s u ch deep k n owl

edge Of the heart an d withal o f s u ch plai n n ess a n d vigor of
,

speech as h a v e scarcely bee n eq u alled i n an y work of its ki n d

,

t here is ge n u i n e i n n er m o n achis m i n i t an d m o n achis m o f ,

that sor t s u rely co n tai n s a large ele m e n t o f real C hristia n ity .

p re s u m abl
y al so t h e p ra ct i ce of p o n a s u b e c t w h i ch
t h e co n fe ssi o n al h e re e n t e r s u j
h a d b e tt e r n ot b e d is cu ss e d , fo r s o m e ag re e m e n t m ig h t s u re ly b e rea c h e d w i t h
o u t s u ch di sc u s s i o n On t h e o t h e r h a n d , i t m u s t b e s a i d t h a t t h o s e w h o h a v e i n
.

ch a r g e t h e c are o f so u l s can n o t ig n o r e t h e se t h i n g s ; i f m e d ic i n e an d j u r is
p r u d e n ce
ar e co m p e lle d t o d e al w it h t h e m , m o r al t h eo l o gy an d t he c o n fe s s i o n al w i ll h ave

t o lo c k t h e m s q u a re i n t h e face .
1 78 O RIGINS OF MO RAL PH ILO S O PH Y

Mor e o ve r th at the type

,
tr u e i nn er m o n achis m h as n ot
of ,

yet beco m e exti n ct i n the C atholic ch u rch t he reader will -

lear n fro m a book i n which he m ay perh aps n ot look fo r it ,

i n Re n a n s S ou ve n i r s d e j e u n e sse Re n a n was educated i n

.

theological se m i n aries ; he re m e m bers th e teache rs an d e d u

c at o r s o f his yo u th with the deepest respect ; i n fo u r thi n gs ,

he says they re m ai n ed his m odels i n u n se lsh n e s s an d

,

poverty i n m ode sty i n polite n ess an d i n the preservatio n of

,

, ,

m orality .

Besides m oral theological works are n o t wa n ti n g i n

,
-

C atholic theology which co n ceive an d prese n t the C hristia n

m oral life i n a freer an d d eeper spirit A S s u c h I m e n tio n .

J M Sailer s Han d k f C h i sti n M or ls an d J B

. . bo o o

r a a
1
. .

Hi rsch e r C hr i sti a n M or a ls 2

s .

Withi n the Protes ta n t c h u rch es moral theol ogy was over ,

shadowed by dog m atics an d also lacked the logical c on

s iste n cy o f an ecclesi a stical syste m Th ough it s t ill followed .

the O ld sche m e : lex di vi n a an d lex n a tu r es the desire for a ,

j uristical t reat m e n t of th e s u bjec t grad u ally di m i n ished

with the decli n e o f ch u rch discipli n e Moreover the devel .
,

Op m e n t of t he Protesta n t pri n ciple of fait h also led to a

d eeper co n ceptio n o f m orality b u t O f course like wise te m pted , , ,

the n e w ch u rch to e n gage i n th eological speculatio n s t o the

n eglec t of practical proble m s On the othe r ha n d owi n g t o .
,

the abse n ce of an exter n al bi n di n g au thority Protesta n t ,

m oral theology e n t ered i n to closer relatio n s with ph i lOS Op hi

c al ethics ; S i n ce the m iddle o f th e las t ce n t ury i t has ,

s u ccessively falle n u n der th e i n u e n ce of Wol d Ka n t a n d , ,

S pec u lative Philosophy S chleier m acher to wh ose syste m I

.
,

shall return la t er o n be t rays the i n u e n ce o f the latter

, .

R Ro t he has co n str u cted a very co m preh e n sive theological

.

e thic s which i s overb u rde n ed with an i m m e n se a mou n t of

3
,

1 H a ndbu ch d er chr i stli chen M or a l, 3 vols .

,
1 817
.

D 1 6 chr i s tliche M or a l 3 vo l s 1 8 3 5
, .

3 S e co n d e di t i o n , 1 8 6 771, 5 v o ls .
1 80 O RIGIN S OF M O R A L PH ILO SO PH Y
m oder n physicspo n th e n e w f u n da m e n tal law of the con
u

servatio n o f m otio n Hobbes expressly places hi m sel f by

.

the side o f Galile o th e fo u n der o f n at u ral philos ophy as the

, ,

fo u n der o f the p hi lo sop hi a c i vi li s the scie n ce o f the sta t e , .

He bases the l atter upo n the correspo n di n g pri n ciple of an i

m al li fe : the law o f sel f preservatio n J u s t as all physical
-
.

processes are s u bj ect to the law of the co n ser atio n of m oti o n v

,

s o all the processes i n the livi n g world are s u bj ec t t o the n at

u ral law of sel f preservatio n-
E ve ry livi n g creat u re strives i n
.

everythi n g tha t it does t o preserve its li fe ; i t desires wh at -

f u rthers this an d shri n ks fro m what hi n ders i t However its .

,

acts do n ot always m ake for preservatio n ; it co n sta n tly ai m s

at the latter b u t does n ot always b i t the m ark This is e s
, .

p e ci ally tr u e i n th e case of m an He n ce ari ses th e a n t ith esi s .

betwee n good an d bad acts Man always desires wh at is good .

for h i m b u t n ot i n frequ e n tly does wh at is bad an d per n icio u s

, .

Th e ca u se is a false opi n io n of what is good an d bad Good .

actio n is there fore ide n tical with pr u de n t actio n an d to do ,

wro n g is t o act i m pr u de n tly or agai n st right reaso n

,

.

Hobbes did n ot co n s t r u c t a sys t e m of ethics u po n this

basi s b u t his politics res t s u po n i t
,
1
Man does n ot a t tai n .

to what he strives a fter that is self preservati o n o u tside of

, ,
-
,

society ; on the on e ha n d because his powers do n o t su fce

,

to s u bj ect n at u re to hi s will on the other beca u se i n divi d u als

, ,

co m e i n co n ict with each other an d all there fore live i n a ,

state o f co n ti n u al i n sec u rity Th e n at u ral state i s a u n i .

versal state of war (he llu m om n i u m con tr a o mn e s) Si n ce i n .

,

s u ch a state no o n e can ob t ai n that which h e desires th e

, ,

preservatio n an d perfectio n o f i n divid u al life right re aso n ,

de m a n ds th e orga nizatio n o f society ; its for m is th e sta t e ,

which we m ay therefore design ate as an i n stitu t io n for u n i

versal self preservatio n In the sta tu s ci vi li s are p e ace s e cu ri ty
-
.
, ,

wealth welfare i n shor t sel f preservati o n Th e s t a t e pre

, , ,
-
.

s u pposes the absolute s u b m issi o n o f the i n dividuals t o its

1 De c i ve , 1 6 4 2 ; Le vi a tha n, 1 6 50 .
 M E DIE VA L A ND MO DE RN SY STE M S 1 81

w l il which prescribes to the m by m ea n s of laws wha t to d o

a n d what to refrai n fro m d oi n g To act co n trary to th e law is .

o f course wro n g fo r it is co n trary t o the n ecessary m ea n s o f

,

self preservatio n he n ce co n trary t o r ight reaso n But this

-
,
.

does n o t at all m ea n as som e have misi n t erpre t e d H obbes

, ,

tha t good an d b ad are wholly sy n o n y m o u s with i n a ccor

d a n ce wi th or con t r ary t o law
,
Th e laws of t he sta t e may
, .

the m selves be good or bad accordi n g as they pro m o t e or ,

retard wel fare an d he n ce are i n accorda n ce with o r co n t rary

to right reaso n Th e age n t as such ca n n o t of co u rse j u dge
.
, ,

o f t his b u t the philosopher as s u ch c an

, .

4. S pi n oza co n str u cts a syste m o f e t hics upo n t his con

1

ce pt i o n i n the work E t hi ca which did n o t appea r u n til after

2
, ,

his death Th e starti n g poi n t o f the tr u ly ethical por -

tio n of the book is the sixth propositio n of Part III : Every

thi n g i n so far as it i s i n itsel f strives to persis t i n its o w n
, ,

bei n g .This is tr u e of the body as well as o f th e so u l N ow .

,

t he esse n ce of the m i n d co n sists i n ideat i o n Bu t ideas di ffer .

fro m each other ; we h av e active an d passive ideatio n ; the

for m er is scie n tic thi n ki n g the latter se n satio n an d feeli n g , , ,

the for m er gives us adeq u ate the latter fragme n tary an d , ,

con fused ideas th at is ideas of whic h the ca u ses d o n ot o r d o

, , ,

n ot wh oll y lie withi n t he soul itself b u t i n the thi n gs o u tside

, ,

o f it . S el f preservatio n is t h ere fore for th e m i n d activity

-
, , ,

i n scie n tic thi n ki n g ; self de n ial an d weak n ess the s u ff e ri n g

-
,

o f thi n gs i n se n satio n an d feeli n g ; the for m e r represe n t s the

freedo m the la tter the bo n dage o f m an

, ,
He n ce i n so far as .
,

th e so u l is really m aster of itself i n so far as its s t rivi n g is ,

g u ided by the prope r i n sight i n to that which agrees with i t s

esse n ce it strive s to preserve itsel f i n p u re tho u gh t an d to
, ,

re m ove eve rythi n g that is co n trary to it A n d so we are .

bro u ght back agai n to the ol d propositio n o f Greek ethics

P hilo s op hy , o r s ci en t
ic k n owle d e , i s t h e f u n cti on of life
g an d
the hig hes t g o od .

1
[F o r bi blio g rap h y s e e W e be r Thilly 3 2 3
,
-
, ,
n o te

[Translat i o ns b y W h i t e a n d F u lle r ton ]

2
1 82 O RIGINS OF MO R A L PH ILO S O PH Y
S pi n oza sh ows th e t wofold val u e o f k n owled ge : it is on th e ,

o n e ha n d ,
th e highest freest m ost perfect activity o f li fe
, , ,

the absol u te e n d i n i tse lf ; o n the othe r ha n d i t i s a mean s ,

of freei n g us fro m th e bo n d ag e t o whic h t h e ir r atio n al m an

is subjected by hi s a e cti on s .

Th e fo u rth book o f the E thi cs regards reaso n as t he m ea n s

o f sel f preservatio n
-
There a r e t wo great scie n ces physic s
.
,

an d psychol ogy correspo n di n g t o the t w o phases o f reality

, ,

the worl d of bodies an d the worl d of ideas ( r e s i d em) .

Physics for m s the basis of t wo practical scie n ces m echa n ics

an d m edici n e psych ology ( o r t he scie n ce o f m i n d) the b asis ,

of e thics a n d politics With these fo u r practical scie n ces

.

r easo n reg u lates li fe S pi n oz a disc u sses the t w o latter

. .

Ethics i s the k n owledge of t he proper beh avi o r of th e

i n divid u al i n refere n ce to hi m self an d t o oth e r i n dividu als .

A n i m als an d as a m atter of fact m os t m e n a re deter m i n ed

, , ,

i n t heir actio n by feeli n gs ; a n ger i n ci t es t he m t o requite

i n j u ry with i n jury co m passio n i m pels the m t o assis t those i n
,

n eed an d so forth
,
Th e wise m an o n t he o t her h a n d lives
.
, ,

accordi n g to reaso n ( ex d u e tu ra ti on i s) ; he al o n e realizes the

e n d o f sel f preservatio n while those gover n e d by their feeli n g s
-
,

ofte n miss i t : t he desire fo r reve n ge am bitio n avarice , , ,

the lov e of e n j oy m e n t what ever their n a m es m ay b e

, ,

frequ e n tly le ad to r u i n H e h owever wh o is gove rn ed by

.
, ,

r easo n k n ows t he val u e a n d the m eas u re of thi n gs i n what ,

re spects they are wh oleso m e i n what har m fu l ,

He s ees t ha t .

the req u iti n g of evil with evil gives rise to lasti n g e n mity ,

ca u si n g m u tu al i n security dis t r u st n ay eve n des t r u ctio n

, , ,

while h a t red can be overco m e an d love an d frie n dship ,

prod u ce d by cal m n ess a n d ki n d n ess .

Likewise basi n g itself upo n th e k n owledge of h u m a n

n ature th e scie n ce o f politics sh ows h o w collectiv e li fe m u s t
,

be fashio n ed i n orde r th at n ot war an d i n secu rity b u t peac e ,

a n d be n evole n ce m ay be the res u l t an d tha t all may c o operat e

,
-

to preserv e an d pro m o t e life .

 1 84 O RIGINS OF MO R AL PH ILO S O PH Y
e n ce h ad t au ght m e that all the us u al surrou n di n gs of soci al
li fe are vai n an d futile ; seei n g that n o n e o f t he objec t s o f m y
fears co n tai n ed i n the m selves a n ythi n g either good o r bad ex ,

cept i n so far as the m i n d is affected by the m I n ally r esolved ,

to i n q u ire whether there m ight be so m e real good h avi n g power

to co m m u n icate itsel f which would affect the m i n d si n gly to
, ,

the excl u sio n of all else : whether i n fact there m ight be an y

, ,

thi n g of which t he discovery an d attai n m e n t wo u ld e n able m e

to e n j oy co n ti n u ous supre m e an d u n e n di n g happi n ess I say
, , .

I n ally resolved for a t rs t sigh t i t see m ed u n wise will

,

i n gly t o lose hol d o n what was sure fo r t he sake of so m e thi n g,

the n u n certai n I could see th e be n e ts which a re acquire d

.

thro u gh fa m e an d riches an d that I sho u ld be obliged to

,

aba n do n the quest o f such obj ects if I seriously devoted m y ,

self to the search fo r so m ethi n g di ff ere n t an d n e w I .

there fore debated whe ther it woul d n ot be possible t o a rrive

at the n e w pri n ciple o r a t an y rate a t a cer t ai n ty co n cer n i n g
, , ,

its existe n ce witho u t chan gi n g the co n duc t an d us u al plan of

,

m y li fe ; with this e n d i n view I m ade m a n y e ffor t s but i n ,

v ai n For t he ordi n ary s u rrou n di n gs of life which are

.

es t ee m ed by m e n (as thei r acti o n s t es t ify ) t o be the highes t

good m ay be classed u n der the t hree heads Riches Fa m e
, , ,

a n d the Pleas u res of S e n se : wi t h these three the m i n d i s so

absorbed that it h as little po wer t o reect on an y di ffere n t

good . Th e q u es t for the highest good therefore coul d n ot , ,

be reco n ciled with these thi n gs However a ft er I had

.
,

reected on th e m atter 1 cam e i n the rs t place t o t he con

,

el u sio n that these thi ngs were n o t a s I origi n ally believed , ,

certai n b u t rather very u n certai n goods n ay I n ally saw tha t

,

they w oul d have to be regarded as cer t ai n evils for they are ,

n o t o n ly n ot m ea n s of preservi n g ou r bei n g b u t eve n act as ,

hi n dra n ces cau si n g th e death n ot seldo m of those that

,

possess the m an d always of th ose wh o are possessed by the m

, .

A ll these evils see m t o have arise n fro m the fact tha t hap ,

p i n e s s o r u n happi n ess i s m ade wholly to depe n d o n the qu a lity

 M EDIE VAL A ND MO DE R N S Y S TE M S 1 85

of t he object which w e l ove Whe n a thi n g is n ot loved n o .

,

quarrels will arise co n cern i n g it n o sad n ess will b e felt if i t

perishes n o fear n o hatred ; i n S hort n o distu rba n ce of the
, , ,

m ind A ll these arise fro m the love o f what i s perish able

.
,

such as the obj ects already m e n tio n ed Bu t love towards .

a t hi n g eter n al an d i n n ite lls the m i n d wholly with

j y
o ,
a n d is itse l f u n m i n gled with an y sad n ess wherefore ,

it i s greatly t o be desired an d sough t for with all ou r

1
stre n gth .

5 This ethical philosophy was esse n t ially supple m e n ted

.

an d developed by Lord S ha ftesb u ry

2
He gives the e thics o f .

sel f preserva t io n a b roader a n thropological fou n dat io n by

-
,

aban d o n i n g t he rigid i n divid u alistic egois m o f Hobbes an d

S pi n oza an d t h u s bases virtu e u po n i m pulses an d feeli n gs
, ,

w hereas t he for m er see m to base i t solely upo n reaso n an d

calc u latio n His f u n da m e n tal con cep t io n s the begi n n i n gs o f
.
,

whi c h we n d i n m a n y other co n te m porary E n glish m oralists ,

espe ially i C berla d th e mos t i m porta n t a m o n g t he

c n u m n
3
,

oppo n e n ts of Hobbes are abou t as follows I am i n the

,
.
,

mai n followi n g the I n q u i ry con cer n i n g Vi r tu e an d M er i t 1 6 99

, , ,

co tai ed n the seco n d vol e o the C r cter i i

n n i u m f h a a s t cs
1 .

We m ay accept th e propositio n that every bei n g strives t o

preserve itsel f but m ust add : What we call an i n divid u al i s
,

n o t an i n depe n d e n t bei n g ai m i n g solely a t its o w n preserva

tio n ; the sp e ci e s alo n e is i n depe n de n t i n the fu ll se n se o f the

term the i n divid u al is related t o i t as a m e m ber t o i t s orga n
, .

This is t he case co n sidered from the purely biologic a l poi n t

,

o f vi e w : the i n divid u al owes its n a t ure an d existe n ce to th e

species ; by reproduci n g itself i t serves a s an org an for t he

preserva t io n of t he species .

1
[Tr an sl at io n i n Ro h n s Li b rary ]

[S e e G i zy ck i Di e P hilosop hi e S ha esbury s F o wle r S haftes bur y a n d

2
,

, E atche
so n Albe e S ha e s bury a n d H u tcheson (P h i l Re vie w vol
,
TE ] .
,
. .

3
[De leg zbu s na t ur es 1 6 7 2 (E n g l t r an sl b y J M ax w ell S ee E rn e s t
T
. . .
, ,

Alb e e The E thica l S yste m q icha r d C u mbe r la nd ( P hi l Revi e w vol

, .
,
. E .
]
4
[E di t e d by W Hatch 3 v ols 1 8 6 9
.
, TE ]
.
,
. .
1 86 O RIGINS OF MO RA L PH ILO S O P HY

This highly i m portan t fact which Hobbes an d S pi n oza

,

absol u tely ig n ored is also n oticeable i n the so u l li fe of the

,
-

h u m an i n divi dual His self preservative i m pulse does n o t

.
-

ai m excl u sively a t the preservatio n o f his o w n li fe but j u s t ,

as directly at the preservatio n of the species S haftesb u ry .

expresses t his tr u th as follows : t wo ki n ds of i m pulses m ay

be disti n g u ished i n m an : i n d i vi d u a li sti c an d s o ci al ; he c alls
the form er p ri v ate se lsh a e cti on s the latte r n a tu r a l ki n d
, , , , ,

; by his s ccessor Hutcheso n the latte r are

1
s oci a l a e c ti o ns u , ,

also m ore appropriately ter m ed sy mp athe ti c a ecti on s Th e .

goal to which th e selsh a ffec t io n s i m pel m an is his own

i n dividual wel fare ( p r i va te g ood ) ; the goal t o which the
social a ffec tio n s i m pel h i m is the co m m on welfare th e preser ,

vatio n of t he syste m o f which t h e i n divid u al for m s a par t

(p u bli c
g ood
) . Bo t h i m pulses are equally origi n al both ,

eq u ally roo t ed i n n ature ; it is by n o m ean s possibl e t o derive

th e social i m pulses fro m t he i n divid u alis t ic i m p u lse of sel f
preservati o n say by the rou n d abou t way of prude n ce Eve n
,
-
.

i n a n i m al lif e the i m p u lse which serves t he preservatio n o f

the species i n t he reprod u c t io n an d care of o ffspri n g is as ,

s t ro n g an d origi n al as the i n divid u alis t ic self preservative ,

-

i m pulse an d u n i form ly asserts i t self at t he expe n se of self

,

preservatio n .

In m an as a ra t io n al bei n g a thi rd for m is added t o these

tw o pri m i t ive mo t ives o f th e will ; which Shaftesbury calls
r e ex , r a ti ona l a e cti on s ; t hey are t he feeli n gs which are
produced by reectio n on h u m an ac t io n s J u s t as the con .

te m pl ati on of works of ar t produces feeli n gs of disi n teres t ed

pleas u re an d displeasure so the co n t e m pl at io n of hu m an acts
,

an d q u ali t ies aro u ses feeli n gs of a pproval an d disapproval

i n the spectat or an d he accordi n gly design a t es the m as good

,

o r bad j u st as he calls the for m er beauti ful or ugly

, We m ay .

r egard a m or a l sen se as t he s ource o f t he la t ter as w e regard

,

1
[I nq u i ry i nto the Or ig i n a l of Ou r I dea s of Bea ut y a n d V i r tu e , 1 7 2 3 ; P h ilosojo hia
mor a li s i ns ti tuti s , 1 74 5 A S ys te m of M or a l P hilos op hy , l 7 5 5 .

TR ] .
 O RIGIN S OF MO RA L PH ILO SO PH Y
are s u fcie n tly powerful to arouse the pr oper regard for th e
u n iversal wel fare .

In order t o attai n t o t r u e m oral excelle n ce ( vi r tu e) i t ,

is n ecessary t o fashio n the mor a l sen se i n t o a s t ro n g regu

lative pri n ciple Whe n co n scie n ce ( the se n se of r ig ht a n d
.

w r ong ) secures co n d u ct agai n st the u ctuatio n s of i n cli n a

tio n which occ u r eve n i n a good n atu re the n we call a m an ,

m orall y good o r virt u o u s W e shall therefore als o call a

.
, ,

m a n virt u o u s who is e n dowed wit h an u n r u ly te m pera m e n t ,

say with stro n g selsh i m p u lses whe n he gover n s his n atu re

,

accordi n g to pri n ciples ; an d the greater the resis t a n ce the ,

m ore virt u o u s we shall co n sider h i m .

Th e si m ilarity as well as the d iffere n ce be t wee n t hese co n

ce pt i o n s an d th ose of Hobbes m ay be easily see n We h ave .

the sam e fu n da m e n tal idea : that is good which m akes for

sel f preservatio n ; b u t it is the sel f preservatio n n ot of the
- -
,

isolated i n divid u al bu t of t he sp eci es or s oci ety an d withi n it

,

o f the i n divid u al ,
at which t he will ac tu ally ai m s an d by ,

which its objective value is m easured Shaftesb u ry is fo n d .

o f e m phasizi n g his oppositio n to Hobbes ; it is an oppositi o n

based n ot m erely on pri n ciples b u t likewise o n perso n al feel

,

i n gs an d j u dg m e n ts S haftesb u ry is an O pti m ist Hobbes a

.
,

pessi m is t i n his j u dgm e n t of m e n Th e latter likes to look

,
.

at the ferocio u s the for m er a t the lovable an d be n evole n t

,

S ides o f h u m a n n at u re He is fo n d of e m phasizi n g the fact

.

that there is for m an accordi n g to the experie n ce o f every

,

on e,
n o g r eater a n d p u rer h appi n ess tha n to co n t rib u te to

the happi n ess of others He n ce the social vi rtues are a direct

.

so u rce o f happi n ess t o those wh o possess the m A n d the .

lack o f the m is j u st as certai n to m ake m e n u n h appy there

co u ld be n o greater m is fort u n e fo r a m an tha n to live ab so
l u t e ly alo n e witho u t frie n ds witho u t gi v i n g a n d receivi n g
, ,

sy m pathy He n ce all feeli n gs an d q u alities which te n d t o

.

lead to s u ch a state an ger h atred e n vy cold n es s s e lsh

, , , ,

n ess are s u i t e d t o m ake their possessor u n happy And .

 M E DIE VA L A ND MO DE RN S Y S TE M S 1 89

therefore , so h e co n cl u des his I n q u i ry on Vi r tu e vi rt u e is the ,

good a n d vice the evil for every o n e

,
.

In S ha ftesb u ry we already m eet tha t amiable O pti m is m

which form s s u ch a pro m i n e n t t rait of eightee n th ce n t u ry
philosophy : God i s good ; the w orld is good ; m an is good ;
his n at u re is n o t so u n fort u n ately co n str u cted t hat the phases
esse n tial to his happi n ess m u st rs t be articially i n trod u ced
by way o f deliberatio n an d calculatio n as Hobbes m ai n ,

tai n s Th e o n ly thi n g to do is to assis t hi s real n at u re i n

.

overco m i n g all ki n ds of obstacles an d perversio n s It is this .

cred u lou s O pti m is m which Ma n deville so kee n ly criticises

i n his F a ble of t he B e e s 1
a little satire of great force to , ,

which a l o n g co m m e n tary of li ttle val u e was afterwards

added .

Moder n m oral philosophy re a ched its rst cli m ax i n S h afte s

b u ry n o n e of the esse n ti al ele m e n ts is wa n ti n g i n his syste m .

It i s t he fu n da m e n tal co n ceptio n of a n cie n t ethics e n large d

an d e n riched by the C hristia n mode o f f eeli n g a n d looki n g

at thi n gs Th e s oci al virtu es an d co n scie n ce h ave fo u n d

.

t heir appropriate place by the side of the i n divid u alistic ex

c e ll e n ce s Th e eightee n th ce n t u ry estee m ed S haftesb u ry very
.

highly ; Herder reco m m e n ded to h i s s on the I n q u i r y on

Vi r tu e as the m ost co m plete an d bes t syste m o f m orals .

G eorg v on G i zy ck i s opi n io n is : Sh a ft e sb u r y s syste m i s

the chie f syste m of E n glish ethics for all later s yste m s ,

h ave i n reality m erely s u pple m e n ted an d developed his i n

, ,

partic u lar respects without h owever ever attai n i n g to its

, , ,
2
great u n i v ersality .

6 . H u m e s E n qu i r y con ce r n i ng th e P r i n cip les of IlIor a ls

3

( 75 1 ) is co n s pic u o u s n ot so m u ch fo r the origi n ality an d

1
depth o f its th o u ghts as fo r the clear s u btle co n vi n ci n g pre , ,

1
[The F a ble f the Be e s
o ,
or P r i va te Vi ce s m a d e P u bli c Ben efi ts , 1 7 1 4 ]
2 [I u me E thi c s p 1 7

s , . .

3
[E d i te d b y S e lb y B igg e Se e also G r e e n s f Hu m e

-
. e d i tio n o s w o rk s . S e le c
t i o n s fro m Hu m e s e t h i ca l w r i ti n g s by IIy slo p

. Bi bli o g ra p h y i n \ Vb
e e r, p 4 17
n ot c T R ]
.

. .
1 90 O RIGIN S OF MO RA L PH ILO SO PHY
sc u tatio n o f th e f u n da m e n tal theory of E n glish m oral phil
osoph y j u st set forth H u m e s q u estio n is Why are certai n
.

charac t er s an d actio n s pro n o u n ced a m iable o r odio u s praise ,

W orthy or bl a m able ? He n ds a fter taki n g up th e m os t ,

I m porta n t o n es : S u ch q u alities are praised as are use fu l o r

i m m ediately agreeable t o others or ourselves their Opposites
are ce n s u red .

H u m e s t reat m e n t of ethics already shows an i n cli n ation

to n eglect th e biological fo r t he p u rely subjective vie w an d ,

accordi n gly t o substitute satisf ac t io n for preservatio n a sub ,

j ec t i v e sta n dard of val ue for t he objec t ive on e B ut this .

te n de n cy beco m es s till m ore pro n ou n ced la t er on u n der the ,

i n u e n ce of on e sided ps ychological the ories a n d reaches

-
,

its cli m ax i n J Be n th a m wh o declares : Pleasure is i n

.
,

itself a good n ay th e o n ly good ; pai n i s i n itself an evil the

, ,

o n ly evil Every thi n g else i s good o n ly i n so far as i t co n d u ces

.

t o pleas u re Pleas u re di ffers o n ly i n i n t e n sity dura t io n cer

.
, ,

tai n ty propi n qu ity fer t ility purity an d exte n t tha t is the

, , , , , ,

n u m ber o f perso n s t o who m it exte n ds o r wh o are a ffec t ed ,

by it Th e absol u t e goal an d the absolute sta n dard of all

.

val u es is therefore the greates t h appi n ess of the greates t

, ,

n u m ber However Be n th a m owes his i m por t a n ce n ot s o

.
,

m uch to his work i n theore t ical ethics as to his political an d

legisla t ive reform s ; t he pe n al l aw especi ally e n gaged hi s , ,

att e n t io n Th e pri n ciples are disc u ssed i n the w ork : In tr o

.

d u cti on to t he P r i n cip les f M or a ls

o an d L egi sla ti on ,
Ja m es Mill is closely an d also perso n ally related to Be n
tha m He deserves m e n t io n i n th e his t ory of m oral ph i l o s o
.

phy o n acco u n t of his ac u te applicatio n of t he psychology o f

associatio n to the expla n atio n of m oral phe n om e n a Th e will
2
.

o f every creat u re pri m arily a i m s a t the attai n m e n t o f pl e as u re

a nd the freedo m fro m pai n Grad u ally however t hi n gs .

, ,

which were Origi n ally desired m erely as m ea n s co m e t o b e

1 Al so fo u n d i n th e rs t v ol u m e o f t h e w o rk s , e d i ted b y J B ow ri n g, 1 8 43
. .

2 A na lys i s of the P he no me na q u ma n Ill i n al, 2 v ol s 1 82 9 .

1 92 O RIG IN S OF MO R A L P HILO SO PH Y
philosopher in the ad m irable m o n ograph : A u g u ste C omte an d
1
P o si ti vi sm .

Besides u tilitaria n i s m t here is a n o t her school of E n glish

m oral philosophy which is u s u ally called i n tu i ti on a li sm
, .

Th e for m e r explai n s the disti n ctio n s i n v al u e betwee n

h u m an m odes of co n d u c t by their effects while for t he l atter ,

good an d bad are absolute q u alities of h u m a n acts which ,

ca n n ot be explai n ed b u t c an o n ly be i m m ediately perceived ,

an d deter m i ed
n C dworth
u
2
a n d C larke advoca t e this theory
3
.

agai n st Hobbes Whewell agai n s t Mill I shall co n si der t he

4
,
.

tr u th an d falsity of this view la t er on .

Moral philosophy has received a n e w i m petus fro m t he

m ost rece n t d evelop m e n t o f t he biological scie n ces Th e .

theory of evolutio n carries u s beyo n d the s u percial r e e c

tio n s of a n aly t ical psychology t o t he biolog ical his t orical -

co n cepti on : the preserva t io n an d develop m e n t of li fe is the

goal at whi ch the will ai m s n ot pleas u re o r the feeli n g o f ,

satis fac t io n It likewise shows the i n su ffi cie n cy of the rigid

.

i n dividu alis m o f the older psychology : m orality represe n t s

the experie n ces of t he race n o t the experie n ce of the i n divid ,

u al wit h respec t t o wha t is good an d bad be n ecial an d

, ,

h arm fu l C harles Darwi n has m ad e an atte m pt a t m oral

.
5

phil osophy i n the fo u rth ch apter o f The D es cen t of M an .

1V l m IX f t h ll t d w k [Oth dh t f th i h l
o u e . o e co A
ec e or s . er a e re n s o s sc oo ar e : .

B i a n,M t l d M l S i
en a 1 86 8anA B tt P hy i l E thi 1 8 6 9 ;
ora c e nce , . a rr a , s ca cs ,

H o dg son The ory P r a ct i ce, 1 8 7 0 ; F o w le r, P r o gre ss i ve M ora li ty 1 8 8 4 ; F ow le r

f
o ,

a n d Wi lso n , P ri n c ip les of M or a ls , 1 8 8 6 1 8 8 7 W illi am Paley, The P r i n cip les of .

M ora l a nd P oli ti ca l P h i losop hy, 1 7 8 5 , i s a t h eol og i cal u t il i tari an : i rt u e i s th e V

d o i n g g o o d t o m an k i n d , i n o b e di e n ce t o t h e l a w of G o d, an d fo r t h e sa k e of

e t e rn al h a pp i n e ss TR ] . .

2
[Trea ti se co nc e r n i ng E terna l a nd I mmu ta ble M ora li ty, 1 6 8 8 . TR .
]
3
[Discou rs e c once r n i ng the Un a lte ra ble Obliga ti ons o
f N a tura l Re ligi on , 1 70 8 .

TR
4 E
[ le me n ts of M orali ty , 1 84 8 l ast e di t i o n , 1 864 . To t h e sam e sch ool b e l on g
also H C al de r w oo d H a ndbook of Mor a l P hi los op hy
.
, ,
1 8 7 2 ; 1 4 th ed ition, 1 890 ; M ar
t i n eau , Typ es f
o E thi ca l Theory , 1 8 8 5 P o r te r , E le men ts of M o r a l S c i e n ce , 1 885 .

TE ] .

[F o r an e x po si ti o n an d cri t i ci s m o f Dar w in s e th i cal v i e w s e e S ch u r m an

5
, ,
The
E thi ca l I mp or t of Da r w i n i s m S e e also i n t h i s c on n e cti on Hu xley E volut i on
.
, , a nd

E thi cs 1 8 9 3
,
TR ] . .
 ME DIE VA L A ND MO DE RN SY S TE M S 1 93

Herbe rt S pe n cer
gives a s v s t e m ati c expositi o n o f the evol a
t i on i s t i c view i n his P r in ci p l e s of E th i cs He n ry S idgwic k .

T h e M e th o d s of E t hi cs fourth editio n Leslie S tephe

( , n ,

( T h e S ci e n ce of E thi cs a n d S A lex a n de r,( M or a l Or d er .

a n d P r og r e ss 1 8 8 9 ) have also bee n i n u e n ced by this theory

, .

T H Gree n ( Th e P r o leg om e n a t o E t hi cs 1 8 83 ) a n d J Macke n

. .
, .

zie ( Ma n u a l of E th i cs 1 8 9 1 seco n d editio n 1 8 9 5) ap p rox i

, , ,

m ate the Ka n t ia n view 1

.

7 Th e n e w philosophy w as i n t rod u ced i n to Ger m a n y by

.

Leib n iz an d for m u lated i n to a syste m by Wol ff It obtai n ed

,
.

the m astery i n Ger m a n scie n ce a n d c u lt u re i n th e co u rse o f

t he eightee n th ce n t u ry drivi n g o u t a n d s u ppla n ti n g scholas
,

t ic philosophy whi ch i n the for m which it had received fro m

, ,

Mela n chtho n beca m e th e prevaili n g syste m i n the Ger m a n

,

u n iversities a fter the days of H u m a n is m an d t he Re for m atio n .

Wol ff s e n tire philosophy is characterized by its oppositio n

t o the sch olastic theological t reat m e n t of thi n gs ; this an tag

-

o n i sm i s alread y i n dicated by the title which h e gives his

rst works o n philosophical s u b j ects h e calls the m R a t i on a l
Th ou g hts a n a m e by w hich h e dees the e n tire past
,
Th e .

sam e spirit m a n i fests itsel f i n his ethics the rst syste m atic ,

editio n o f which was p u blished u n der the title R a ti on a l ,

Th ou g h ts on t he A ct i on s of Al e rt f or t he P r o m o t i on o f t he i r

Hap p i n e s s A t the ver y begi n n i n g th e fu n da m e n tal

2
,

co n cept o f m ode rn philosophy the co n cept of sel f prese rvatio n ,

-
,

is i n trod u ced i n a so m ewhat m odied fo rm as sel f perfectio n -

,

a n d the de n itio n give n That is good which m akes ou r i n n e r

as well as o u r o u te r state per fect ; the opposite is bad A n d .

e m phatically re j ecti n g a theological s u bstr u ct u re fo r m orals ,

he adds : In as m u ch as th e free acts o f m e n are good an d had

1
[Wi th t h e se t w o m ay als o b e cl asse d Brad l e y , E thi ca l S tu d i e s 1 8 7 6 ,
De w e y ,

M u i r h e ad E le me n ts of E th t cs
'

Ou tli ne s of a C r i t i ca l Theo o f E th i cs ,
1891 ; , ,
1 892 ,
s e co n d e d i t io n , 1 895 J S e th , A S t u d y of E th i ca l P u nc zp les , 1 8 9 6
. . B P Bo wn e ,
. .

P ri n cip les Of E l ll t C S ,
1 8 9 3 i s a fo l lo w e r o f L o t ze
, TR ] .

2 Ve r n u n t e G e da n lee n
g d er Ill en s che n Tha n d La ss e n Bej b r d e r u ng

von an z ur

i hre r G lu c hse ltgh e zt .

1 94 O RIGINS OF MO RA L PH ILO SO PH Y
becau se o f their e ffects an d what follows fro m the m m ust
,

n ecessarily follow a n d ca n n ot fa i l t h e y are good o r bad i n a n d ,

fo r the m selves an d are n ot rst m ade so by the will of G o d

,
.

In 1 2 t he m ost ge n eral for m u la o f d u ty is the n stated

Do th a t w hic h m akes y o u an d yo u r state a n d that o f

o thers m ore perfect re frai n fro m t ha t which m akes i t m ore
,

i m perfect ; an d i n 2 1 follows the very objectio n able state

m e n t tha t an atheist if o n ly h e i s n ot foolish a n d clearly
, ,

u n derstan ds the n at u re of free acts can easily be a virtu o u s ,

m an
.A syste m o f d u ties is t he n deduced fro m the above
form ul a i n m ore than a thousa n d paragraphs .

8 Th e reig n of Wol fan philosophy l as t ed t ill abo u t the

.

e n d o f the eightee n th ce n t u ry Its place was t ake n by th e

.

philosophy of I Ka n t 1
He prese n ts his syste m of m o
. .

r al i ty i n the F ou n d a t i on of t he IlI e ta h si cs of M o r a ls
p y ( 1 7 8 5 )
an d i n the C r i ti u e of P r a cti ca l R e as o n
q which was
followed a t th e begi n n i n g o f his ol d age by the M e tap hy si cs
, ,

f M or a ls
o

Ka n t s place i n th e his t ory of ethics m ay be d e t er m i n ed by

a co m pariso n with the E n glish i n t u itio n ists : his ethics is a

reactio n agai n s t u tilitaria n e u d ae m o n is m i n which Wol ff an d ,

H u m e t he ra t io n alistic an d e m pi ri sti cal schools co n cu rred

, ,
.

Kan t hi m self was a t rs t an e u d ae m o n ist ; as l ate as the

year 1 7 6 5 h e S poke of S haftesb u ry H u tch eso n an d H u m e , ,

as a u th ors who had m ad e the greatest progress i n the dis

c o v e ry o f t he rs t pri n ciples o f m orality an d to wh ose i n v es ,

t i gat i o n s h e wo u ld give t he n ecessary precisio n an d s u ppl e

m e n tatio n i n his lect u res a n d he e x pressly pro m ised to base

m orali ty upo n a n thropology J u st as his critical theory of

.

k n owledge was a reactio n agai n st his o wn e m piricis m which ,

had al m os t carried h i m to H u m e s sta n dpoi n t so his critical

,

ethics was a reac ti o n agai n st hi s o w n e m pirical e u d aem o n

1
[C oh en ,
K a nt s B eg r u ndung d er E thilc ;

Z e ll e r , Ube r d a s K a nti sche JI o ra lp r i n
dip S ch u r m an , K a n ti a n E th i cs a n d the E thi cs ov olu t i o n ; P o r t e r , K a nt s E thi cs ;

F ors te r , Der E n t w i clclungsg a ng d e r K a n t zsche n E thclc ; P a u lse n , K a n t TE ] . .

[S ee t h e t r an sl at i o n o f A bbo t t L on d o n
2
, fo u r t h e d it i o n , ,
1 88 9 . TE .
]
1 96 O RIGIN S OF MO RA L PH ILO S O PH Y
hi m sel f the q u estio n What w o u ld be th e m axi m o f this actio n
expressed as a u n iversal law S o m ewhat as follows : Whe n
a m an is i n wa n t o f m o n ey an d ca n n ot obtai n it except by
m aki n g a pro m ise which h e k n ows to be false h e m ay do so , .

The n h e asks hi m self the q u estio n : Is this m axi m s u ited to

be a n atu ral law i n the do m ai n of h u m a n actio n ? He will
at o n ce see tha t it co u ld n ever hold as a u n iversal law
o f n at u re b u t wo u l d n ecessarily co n tradict itsel f
,
For s u p .

posi n g i t to be a u n iversa l l aw that every o n e whe n he

thi n ks hi m self i n a di ffic u lty sh o u ld b e able to pro m ise what
ever h e ple ases with the p u rpose of n ot keepi n g his pro m ise
, ,

the p ro m ise itsel f wo u ld beco m e i m possible as well as the ,

e n d tha t on e m ight have i n vie w i n it si n ce n o o n e wo u ld

,

believe that a n ythi n g was pro m ised to h i m b u t wo u ld ,

ridic u le all s u ch state m e n ts as vai n pre t e n ces He n ce .

falsehood can o n ly occ u r as a n exceptio n n ot as a r u le o r

,

law of n atu re : i f i t were a la w o f n atu re th at every o n e

co u ld every t i m e it were to his adva n tage tell a fal seh ood
, , ,

the n n o on e would believe an y on e else an d lyi n g wo u ld

,

de feat i t sel f Th e sam e m ay be said of the ft : i f it were a

.

la w o f n at u re for every o n e to take w h a t he liked there wo u ld ,

be n o property an d theft would i f it beca m e u n iversal d e

, , ,

stroy both itself an d property .

Basi n g hi m sel f upo n this process of logical ge n eralizatio n

as t he criterio n Ka n t n ext atte m pts to deter m i n e partic u lar
,

d u ti es or rather to S how that they are i n cl u ded i n the form u la

, .

It has o fte n bee n poi n ted o u t that h e acco m plishes his p u r

pose o n ly by the m ost viole n t m ethod of proced u re i n spite ,

o f the fac t that he a fterward m akes the pri n ciple so m ewhat

m ore elastic : A ct so that thou ca n st w i ll as a ratio n al creat u re

that thy m axi m beco m e a u n iversal law of n at u re fo r co n d u ct .

By m ea n s of barre n an d o fte n sophistical arg u m e n ts he n ally

s u cceeds i n bri n gi n g all the c u sto m ary m oral laws i n cl u di n g ,

th e d u ty to strive fo r the per fectio n of sel f an d the happi n ess

o f others u n der th e for m u la His u n dertaki n g wo u ld have
,
.
 M E DIE VA L A ND M O DE RN S Y S TE M S 1 97

proved m ore s u ccessfu l had he chan ged the for m u l a as follows

Th e m oral laws are r u les which are adapted to a n at u ral legis
latio n o f hu m a n li fe tha t is r u les which if they govern ed
, , ,

co n duct as n atu ral laws wo u ld lead to the preservatio n an d

,

perfection o f h u m an li fe A n d i n a certai n se n se this is

.

Ka n t s m ea n i n g In the Cr i ti qu e of P r a cti ca l R ea s on the

.

n otio n o f a ki n gdo m of e n d s is i n trod u ced by the side of

the ki n gdo m o f n at u ral causality ; all rati o n al creat u res are

to be regarded as m e m bers of this ki n gdo m of e n ds an d the
m oral laws as its l aws of n at u re Thes e are Leib n izia n .

n otio n s : the ki n gdo m o f n at u re is gover n ed by physical

m echan ical la w s the ki n gdo m of grace by teleological ethical
,
-

laws Had Kan t m ade these n o t io n s th e cor n ersto n es of his

.

syste m his e thics wo u ld have bee n m ore fr u it fu l

, .

A fter all ethics has n ot a very serio u s fu n ctio n to perform

, ,

accordi n g t o Kan t It is n ot its b u si n ess to prescribe wha t

.

o u ght to be do n e fo r every o n e k n ows i n every case witho u t

, ,

all scie n ce wha t d u ty i s N or m us t it give reaso n s for

, .

d u ties there i s absol u tely n o reaso n why we sho u l d act th u s

o r so ; th e co m m a n ds are categorical n o t hypothetical ; i f ,

there were a reaso n fo r the m they wou ld be co n ditio n ally ,

true A ll t ha t ethics has to do is to collect the co mm a n ds of

.

d u ty t o arran ge t he m an d to e m brace t he m u n der a u n iver

, ,

sal for m u la Whe n a reviewe r ce n s u red Kan t for n o t set

.

ti n g u p a n e w pri n ciple bu t o n ly a n e w for m u la the latter

, ,

did n ot regard t his as a fau lt : Wh o h e says i n his pre face

,

to the C r i ti q u e of P r a cti ca l R eason w o u ld thi n k o f i n tro ,

d u ci n g a n e w pri n ciple of all m orality j u s t as if t he whole ,

worl d be fore h i m were ig n ora n t what d u ty was ? But who

ever k n ows o f wha t i m porta n ce t o a m ath e m atici a n a form u l a

i s will n ot m ake little o f the val u e of m y m oral for m u l a
,
.

O n ly Ka n t sho u ld h ave co m pared his for m u l a with th e m a x

,

i m s of the j u rists for the m oral for m u la by n o m ea n s aeco m

,

p li sh e s what accordi n g t o the state m e n ts i n the pre face the

, ,

m athe m aticia n s for m u l a a cco m plish es which de n es a c c u r

,

ately what is to be do n e to w ork a proble m .

1 98 O R IGIN S OF M O R A L PH ILO S O PH Y
How did Ka n t reach this for m alistic vie w ? In the rs t
place he was u n do u b t edly i n u e n ced by th e a n alogy of
,

a prioristic ratio n alis m

-
i n his theory of k n owledge Th e .

s che m a o f n at u ral philosophy th at the reaso n prescribes

laws to n atu re which possess absolute u n iversality regardless
, ,

o f the m atter of se n se perceptio n i s carried over i n to m oral

-

philosophy : the practical reaso n prescribes l aws t o the will

which posses s absolute u n iversalit y regardless of t he m at ter ,

o f se n s u o u s desir e Bu t w e m ay perhaps also discover , ,

m aterial reaso n s reaso n s based on feeli n g which had so m e

, ,

thi n g to do with his vie w Two facts m ay be m e n t ion ed on e

.
,

positive the other n egative ; t he form er t he dege n eratio n of

, ,

e u d ae m o n is m i n to a weakly se n t i m e n tal praise of vir t ue ;

t he latter the i n u e n c e of Roussea u
,
.

On e of th e n u m ero u s m oral pe riodicals of t he precedi n g

c e n t u ry i t had bee n p u blished i n Leipsic si n ce 1 7 4 5 u n der

the ti t le E rg e tzu ng en d er ver n i tnf tige n S e e le a u s d er S i t

,

te n le h r e u n d d e r G e le hr s a m lce i t u be r h a u
p t co n tai n ed i n i t s
fth vol u m e whic h was dedicated to t he Pri m e C ha n cellor
,

C o cce j i an essay e n titled

,
P r oof t ha t the Vi r tu es a r e P le a sa n t
a n d C ha r m i ng In this we read :
. Proper satis factio n with

o n e s self is the great est happ i n ess which a thi n ki n g bei n g can

procure U n less a m an be a m o n ster he will feel how

.
,

char m i n g is a vi rt u o u s deed which S pri n gs from love of

h u m an i ty ; I at least have so te n der a so u l tha t I d o n o t
possess th e powe r t o s u ppress m y feeli n gs eve n whe n I
resolve n ot to give way to the m Whe n I read books which .

vividly describe a vir t u ous act i n spired by the love of h u m a n

ity m y soul i s o fte n carried away by s u ch e m otio n s agai n st
, ,

its will Th e a u th or gives ex a m ples f ro m M a r i a n n e of
.

Mar i vau cc an d the n co n t i n u es : If the narrow S pace at o u r

,

co m m a n d per m itted u s to co n side r the partic u lar virt u es i n

detail we sho u ld n d h ow pleasan t an d char m i n g each on e is
,
.

How char m i n g is a ffability ! N othi n g is m ore pleasan t tha n

h u m ility etc In the sa m e way it is show n tha t t he vices
,
.
2 00 O R I G IN S OF MO R A L P H ILO S O PH Y
e fforts t o all u re a n d to char m an d thereby re n dered a ser
,

vice n o t to the scie n ce Of ethics it i s tru e b u t towards th e

, , ,

ed u catio n of his people .

Th e seco n d i m pet u s w as posi t ive i n charac t er ; i t ca m e

fro m Ro u ssea u It is well k n ow n i n wha t high estee m the
.

l atter was held by Kan t What attracted Ka n t to Ro u sseau ?

.

He hi m self tells us i n a passage th at reads like a n ote from

a diary : I a m m yself an i n vestigator fro m i n cli n ation I

.

feel the i n te n ses t cravi n g fo r k n owledge a n d the eager i m ,

patie n ce to m ake s o m e progress i n it as w el l as s atis fac t io n ,

with every step i n adva n ce There was a ti m e whe n I .

believed that all this m ight redo u n d to the ho n or o f m an ki n d ,

an d I despised th e r abble which k n e w n othi n g Ro u sseau .

has set m e right This boasted s u periority has va n ished ; I

.

a m lear n i n g to respect m an ki n d an d I sho u ld regard m yself,

as m u ch m ore useless tha n the co m m o n laborers d id I n ot ,

believe tha t this reectio n [occ u patio n co u ld give a val u e t o

all other occ u patio n s [n a m ely s ci e n t i c literary works ] th at is -
, ,

r e e s ta bl i s h t he r ig h ts of hu m a n i ty
-
TO r e establish the rights
.
-

o f m a n ki n d the n o f the co m m o n people this h e regards as his

, ,

tr u e m issio n an d his w ork Th e wor th of a m an depe n ds o n his

.

w i ll n o t on hi s k n owle dg e as aristocratic a n d self co n ceited c u l

, ,
-

t u re believes tha t is the cardi n al doctri n e u po n which Ka n t s

e n tire philosophy really t u rn s A n d here R o u sseau helped

.

h i m h e ta u gh t h i m a n d fo r this he was t h a n kf u l n ot t o

overesti m at e cult u re scie n ce i n short civili zatio n he S howed

, , ,

h i m tha t good n ess o f hear t a n d p u rity o f tho u ght were n o t

co n n ed to the m ost ed u cated an d m os t aristocratic t hat ,

si m ple an d stro n g d u ti fu l n ess m igh t be fo u n d j u st as o fte n ,

perhaps ofte n er a m o n g th e lowlies t

, Ka n t is followi n g .

Ro u sseau whe n h e speaks o f the m asses who are worthy o f

o u r respect . In this way alo n e his scie n tic ac t ivity whic h ,

he had form erly regarded as possessi n g absol u te worth re ,

ce i v e d its t r u e val u e i n his eyes : he c o u ld preach this grea t

tr u th an d t h u s assist i n establishi n g the rights of m a n ki n d ,

 M E DIE VA L A ND MO DE R N S YS TE M S 2 01

th e righ t s of the m asses wh o are co m m o n ly despised as the

,

rabble on acco u n t of their lack of ed u catio n A n d here we are

,
.

also re m i n ded of the fact that Ka n t hi m self o n ce belo n ged to

these m asses by birth howeve r far he m ay have rise n above
,

the m ; his pare n ts were s m all t radespeople without ed u ca ,

t io n ; but his father was a true an d u pright m an an d his ,

mothe r a wo m a n f u ll o f practical piety Ka n t s de m ocratic .

views n o t his political creed b u t his l ove of the peopl e ,

were evide n tly roote d i n the m e m ories of h is yo u th an d the

ad m i ratio n which he fel t for his pare n ts .

With all this his oppositio n to e u d ae m o n istic m orali ty had

so m ethi n g t o d o It i s the latter which gives rise t o those
.

false sta n dards whe n fo r i n sta n ce as i n Wol ff s syste m it

, ,

,

sets u p sel f perfecti on as the absol u te goal A ccordi n g t o

-
.

Wol ff a m a n s worth depe n ds upo n his per fectio n u pon his

,

,

c u lt u re lear n i n g an d t as t e This V iew which by the way

, ,
.
,

was n ot pec u liar t o t he eightee n t h ce n t u ry b u t is pres u m ably ,

m ore co m m o n i n o u r days tha n a t a n y for m er t i m e for

whe n has ed u catio n co u n t ed for so m u ch as at prese n t
his vie w which Kan t h ad o n ce accepted as a follower of
,

Wol fan ethics n o w alie n ated h i m fro m all e u d ae m o n is m

,

an d carried h i m t o the other extre m e n othi n g i n this world

is good except t he good will alo n e .

To have e m phasized this was also a grea t m eri t o f Ka n t s

,

n o t so m u ch however a m erit o f th e m oral philosopher as of

, ,

the m oral preacher It was th e re n ewal o f the great tr u th o f

.

C hristia n ity tha t before God m an i s j u dged n ot fo r what he

,

has b u t fo r wh at he is : a t r u th which every o n e sho u ld m ake

,

it his daily task to lear n .

9 Th e revol u tio n i n m oral philosophy ca u sed by Ka n t

.

coi n cided with a cha n ge i n th e Ger m a n co n ception o f li fe .

Th e ideal o f th e ill u m i n atio n u ti li ty f or s o c i e ty was

S u perseded by the ideal of G oethe s a ge p e rf e c t i o n of t h e

,

e rs on a li ty I n classical poetry e specially i n the poetry o f

p .
,

Goethe this ideal was everywhere at work as th e goal a n d the

,
2 02 O RIGIN S OF MO RA L PH ILO SO PH Y
stan dard Here too Ro u sseau s i n u e n ce was felt Th e i n
.
, ,

.

divid u al shall n ot be th e slave of co n ve n tio n al circ u m sta n ces

an d views his ed u catio n sh all n o t
,
as is n o w actu ally the ,

case c o n sis t i n trai n i n g h i m for t he r ole which h e has to play

,

i n society ; t he n at u ral capacities m u s t be developed fro m

withi n an d freely exercised accordi n g t o th e n eed s of t h e i n di
v i d u ali ty th at was the gist o f th e ser m o n which R o u ssea u ,

especially i n the Em i le preached to his co n te m poraries with

,

s u ch passion ate force Goethe too an d Herder a n d S chille r

.
, ,

a n d all of th e stro n gest a n d frees t m i n ds gave heed t o his

warn i n g A n o ther ser m o n was preached t ha t of Greek

.
,

a n tiqu ity ; n e o H u m an is m as opposed to the ol der classicis m

-
, ,

also called the age back to freedo m an d t o n at u re A n d .

the Greek i deal of li fe whic h w as n o w revived i s an aesth e t

, ,

i cal rathe r th a n a practical ideal n ot ge n eral utility but th e ,

per fectio n an d the m an ifestatio n of th e pe rso n ality i s th e

fu n ctio n of the free m an a S lave serves m erely by his work
a n d the prod u cts o f his work This view reached its cli m ax i n
.

Ro m a n ticis m its progra m m e was to despise u t ility an d prose ,

to worship th e i n divid u al an d p o e t ry i n literat u re a n d i n li fe, .

Ka n t bears a d u al relatio n to this m ove m e n t : h e is both

frie n dly an d hos t ile to it He agrees with it i n rej ecti n g u tili
.

t a ri an i s m an d e u d aem o n is m On the other han d th e worship

.
,

o f the i n dividual which always leads to a co n te m p t fo r c o m

,

m on m orality wo u ld u n d o u btedly h ave bee n extre m ely dis

,

tastefu l to h i m ; he was n ot a t all attracted t o the ge n i u s who

will ack n owledge n o l aw as bi n di n g upo n hi m self These .

t w o phases plai n ly appear i n S chiller s rela t io n t o Ka n t

.

Th e m atter i s clearly a n d disti n ctly bro u ght o u t i n th e

t reatise fi ber A n mu t h u n d Wur d e i n th e passage i n which
'

S chille r devel ops the n otio n o f the be a u tif u l s ou l He rst .

e m phasizes as t he grea t m er i t of the i m m ortal a u th or of the

K r i ti k t h a t h e has ag ai n restore d the h eal t hy reaso n by
separati n g i t fro m th e ( falsely ) phil osophizi n g re aso n an d ,

has m ade duty an d morality wholly i n depe n de n t o f i n cli n atio n

2 04 O RI GI N S OF MO RA L PH ILO S O PH Y

the Kan t ia n philosophy althou gh i n m an y respec t s it com

, , ,

l e t e l co n t radicted its so u rce : the scie n ti c arroga n ce which

p y ,

Ka n t r egarded it as his m issio n to overco e n o rder t o m i

,

es t ablish the righ t s of h u m a n i t y n eve r ourished so lu x uri
,

a n tly as i n th e syste m s o f S chelli n g a n d Hegel .

In ethics S pec u l a t ive Philosophy aba n do n s all previo u s con

c e pt i on s . Ethics had arise n as the scie n ce o f righ t co n d u ct .

For s u ch a practical discipli n e S pec u lative Philosophy s u b

s t i t u t e s t he theoretical co n te m platio n an d co n ceptual c o n

stru ctio n of m e n tal his t orical life Ethics beco m es m e n t al

-
.

scie n ce o r philosophy of history ; i t beco m es a co m pan io n

piece to n at u ral philosophy J u st as the l atter followi n g th e
.
,

Ka n tia n co n ceptio n t hat t he laws of n atu re are laws of ou r

u n dersta n di n g co n structs n a tu re o r the S phere o f cau sali ty a
,

r i or i so th e for m er co n structs his t ory o r the sphere of free

p ,

dom a p r i or i .

O f rece n t years m e n who a re far fro m accep t i n g its pri n

,

ci pl e s as
,
for ex a m ple W u n d t an d J o dl have sh ow n a high
, , ,

regard for S pec u l ative Philosophy n ot u s u al i n form er ti m es ,

.

W u n dt expresses the O pi n io n i n the pre face o f his E thi cs

, ,

th at the atte m pt s which he m akes t o approxi m ate the fu n da

m e n tal n otio n s of S pecul ative Philosophy i n his ethics will ,

also be m ade i n oth er elds of philosophical i n qui ry Per .

haps we m ay see herei n rs t of all a S ig n tha t t his phil

, ,

osophy has al m ost beco m e historical i n G er m a n y If i n stead .

o f leadi n g a retired li fe i n d u sty books it w ere an activ e ,

livi n g rival for the co n t rol of ou r t ho u gh t s the attit u de of ,

t hese thi n kers woul d pres u m ably be an e n t i rely di ffere n t on e .

Nor is t h a t which m eets thei r approval i n these sys t e m s what

the syste m s the m selves extolled as their peculiar m eri t
n a m ely t he m ethod of
,
scie n tic ded u ctio n an d de m o n str a
t io n .

Th e idealis t ic m o n is t ic co n cep t io n o f the u n iverse is an ol d

-

philosophical heritage an d n o t m erely a prod u ct of the S pec

,

u l at i ve Philosophy a n d its m ethod N ay perhaps it m ight be .

,
 M E DIE VAL AN D MO DE R N S Y S TE M S 2 05

show n that this m e thod has co n t ribu t ed i n n o s m all degree , ,

to th e co n te m p t i n w hich t ha t co n ceptio n has bee n hel d i n

Ger m a n y duri n g t he last h alf of the ce n t u ry Th e pecu liar .

characteristic of t he Hegelia n philosophy is its co n t e m pt for

the ca u sal i n vestigati o n of thi n gs an d its s u bs t itu tio n o f the ,

co n ceptual logical m ethod ; which is equ i vale n t to despisi n g

-

scie n ce itsel f fo r all scie n ce with the exceptio n o f m athe

, ,

maties which is n ot a scie n ce of facts ai m s at the discovery

, ,

o f cau sal co n n ectio n s Th e sa m e may be said o f practical

.

philos ophy ; its m ethod o f i n ves t igatio n is the teleological

m ethod the i n versio n of the cau sal i n ves t igatio n
,
A nd .

ex actly t he s a m e u n fru itfu l n ess which characterizes spec u l a

t ive ph v s i cs ch aracterizes specul ative ethics Take Hegel s .

Na tu r r e cht 1 (1 8 2 1 ) an d i t s e m pty j u ggli n g with co n cepts ;

t he i n vestig at io n of i n s ti t utio n s an d form s fro m th e stan d
poi n t of their e ffec t s u po n hu m an li fe i s ridiculed as a shallow
argu m e n t atio n of t h e u n ders t an di n g ; i n stead t he reader ,

receives t h e si m ple ass u ra n ce : It follows fro m the co n cept

of t he state o r of t he righ t o r o f th e m o n archy
,
A n d with ,
.

t his i s co nn ec t ed the ex t re m e revere n ce which t hese thi n kers

have fo r t he for m s of historical life for the state for the , ,

r igh t : as tho u gh t hes e for m s an d n ot the co n crete perso n al

li fe which thrives i n t he m were th e thi n g of absol u te worth !

Th e u n derrati n g o f wh a t Ka n t regards as the tr u ly m oral
ele m e n t the goo d will likewise co n n ects itself with this
, , .

1 1 In stead of givi n g a detailed acco u n t o f Hegel let m e

.
,

se t forth the fu n dam e n t al pri n ciples of the ethics of S chl eier

m a cher s o far as t h at can be do n e b ri e y
,
2 .

1
[Sel ect io ns fro m t h i s w or k t ra n sla t e d b y S t e rr e t t u n d e r t h e t i tle , The E thi cs
o
f H ege l . F or b i bli og rap h y s ee We b e r-T h illy , pp 4 9 6- 7 TE .

2 E n twurf e i nes S ys te ms de r S i tte nlehr e ( S hetch qf a S yste m of lll or a ls ) e d i t e d

-
,

fr om hi s l i t er ary re m a i n s b y A
S ch w e i t ze r 1 8 3 5 ; a fe w a c a d e m i c t re a t i se s i n
.
,

t h e s e c o n d v o l u m e o f t h e p h i lo so p hi cal w r i t i n gs D i e c hr is tli che S t tte na ch d e n

.

Gr un ds citz e n d e r e va nge li s ch e n K i r che ( Chr i sti a n Ill o r a ls a ccord i n

g to the P r i n
'

c ip les o f the E va nge li ca l C hur ch ), e d i te d b y L J o n as , 1 8 4 3 ,

. d i s cu ss e s t h e s a m e
t o p i cs , o ft e n m o re con c r e t e l
y a n d fr u i t fu lly t h an t h e p h i lo s o p h ic a l e t h i cs
[DIG
p hi los op hi s che E thi k, e di t e d by Tw e s t e n ] .
2 06 O RIGIN S OF MO RA L PH ILO SO PHY
In a t rea t ise discussi n g the di ffere n ce be t wee n t he n at u ral
an d the moral l a w S chleier m acher adva n ces t h e view tha t
,

t h e theory is i n adeq u ate which regards the m oral law s as

merely prescribi n g wha t o u gh t t o be for i n tha t cas e ,

ethics wo u ld be a scie n ce of the n on existe n t ; b u t just as -

th e n at u ral law i s the expressio n o f the behavior of so m ethi n g

real the m oral law m u s t represe n t an ac t ual occu rre n ce
,
.

This real thi n g is the e e ct o f re aso n upo n n a t ure N at u re .

an d reaso n so the S i tt en le hr e teaches m aterial an d spiri t ual

, ,

bei n g co n stit u te th e greatest an tithesis wi thi n the sphere o f

,

u n iversal reality ; the for m er is the obj ec t of al l n atu ral

s c i e n t i c t he latter the object o f all me n t al s ci e n t i c k n owl
,
-

edge A ll k n o wledge is t wofold i n for m : spec u lative or

.

co n te m plative an d e m pirical o r observatio n al Thus S chlei

,
.

e r m a ch e r ob t ai n s t he fo u rfold classicatio n : co n t e m plative

k n owledge of n atu re or doctri n e of n atu re (physics ) ; ob se r
,

v at i o n al k n owledge o f n at u re o r n a t u ral history ; co n te m

,

l a t i v e k n owledge of t he actio n o f reaso n or the scie n ce of

p ,

m orals (ethics ) ; an d observatio n al k n owledge o f the ac t io n

o f reaso n or the scie n ce of history
,
Ethics there fore bears
.
, ,

the s am e relatio n t o history as speculative physics to t he

scie n ce o f n atu re or cos m ography : it de n es i n ge n eral t he
actio n o f reaso n upo n n at u re which t he scie n ce o f his t ory
,

i n vestigates i n detail 1 .

Th e actio n of reaso n u po n n at u re m ay be regarded as

t w o fold : as org an i zi ng a n d sy m bo li zi ng
-
By ac t i n g u po n .

thi n gs r easo n m akes t he m th e i n s t r u m e n ts o f n e w e e cts .

Bu t i n s o far as i t gives a t hi n g for m by m ea n s of every

e He ct reaso n makes t he thi n g i t s sy m bol i n which it ex
, ,

presses itself a n d through which it is recogn ized There i s

2
.

a n othe r a n ti thesis : reaso n exists an d acts i n i n divid u als as

,

o n e a n d t he s a m e an d o n the other ha n d as a e cu li a r a n d
p
i n d i vi d u a l ly d i s ti n ct r e a son Th is a n ti thesis r u n s parallel
.

with th e o n e m e n t io n ed above an d so we agai n have t h e ,

1 5 8 If .
2 1 2 4 ff .
2 08 O RIGIN S OF MO RA L PH ILO S O PH Y
Th e wo n derfu l skill wi th which S chleier m acher n o t u n like ,

a far seei n g chess virtu oso m oves h is co n cepts aro u n d u n til

-
, ,

the whole o f reality is s u rro u n ded an d check m at ed as i t were ,

has so m ethi n g fasci n ati n g i n it whe n o n e follows his m oves

with cred u lo u s an d patie n t atte n t io n : i t is r eally wo n derfu l
t o see h o w appare n tly the m os t re m ote thi n gs obedie n t t o ,

t he will of the m aster readily sub m i t t hemselves t o t he mos t

,

surprisi n g arra n ge m e n ts an d relatio n s which t he magi c wan d

o f his dialectics assign s to t he m Bu t aft e r t u rn i n g o n e s
.

back u po n the ga m e an d agai n l ooki n g a t th e r eal world on e ,

is apt to feel tha t n o perm a n e n t gai n results fro m the l abo r

u t for t h : t h e whole t hi ng is merely an i n ge n ious gam e
p .

Lotze co n cl u des his expositio n of S chleierm acher s aesthe t ics

with the words : If it be praised as a m odel of ac u t e dia

l e cti cs I hope t ha t t he predilectio n for t his sor t o f pe rfor m

,

an ce s which tak e n o real i n t eres t i n t he esse n ce o f t he subj ect

, ,

b u t beco m e logical exercises an d por t ray an am o r ph oti cally

,

distorted pictures fro m t hei r obsti n at ely chose n seco n dary

1
stan dpoi n ts will gradually disappea r i n Germ a n y
,
This .

hope was realized eve n before it was ex pressed .

1 2 Th e m oral philosophy of J F Herbar t prese n t ed i n

. . .
,

o u tli n e i n the G en er a l P r a cti ca l P hi losop hy 2

for m s a .

co m ple t e an ti thesis t o th e specu l ativ e trea t m e n t o f the sub

e ct i n so far as it wholly separate s e t hics fro m t he th e or e t i
j ,

cal scie n ces fro m m e t aphysics an d an thropology However

, .
,

it also agrees wi t h t he speculative m e thod i n tha t i t wholly

aban do n s t he old for m of i n ves t igat io n ; i t m akes ethics sub
s i d i a ry t o aesthe t ics Herbart assu m es th e sta n dpoi n t of the
.

p u re observer : h u m an acts an d m o t ives aro u se i n t he S p e cta

tor feeli n gs of pure aes th etic pl eas u re an d displeas u re ; these
are absolu t ely i n depe n de n t o f his i n terest : he m ay as a
spec t at or be pl eased with the act which fro m the sta n dpoi n t
of his i n t eres t he despises ; i n so far he calls it morally good ;

1 H i s tory of E s the ti cs ,
p 166 . .

2 A llg eme i ne p ra kti s che t los op hie .

 MEDIE VA L A ND MO DE RN S Y S TE MS 2 09

an d he my
co n versely call h ad wha t pleases an d t e m pts h i m
a , ,

a s an appe t itive bei n g Ge n era1 ae sthetics has fu rther c on

.

v i n ce d Herbar t t hat particular ele m e n ts as s u c h n ever please

or displease but always as rela t io n s

,
A n d so he co m es to ask .

th e ques t io n which co n stit u tes t he proble m o f ethics : Wh a t

r e la ti on s of t he wi ll p le a se or d i sp le a s e u s ? He discovers ve
s uch f u n da m e n tal relatio n s : ( 1 ) Th e h ar m o n y betwee n the

will an d the m oral j u dgm e n t o f the sa m e pe rso n ; ( 2 ) Th e

grea t e r by the side of the s m aller the stro n ge r will by the side ,

of t he weaker ; ( 3 ) Th e har m o n y betwee n the wills o f two

p e rso n s al l these relat io n s please us ( 4 ) Th e co n ict

,
.

be t ween t wo wills displeases us while (5) Th e req u iti n g o f ,

good with good an d evil with evil pleases us Herbart the n .

a dor ns t hese ple a si n g relatio n s with t h e n am e of ideas : ideas

o f i nn er freedo m o f perfec t io n ,
of be n evole n ce of law of , , ,

jus tice an d bases u pon the m the for m s of collective life : the
,

legal order th e wage sys t e m the ad m i n istrative syste m the

, , ,

sys t em of civilizatio n the a n i m ated socie ty ,

.

I shall refrai n fro m criticisi n g t his co n ceptio n o f the m or al

phe n o m e n a In my opi n i o n it is as f u tile i n its ge n eral aspects
.
,

a s i t is forced an d laborio u s i n the de t ails He r b a r t s i n .

a bili t y t o a pprecia t e t he real an d the livi n g his i n capacity ,

fo r co n s t r u cti n g a u n ied syste m o f tho u ght which by the , ,

way i s partly d u e t o his aversio n to t he S pec u lative philosophy

,

o f his co n t e m poraries an d their ex t re m e m o n istic te n de n cies ,

is n owhere so pro n ou n ced an d i n t olerable as i n his atte m pt

t o break u p e thics i n to t his co n glo m eratio n o f so called ideas -
.

1 3 A S chope n hauer 1 prese n ts his co n ceptio n o f li fe i n

. .

the fourth book of the Wor ld a s Wi ll a n d I d ea ; he m akes 2

an atte m pt to co n s t ruc t a moral philosophy i n his essay o n

th e F ou n d a ti on of M or a ls which t oge the r with the treatise

, ,

o n t h e F r ee d om of t he W i ll was p u blished i n 1 8 41 u n der the

,

t i tle : The Two F u n da men ta l P r oblem s of E th i cs Th e rs t .

1
[F or bi bl iog raphy see We b e r Th ill y
-
, p 54 4
.
]
2
[Tran slat i o n by Hal d a n e and Ke m p ]
14
 O RI GIN S OF MO RAL PH ILO S O PH Y
vol u m e of the P a r erg a an d P a r a lip om en a co n tai n s Ap hor ism s
on W o r ldl
y Wi sd om whi ch tho u gh fu ll o f ac u te observatio n s
, , ,

is n ot i n accord with the pri n ciples o f his syste m Th e .

syste m rests upo n the pessi m istic view of li fe Life is si n .

an d s u fferi n g a n d n ot to live is there fore better tha n t o live

, .

S e lsh n e s s i n te n sied i n m alice is the charac t eristic of the

, ,

n at u ral will Thi s m ode o f co n duct i s overco m e i n co m pas

.

sio n In so far as pity is th e m otive of a ctio n i t h as m oral

.
,

worth A n ac t is called good whe n i t has as i t s m otive

.

co m passi o n fo r the s u fferi n gs o f others bad whe n th e , ,

a ge n t rej oices at the woe o f others o r at leas t atte m p t s to ,

pro m ote his o w n welfare at the expe n se of tha t of others .

Th e disappeara n ce o f the i m p u lses which a i m at i n divid u al

wel fare co n seq u e n tly i s favorable to m oral progress In th e .

sai n ts of C hristia n ity an d B u ddhis m the selsh i m pu lses are

e n tirely s u ppressed an d thei r hearts t h u s O pe n ed t o pity ;
,

they the m selves are u n affected by su fferi n g disappoi n tm e n t , ,

fea r a n xie ty an d wa n t ; with deep sy m pathy t hey view thei r

, ,

brothers who are still ghti n g the useless b attle for the vai n
goods o f thi s world .

I do n ot wish to e n t e r u po n a criticis m o f this th eory at

this poi n t ; we shall n d an O ppo rt u n ity for tha t later on .

Bu t I sho u l d like t o say a fe w w ord s with respec t t o S chope n

hau er s perso n al relati o n t o the m orali ty of his syste m

.

It has o fte n bee n poi n ted ou t t hat there i s n o har m o n y

betwee n S chope n hauer s sys t e m an d his life Th e syste m

.

reco m m e n ds r e n u n ciatio n of t he world an d n egation of t he

will t o live ; hi s li fe shows n othi n g of the ki n d ; he does n ot
- -

lead th e life of an ascetic sai n t b u t o f an Epic u rean wh o ,

m akes a study o f good livi n g ; l ook at t he lis t o f good thi n gs

which he placed be fore his will as m otives whe n a fter leav ,

i n g Berli n h e w as casti n g abo u t for a per m a n e n t place of

,

reside n ce an d was waveri n g bet wee n Fra n k for t an d Man n

,

hei m 1 In his syste m he praises co m passio n ; b u t he see m s

.

Lif e , 2 d e d i t i o n , p 3 9 1

I G wi n n e r , S chop e nha u er s . .
212 O RIGIN S OF MO RA L PH ILO SO PH Y
the blessed n ess of the life o f pure k n owledge as purely an d
deeply as any thi n ke r before h i m n ay perhaps m ore deeply ,

tha n an y o t her o n e on a cco u n t of the co n tras t betwee n the

,

i n tellectual side O f his bei n g an d his restless u n happy , ,

volitio n al li fe He can describe the t ran quilli ty the peace

.
, ,

an d the j oy of solitary co n te m pla t io n o f th e quie t com m u ,

n io n with t ho u ghts i n t he m os t affecti n g ma n n er

,
.

Durer has pictured t his s t a t e of blessed n ess i n a wo n der

fu l pai n ti n g : S ai n t Je ro m e is seat ed i n a quie t wai n sco t ed ,

ch a m ber t he cheerful su n ligh t falli n g through t he ro u n d pa n es

,

upo n th e w all of the deep wi n dow n ich e Th e co m pan io n s -

.

o f the S ai n t t he lio n an d t he d og a n ge r an d desire are

, , ,

lyi n g side by side pe a cefully sleepi n g u po n t he oor ; we

,

hear their deep q u ie t brea thi n g A gourd which is sus

,
.
,

pe n ded fro m the ceili n g a sk u ll which is lyi n g o n t he , ,

wi n dow sill diffuse abou t t he m the still n ess whi ch proceeds

-
,

fro m thi n gs per fectly m a t ured an d re m oved fro m t he t urm oil

o f the worl d A h appy t hough t has j u st seized t he S ai n t an d
.
,

he be n ds forward i n order t o se t i t dow n i n writi n g ; s oo n

,

h e will lean back agai n an d lose hi m self i n co n te m platio n .

A pic t ure produci n g a re m arkable effec t u po n the th oughtfu l

o b se r ve r l i t shows t h e wo n der ful powe r o f real ar t t o ex

press a world of t h ou ghts an d feeli n gs i n a si n gl e perceptio n .

How poo r by t he S ide of i t see m s th a t ar t which feeds on

i m ita t i o n which whe n i t has t he t ask of portrayi n g solitude
, , ,

sile n ce an d philosophy hi t s upo n the pla n of represe n t i n g

, ,

a m ore o r less aged allegorical femal e g u re !

,

S chope n ha u er migh t have sa t as Dii re r s m odel for this

pic t u re Freed from all desires an d cares pursui n g hi s o w n

.
,

tho u gh t s he e n j oyed happy h ours wi thou t hurry an d worry

, , ,

w itho u t fear an d h atred Bu t the n ca m e o ther t imes ; t he

.

beasts which see m ed t o h ave bee n e n tirely t amed rose u p

agai n destroye d his peace an d lled his life with t rouble
, ,

an d a n xi ety A n d he was helples s agai n st the m ; he o fte n

.

says s o hi m self : i t i s a c u rio u s bu t u n do u bted fac t t ha t the

 ME DIE VA L A ND MO DE RN S Y S TE MS 213

c leares t k n owledge of th e perverse n ess o f t he will can prod u ce

n o ch a n ge i n i t .

This e n ables us t o u n ders t a n d his e t hical syste m : i t is t he

co n fessio n of his faili ngs an d si n s i t is t he yearn i n g of his
,

be t ter self for delivera n ce fro m the co m pan io n to who m i t

n ds i t self y oked .

A l l t his i s n ei t he r s u rprisi n g n or u n us u al Fro m wh at

.

S ho u l d a m an seek t o be delivered if n o t fro m hi m sel f ?

Petrarch writes De con t emp tu m u n d i an d praises the freedo m

an d si m plicity o f t h e shepher d an d peasa n t li fe i n the re m o t e

valley : h e lives a t t he courts of t he spiri t ual an d sec u lar

lords purch asi n g par t icipatio n i n thei r l u x u rious pl eas
,

u res with a tt ery ; he wa n ders t hro u gh t he cities of Fra n ce

an d Italy i n orde r to i n toxicate hi m self wi t h t he fragra n ce

o f his fa m e .He praises pure love an d u n selsh frie n dship : h e

lives with beau t i ful w o m e n an d hi s frie n ds are the h e r al de r s
,

o f his fa m e o r assis t h i m i n his chase for b e n e ce s

, He .

i n veighs agai n s t e n vy an d ca n n o t pro n ou n ce t he n am e of

,

Dan te becaus e he ha t es him as a rival

,
Is he a liar ? N o t
.

a t all ; he t horoughly apprecia t es the val u e o f t he t hi n gs

which h e prai ses h e really feels a yearn i n g for t h e m b u t

, ,

h e i s likewise attracted to t h e va n ities of life G V oight . .

,

fro m whos e m asterly ch aract eriza t io n I have t ake n th e

above ele m e n ts prese n ts us with a delicate an d faithfu l
,

pic t ure of h i m i n his Hi story of th e R evi va l of C la ssi ca l

A n ti q u i ty
.

Th e gaze wh ich he t u r n ed i n ward was kee n
e n o u gh t o pe n etra t e the abyss o f va n ity t o its very depth .

The n he shuddered a t his o wn s ou l an d ye t co u ld n o t tear

,

his love away fro m it He desired to b ri n g i t i n t o harm o n y

.

with i t s ideals an d bega n t he erce s t r u ggl e with hi m self ;

,

b u t h e n eve r got beyo n d the deter m i n ed m ie n a n d th e a n gry

word ; he co u l d n o t tur n the sh arp weapo n which seeks
t h e hear t o f the oppo n e n t agai n st his beloved self He .

i m agi n ed tha t he was doi n g pe n a n ce i n thi n ki n g an d writi n g ,

b u t al l his thi n ki n g an d writi n g S i m ply i n t e n sied his self

214 O RIGIN S OF MO RAL PH ILO S O PH Y
love This vai n so u l which he desired t o ha t e h e n ally
.
, ,

loved all the m ore o n acco u n t o f its re m orse an d its pai nfu l
s t ruggles .

S o Rousseau : h e preached agai n s t the corr u p t io n o f m orals ,

an d poi n t ed o u t the way t o n a t ural educatio n : h e li ve d with

a co n cubi n e an d se n t his childre n to a fou n dlin g asyl u m n ever ,

t o hear of th e m agai n Was he a liar . C er t ai n ly n o t His .

passio n fo r n atural an d p u re hu m a n r ela t io n s was perfectly

S i n cere ; h e really fel t t h e degradatio n o f u n n atural relatio n s ,

i n which he had waded up t o his k n ees ever si n ce his youth ,

m ore kee n ly tha n any o n e o f his co n te m porarie s A m an .

tha t has n ever bee n sick does n ot k n o w wha t h e alth is Th e .

h u n chback i s t he m ost si n cere ad m ire r o f a s t raigh t back ,

t he bashf u l m an o f fra n k ope n n ess the coward of m artial ,

courage Was e v e r a m an m ore i n l ove with b ravery than

.

Joh n Fals t aff ? Di d ever a m an pra t e more of pri n cely

vir t ue an d royal duties than C arl E u ge n of Wii rte m b e r g "
A n d wh a t n atio n speaks more o f civic vir t ue an d republica n
se n ti m e n t s t ha n t he Fre n ch
I o n ce he a rd a proverb f u ll of profou n d m ea n i n g : Th e m an
wh o ri n gs th e bell ca n n o t m arch i n th e processio n .

1 4 Th e age o f S pecul a t ive Philosophy was followed i n

.

Ger m a n y by an a ge of absol u t e co n t e m p t for philosophy .

His t oricism t he devo t i o n t o de t ails do m i n a t ed scie n ce for

, ,

a fe w decades Metaphysics an d ethics were fo rgo t te n

. .

Of l a t e t he i n t eres t i n t hese subj ec t s is revivi n g It i s bei n g

.

ce n t red on e thics from t wo sides Th e moder n biological .

theory propou n ds t he ques t io n : Ho w did c u sto m an d m oral

ity aris e an d what i s their i m por t i n t he eco n o m y o f the
,

n atio n s an d the i n divid u al ? On th e othe r ha n d t he n e w ,

social scie n ce s i n vi t e u s t o t ake up t he ulti m ate proble m s

co n cer n i n g the vocat io n of m an an d the co n ditio n s o f its
realizatio n He n ce i t h appe n s tha t eve n j u ris t s an d political
.

e co n o m is t s physiologi sts an d a n t hropologists are begi n n i n g

, ,

t o philosophize agai n i n o u r days .

 BOOK II

F UNDA ME NTA L C O N C EP TS A ND Q U E STIO N S OF

P RIN C IPLE
 If any m an i s a ble to con vi n ce m e a nd s h ow m e tha t I d o n ot

thi n k o r a ct r i ght, I w ill gla d ly ch a n ge ; f or I seek th e tr u th , by

wh i ch no m a n was e ver i nj u re d . B u t h e i s i nj u r ed wh o a bi des in

hi s er ror a n d i gn ora n ce . MA RCU S AU RE LI U S .

220 C ON C E P TS A ND PRIN C IPLE S
7 . PS Y
t has tyyq phases wi ll an d i n tellige n ce Th e
RUi fe , .

w ill m an ifests itself i n strivi n gs an d feeli n gs tM te lli ge n c e ,

i n se n satio n perceptio n an d thi n ki n g

, ,
.

8 Biological an d evolutio n istic reectio n s reveal the will

.

as th e pri m ary an d radical ele m e n t of psychical life Life

w
.

origi n ally co n sis t s i n bli n d s t ri v i n g wi thou t prese n ta t io n of ,

e n ds an d mean s Th e i n tellige n ce m a n ifes t s i t sel f as a sec

.

on d ary develop m e n t a s a grow t h like i t s physiologic a l phe

, ,

n om e n o n t he n ervous sys t em an d br a i n
, .

9 Psychology a lso S how s th e will t o be th e pri m ary ele

.

me n t A specic will aimi n g at a p a r t icular for m of li fe

.
, ,

ma n ifes t s i t sel f as t he i n n e r e sse n c e of m an as well as of

every li vi n g bei n g Th e will t o live t he will to live a specic
.
- -
,

li fe i s n ot t he resul t of pre vi ous k n owledge or of the e x p e r i

,

e n ce which we gai n of i t s wor t h th rough feeli n g .

1 0 Th e develop m e n t of t he will m ay b e ch arac t erized by

.

th ree stages : impuls e desire an d will i n the n a rrower , ,

se n se Th e go al at which i t aims i n each of th e three stages

.

is t he preserv at io n an d promo t io n of i n dividual an d ge n eric

life.

1 1 Th e origi n al form of t he will is bl

.

i mp u l s e i n con

s ci ou sn es s i t appears as a fel t s t rivi n g In case the cravi n g .

is satised t he s u ccessful ac t ivity is acco m pa n ied by p le asu r

,

able feeli n gs ; i n case i t is obs t ruc t ed pai n e n s u e s ,

.

1 2 S e n suous desire i s i m puls e acco m pa n ied by the percep

.

t ion of the objec t or idea of th e moveme n t a t which i t ai m s .

It presupposes a certai n develop m e n t o f i n t ellige n ce an d a

fusio n of will an d idea Th e sat isfac t io n or i n hibi t io n of the
.

desire i s likewise a cc omp an ied by pleasu ra ble or pai n ful

feeli n gs .

1 3 Will i n t he n a rro we r se n se o r r aM
.
, yvi ll is desire , ,

de t er m i n ed by purposes pri n ciples an d ide als It arises i n m an

, ,
.

a s the h i gh e st de vel opm e n t o f th e w ill whe n the i n tellige n ce

/ u
,

devel ops i n t o ratio n al sel f co n scio u s tho u gh t Th e will b e

,
-
.

co m es co n scio u s of i tself i n t he practical ideal of life Feel .

 I N TRO DUC TION 22]

i n gs of sat is fac t io n acco m pa n y co n d u c t which co n for m s to the

ideal while acts ou t of harm o n y with t he ideal aro u se feeli n gs
,

o f dissatis factio n .

1 4 Th e ratio n al will gover n ed by an ideal s u bjects the

.
, ,

lower for m s of w ill i m pulse an d desire which persist eve n

, , ,

i n m an as n atural predispositio n s to co n sta n t criticis m an d to

,

a process of selectio n This criticis m w e call co n scie n ce

. .

Th e fac u lty o f ed u cati n g an d discipli n i n g the n at u ral will by

m ean s o f the ratio n al will i s called freedo m o f the will A .

bei n g who th u s con tr O l s his i n n er life i s called a perso n al

bei n g .

1 5 Th e relatio n o f will t o feeli n g m ay be expressed as

.

follows : Every act of will i s origi n ally also an e m otio n an d ,

co n versely every e m otio n i s a t t he sa m e t i m e posi tive or

,

n egat i ve willi n g . In feeli n g t he will beco m es co n scio u s o f

,

itself of its ai m an d o f i t s co n ditio n Feel i n g is n ot t h e

, ,
.

ca u se of the act of will th e will is already prese n t i n feeli n g

,

as i n i t s m a n ifestatio n .

1 6 In the higher s t ages o f develop m e n t t h e rel at io n i s

.
,

so m ewhat di ffere n t Here we h ave volitio n s which are n ot at

.

the sam e ti m e feeli n gs A resol u tio n or decisio n t o do so m e

.

thi n g m ay take place witho u t bei n g acco m pan ied by feeli n g ;

i n deed it m ay be opposed t o the i m m ediate feeli n g C o n
, .

v e r se l y we have feeli n gs especially aesthe t ic feeli n gs which

, , ,

are n o lo n ger m otives o f the w ill although t he w ill i s s till ,

m irrored i n the m .
 C H A PTER I

G OOD A ND BA D . TE L E OL OGI C AL A ND F ORM ALISTIC

C ONC E PTION S 1

1 . was sai d be fore ( p

AS two proble m s fo rm ed the .

origi n al starti n g poi n t o f ethi cal g e e ct i on ; the sa m e two

-

p roble m s m u st i n variably carry th e thi n ki n g m an back to

ethics agai n Th e rst S pri n gs fro m the f u n ctio n o f m oral
.

j u d g m e n t : Wha t i s t he u lti m a te g r ou n d of m or a l di sti n cti o n s ?

Th e seco n d has its origi n i n the volitio n al an d active n ature
Of m an : Wha t i s t h e u lti m a t e e n d of w i ll a n d a ct i on ?

Th e rst q u estio n as o u r historical revi ew has show n gives

, ,

rise to t wo th eorie s the t e le olo gi ca l an d the f or m a l i sti c Th e

, .

for m er explai n s th e d i ff ere n ce betwee n good an d bad by the

e ffects which m odes of co n d u ct a n d acts of will n at u rally
p rod u ce upo n th e li fe o f the age n t an d his surro u n di n gs .

A cts are called good whe n they te n d to preserve an d pro m ote

h u m a n wel fare ; bad whe n they te n d to d ist u rb an d destroy
,
.

it For m alisti c ethics o n the other h a n d cl ai m s th at th e

.
, ,

co n cepts good a n d h ad take n i n thei r m oral se n se design ate , ,

a n absol u te q u ality o f t h e will witho u t an y regard to the ,

e ffects o f acts or m odes o f co n duct ; that this qu ality can

n o t b e f u rth er ex plai n ed b u t m u st be accepted as a fact ,
.

1
[F o r t h e t e l e o l o g i cal M ill Ut i li ta r i a n i s m ch ap II ; S p e n c e r Da ta
v i ew : , ,
. .
,

E h cs , c h a s I I II ; S i dg w i ck [Me tho ds of E th i cs 4 2 0 ff ; S t e p h e n S c i e n ce of
f

o t i
p . .
, ,
.
,

E th i cs , c h a p s I V , V ; Ho ff d i n g , E thi k V IL ; E th i s che P r m c zp ze n le hr e ,

. . .
,
c h ap .

IV ; al so I n t J ou rna l of E l /l l C S ,
. . 1 8 9 0 (Oct o b e r ) ; J h e r i n g , De r Zwech i m REC /l l ,
v ol I I.
pp 9 5 ff ;
. W u n d t E l
. h i l
c ,
P a r t III,,
c h a p I I IV A g a i n s t t h e t e l e ol o g i
. . .

ca l v i e w : A
b b o tt s t r an sl at i o n o f K an t s E t h i cs , pp 9 ff

L e ck y, H i s tory of .

E u r op e a n M o ra ls , c h ap I B r a dl e y E th i ca l S t u d i e s ; M a r t in e a i i , Typ e s o
f E th i
T
. .
,

ca l The or y ,
v ol . II G all w i t z, Da s P r o b/e m d e r E th i k i n d er Geg e n wa r t . R .
]
 2 24 C ON C E P TS A ND PRIN C IPLE S
theory of the u n iverse fro m which this for m of e t hics t akes its
rise the P la to ni c A r i stote li a n p hi lo sop hy Its fu n da m e n tal
,
-
.

idea i s th at every bei n g an d he n ce also m an h as a purpose , , ,

i n the u n iverse This p u rpose an d the for m s an d fu n ctio n s of

.
,

li fe arisi n g therefro m it is the b u si n ess of ethics to ascertai n , .

I have coi n e d the ter m e n e rg i sm i n order to bri n g m y ,

view i n to S harp co n trast with he do n is m : the en d of the will

i s n ot feeli n g bu t actio n It s rese m bla n ce to A ris t otle s
,
.

e ep y e i a m ay also serve to re m i n d us of th e origi n o f the c on

v

cep t Th e word we lfa r e n ally see m s s u ited t o desig n ate

.
, ,

the h i gh e s t goo d i n its t wo fol d aspec t : it shows rs t tha t , ,

the highest good is an ob j ective co n t e n t o f life co n sis t i n g i n ,

the perfec t exercise of all h u m a n psychical powers ; th e n i t

also suggests th at such a l ife i s acco m pa n ied with pleasure ,

an d he n ce that pleasure i s n ot e xcluded fro m t he perfec t life ,

bu t i n clud ed i n it .

2 I shall rs t a tt e m p t t o show wh at t h e t e le ol og i ca l t he o ry
.

m ea n s an d give reaso n s for i t

,
Pop u l a r Opi n io n i n cli n es .

m ore to the for m alistic view : A c t s ar e n ot morally good o r

bad accordi n g to their e ffects ; they a re good or bad i n the m
selves Th e dispositio n d eter m i n es th e m oral w or t h of th e
.

act n ot th e e ffects
,
1
E ve n if the comp a ssio n of th e good .

S a m ari t a n i n the Gospel h a d n o t saved t he m an who fell

a m o n g thieves n ay eve n i f it had caused his dea t h t h at is if
, , , ,

th e thieves h ad at t ack ed an d killed th e rescuer an d had t he n

u t t o death the wou n ded traveller i n order to des t roy all evi
p
de n ce of th eir cri m e t his woul d n ot i n th e least a ffect ou r
j u dg m e n t of the m oral wor t h of the act Or suppose tha t a .
,

sla n dero u s re m ark i n s t e a d of n di n g ready accepta n ce a s i s

, ,

us u ally th e case is rep u diat ed an d si m ply deprives the calum

,

n i at o r of the co n de n ce which he has hitherto u n deserv e dly

e n joyed A n d suppose that t he ep i sode causes a greate r

.

i n terest t o be t ake n i n t he i n j u red par t y an d gre a ter c on

'

d e n ce t o be reposed i n h i m N evertheless however desi r .

,

[S A bb tt K1 t pp 9 ff ; M
ee t i o l II

pp
s 5 3 f
anT ] ,
. . ar n e au , v o . .
,
. . E .
 G OO D A N D BA D 2 25

able such e e cts m ay be t hey d o n ot a lte r th e b a s en e s s of

,

cal u m n y .

We shoul d a n swer : Th e stat e m e n t is t rue bu t it i s n ot an ,

obj ec t io n agai n st the teleological theory Th e theory does .

n o t o f course clai m that the value o f the a r t i cu la r acts i s t o

, , p
be j udged by their a ctu a l results bu t that a cts an d m od es of
,

c on d u ct are good o r b a d i n so f a r as t hey n a tu r a ll t d t o

y en

produce favorable o r u n favor a ble e ffec t s It lies i n the very .

n a t ure o f sla n der to deprive t he victi m o f his good n a m e an d

th e co n de n ce of his su rrou n di n gs In the c a se m e n t io n ed i t

.

was n ot the fault of th e cal u m n ia t or t h at th e e e ct did n ot

appear i t was d u e t o t h e co n scie n t ious n ess vigilan ce an d
, , ,

k n owledge of hu m an n a t ur e of th e perso n wh o saw t hrough

the trick Th e sla n dero u s rem a rk on e migh t say adap t i n g
.
, ,

the ter m i n ology of A ristot le was cau sa p er a cci d en s n ot

, ,

ca u s a r se an a ccide n tal occ a sio n b u t n ot t h e ca u s e o f the

p e , ,

favorable resul t s Morality ho w ever has t o do n ot with

.
, ,

the ac t ual co n seque n ces b u t wi t h t he e ffec t s owi n g fro m the

,

very n at u re o f the ac t Physics has t o do with th e law of

.

gravita tio n an d n ot wi th t he i n n i tel v v a riable ac t ual m ove

m e n ts o f falli n g bodies i t i n vestigates the law of gravitatio n ,

ig n ori n g the fac t t h at t he t e n de n cy t o gr a vi tat io n is n o t the

sole cau se of t he a ctual move m e n t of a body Si m ilarly .
,

m edici n e seeks t o determi n e t he n atur a l t e n de n cy of a

r e m edy o r a poiso n t o ac t upo n the orga n is m k n owi n g full ,

w ell th a t a tho u sa n d o t her causes m ay di m i n ish m odi fy or , ,

eve n co u n teract its e ffects i n a particu l ar case In t he sa m e .

w ay e th i cs seeks t o deter m i n e the n at u ral t e n de n cies o f m o d es

,

o f co n d u ct an d n ot t he i n n u m e r ab le v a ri abl e act u al res u lts o f

, ,

the particular acts It a sks : Wh at wo u ld be the e ff ec t of

.

cal u m n y u po n hu m a n i ty if i t alo n e de t er m i n ed the resul t ? an d

j udges its worth accordi n g t o the a n swer Si m ilarly to tak e .
,

the other exa m ple be n evole n ce n at u rally t e n ds t o di m i n is h

,

h u m a n m isery an d is therefore good

,
.

O r is this a m istake IS be n evole n ce good i n itself regard ,

15
226 C ON C E P TS AND P RIN CIPLE S
less of i t s e ects an d m alevole n ce bad i n th e same se n se ?
,

Wo u l d n o t th e S a m arita n h ave bee n what he was if he had

bee n wholly u n able to re n de r aid i f he had bee n co m pelled ,

to re m ai n at ho m e poor sick an d i n n eed of help hi m sel f ?

, ,

C ertai n ly ; bu t the teleological vie w rightly u n derstood does , ,

n o t disp u t e i t Here agai n i t is a p u re accide n t that a

.
, ,

virt u e does n o t realize its e ffects ; i ts te n de n cy re m ai n s the

sa m e an d the te n de n cy is wha t we j u dge Bu t suppose that
,
.

it were i m possible i n the n a ture of t hi n gs for on e m an t o

, ,

help a n other s u ppose that each i n divid u al i n habited his o w n

,

pla n et an d co u ld see the m isery of the i n habita n t of a n eigh

bori n g pla n e t witho u t bei n g able t o help h im i n an y way ?
The n wo u ld co m passio n be good ? S hould we n o t say : It is
n o t good fo r h i m to feel pity i t si m ply d oubles the sorrow ; ,

i t wo u ld be m uch bet t er if he lacked the power to Se e th e

wretched n ess o f others ? N evertheless he would be a good ,

m an yo u s ay
,
V e ry t r u e ; but it is tacitly a ssu m ed t hat i f
.

h e were n ear an d co u ld re n der aid his bei n g there woul d be ,

a be n et We h ave here an i n sta n ce si m ilar to wh at w e n d

.

i n the theoretical eld ; we ig n ore a rela t io n which is c on

s t an t ly an d n ecessarily pres u pposed We say Th e stars are .
,

bright poi n ts an d believe tha t we are thereby attrib u ti n g to

,

the m an absol ute q u ali ty Episte m ological re ectio n s rst .

co n vi n ce us that such a j u dgm e n t pres u pposes a poi n t of r e

l ation n a m ely an eye that is se n sitive to ligh t Her e t o o
, , .
, ,

co mm o n se n se wo u ld say : But t he stars would s u rely shi n e

-

e ve n if all eyes were closed C er t ai n ly ; bu t tha t si m ply .

m ea n s tha t if a n eye were agai n ope n ed i t wo u ld see the m , .

If there were n o eyes at all there w o u ld be n o shi n i n g poi n ts , .

S i m ilarly i f m e n did n ot prod u ce e ffects u po n m e n if they

, _
,

w ere m etaphysically isolated fro m e ach othe r like Leibn iz i a n ,

mo n ads it wo u ld be utterly abs u rd to s ay th at m alevole n ce

,

was bad an d be n evole n ce good Th e w ords malevole n ce an d .

be n evole n ce wo u ld be devoid o f m ea n i n g .

3 Bu t a n other obj ectio n is urged

. Y our theory does n o t .
 228 C ON C E P TS A ND PRIN C IPLES
In the forme r case we i n quire i n to th e motive i n the l att e r
, , ,

i n to the e ff ects followi n g fro m the n ature o f the case 1 .

It is of th e u t m ost i m porta n ce that we clearly u n dersta n d

this di ffere n ce an d also tha t we see th at these t wo judgme n t s
,

are i n depe n de n t of each other an d m ay eve n co n t radic t each

other A n act m ay be obj ec t ively wro n g an d ye t t he age n t
. ,

m ay be perso n ally irreproach able It is said of S t C rispi n . .

that he stole leathe r to m ake shoes fo r the poor Does tha t .

make C rispi n a thief an d a rascal ? We sh all h ardly be will

i n g to say so He would surely n ever h ave take n the m ea n
.

est thi n g fo r hi m self Bu t whe n he s aw poor childre n with

.

sore an d hal f froze n fee t his hear t was grieved an d h avi n g , ,

n othi n g hi m self he took a piece o f lea t her fro m th e rich

m ercha n t i n order to help th e m No t with ou t so m e r e l u c .

t a n ce we m ay i m agi n e ; fo r he too h ad lear n ed the com

, , ,

m an dm en t Thou shall n ot s t eal
,

Bu t so great was his .

pity th at he risked th e da n ger of the gall ows Of wha t use .

,

h e may have th ought is his wealth to the rich us u rer ? It ,

will m erely lead to his da m n atio n Perhaps G o d i n hi s .

,

m ercy will credit h i m with the act o f ch arity which h e will

thus i n volu n tarily perfor m A n d s o C risp i n we n t an d t ook .

with a good co n scie n ce as m u ch as he n eeded If pity an d .

good w ill are absol u tely good they are cer t ai n l y good i n t his ,

case also Th e subjective for m al j u dgm e n t must be : Th e

.

will of C rispi n who served others with a clear co n scie n ce

,

an d by sacrici n g hi s o w n i n t erests was a good will , .

Bu t t his j u dg m e n t is n o t t h e o n ly o n e to which t he ac t
gives rise Th e ac t itself i s m ade t he objec t of a j u dg m e n t
.

which i s for m ed on th e basis of the effec t s n atu rally belo n g

ing t o i t O bjectively co n sidered the act is u n do u b t edly
.
,

t heft : deprivi n g a m an of his proper ty witho u t the co n se n t of

1
[ An i s m at e ri ally g o o d w h e n i n fact i t t e n d s t o th e i n t e r e st of th e

act sy s

t em , so far as w e can j
u dg e o f i t s t e n d e n cy , or t o t h e g o o d o f so m e p ar t

co n s i st e n t with th e sy st e m , w h at e v e r w e r e t h e a e ct i o n s o f t h e ag e n t . An
i s for m ally g o o d wh e n i t
a ct i o n o we d fro m g oo d affect i on in a j u st p r op or ti on .

( Hu tch e so n J TR ] .
 G OO D A N D BA D 229

th e ow n er S u ch a m od e of co n d u c t has fro m the very

.
,

n ature o f t he case whatever m ay be the m otive e ffects

which are ex t re m ely da n gero u s t o hu m a n wel fare If s u ch .

co n duct beca m e ge n eral if everybody were to act accordi n g

,

t o t h e m axi m : If i n your opi n io n y o u can d o m ore good by

taki n g a co m m odity fro m i t s ow n er an d givi n g i t t o a n other ,

the n i t is your right or your d u ty to m ake t he t r a n sfer r e ,

r dle ss o f the ow n er s wishes wha t would be t he result ?

g a ,

Evide n tly the co m plete abolitio n of t he i n s t i t u t io n of prop

,

e r ty an d with i t the disappeara n ce o f the desi re t o acquire

, ,

m ore tha n m o m e n tary n eeds call for an d t he des t r u c t io n of ,

hu m an life He n ce the e e cts which follow fro m the n ature

.
,

of such an ac t are r u i n ous an d t h e ac t is bad , A n d so u n i .

vers al is this belief that such a c t s are prohibited an d p u n

i sh e d as s t eal i n g Had C rispi n bee n brought before a j u dge
.
,

the lat t er would h ave bee n co m pelled to co n de m n h i m wi t h

o u t hesitatio n N o t o nly because the law required it ; n ay
.
,

eve n if h e h a d m ade the law hi m self he could n ot h ave ac t ed ,

otherwi se He w oul d n ot h ave bee n willi n g to i n se r t a clause

.

i n t o the code i n favor of C rispi n s theft t o wi t : Bu t every

,

e n croach m e n t upo n the proper ty of a n other S h all go u n pu n

i sh e d provided a t hird par ty thereby receives a be n e t
,

exceedi n g the da m age do n e t o the ow n er N o the for m ula .

,

In t erfere n ce wi t h the proper ty righ t s of others is pu n i shable ,

h olds u n co n ditio n ally Th e m os t tha t t he j udge coul d have

.

do n e would have bee n t o t ake i n to accou n t exte n uati n g cir

c u m s t an ce s A n d he m ight perhaps have t old the acc u sed
.
, ,

privat ely h ow sor ry h e was t o have bee n co m pelled to son

t e n ce h i m I k n ow t ha t yo u r i n t e n t io n s were good he m igh t
.
,

have said bu t I shoul d like t o S how you that your m ode of

,

proced u re was n ot the proper o n e so th at you m ay n o t co n ,

sider yo u rself u n jus tly t reated A n d h e m igh t the n have .

proved to hi m t hat his act i n n oce n t tho u gh it m ay h ave

,

see m e d was absol u t ely i n co m patible with the ge n eral wel fare
,
.

Th e his t oria n will freq u e n tly n d hi m self placed i n a

2 30 C ON C E P TS A ND P RIN C IPLE S
si m ilar positio n He will co n de m n an ac t wi tho u t therefore
.

co n de m n i n g the ch aracter of the age n t an d co n versely S o , .

far as we are able to j u dge fro m his le t ters an d the testi m o n y

of his frie n ds K ,
L S a n d the m urderer of Ko t zebue acted
. .
, ,

i n the r m belie f that h e w as sacrici n g hi m self fo r hi s

co u n try He believed that it was his d u ty t o destroy the
.

e n e m y who was corr u pti n g the soul of his people A n d i f i t .

i s harder to die on the scaffold tha n on the eld o f battle we ,

can n ot u n derrate Sa n d s devo t ion to what h e fe l t to be his

d u ty Bu t th e sa m e act was objectively co n sidered highly

.
, ,

repreh e n sible If every m an were allowed t o sit i n j u dg

.

m e n t u po n the li fe of his n eighbo r an d t o kill h i m i n case ,

h e co n sidered h i m a m e n ace t o the co mm u n ity all law an d ,

order would disappear an d th e war of all agai n st all wo u ld

,

beco m e i n evitabl e There is hardly a m an at least n ot i n

.
,

p u bl ic li fe wh ose activity is n ot reg a rded by so m e o n e i n th e

,

co m m u n ity as a c u rse an d whose death so m e o n e wo u l d n ot

,

welco m e as a blessi n g to h u m a n ity He n ce the se n t e n ce o f

.
,

death pro n o u n ced u po n t he m u rderer o f Kotzeb u e was e n

t i re ly j u s t an d n ecessary Th e i n q u isi t ors persecu t ed her
.

e t i c s an d brought the m to the s t ake It is co n cei vable an d

.

probable tha t so m e of the m a t least did what they did with ,

a heavy hear t : n o t bec ause they rej oiced i n the s u fferi n gs of

others n ay they s u ffered the m selves bu t because the y felt
,

it to be their d u ty beca u se they were r m ly co n vi n ced th at it

,

wo u ld be bett er for a h eretic to die th a n that a wh ol e peopl e

sho u ld be te m pted an d c orrupted by h i m S u bj ectively co n .

s i d e r e d thei r co n d u c t was witho u t bla m e n o less so tha n tha t

, ,

o f th e j u dge wh o se n te n ced poor S a n d Th e di ffe re n ce is a.

m aterial diffe re n ce o n ly : we are n o lo n ge r co n vi n ced that

the safe ty of a people de m a n ds the persec u tio n an d executio n
o f those wh o differ fro m u s i n m atters o f religio n .

Th e i n ability t o keep th ese t wo views apar t ca u ses m u ch

co n f u sio n Whoever co n de m n s the act believes th a t h e m u st
.

a ss u m e an evil m otive i n order to j ustify his disapprov al of

2 32 C ON C E P TS A ND PRIN C IPLE S
ac t di ffe r en tly i n th e s a m e case ; n ay that i ts d ic t a t es a re ,

n ot i n freque n t ly diff ere n t fo r the sa m e perso n at di ffere n t

ti m es No w it is s u rely n ot t he obj ec t of ethics m erely to

.
,

co mm a n d the i n divid u al to obey his co n scie n ce b u t above all ,

to g u ide his co n scie n ce that is to teach h i m to decide what

, ,

is the con ten t of a n or m a l co n scie n ce A n d if scie n tic ethics .

can n o t follow the exa m ple of theological ethics an d appeal

to the co m m a n ds of a tra n sce n de n t law giver o r t o the -
,

a bsolute decisio n s of an i n fallible court an d i f it ca n n ot with , ,

o u t re n ou n ci n g its scie n tic character do what H erbart an d ,

Lotze S ho w an i n cli n atio n to do tha t is appeal to the cate gor

, ,

u
ical for la My t he m oralist s co n scie n ce the n or m al con
m ,

, ,

scie n ce decrees as follows the n it h as n o other co u rse tha n

,

to m easure the co n te n t o f the co n scie n ce o r o f the duties

which it e n j oi n s by an obj ecti ve stan d ard ; an d this objec t ive
s tan dard ag a i n can on ly be th e value which m odes o f ac t io n
, ,

an d co n duc t derive fro m th ei r rela t ion t o an ulti m ate an d

highes t good .

Fi n ally however the s u bj ec t ive formal co n ceptio n i t self

, , ,

is reduced to the t eleological view To ac t fro m respect for .

d u ty fro m co n scie n t ious n ess is m orally good Why is con

, ,
.

sc i e n t i ou sn es s good ? O r is t his an a bs u rd q u estio n ? I d o

n ot believe it C o n scie n tio u s n ess is obj ectively good t he

.
,

m oral philosopher will n d beca u se co n scie n ce te n ds to ,

determ i n e the co n duc t of th e i n divid u al t o the e n d tha t h e

may pro m ote the wel fare of th e age n t an d his s u rrou n di n gs .

In cli n a t io n s a re variable an d u n tr u s tworthy co n scie n ce is on ,

t he wh ole the sa m e i n all the i n divid u als of a people an d there

, ,

fore m akes t hei r co n d u ct u n ifor m i n so far as it has power over

the m Eve n this for m al poi n t is a gai n Moreover th e con
. .
,

t e n ts of the i n divid u al co n scie n ce represe n t positive m orality ,

the objective m orality of the people which is i n culcated i n t he ,

i n dividual duri n g his e n tire life by exa m ple by praise an d , ,

bla m e Bu t th e ge n er al m or a l code i n t u rn co n tai n s th e cu s

.
, ,

t om s (S i tte n) an d laws of a pe opl e o r an e n tire S ph e re of civili

 G OO D AN D BA D 233

zat i o n . C us t o m s ,
however so a n thropol ogy tells u s are t o be
, ,

regarded as a ki n d of social i n s t i n c t by which all the i n divid ,

u al s of a par t ic u l ar historical socie t y are i m pelled to perform

,

ac t s te n di n g to th e preservati on of i n divid u al an d social li fe .

He n ce co n scie n ce t h u s i n terpre t ed woul d h ave t o be r e

, , ,

garded as a pri n ciple which i m pels t he i n divid u al to promo t e

his ow n m os t vital i n t erests an d the i n terests o f t he co m m a
n ity o f which he is a m e m ber L et this s u fce for the pres .
,

e n t upo n this poi n t

,
I shall re t urn t o it i n the ft h chap t e r
.

o f the seco n d book

1
.

Th e pri n cipl e of t eleological e n ergis m t he n wo u ld be

Th e obj ective val u e of h u m a n co n d u ct i s u l t i m a t ely de
te r mi n e d by its relatio n t o a n al an d high es t e n d o r good ,

which co n sists i n th e perfec t d evelop m e n t o f bei n g an d the

exercise of vital fu n c t io n s ; an d the worth of a good will of ,

a will actua t ed by a feeli n g o f d u t y u l t i m a t ely depe n ds upo n ,

i t s power t o i n u e n ce ac t io n fo r t he highes t good .

4 Be fore e n t eri n g upo n a m ore d e t ailed de n itio n o f t he

.

highes t good I sh ould like t o a n swer a few obj ec t io n s which

,

might be urged agai n s t m y view .

In the rst place Is n o t t his pri n ciple ide n t ical with t he

,

oft quo t ed m axi m which

-
i n spi t e o f t hei r pro t estati o n s w e
, ,

are i n the habit o f a tt rib u t i n g t o th e Jes u i t s : The en d j u sti

e s t he m e a n s ? If h e val u e of a m od e o f co n d u c t depe n ds
t
upo n i t s e ffects m u s t w e n o t also gra n t i t of a par t icular
,

act ?
In deed I do n ot see h ow t eleological e thics c an de n y t he
,

propositio n Bu t I see n o re a so n why i t sho u ld wish to de n y

.

it Whe n rightly u n derstood the proposi t io n is har m less an d

.
,

n ecessary Whe n misco n s t rued of course it beco m es abs u rd

.
, ,

a n d da m n able If we m ea n by i t : S o lo n g as th e e n d is per
.

m issible o r good a n y m ea n s m ay be e m ployed to realize i t

, ,

the n i n deed there i s n o t a cri m e which m ight n ot be j u sti

, ,

e d by it It is lawf u l an d good to acq u ire m o n ey for o n e s

.

1
[See S t e p h e n S cie nce of E thics
, ,
ch ap . IV .
,
4 . TE .
]
2 13
1 C ON C E P TS A ND P RIN C IP LE S
sel f an d o n e s fa m il y N ow if th e proposi ti o n b e i n t erprete d
'

.
,

i n the se n s e j u st i n dicated th e n it wo u ld be right n o t o n ly ,

to work for wages b u t eve n to hire o u t as an as sassi n pro

, ,

v i d e d it were do n e for t h e sake o f the good e n d It is good .

to help y our n eighbor i n n eed if th e proposi ti o n were e n ti rely

tr u e it wo u l d b e r ight to p erj u re o n e s self i n order to acq u it
,

a good fri e n d i n cour t Th i s is evi de n tly the i n terpretati o n

.

which the oppon e n ts of the Jesuits acc u se the m of h avi n g pu t

u po n th e m axi m Th e i dea is Th e Jes u its act accor di n g to
.

th e pri n ciple that an y m ea n s as for e xa m ple the m u rder of , ,

heretical ki n gs breac h of faith pe rj u r where heretics are ,

y
,

co n cer n ed etc which fu rthers an e n d which the Jes u its

,
.
,
v

the m sel v es co n sider good s ay the I n crease of papal po wer ,

a n d th e adva n ce m e n t of their o w n or d er or the a n n ih ila t io n ,

o f Protesta n tis m is right It i s easy to u n dersta n d why the

,
.

Jes u its are u n w il li n g to ack n owledge the propositio n either

as the ac t ual m axim of their acts or as the prin ciple of t hei r ,

m o r al i t v .

If , th e other ha n d we in t erpret th e proposi tio n to m ea n

on ,

N ot an v law fu l e n d v o u please but o n l y the en d j u sties th e ,

m ea n s ; an d there i s on lv o n e e n d which deter m i n es all

val u es n a m ely the highest good th e w e l fa r e or p e rf e ct i on of
, , ,

h u ma n i ty the n it is n ot on l har m less b u t i n e vi table

,
An v , .

act that realizes this p u rpos e i s n o t o n ly per m issible bu t ,

good an d n ecessar y E ve r b o d w ith perhaps the exceptio n

. v v
,

o f a few philosophers wh o have a pri n ciple to de fe n d will ,

ack n owledge this There c a n b e n o co n trovers y on the

.

poi n t whethe r it i s right to do what is proved to be n eces

sarv to realize thi s e n d ; th e on l v q u esti o n is wheth er an ,

act that v iolates a u n i v ersal l aw m ay u n der certai n co n di ,

ti o n s prod u ce s u ch an e ffect If that were proved ever y

,
.
,

b o d v wo u l d ad m it the ob j ecti v e good n ess of s u ch an act If .

a n i n te n tio n al falseho o d had a n d co u l d have o n l y be n eci al

e ffec t s it wo u l d n o t b e a rep rehe n sible lie If b v depri vi n g .

a m an of his property we sho ul d a n d coul d i n j u re n o on e , ,

2 36 C ON C EP TS A ND P RIN C IPLE S
ho m icide N ow h o m icide can u n ques t io n ably be a lawful
.

an d eve n du t iful act ; i n deed i t is e n j oi n ed by stat u te the ,

executio n of which is e n force d V ery true we hear the ,

obj ec t or s ay ; n e ve r th eles s th e i n dividual as s u ch is prohibite d

,

from killi n g an y on e excep t i n sel f defe n se t he killi n g o f a -

foreig n er o r a n ative for the sake of th e wel fare of th e people

w ould be pu n ished as m urder A n d yet eve n such killi n g
.
,

would be j us t iable accord in g t o the pri n ciple provided we ,

were thoroughly co n vi n ced t h at i t i s esse n t ial t o t he wel fare

of hu m an i t y .

O ur a n s wer is : Th e mere co n vic t io n is by n o mea n s s u f

cie n t to j us t ify t he ac t ; n othi n g bu t t he ac t ual i m possi bility of
a di ffere n t effec t c an do t hat This bri n gs us t o the seco n d
.

reaso n why we c an n o t a ccep t the above propositio n We .

may s a y th e p r e p osi ti on : Th e welfare of hu man ity i s an

,

e n d which jus t ies wi t h o u t excep t io n every ac t

,
t ha t is a ,

mea n s t o t ha t e n d i s i n t heory wholly u n objec t io n a ble bu t

, ,

c an n ot be applied i n pr a c t ice We can n ever gure ou t

whether an ac t of this ki n d for exa m ple the killi n g of a
,

corrup t o r of the people a revol u t io n ist o r a tyra n t by a

, , ,

private perso n will have o n ly f avorable o r approxi m ately

,

f a vorabl e e ffects upo n the wel fare o f h u m a n ity o r eve n ,

upo n the per m a n e n t wel fare of a partic u lar people Whe n .

N apoleo n I t ra m pled upo n the n atio n s of Europe m a n y a

.

br av e m an must h a ve fel t a desire t o kill h i m an d so t o

free his oppressed people Let us suppose th at such a
.

person had succeeded i n assassi n at i n g t he E m peror at

Erfur t i n 1 8 08 a t the sac r ice of his own life W o u ld h e
, , .

h ave re n dere d hu m a n ity the oppressed an d dow n trodde n

,
-
,

a service ? Ma n y of his co n t e m poraries wo u ld probably have

believed i t We o f the prese n t d ay h owever sho u l d feel
.

, ,

i n cli n ed t o say : It is well that s u ch a thi n g did n ot happe n .

It is well th at the n atio n s o f E u rope were co m elled to w i n

p
their freedo m i n ope n h o n orabl e battle
, Had N apoleo n .

fa lle n by the ha n d of an assassi n the bad exa m ple migh t h a v e

,
 G OO D A ND BA D 237

co rrup t ed the moral j u dg m e n t of m e n for ce n t uries i t m igh t ,

h ave had a per n icio u s i n ue n ce upo n the relatio n s existi n g

be t wee n the di ffere n t n atio n s the Ger m a n people wo u ld n o t
,

h a v e experie n ced tha t i n n er rege n eratio n which gave back

t o the m thei r n atio n al co n scious n ess an d m ade possible their
political existe n ce i n the n e w E m pire True we can n o t .
,

absolutely prove i t S o m e o n e m ay reply : If the tyra n t

.

h ad bee n killed i n time much bloodsh ed woul d have bee n

,

a voided there would hav e bee n n o Holy A llia n ce o f n otori

,

o u s fa m e an d the feeli n g o f n atio n al pride wh ich has take n

,

s uch hold upo n the n atio n s of E u rope an d is n o w terrorizi n g ,

the m with the fears of war an d weighi n g the m d ow n with

ar m a m e n ts would n ot h ave gai n ed s u ch an u n for t u n a t e as
,

ce n d e n cy over th e feeli n g o f u n iversal brotherly love an d so ,

on . This view t oo m ay be true an d we ca n n ot prove by any

, ,

form of reaso n i n g that i t is false N ay we ca n n ot eve n prove

.
,

that the battle of S edan was a blessi n g for the Ger m a n people .

A l l t hat we can d o is t o believe these t hi n gs an d faith rests ,

upo n the will It i s j u st as i m possible t o m ake an absol u te

.

calc u l ation of the e e cts of a m ove m e n t i n physics because ,

every e ff ec t co n ti n ues ad i nn i tu m as i t is t o deter m i n e

,

the objective val u e of a par t icul ar ac t from i t s relatio n to

the high est h u m an e n d i n m oral philosophy Here as i n the
,
.
,

fo r m er case we are deali n g wi t h i n n ite qu a n tities We c an

,
.

m erely esti m ate t he ge n eral t e n de n cies o f m otio n i n physics ,

an d th e t e n de n cies o f m od e s o f a c t io n t o fu r t h er o r retard

wel fare i n m orals .

S till we m us t co n fess t h a t circums t a n ces m ay arise u n der

,

which th e e n d j u sties exceptio n s to the r u le j u st as poi so n s ,

m ay so m eti m es be u sed as re m edies It i s the sa m e i n m orals

.

as i n politics No states m a n n o historia n will re fu se to

.
, ,

gra n t t ha t a breach of positive l aw m ay u n de r certai n c i r ,

c u m s t an ce s beco m e a n ecessity
,
Bu t n o o n e will dare to clai m
. ,

u n l ess he is a partisan an d n ot a theorist th at he c an strictly ,

r ove th e n ecessity o f a partic u l a r revol u tio n S u ch thi n gs

p .
238 C ON C E P TS A ND P RIN C IPLES
c an be believe d bu t n o t p r ove d N o on e can ever esti m at e a ll
,
.

th e co n seq u e n ce s of a violatio n o f law especially n o t the ,

m ore re m o t e o n es A revol u t io n as s u ch i n va riably te n ds to

.

des t roy the legal orde r an d t o weake n th e a u thority of l aw

, .

To wha t exte n t this actually occ u rs n o o n e can tell Th e .

feeli ng of i n sec u rity prod u ced by the exa m pl e o f s u ch a vio

latio n of law m ay co n ti n ue fo r ce n turies after i t s occur
re n ce We c an n o m ore calc u late the u n favorable e ffec t s
.

t ha n we can calc u late th e favorable o n es ; we c an n ever prove

th at th e s u m of t he latter exceeds tha t of t he for m er Th e .

sa m e m ay be said of i n frac t io n s of t he m oral laws There .

m ay b e cases i n which these beco m e n ecess ary but we can ,

n ever prove i t i n a particul ar i n s t a n ce It will n eve r be pos

.

sibl e t o prove tha t t he s u m of all th e evil e ffects which a

breach of law m ay direc tly an d i n directly prod u ce i n
o n e s ow n li fe an d t ha t of o thers is overbalan ced by the i m

,

m ediat e good e ffec t s which are ai m ed a t C o n seq u e n tly

.
,

whoever breaks the law always d oes so a t his o wn peril

,
.

Th e m an wh o re m ai n s wi t hi n the bo u n ds o f the l a w can

m ake n o m istake Of co u rse e n ergetic n at u res do n ot care
.
,

chiey fo r thei r o wn safe ty Th e m e n wh o h ave bro u ght

.

abou t grea t crises i n his t ory have as a r u le i n so m e way

, ,

o r other departed fro m th e safe co u rse o f u n iversal m orality

,

a n d law .

Th e m os t seri ou s thi n g abou t ou r p r e p osi t i on is its te n de n cy

t o m ake us forge t the m ore re m o t e co n seq u e n ces an d e m ph a ,

size the i m m ediate o n es Th e e n d j u sti es the m ea n s says

. ,

th e partisan to hi m sel f wh e n h e atte m pts to sec u re th e victory

,

fo r his party a t an electio n by sl a n deri n g the O pposi n g can

d i d at e Th e e n d j u sties the m ea n s says th e politicia n wh o
. ,

strives t o gai n an advan tage for his co u n try by fra u d o r by

force Th e e n d j u sties the m ean s says the ch u rch m a n who
. ,

cal u m n iates an d disgraces an h o n est m an beca u se he does

n o t accept the so u n d doctri n e Th e m axi m i n its evil
.

mean i n g n ds the freest scope i n p ar ti san a cti vi ty Party .

 240 C ON C E P TS A ND P RIN C IPLE S

5 A n o ther obj ec t io n t o the t eleologic al moral philosophy i s

.

the followi n g It is co n te n ded tha t the teleological view can

.

n ot expl ai n the a bs olu te i mp or t a n ce att ached to p a r ti cu la r act s

by ge n u i n e ethical feeli n g If the violatio n o f the m oral laws .

is t o be avoided solely o n acco u n t of the e ffects why sho u ld a n ,

o ffe n ce whose e ffects are m an i festly utterly i n sign ican t p ro ,

duc e s u ch viole n t e m otio n al reac t io n s i n the age n t an d the

specta t ors Pestalozzi tells us an i n teresti n g story i n hi s
.

Th e oldest s on o f t h e m aso n s

Li en ha r d an d G e r tr u d e .

starvi n g fa m ily t akes a few pot a toes fro m the eld of a ric h
n eighbor bakes the m i n a shes an d sh ares the m wi t h his
, ,

brothers an d sisters His old gra n d m o ther who is o n her .

,

death bed beco m es alarmed an d ex cited a t t he discovery of

-
,

t he theft ; she ca n n o t die i n peace u n til the boy co n fesses his

s in t o the n eighbor an d ob t ai n s his forgive n ess N ow if th e .
,

t eleological theory is correct h ow shal l we expl a i n the dis ,

propor t io n betwee n t he i n t e n si ty of th e e m o t io n an d t he
i n s i gn i can ce of t he har m do n e Th e n eighbor will n o t m iss
the fe w potat oes an d i t i s so m ewhat fa n tas t ic t o fear th at a
,

boy m igh t by taki n g the m u n de r m i n e t he i n stitu t io n o f

, ,

property He n ce the objec t or m igh t co n t i n ue m aki n g a

.
, ,

practical applicatio n if the theory were t o become u n iversal

, ,

it wo u ld res u lt i n sh aki n g the au thori ty of t he m oral laws ,

o r lesse n th e fear o f viol ati n g the m .

I shall n ot at t e m pt t o o ffer a p sy cholog i ca l ex pla n a t io n of

t he e m o tio n al reactio n s fol lowi n g th e i n fractio n of th e m oral
law n til reach t h e ch ap te r o n Du ty A ll I can say here
u I 1
.

is that they do n o t res u l t fro m a co m p u ta t io n of the da m age

do n e or feared an d th at it is hardl y t o be supposed th at this
,

w ill ever be t he case I shall si m ply e n deavor t o j u stify t he

.

m e an s . Th e an n i h il at i o n of the Jesu i t s i s a co n su mm at i o n de v o u tly t o h e

w i sh e d , h e n ce e v e ry t h i n g t h at i s cal cu l at e d t o l o w er t h e m i n t h e e ye s of m en is

a
p r i or i b e li e v ab le ; at all e v e n t s i t i s u n n e ce ssary t o m ak e an y i n v e st ig at i o n ,
an d o n e i s do i n
g t h e w o rl d a se r v i ce b y ci r cu l at i n g t h e slan de r s ab o u t t h e m .

j
[F o r so m e o f t h e l i t e rat u r e o n t h e su b ect see Ru n ze s E thilc, p 2 0 8

TR ] . . .

1 C h ap t e r V .
 G OO D AN D BA D 2 41

i n te n si ty an d absol u te n es s of the feeli n gs of aversio n an d r e

m orse which are a ro u sed by i n te n ded o r acco m plished o ffe n ces
, ,

fro m the sta n dpoi n t o f teleological ethics .

It i s s aid that a Greek sage whe n asked by a frie n d why he

.

had p u n ishe d his s on so severely fo r so m e trivial o ff e n se r e ,

plied : A n d do yo u regard ha bi t as trivial ? His w ords con

tai n the a n swer t o the ob j ectio n urged agai n s t o u r theory If .

the partic u lar act w ere an isolated act it m igh t i n deed be of , , ,

little m o m e n t Th e i m portan t thi n g h ow e ve r i s th a t i t te n ds

.
, ,

t o for m a habit fro m which si m ilar acts a fterwards res u lt

, .

I o n ce read a striki n g re m ark m ade by a Fre n ch m a n C e n se

q u e n ce s would n ot be so i m por t a n t if they did n ot i n tur n
beco m e causes It i s t rue the t rivial ac t of the boy i n ou r ex
.
,

a m ple m ay n ot h ave i n j u red th e n eighbor i n deed it m ay n ot , ,

h ave h arm ed an y on e n o on e m igh t ever have heard of i t

,
.

Bu t on e perso n i t w oul d certai n ly h ave i n j u red the b oy h i m ,

self h ad n ot the d am age bee n averted by pe n ite n ce an d

,

pu n ish m e n t He wo u ld h ave re m e m be red how he o n ce suc

.

c ee d e d i n overco m i n g wa n t an d if h e h ad eve r fo u n d hi m self

,

i n tro u ble agai n with the sa m e opport u n ities o f getti n g ou t

o f it he wo u ld h ave recalled his past experie n ce an d acted i n
,

the sa m e way Havi n g stole n o n ce h e wo u ld have beco m e an

.
,

habit u al thie f an d the n a p rofe s so n al thief Perhaps i t wo u ld

,
.
,

n ot h ave co m e to this N evertheless the rst appare n tl y h ar m

.
, ,

less tra n sgressio n was the rst step i n that directio n N 0 on e

,
.

ever stol e an y thi n g for the rs t ti m e with the i n te n tio n

o f beco m i n g a thie f certai n ly n ot he si m ply wa n ted this o n e
,

thi n g t his so desi rable so absolutely n ecessary thi n g ; bu t the

, ,

res u lt was i n evitable N o on e eve r told his rst l i e i n te n di n g

.

to beco m e a liar n o d ru n kard eve r bega as a d r kard

n u n he ,

began with a si n gle spre e an d with th e rm resolve to g u ard

,

agai n st its rec u rre n ce i n th e fu t u re A n d e v e ry s u bseq u e n t.

state of d ru n ke n n ess bega n with t h e rst glass an d the r m

resolve tha t it sho u ld be th e last Bu t the seco n d glass an d
.

the seco n d S pree an d the s e con d li e an d the seco n d the ft ca m e

16
 242 C ON C E P TS A ND P RIN C IPLE S
of thei r o wn accord n di n g th e door wide ope n to ad m it the m
, .

In n oce n ce is a n egative ter m b u t a positive thi n g , Th e rst .

t r an g r e s s i on break s dow n the barrier which separates t he good

path fro m th e evil on e N owh ere i s this more appare n t tha n
.

i n the sph ere o f sex u al li fe as th e ter m i n n oce n ce ( Un s chu ld )

,

i n the n arrower se n se i m plies With t he rst false step we.

e n ter u po n the d ow n ward path whic h lead s t o a n abyss Yo u .

will be carefu l a n d n ot fall d ow n ? That is wha t th e tho u

sa n ds believed who were dashed to pieces at the botto m o f
t he pi t . Th e rst i s free to u s ; we r e gover n ed by the

1
seco n d,
i s the law o f th e evil spirits A n d of th e good .

o n es too A fte r t he rst te m ptatio n has bee n overco m e

.
,

the d a n ger of t he seco n d i s o n ly hal f as grea t Th e rs t "

.

victory which we w i n over ou rselves i s the hardest every ,

e n s u i n g str u ggle beco m es easie r u n til a t last we d o the righ t ,

with o u t e ffor t .

This is the rst reaso n why each particul ar ac t has s u ch

grea t m oral i n u e n ce In perfor m i n g it w e are n ot m erely
.
,

decidi n g th e case at h an d b u t so m ehow deter m i n i n g o u r whol e

,

co u rse of life This i s tr u e n ot o n ly of th e rst deci sio n

.
,

although it is of especi al i m porta n ce but of every subsequ e n t ,

o ne . Each deci si o n leaves a deeper i m pri n t u po n o u r n at u re ,

u n til i t beco m es absol u tely i m possible t o co u n terac t i t 2

.

Bu t t her e is a n other reaso n N ot o n ly does every ac t t e n d

.

t o create a habit i n the age n t b u t it likewise t e n ds t o p rod u ce

,

a si m ilar habi t i n the s u rro u n di n g i n divi d u als an d thereby to ,

make the habit of th e i n divid u al a ch aracteristic of the race .

This is bro u gh t abo u t i n t wo ways : by i mi ta ti o n an d r e ta li a ti on .

Eve rybody k n ows h ow great i s th e force o f exa m pl e C e r .

tai n pla n t s produce ger m s which are c arried through the ai r

u n til they fall upo n fertile soil an d grow Si m ilarly we may .
,

say good an d evil deed s prod u ce ger m s which per m eate the
,

m oral at m osphere u n t il passi n g t hrough the eyes a n d ear s o f

,

m en i n t o hu m a n so u ls t hey fall u po n ri ch grou n d an d thrive

,
.

1 F a us t 2
[S e e Habi t ]

. Ja m es s c h ap t e r o n
2 44 C ON C E P TS A ND P RIN C IPLES
the ulti m at e end of willi n g ? likewise sugges t s t he a n swer
The w e lfa r e f
o the i n di vi d u a l and f
o hi s su r r ou n d i ng s .

There is a view which cl ai m s i n oppositi o n t o this tha t the

will n a t u rally ai m s n ot a t u n i ver sa l bu t a t eg oi sti c or i n di
,

v i d u a l welfare Everybody strives for what is agreeable or

.

u sef u l to h i m regardless o f whethe r it hi n ders or furthers

,

the welfare of others This idea for m ulated i n t o a t heory

.

is egoi sti c o r i n di vi d u a li sti c u ti li ta ri a n i sm Hobbes is the .

rst m odern represe n ta t ive o f t h e view th a t the will of every

a n i m al i s directed towards self preserva t io n ; tha t self preser
- -

vatio n i s the law of its n at ure ; t ha t what ever be n e t s i t is

good an d w h at ever is good for others is good fo r i t o n ly i n
,

s o far as it i s a m ean s to i t s ow n preservatio n .

I d o n ot believe tha t w e can m ai n tai n t his t heory withou t

flyi n g i n the face of th e facts Th e egois t ic sel f preservative
.
,
-

i m p u lse u n doubtedly plays an ex t re m ely i m por t an t part i n life

a n d o n ly too freque n t ly does i t asser t i t sel f at the expe n se

o f others i n terests B u t n o on e is an egoist i n the se n se

.

o f cari n g excl u s i vely for his o wn weal an d w oe an d o f bei n g ,

utterly rega rdless of t he welfare of others There are a t leas t .

a fe w perso n s i n his i m m ediate surrou n di n gs whose good is as

dear t o him as his o wn whose welfare h e i s ready t o pr o
,

m ote at leas t if it c an be d o n e wi t hou t e n da n geri n g his o wn

,

i n terests In deed m os t perso n s will i n a m easure a t leas t

.
, , ,

eve n be ready t o sacrice thei r o w n i n terests fo r the sake o f

a s m all gro u p ; t hey w ill be willi n g t o give up so m e of t heir
co m forts i n order t o hel p i t S o m e m e n n ally are so .
, ,

deeply i n teres t ed i n the weal an d wo e o f others n ot o n ly of ,

those closely related t o the m b u t eve n o f u t ter s t ra n gers as

, ,

to be gover n ed by sy m pathy i n thei r e n tire co n d u ct W e .

also n otice t ha t i n divid u als are directly i n terested i n t he wel

fare of socie ty as a wh ole Whe n ever an i n divi d ual be t ray s
.

his cou n t ry for gai n th e i n dig n ati o n aroused sh ows h o w

,

viole n tly th e i n s t i n c t s o f th e m asses rese n t it He n ce we .

,

may say i n ge n eral : Th e will u n ivers ally a im s a t i n dividu al

 G O OD A ND BA D 2 45

an d ge n eral welfare i n qui t e diff ere n t c om b i n at i on s i t is t rue

, , ,

bu t ye t so tha t n either ele m e n t is eve r e n tirely lacki n g We .

call t hose perso n s u n selsh wh o i n an u n usual degree sub , ,

ordi n a t e thei r o wn i n terests t o those of o thers we call t hose

egoist ic whos e regard fo r the i n t eres t s of others falls co n sider
ably belo w t he average Th e u n i o n i n on e will o f selsh an d
.

social i m pu lses of idiopa thic an d sy m pa t he t ic feeli n gs is an

, ,

expressio n of the biological t ru t h t ha t the i n dividual is n ot

a n i n depe n de n t i n divid u al bei n g bu t a m e m ber of a collec t ive
,

whol e This obj ective relatio n appears s u bj e c t i vely i n the

.

co n sti t u t io n of the will an d t he feeli n gs Eve n i n the a n i m al .

world the i m pulse of self preservatio n is i n variably acco m

-

p an i e d by the ge n eric i m p u lse the i m p u lse to prod u ce an d

,

preserve offspri n g eve n a t the sac rice of i n dividual li fe .

In hu m a n li fe the ge n eric i m p u lse if w e m ay so desig n ate

, ,

al l will i m p u lses that are roo t ed i n t he rela t io n o f t he i n divid

-

u al t o the species is expa n ded a n d i n te n sied

, Th e i n divid u al .

is co n scio u s of for m i n g a par t of the whole h e regards h i m

sel f as belo n gi n g to a fam ily a co m m u n ity a people ; he , ,

a dopts t heir p u rposes i n t o his o wn will ; his i n terests are so

closely i n terwove n wi th the ge n eral i n terests as t o be i n se p ar
able fro m t he m i n his co n scio u s n ess We m ay therefo re .

desig n ate as the goal of his willi n g the u n ive rsal welfare
, ,

i n cl u sive o f i n dividual welfare o r i n di vidual wel fare w ithi n

,

u n iversal welfare There are i t is tr u e certai n perso n s

.
, ,

whose social i m pulses are so poorly developed as t o be al m os t

e n ti rely abse n t perso n s who are i n di ffere n t t o t he weal an d
,

woe of thei r s u rro u n di n gs n ay who deligh t i n the i n j u ry of

, ,

othe rs i n t erests Bu t this is n o m ore an objectio n to the
.

view than the existe n ce of idio t s is a co n tradictio n t o the

truth of the p re p os i ti o n that m an possesses reaso n an d
speech Physici a n s a n d a n th ropologists agree that an i n
.

divid u al i n capable of sy m pathetic feeli n gs i s as m uch of a

m o n s t rosity as a n idio t .

S o m uch for t he prese n t i n reply t o the theory o f i n divid

, ,
246 C ON C E P TS AND P RIN C IPLE S
egois m A fter th e co n cept of wel fare h as bee n m ore
u al i s t i c .

clearly de n ed I shall co m e back t o the a n tithesis betwee n

,

egois m an d altr u is m Here I sho u ld si m ply like t o state tha t

.

I ca n n o t ascribe the i m por t a n ce t o t he m a t te r which m a n y

mo ral ph ilosophers ascribe t o it S ch ope n ha u e r an d his fol
.

lowers regard i t as the cardi n al ques t io n i n m orals Th e .

n at u ral m an is absol u t ely egoistic an d the refore withou t

moral worth ; o n ly s u ch ac t s ar e moral as h ave for their
sole m o t ive the weal an d woe o f others Bu t si n ce such m oti
.

va t io n i s really i m possible i n n a t u re for h o w can the will

be i n ue n ced by wha t does n o t co n cer n i t all morality i s

re ally supern atural .

I do n o t believe tha t the world i n which we live i s so m ys

t erio u sly arra n ged There is a place for the will eve n withi n
.

the n at u ral order O n ly s o pessi m istic a j u dge o f e m pi rical

.

h u m a n n at u re as S chope n h auer can rega rd co m passio n as

s u pern atu ral S chope n ha u e r so m ewhere says i n on e of those
.

cli m axes by which he loves to d azzle c red u lo u s readers : Th e

n at u ral m an wo u ld if forced to choose betwee n his o w n de
,

str u c t io n a n d t ha t o f the world a n n ihil a t e the whole u n iverse

,

m erely fo r the sake o f preservi n g hi m self t his drop i n the ,

ocea n a little while lo n ger I do n ot k n ow whether an y o n e

,
.

w ould m ake s u ch a choice on the sp u r of the m o m e n t Bu t I .

do k n ow that there is n o t a m an li vi n g who would n o t regret

hi s ch oice i m m edi ately a fter the destr u ctio n o f the world an d ,

who wo u l d n ot wish to be freed fro m a u seless an d u n bearable

exis t e n ce Eve n th e great est egoist wo u l d the n see th at he
.

was n ot i n t e n ded by n ature fo r co m pl e t e isolatio n He wo u ld .

n eed other bei n gs if o n ly to be ad m i r ed feared o r e n vied by

, ,

the m But th e i n di vid u al h ardly ex ists wh ose relati o n s to

.

h u m an ity are co m pletely exha u sted by these feel i n gs who h as ,

n o t so m e o n e whose weal an d woe i s n o t al t ogeth er i m m aterial

to h i m o r m erely lls h i m with a n tipa thy A n d we m ay say .

th at the wel fare o f the ove rwh el m i n g m aj ority i s s o cl osely

i n t erwove n with the wel fare of others of t heir rel atives , ,
 2 48 C ON C E P TS A ND P RIN C IPLE S
as by the form alis t ic theory o f ethics He was u n dou btedly .

actuat ed by a gra n d purpose a p u rpose that bore h i m u p an d

,

gave h i m stre n gth ; he desired t o giv e t o his people a glorio u s

a n d n eve r t o b e forgo tt e n exa m ple of heroic sacrice o f private
- - -

i n terests for t he p u blic weal an d a t the sa m e ti m e t o sho w

,

th e e n e m y the pro u d dign ity an d gra n d eu r of his cou n try i n

his o wn perso n : Beh old such so n s are begotte n by Ro m e
, ,

wh o k n ow h ow t o die for the glory of t he city n ot o n ly on ,

the eld of battle bu t u n de r the ha n ds o f t he t orturers ! Th e

,

co n scio u s n ess of such a purpose the co n victio n that s u ch ,

glorio u s e ffects will follow prod u ces heroes I do n o t regard

,
.

it as proved th a t the d ry co n sciou s n ess of d u ty : On e m u st

n o t break o n e s word can d o t he sa m e

.
,

Besides i t m ight b e added every r eal sacrice is a t th e

, ,

sa m e ti m e self preservatio n n a m ely preservatio n of th e ideal

-
, ,

sel f What did Regu l u s w a n t what was the real aim of his
.
,

willin g 3 His li fe ? Why of course b u t th a t d oes n ot m ean

, ,

the preservatio n of this particul ar physiol ogical m echan is m bu t ,

actio n i n peace an d i n war i n t he service o f his co u n try To

, .

i n crease the great n ess an d glory of the R o m a n people : th a t

was all that li fe m ea n t t o h i m th a t alo n e wo u ld satis fy hi s
,

will to live A n d how co u ld his p u rpose h ave bee n be t ter

- -
.

realized than i n the way m arked ou t by fate tha n by glori

fyi n g his people an d h i m sel f i n bravely an d prou dly ch oosi n g
t o die .

7 Let m e s u m up
. Th e co n duc t o f a m an i s m or a lly g o od
.

w h e n i t t e n ds to further the welfare o r t he perfectio n of th e

age n t an d his s u rrou n di n gs an d is acco m pa n ied by the co n
,

s ci o u s n e s s of d u t y It i s o n th e other h a n d m or a lly r ep r e
.
, ,

he n si ble whe n i t lacks bo t h of these c h aracteristics o f good n ess ,

o r a t leas t o n e of t he m In case th e ob j ective q u ality is

.

abse n t i t is call ed wi cke d ( schlecht) an d i n c ase the age n t i s

, ,

co n scious t h a t it i s co n t rary to duty i t is called ba d ,

especially if it te n ds t o i n j u re th e welfare o f o thers .

We cal l a ma n good whe n h e fashio n s his o wn life i n

 G OO D A N D BA D 2 49

a ccordan ce wi th the i deal of h u m an perfec t io n an d a t the ,

s a m e ti m e fu rthers the wel fare o f his s u rro u n di n gs W e call .

h i m h ad whe n h e has n eithe r the w i ll n o r the s tre n gth t o do

a nythi n g for hi m self o r for o t hers but i n stead dis t urbs an d , , ,

i n jures hi s s u rrou n di n gs .

Vi r tu e s an d vi ce s the n are to be explai n e d as th e d i e r e n t

, ,

aspects of th e good an d bad m an C orrespo n di n g t o the .

di ffere n t proble m s of li fe we have a n u m ber of di ffere n t capa

cities o r vi rt ues which represe n t so m a n y forces of t he wil l
,

t e n di n g t o solve the m O pposed t o the m are t he vices which

.

express so m a n y i n capable wills .

Th e c o n cep t g oo d there fore always presupposes a rela t io n ;

, ,

it m ean s good for so m ethi n g A ccordi n g t o co m m o n u sage

.
,

a thi n g is good whe n i t is capable of doi n g its work properly ,

o f realizi n g its purpose S i m ilarly whe n a pplied t o m an

.
, ,

t he term sig n ies th e abili ty t o acco m plish some thi n g A .

good m an ager a good soldier a good citize n a good frie n d a

, , , ,

good father is o n e who e fficie n tly per for m s the f u n c t io n s of a

,

father citize n frie n d soldier or m an ager Th e word good

, , , , .

mea n s th e sa m e i n m orals : a good m a n is a m an who e f

c i e n tly solves the proble m s o f i n divid u al an d social huma n

life.

Th e t er m loses its relative ch arac t er o n ly whe n applied t o

t he whol e ; th e perfec t li fe of society per fec t reali ty i n ge n ,

eral i s n ot good for so m ethi n g else but good i n an d for itself

, , .

Bu t every i n divid u al thi n g is good for so m e thi n g ; every par

t i cu l ar ac t o r virt u e every particular hu m a n bei n g is good
, ,

for so m ethi n g ; they h ave a p u rpose o r objec t i n the whole ,

a n d are t herefore good i n s o far as t h ey realize it 1 .

Bu t we m us t ad d : In s o far as i n t he moral world t h e , ,

i n divid u al t hi n g i s n ot an i n di e r en t m ean s of realizi n g an

extern al e n d i n so far as the i n divid u al m an is hi m self a
,

m e m ber o f t he m oral whole he for m s a par t o f the highest

,

g ood an d is as s u ch an e n d i n hi m sel f like t he highes t

, , , ,

1
[S ee S p ence r Da ta of E thics
, ,
ch ap . II I
. TR .
]
2 50 C ON C E P TS A ND P RIN C IP LE S
good A n d the sa m e m ay be sai d o f the vir t u es : In s o far as
.

they represe n t aspects o f the goo d m an they are n ot m erely ,

extern al m ea n s to an exter n al e n d b u t t he m selves a part of ,

the perfect life an d highes t good Si m ilarly moral acts the .

, ,

expressio n s o f vi rt u es are a t t h e sa m e t i m e realiza t io n s of

,

the p u rpose an d n ot m erely e xtern al mea n s

,
.

A s i n a work o f art o r ctio n everythi n g is both a m ea n s

an d an e n d so it i s i n the m oral world
,
I n n eithe r case a re
.

th e m ean s extern al : they are always also par t s o f the e n d .

In both cases h oweve r the whole is t h e absol u t e e n d an d the

, , ,

worth o f the parts d epe n ds upo n thei r usefu l n ess for the
whole We show the n ecessi t y o f a verse o r sce n e i n a dram a
.

by provi n g t ha t i t is i n dispe n sable to th e whole S o too we .

, ,

prove the n ecessity of a virt u e o r a duty by showi n g th at it i s

i n dispe n sable t o life t o the perfec t life of the i n dividual an d
,

society .

It m u s t be observed howeve r t ha t the i n divid u al n eed n ot

, ,

be co n scio u s of this relatio n i n order t hat his co n d u ct hav e

m oral worth Th e good old m other m e n tio n ed above who
.
,

despise d theft si m ply beca u se i t is agai n st the eighth co m

m a n d m e n t is as m oral i n her willi n g as the philosopher who
,

u n ders t a n ds the teleological n ec e ssit y o f the i n sti t u tio n o f

property fo r h u m a n life For after all it i s n ot his i n sigh t

.
, ,

th a t keeps h i m fro m steali n g bu t h is i n herited an d acqu ired

, ,

i n sti n c t ive aversio n to thef t .

2 52 C ON C E P TS A ND P RIN C IPLE S
con te n t o f life , but the f e e li ng of p l e a su r e which li fe pro
in
cures that pleas u re is the thi n g of absol u t e wo r th an d t ha t ,

everythi n g else has val u e o n ly i n s o far as i t c o n d u ces to

pleasure This view is co m m o n ly called he d on i sm ; t he theory
.

O pposed t o it we h ave called e n erg i sm .

Th e a n tago n ism betwee n t hese t w o school s is o f lo n g s ta n d

i n g ; i t ru n s through t h e e n tire Greek philosophy On th e .

o n e side are the C yre n aics an d Epic u rea n s ; on t he othe r ,

the followers of Plato a n d A risto tle an d th e S t oics Th e .

sa m e a n t ithesis appears i n modern philosophy On th e o n e .

side we have the e m pirical psychologists ; o n t h e other th e ,

older rati on alistic thi n k e rs o f t he seve n t ee n th an d eightee n th

ce n t u ries an d th e Germ an philosophers wh o follo w Ka n t
, .

A ccordi n g to the for m e r the s u bjec t iv e feeli n g o f pleasure

, ,

regardless o f h ow i t is prod u ced is the absolute good accord ,

i n g t o t h e latter i t is the obj ecti ve devel op m e n t o f i n divid

,

u al a n d social h u m a n li fe regardless o f whe ther i t yields

,

pleasure o r n ot Of co u rse they add s u ch a life is actu ally

.
, ,

experie n ced with i n n e r s atisfactio n .

I do n o t regard i t as superuous t o pre face m y exa m i n atio n

o f hedo n is m with t he s t a t e m e n t t ha t t he q u estio n at stake here

is : Is t he hed o n istic v iew t r u e o r false ? an d n ot Is it good ,

o r bad Th e a tt e m p t t o prove t h e f alse n ess o f this theory by

calli n g i t i m m oral is o ld In an o l d maxim of the S t oic
.

school both hedo n is m an d a theis m are r ep u dia t ed i n t his

1
Way .

Th a tis n ot a legi t i m at e argu m e n t Theories are bad o n ly .

i n so far as t hey are false Th e ora t o r will h ardly be willi n g

.

to aba n do n the m ethod of provi n g t heir falseh oo d by t hei r

i m m orali ty b u t philosophy ca n n o t a fford t o e m pl oy i t Le t
,
.

m e add t ha t p u re an d m oral m e n h av e n ever bee n wa n t i n g

a m o n g the represe n tatives of this view Epicurus lived a .

bla m eless life while Be n th am an d Mill battled zealously an d

,

1 1 1 80 11 9)
'
r e Ao s, r dpvns Bd'yua '
ai m fo r ; wp dvo za, a bb n dpmj s Sh ara . A .

G e lli u s, IX .
,
5 .
 TH E H IG H E S T G OOD 2 53

e n ergetically for th e realizatio n of practical ideas an d h ave a ,

better clai m to the title of i dealists i f that is a title of ho n or , ,

t ha n m a n y of th ose w h o arrogate it t o the m selves .

How can t he asser t io n that pleasure is the thi n g o f absol u t e

worth be proved ? It see m s t o m e o n ly by showi n g tha t ,

h u m an bei n gs a ctu a lly prize i t as s u ch Here at least the .

, ,

fu n c t io n of t he m oralis t is n ot that of a lawgiver b u t that of ,

a n i n terpreter of n ature It wo u l d be abs u rd to say : True ;

.

h u m a n n ature does n ot e s t eem pleasure of absolute worth b u t ,

i t o u gh t t o do so A n d as a m atter of fac t all h edo n ists

.

asser t tha t all m e n n ay th a t all livi n g bei n gs i n variably

, , ,

an d u n iversally strive a fter pleasure ; an d th at pleas u re (o r

freedo m fro m pai n ) is th e o n ly t hi n g whic h i s desi red ab e o

l u te ly t ha t all other thi n gs a re des i red n ot fo r their o wn sake ,

b u t as a m ea n s to th e e n d o f pleas u re o r freedo m fro m pai n .

I do n o t believe that this view i s s u bsta n tiate d by th e facts .

L e t m e rs t atte m pt t o p oi n t ou t th at th e w ill d oes n ot

ai m direc t ly a t pleasure b u t at a partic u lar co n te n t o f li fe
, ,

which i n m an is a h u ma n an d a t bes t a spi rit u al m oral -

co n te n t 1
.

What i s th e evide n ce of sel f co n scio u s n ess o n t his poi n t ? -

Does i t reveal pleas u re as an e n d an d everythi n g else as a

mea n s ? Let u s rst m ake clear to o u rselves w hat we m ea n
by e n ds an d m ea n s I am cold an d desire t o ge t war m I
. .

c an acco m plish m y e n d i n di ffere n t ways I can t ake e x e r .

cise I can p u t on w ar m er cloth es o r I can ligh t a re For

, , .

t he la tter I c an use wood or turf or coal Here we have a .

p u re relatio n o f m ea n s t o e n d : th e e n d is war m th an d I ,

desire it fo r its ow n sake Th e m ea n s I desire o n ly fo r th e .

sake o f the e n d ; i n t he m sel ve s they are t otally i n di ff ere n t ; I

1
[F o r t h e p sych o log y of w i lli n g see t h e s t an da r d w ork s on
p syc h o lo gy ;
e s p e c i ally , Ho ffdi n g p p
, .

3 0 8 3 5 6 ; J am e s , ch X XV I . .
p pp
, es . . 5 4 0
L add , 55 1 ;

De scr ip ti ve P s ycho logy , ch a

ps . X L, XXV XX X V I
.
, ; Ba l d w i n , vo l I I
. Bai n . .

is t he ch i e f a d vo c at e of p s y ch o l o g i cal h e d o n i s m : E mo ti on s a n d the " 7 i ll, p p .

3 0 4 - 5 0 4 ; Ill e n ta l a n d Ill or a l S c i e n ce , Bk I V , ch a p I V
. . . . See also JOdl, Le hr buch
d e r P sycholog i e , c h ap X II. TR ]
. .
2 54 C ON C E P TS A ND P RIN C IPLE S
choose tha t o n e a m o n g them which will help m e t o reali ze
m y p u rpose i n the q u ickest m a n n er possible an d a t the least
expe n se No w does th e sa m e relatio n obtai n betwee n all
.
,

h u m an activities an d pleas u re ? We sit d own at a tabl e

h u n gry Is pleas u re ou r e n d an d is eati n g related t o it as
.
,

a n absol u t ely i n di ffere n t m e an s l i k e the coal i n o u r exa m ple

,

Th e love r o f m u sic goes to a co n cert Is pleas u re his e n d .

,

a n d m usic the m ea n s ? Did Goe t he applyi n g Be n tha m s

for m u la that the co n sta n tly proper e n d of actio n on the

part of every i n divi d u al at the m o m e n t o f actio n i s his real

greatest happi n ess fro m th a t m o m e n t to the e n d of his life
selec t as the m ea n s to his greates t h appi n ess poetry an d
prose a m o u rs with girls an d wo m e n b u si n ess affairs an d
, ,

travels scie n tic an d historical i n vestigatio n s

,
Well that i s ,

m a n ifestly abs u rd an d n o o n e will m ake s u c h a clai m

,
No .
,

i m p u lses an d powers sl u m bered i n h i m which craved fo r e x e r

cise an d d evelop m e n t j u st like the forces dwelli n g i n the seed of
,

a plan t A n d whe n these pow ers we re exe rcised an d u n folded

.
,

pleas u re e n s u ed but thi s pleas u re did n ot pre exis t i n co n

,
-

s ci o u s n es s as an en d o f which the other t hi n gs were the m ea n s .

The i mp u lse a n d th e cr avi ng f or a cti vi ty p r e ce d e d a ll con s ci ou s

n ess of
p le a su r e Th e co n scio u s n ess o f pleas u re
. did n ot exist
be fore the i m p u lse an d prod u ce o r aro u se it O n ly th e blas
, .

an d wor n ou t idler rst experie n ces

-
a desi re fo r ple as u re
a n d the n l ooks about h i m fo r so m e m ea n s o f proc u ri n g it .

Healthy m e n do n ot act that way .

Or m ust we ig n ore this appare n t abs u rdity an d boldly say

that all desires actu ally ai m n ot at the thi n g o r actio n b u t at ,

pleasure ? Ja m es Mill a bold an d ac u te thi n ker clai m s that

, ,

we m u st In the n i n etee n th chapter of hi s A n a ly si s of th e

.

P hen om en a of Hu m a n M n d he teach es tha t desire is solely

,

a n othe r n a m e for the ide a o f pleas u re There is an a m .

b i gu i ty ho w ever he poi n ts ou t ca u sed by a process o f asso

, , ,

c i at i o n ; the ter m desire i s also applied to the ideas o f the

ca u ses of o u r pleas u res an d pai n s We h ave a desire for .

2 56 C ON C E P TS A ND P RIN C IPLE S
i t is th e a ctu a l g oa l which u n bek n ow n to co n scious n ess , ,

a cti n g like a co n ceale d weight really se t s the m achi n e i n ,

.

motio n Th e thi n gs which appear i n co n scious n ess as the

.

ulti m ate e n d s food ho n or riches are therefore mere pre

, ,

t exts deludi n g the i n t ellect while the will i n reality always ,

pursues on e thi n g alo n e an d tha t i s pleasure A lover leaves

, .

his ho m e t o atte n d t o so m e b u si n ess Much t o his o wn .

s urprise he c o m es to a place where t here i s a ch a n ce of

m eeti n g his sweethear t A n d n o w he sees t h a t hi s b u si n ess

.

was a m ere prete n ce on t he par t of his desi res t o a n t icipa t e

t he obj ectio n s o f his reaso n Does th e sa m e hold true of .

th e case i n ha n d ? Is pleasure the mis t ress of the will so ,

to speak who m t he will i n cessan tly s t rives to m ee t deludi n g

, ,

t h e u n ders t an di n g with all ki n ds o pre t ex t s

f 1 .

I k n ow o f n o other way o f provi n g t hi s asser t io n t h an by

S howi n g tha t th e will i n variably realizes n o t the pre t e n ded

b u t the real e n d as happe n e d i n ou r ex a m ple i n which t h e

, ,

lover s hi d d e n yearn i n g was revealed by the ac t u al at t ai n

m e n t of the goal secretly des i red by hi m C an tha t be do n e ? .

I do n ot beli eve i t N ay i t w ould be easier t o cl aim th e

.
,

reverse : it is n ot the alleged secre t e n d that i s realized b u t ,

the oste n sibl e o n e Th e m iser m ay acquire wealth bu t t he

.
,

pleas u re an d satisfac t io n which he pro m ised hi m self fail t o

appear Th e a m bitio u s m an succeeds i n ob t ai n i n g ra n k an d
.

h o n or decoratio n s an d titles b u t the s u m total of pleasure

, ,
-

procu red i s m e agre h i s desires always exceed the satisfactio n

,
.

Th e reproduc t ive i m p u lse m ay lead t o the propagatio n of

the species b u t i t s satisfac t io n bri n gs disappoi n tm e n t an d
,

t r ou bl e t o the i n divid u al .

so m e m say perhaps all tha t is v e r th e

Bu t,
o n e ay
s o
, ; n e

l ess th e fac t re m ai n s th at wh atever w e d o o r strive for we ,

d o or strive for be ca u se i t yi e ld s or p r om i se s s a ti sf a cti on If .

it were n ot so sh ou ld we do i t ? If there we re n o s ati sfac

,

t io n an d i t s O pposite all strivi n g w ou l d cease e very t hi n g

, ,

1
[Se e S idg wi ck , M ethod s , p p 53 f
. .
T E .
]
 T HE H IG H E S T G OO D 2 57

wo u ld be i n di ffere n t t o u s Bu t what else doe s thi s mea n .

tha n tha t feeli n gs of pleas u re ulti m ately determ i n e all dis

t i n cti o n s of value ?
In deed of tha t t here c an be n o do u bt ; i f there were n o feel
,

i n gs of satisfac t io n an d thei r O pposites there w o u l d be n o ,

disti n ctio n s of v al u e Good an d bad wo u l d be m ea n i n gles s

.

words or ra the r w e S hould n ever use the m Th e propositio n

,
.

Tha t is good which satises a will is so tr u e that we m ay ,

call i t an ide n tical on e Bu t the propositio n Pleas u re o r sat

.

i s facti on is the e n d for t he sake o f which all thi n gs are

desired does n ot seem t o me adeq u ately to express it It is
, .

n o t satisfacti o n or pleas u re th a t is desired b u t pleas u re i s a ,

s ig n t hat the will h as realized wha t it wills It i s p u re .

t a u t ology t o a n swer the questio n Wha t is t he n al goal of ,

t he will ? by sayi n g th a t satisfactio n is th e goal as m uch s o ,

as t o a n swer t he qu es t io n How is the will ulti m ately ,

sat ised ?by sayi n g : By satisfaction O f course t ha t is t r u e .

,

b u t the i n for m atio n will hardly satis fy the q u estio n er Wha t .

he wa n t s t o k n ow i s What is the o bj e cti ve con te n t tha t sat i s

es the wil l ? A risto t le lo n g ago discovered the tr u e relatio n
O btai n i n g betwee n pleasure a n d the will Pleas u re is n ot th e
goal bu t a u n i for m acco m pan i m e n t of t he will a sig n as it
, , ,

were t ha t the e n d has bee n re alized In pleas u re the will

, .

beco m es co n scio u s of itself an d its re alizatio n ; b u t to call this

co n scio u s n ess t he good itsel f is as ta u tologous as to say : N ot
the thi n g bu t the val u e which it has is val u abl e n o t the ac ti vi t v
, ,

o r the sport b u t the satisfactio n which it yields i s satis factory

, , .

Th e hedo n istic theory appears i n a n other ph ase tha t is i n , ,

a n egative form What u n i fo r m ly pro m pts livi n g bei n gs to

.

actio n is n o t the idea o f pleas u re but the p a i n or d i s comf o r t ,

ex er i en ce d b Freedo m fro m pai n i s there fore the

p y hem
t .
, ,

n al an d u n iversal ai m of all strivi n g 1 .

1
[Th i s is th e vi e w of He ge s i as , th e C ) r e n a i o, a n d o f S ch o p e n h au e r . S ee th e
ch apt e r on P e ss i m i s m , pp 2 9 1 ff of t h i s w o r k ; also Ro lp h , Bi o log is che P rob
T
. .

le ms . R .
]
2 58 C ON C E P TS AND P RINC IP LE S
Bu t this for m o f the theory likewise see m s to m e u n able t o
explai n the facts Pai n an d disco m fort do u btless freq u e n tly
.

appear i n con sciou s n ess as sp u rs to actio n Th e b u r n i n g .

wo u n d i m pels the s u fferer to seek relie f ; tedi u m (La ng e u e ile ) '

co n s u m es th e i dler an d co m pels h i m t o seek diversio n o r

tro u bles Bu t i s this u n iversally the case ? Is it always an
.

actual o r a n ticipated feeli n g of disco m fort th at u rges u s to

actio n ? Was it a feeli n g o f disco m for t that co m pelled Goethe
to m ake poetry a n d Du rer to pai n t ? Is it pai n th at forces
,

the child to pl ay ? I d o n o t bel i eve we c an say so N o the .

,

i m p u lse is at rst pai n less ; the pai n e n s u es o n ly i n case the

i m p u l se is n o t satised ; very o fte n there is n o S ig n of pai n
eve n at the m o m e n t wh e n th e i m p u lse begi n s to ac t itsel f o u t .

Th e peasa n t does n o t wait u n til h u n ger i m pels h i m to c u ltiv a te

his el ds h e sees the su n rise h e breathes the ai r of S pri n g
, ,

a n d c an hardly wait fo r the ti m e to go to work Is this a .

feeli n g of pai n ? It m ay beco m e so whe n obstacles are placed

betwee n the desire an d its satis fac t io n b u t it is n o t pai n On,
.

the co n trary the h ope fu l i m p u lse i s a j oy fu l feeli n g ; to look

, .

forward to so m ethi n g with pleas u re is n o t to experie n ce

pai n .

He n ce I do n o t b eli e v e tha t a feeli n g be i t a co n scio u s

,
.
,

pai n o r an a n ticipated pleas u re is th e i n varia ble cau se o f

,

s t rivi n g an d actio n N ay the reverse i s the case : Im p u lse

.
,

o r will is pri m ary ; feeli n g on th e other h a n d seco n dary

, , .

Pleas u re acco m pan ies the re alizatio n of the O bj ective e n d ;

pai n its obstr u ctio n o r fail u re This is what biology teach es
,
.
,

as I sh all S ho w prese n tly .

2 Th e hedo n isti c th eory also prese n ts its thesis i n a slightly

.

modied for m It i s n ot pleas u re i n the abstract that is u n i

v e r s all v desired b u t a pleas u rabl e activity o r a pl eas u re
,

givi n g good Ever y creat u re at every m o m e n t decides to

.

strive fo r an d to do that of which it h appe n s to h ave th e m ost

pleasurable i dea at the ti m e This n otio n u n do u btedly c o m es
.

m u ch n earer to the tr u th tha n th e other A n d yet I ca n n o t .

260 C ON C E P TS A ND P RI NC IP LES
s o as to i n clude t he pai n fu l We ca n n o t i n my opi n io n .
, ,

doubt it If a god were to o ffer to eli m i n ate fro m ou r lives

.

al l pai n an d everythi n g t hat ca u ses pai n we sho u ld m os t ,

likely at rst be stro n gly te m pted to accept the o ffer Whe n .

we are overb u rde n ed with work an d care whe n pai n l ays hold ,

upo n u s an d we are t ran s xe d with fear we feel as tho u gh ,

n othi n g co u ld be be tt er than a li fe o f r es t an d sec u ri t y an d

peace Bu t I believe a t ri al w o u ld s oo n cause us to regre t

.

o u r choice an d m ake us l o n g fo r o u r o l d li fe wit h all its

,

t ro u bles an d sorrows a n d pai n s an d fears A life absol u t ely .

free fro m pai n an d fear w o u ld so lo n g as we are wha t we ,

are soo n beco m e i n si pid a n d i n tolerable For if the ca u ses

, .

of pai n were e l i m i n at e d l i fe wo u l d b e devoid o f all da n ger

.

co n ict an d fail u re exertio n an d str u ggle th e love o f

, ,

, , ,

adve n ture t he lo n gi n g for battle th e t ri u m ph of victory all

, , ,

wo u l d be go n e Life wo u ld be pure satisfactio n with ou t oh

.

s t acl e s s u ccess with ou t resis t a n ce

,
We sho u l d grow as t ired .

o f all t his as we do o f a ga m e which we k n ow we are goi n g t o

win . Wha t chess pl ayer wo u l d be willi n g t o pl ay wi t h an

Oppo n e n t who m h e k n ows h e will beat ? Wha t h u n t er wo u l d

e n j oy a chase i n which he h ad a cha n ce t o shoot at every step

h e t ook an d every sho t was bou n d to hit ? U n cer t ai n ty di th
, ,

c u lty an d fail u re are as n ecessary i n a ga m e i f it i s to

, ,

i n teres t an d satisfy us as good luck an d v ictory ,

.

Well th e sa m e holds t r u e of life Th e lio n i n the deser t

, .
,

s u fferi n g fro m h u n ge r an d thi rs t fros t an d hea t m ay perhaps

, ,

thi n k : How h appy I sho u l d be i f o n ly I co u l d d well i n a safe

cave wit h ga m e e n o u gh abo u t m e t o satis fy m y daily n eed s .

Before he k n o w s it h e i s l odged i n a m ost co m fortable ho u se

,

i n a bea u ti fu l garde n where h e receives th e best possible t rea t

,

me n t Eve n his lio n ess has n ot bee n forgotte n A t rs t h e

. .

likes the arra n ge m e n t Bu t soo n he n ds his beautif u l cage

.
,

which is con structed accordi n g to all the r u le s of lio n hygie n e -

,

so m ewhat n arrow an d ti reso m e His keepe r observes hi s .

dissat ised m ie n so a large park is placed a t his disposal

,
 TH E H I G H E ST G OO D 2 61

with th e n es t gam e for h i m t o prey u po n Bu t he soo n .

wearies o f the ease a n d certai n ty of the chase He has every .

thi n g b u t he does n ot feel at ease Wha t i s lacki n g

,
. Well ,

he is witho u t the very thin gs which he desired to get away

fro m ; wha t he wa n ts is t o prowl aro u n d a n d to be h u n gry ,

the excite m e n t of th e real chase an d the ght ; h e m isse s the

desert Wh o k n ows b u t what the so n s of t he deser t who
.

fell i n t he battles o f Moha m m ed year n ed for t he deser t a n d

the s t ri fe after e n j oyi n g t he pleasures o f Paradise for three
,

days
P oe tr y is a m irror o f h u m a n life an d o f the will which
m a n i fests itself i n i t .Wha t productio n s d o we like best ?
Those which portray a li fe o f ease an d peace co m fort an d ,

u n iversal be n evole n ce ? Wiela n d s A r i s ti u s i s on e of t he

pp
fe w books of t his ki n d A ristipp u s an d Lais C le on i d as an d
.
,

Mu s ari o n an d what ever the n a m es of the characters i n the

,

n ovel m ay be h ave everythi n g that the hear t can desire

, .

They are rich th ey live i n bea u t i fu l m a n sio n s an d vill as

, ,

eq u ipped with every t hi n g t ha t n at u re an d ar t can s u pply .

They are bea u t if u l an d s t ro n g t hey are i n t ellige n t an d witty

, ,

possessi n g s u ch powers o f observat io n an d expressio n as n ever

t o be at a loss for t he bes t sor t of amuse m e n t They have .

t he happies t t e m pera m e n ts i n the world bei n g eq u ally willi n g

,

t o e n ter t ai n o thers an d t o be e n tertai n ed t he m selves ; they

l ove e ach othe r te n derly b u t wi tho u t passio n an d t here fore ,

look upo n wha t would exci t e pa n gs of jealo u sy i n others with

the equa n i m ity of t he sage who i s n o m ore affected by the
,

al t era t io n of love tha n by an i n t eresti n g eve n t i n n ature .

Fi n ally both L ais as well as A ris t ipp u s h ave co n stru cted a

,

syste m of philosophy adapted to their lives : It is m y n at u ral

m issio n , thus Lais philosophizes i n a letter t o her frie ds n
1
,

t o m ake m e n happy withou t bei n g m arried to the m It .

wo u ld be foolish m odes ty on m y par t we re I to de ny tha t I

u n ders t a n d t he ar t o f m aki n g happy who m ever I please an d ,

1 V ol III , fr ag m e n t 2 6
. . .
2 62 C ON C E P TS A ND P RI N C IPLE S
that n at u re was n ot n iggardly i n bestowi n g u po n me the gi fts
n ecessary to acco m pl i sh this I a m also willi n g to co n fess .

that the co n scio u s n ess o f havi n g m ade a w orthy m an happy

m ay fo r a short ti m e aro u se i n m e th e pleasan t ill u sio n tha t
, ,

I am happy t oo Bu t tha t both the pleas u re which I give

.

a n d th e pleas u re which I receive i n ret u r n is i n deed a m ere

ill u sio n o f that the few perso n s with who m I have e x p e r i

,

m e n t e d are as c o n vi n ced as I a m This m u s t see m u n n at u ral .

to y ou h o n es t h o u sewives b u t i t is n everthel ess a fact an d I , ,

wo u ld n ot have it otherwise N at u re who like a good .

, ,

m other t akes care that n o n e o f he r childre n shall be t reated

,

too n iggardly has arran ged t hi n gs so tha t n o on e wo u ld vol

,

u n t ar il
y ex cha n ge his ego for a n other s S o it i s with m e ;

.

bei n g what I am I gracef u lly yield t o C l e on i s an d tha n k her

,

for havi n g take n fro m m e the b u rde n of m aki n g m y frie n d

A ristipp u s the happies t of m en A cco m pa n yi n g the lett er is .

a casket o f pearls : You will be so m ewhat frighte n ed b u t I ,

a m so rich i n s u ch t r i e s that y o u n eed n ot worry abo u t th ei r

value Th e pearls are absol u tely alike i n p u rity size a n d

.
, ,

for m Yo u will there fore si m ply h ave to co u n t the m an d

.

divide t he m a m o n g yo u rselves i n a sisterly fashio n You can .

1
cast lots for the casket .

Why is A ris t ipp u s s u ch a t ires o m e book ? Because i t is

1 S o m e b i o g ra p h i e s re m i n d u s o f Wi elan d s
A r i st ipp us ; fo r i n st an ce , J . C .

s a u t o b i o g r ap h y (D en k wu r d zgke i te n mei ne m Leben, 3

Bl u n t schl i a us v o ls .
,

Bl u n t s ch l i w as a t ale n t e d an d a m i abl e m an , a h e alt h y p t i m i st i c p ol i t i ci an a n d

o

p hi lo s op h er . He t o o k p ar t i n e v e ry t h i n g : h e w as g r an d m ast e r o f t h e M as o n s ,
f ou n d e r of t h e P r o t e s tan t S oc i e t y, m e m b e r o f t h e c o n g re s s fo r t h e co d i c at i o n o f

i n t e rna t i o n al l aw s, h e w as F i r s t S p ea k er a n d h o n o r ab le P r e si d e n t i n all t h e
m e et i n g s o f b o t h s o c ie ti es, Pr e si d e n t o f t h e Rhe n i s h C r e d i t Ban k , a m e m b e r o f
t h e U pp e r H o u se i n B ad en , a fa m o u s P ro fe ss o r at t he r
He i de lb e g U n i v e r si ty,
a c e le b r a t e d w ri t e r on j u ri s
p r u d e n ce an d p o li tics , a m e m b er of se v e n a cad e m i e s,

an h o n o rar y d o ct o r of v e u n i v e r si ti e s ( i en n a V , M o sco w Ox fo r d L ah o re
, , , an d

m e mb er of t h e U n i v e r s i ty of St . P e t e r sb u r g ) k n i g h t
, o f e ight or m ore o r de rs,

h e w as h on o r e d a n d co n g rat u l at e d o n n u m e ro u s an n i v e r sar i es , h i s w o rk s w e r e
t r an sl a t e d i n t o e i g h t l an g u ag e s , h e w a s s u c cessfu l in eve ry thi n
g , h e m et w i t h
o n ly o n e p i t e o f re p e at e d at t e m p t s, h e
l i t tle di sa p p oi n t m e n t '
in s n e v e r su cce e d e d

i n b e co m i n g P r i m e Mi n i s t e r b u t h e b o r e t h i s d i sap p o i n t m e n t g race fu lly A

h appy life i n t r u t h , an d a n e n v i able o n e A n d y et .
2 64 C ON C E P TS AN D P RIN C IPLE S
S ho u ld h ave added tha t the t ragedy also exci t es o the r power
fu l e m otion s a n ger an d i n dig n atio n love of power an d ,

reve n ge re m orse an d d e sp ai r love an d sacrice m ag n an i m ity

, , ,

an d m ercy t riu m ph an d co u rage ; i n short all th e deep feel

, ,

i n gs an d i m p u lses which sl u m be r i n the hear t of every hu m a n

bei n g N at u re whi ch year n s for the realizatio n o f these feel
.
,

i n gs an d i m pulses i n act u al li fe n ds relie f whe n t hey a re,

sy m pathetically aro u sed by the poe m .

The n shall w e say t h at e ve n fea r an d pity m ay a t t i m es ,

at least an d u n der certai n circu m stan ces be pleasurable feel ,

i n gs ? A n d is the sorrow which we feel at the dea t h of a

beloved o n e an d which the heart wo u ld n o t excha n ge fo r all
,

the t reas u res of the w orld n ot a feeli n g of pai n bu t a feeli n g

, ,

o f pleas u re ? I believe that woul d be a rather curious

n otio n N o i f we m ay accept t he evide n ce of self co n scious
.
,
-

n ess ,
a maxi m u m of pleas u rable feeli n gs or a mi n i m u m of
pai n fu l feeli n gs is n ot the goal which a tt r a c t s the wil l of m an ;
what he s t rives afte r is t o live his li fe i n accordan ce with his
ideal Pleasure an d pai n are n ot reve ale d by i n trospec t io n as
.

the positive o r n egat ive e n d s of li fe b u t as st at es of co n scious ,

n ess which acco m pa n y a c t io n s an d i n wh i ch t he will becomes

aware of i t sel f an d i ts be n t .

.3 Th e t esti m on y of sel f co n scious n ess co n cer n i n g t he

-

sig n ican ce of pleasure an d pai n is co n rm ed b y bi ology Th e .

n at u ralis t has little t rouble i n expl ai n i n g the par t which

pleasure an d pai n pl ay i n the eco n o m y of li fe .

A s fo r p ai n we m ay say t h at it origi n ally acco m pa n ies the

,

des t r u ctio n of vi t al processes which m ay be cau sed by viole n t

,

i n j u ries o r by the dist u rban ce o f the i n n e r equilibri u m Its .

S ig n ica n ce i s obvious i t t e n ds t o preserve life by i m pelli n g

the a n i m al t o seek safety i n ight or defe n ce Le t u s suppose .

th a t two livi n g bei n gs rese m ble each other i n every respec t ,

excep t t ha t on e is sen siti ve t o pai n t he o ther n ot Th e ,

.

for m er wo u ld evide n t ly s t a n d a m uch be t ter chan ce of bei n g

preserved provided of course t he co n ditio n s of life w e re
, , ,
 TH E H IG H E S T G OO D 2 65

equ al Th e lat t er a n i m al wo u l d be s u rprised by da n ger an d

.

perish while the for m er would be warn ed by pai n an d strive

,

to escape fro m the dist u rbi n g ca u se In se n sitive n ess to pai n .

would h ave the sa m e e ffec t as th e abse n ce of a se n se organ -

.

-
P le asu r e see m s t o be the origi n al co n co m ita n t o f two
an i m al fu n c t io n s n u t ri t io n an d reprod u ctio n In m ore highly
, .

d evel oped a n i m als t he pleas u rable feeli n g exte n ds t o allied

,

f u n ctio n s Th u s the m ove m e n ts which precede the taki n g o f

.

food the chase u si n g the t er m i n its broades t se n se i n cl u d

, , ,

In g the sce n t th e p u rs u i t t he seiz u re the laceratio n o f the

, , ,

prey are also acco m pa n ied by feeli n gs of pleas u re Th e

,
.

pleas u re which acco m pan ies the f u n c t io n of reprod u ctio n also

exte n ds to th e care of o ffspri n g Th e S ig n ican ce of both .

t hese fu n ctio n s i n the a n i m al eco n o m y is very plai n They .

ar e the i m m ediate co n ditio n s o f prese rvatio n ; in the for m er

case of th e preservatio n of the i n divid u al i n the latter case
, , ,

o f tha t of the species O rga n ic life co n sists i n a co n ti n u ou s

.

process of disi n tegratio n an d rep a ratio n Waste mat erial i s .

co n s t an tly given off an d n e w ele m e n ts are take n u p an d

,

assi m ilat ed In case t he latter process does n ot t ake place

.
,

death soo n e n sues Th e social li fe of t he species reveals a

.

si m ilar behavior : t he waste m at erial i s co n sta n tly passi n g

e n t th at is i n divid u als die ; b u t the eq u ilibri u m i s m ai n ~
, ,

t ai n e d by t he reproduc t io n o f o ffspri n g ; otherwise t h e species

wo u ld soo n disappear .

What the n is the sig n ica n ce of pleasure ? Th e biologist

, ,

will n ot hesita t e fo r an a n swer Just as pai n serves as a .

war n i n g pleasure serves as a bai t In pai n the will beco m es

,
.

aware of d a n ger i n pleasure it becomes aware of th e f u rther

,

an ce of life Th e for m er war n s it to seek sa fety i n ight th e

.
,

l att er t o co n ti n u e on its path Pai n an d pleas u re are we

,
.
,

m igh t say th e m ost pri m i t ive for m s of the k n owledge of good

,

a n d evil .

Th e will o r i m pul se as s u ch does n o t pres u ppose t he pre s

e n ce of feeli n gs o r of i n t ellige n ce Th e n e w ly hatched chick .
-
2 66 C ON C E P TS A ND P RIN C I PLE S
i m m ediately begi n s to pick up grai n s of wheat It s u rely .

does n ot bri n g alon g with it i n to its n e w stage o f existe n ce a

feeli n g o f pai n fu l h u n ger or an idea of the pleas u re prod u ced
,

by the i n trod u ctio n o f food Im p u lses gover n actio n j u st as

.

other n at u ral forces gover n th e falli n g o f a sto n e o r the ,

for m atio n o f a crystal o r the growth o f a pla n t Th e sa m e

, .

m ay be said o f th e sex u al i m p u lse Th e i n divid u al wh o .

has j u st arrived at the age of p u berty i s d rive n by a bli n d

i m p u lse to exercise th e fu n c t io n s which result i n the preser
vatio n o f the species witho u t k n owi n g be forehan d the feeli n gs
,

th at will arise Perhaps scarcely an y feeli n g acco m pan ies

.
,

the fu n ctio n i n the lowe r stages of a n i m al li fe Bu t as li fe .

develops the se n sibility i n creases i n the higher a n i m als a n d

,

i n m a n every ac tivity i s acco m pa n i ed by a specic feeli n g .

This feeli n g h as either a pai n fu l o r a pleas u rable to n e accord ,

i n g as ac t io n is retarded o r fu rthered accordi n g as i t i m pedes ,

o r pro m otes li fe Th e divisio n of the feeli n gs i n to pai n fu l a n d

.

pleas u rable i s as u n satisfac t ory t o the biologis t as the cl ass i

catio n o f pl an ts as herbs an d weeds Pleas u res an d pai n s .

are m erely characteristic to n es of feeli n g which correspo n d to ,

the di ffere n t fu n ctio n s or i n which t he f u n c t i o n s rs t beco m e

,

co n scio u s of the m selves .

In a higher stage of m e n t al evolu t io n i n t e llig en ce rises fro m

feeli n g a n d above it It s origi n al purpose is merely to aeco m
.

p l i s h m ore per fectly what feeli n g acco m plishes that is to i n , ,

str u c t the will co n cer n i n g wh at is wh oleso m e o r u n wholeso m e .

S e n sa ti on s m ay be charac t erized as an ti cip a ti on s of f e e li ng s .

Th e se n se o f to u ch a n ticipates the pai n occasio n ed by bodily

i n j u ries Taste is a ki n d of predigesti o n it decides before
.
,

the O bj ec t is take n i n to th e body whether it is wh oleso m e o r ,

n ot. Taste is th e specic feeli n g which acco m pa n ies the

fu n c t io n of n u tritio n an d d epe n ds u po n the pec u liar n at u re
,

of the food o r to be ex act u po n the process o f assi m ilatio n

, ,

which begi n s o n th e to n gu e It is always either pleasa n t or

.

u n pleasa n t an d co n seq u e n tly either excites o r i n hibit s the

,
2 68 C ON C E P TS AN D P RIN C IPLE S
food n eede d for preservatio n has bee n eate n the feeli n gs of ,

pleasur e ce ase an d opposite feeli n gs soo n arise Pleas u re

, .

can be aro u sed t o a certai n degree o n ly by sti m ulati n g the

,

organ s which are seco n darily co n n ected with n u t ritio n Th e .

sam e may be observed i n the i m p u lse which t e n ds t o the

preserva t io n of th e species Bu t whe n ever the orga n s of
.

preservatio n are u sed as i n s t ru m e n t s o f pleas u re n ature pu n ,

ishes the ab u se with dis t urban ces an d disease an d i n case h e r ,

hi n ts are n ot followed with the destru ctio n o f the orga n s an d

,

u lti m ately o f th e i n divi d u al who obsti n ately persis t s i n m i s

u n dersta n di n g thei r purpose .

4 Pleas u re t he n i s n ot t h e absol u te goal o f the will

.
, , .

N or does the eva lu a ti ng j u dg m e n t of the i m partial specta t or

see m t o m e t o m ak e pleas u re i n itsel f regardless of its cau se , ,

the thi n g of absol u te worth L et u s s u ppose tha t we co u ld

.

distil a dr u g like O pi u m capable o f aro u si n g j oy fu l drea m s

, ,

without h owever prod u ci n g h ar m fu l e ffects i n the i n toxicated

, ,

o n e o r hi s s u rro u n di n gs S houl d w e reco m m e n d the use of

.

the dr u g an d praise the discoverer as h avi n g m ade l i fe m ore

,

val u able ? Perhaps n ot eve n a h edo n isti c m oral philosopher

wo u ld do that Why n ot Because the pleas u re is ill u sory
.

Bu t pleas u re is pleasure whatever be its cau se

,
O r because .
,

the philosopher h as fo u n d ou t by co m p u tatio n that the pleas

ures of ou r sober waki n g li fe are still greater ? It wo u ld n ot
be easy to p rove it i n th e exa m ple ass u m ed Th e si m pl e rea .

s on i s tha t s u ch pleasures wo u ld be

u n n at u ral a n d a li fe

,

co m posed of the m would n o lo n ger be a hu m a n life How
.

ever rich i n pleasure it m ight be it wo u ld be an absol u tely,

wor thless life for a h u m a n will an d h u m an sta n dards .

Perhaps the philosopher will reply Y es but that is simply ,

because a perso n addicted to s u ch pleasures would n eglect his

d u ties to others an d co n seq u e n tly decrease the m axi m u m o f
,

pleas u re eve n th o u gh h e m ight greatly i n crease hi s o wn

,

pleas u re Well the n let u s cha n ge th e exa m ple a little let

.
, ,

us s u ppose th at th e dr u g will witho u t ex pe n se an d trouble

, ,
 THE H IGH E S T G O OD 269

aro u se i n an e n t ire peopl e a perma n e n t state of pleas u rable

dream s S hould we celebrate the discoverer as a be n e factor
.

o f t he hu m a n race ? Perhaps it m igh t be show n to ou r sa t

i sfacti on t h a t a n atio n s bes t mea n s of re alizi n g perma n e n t

happi n ess woul d b e t o s u b m it absol u tely t o an absol u tely b e

n e v ol e n t gover n me n t Le t u s s u ppose t ha t a m an t he Pla
.
,

t o n ic plIilOS Oph e r for exa m ple h ad discovere d th e secre t o f

,

maki n g a n atio n absol u tely obedie n t S hould w e be willi n g .

t o place o u r peopl e i n his power ? Th e Jes u its are sai d to

h ave thou gh t an d ac t ed fo r their n a t ive subj ects i n Paragu ay
i n every regard an d t o h ave guided the m daily a n d h ourly
, , ,

an d accordi n g t o all t h e r u les of h ygi e n e i n t h eir labors an d i n

,

their e n j oy m e n ts i n their waki n g an d sl eepi n g Le t us s u p

, .

pose that th ey s u cceeded as w e a re t old that they did i n

, ,

absolutely satisfyi n g t he govern ed Will the h edo n istic

.

philosophe r gra n t that such a r gi m e i s t he most perfect an d

desirabl e solutio n of social an d poli t ic al proble m s an d tha t ,

the li fe of t hese well beh aved an d co n t e n t ed In dia n s r ep re

-

se n t s t he highest goal of hu m a n strivi n g ? If so h e will m os t ,

likely also regard Ger m a n s t ates m a n ship a s h avi n g perfor m ed

its missio n whe n t he e n tire Ger m an people shall h ave bee n
t ra n sfor m ed i n t o a l ot of well beh ave d an d obedie n t Philis
-

ti n es who d ri n k t hei r mug o f beer every m or n i n g an d play

,

thei r li t tl e ga m e o f S ho t an d i n th e eve n i n g play thei r little

,

gam e of S hu t an d agai n dri n k t hei r beer i n the m e an ti m e reg

,

u l arly at te n di n g t o thei r duties i n th e b u reau or the work

shop an d sleepi n g s o u n dly at n ight A n d n ally h e will

,
.
, ,

also b e compelled to recogn ize t he so rceress C i rce w h o ,

ch an ge d th e v isitors o f h er isla n d i n to swi n e i n to well fe d an d ,

-

thoro u ghly co n te n ted swi n e as a be n e factress of h u m a n ity

, ,

an d dee m i t as the greatest blessi n g for an o n e to h ave bee n

y
cast on h er S hores U n l ess he is willi n g to ack n owle dge
.

t his he m ust it see m s to m e co n fess th at pleas u re o r satis

, , ,

factio n is n ot th e thi n g of absol u te worth It is val u able o n ly .

in so far as i t follows as t h e res u lt of vi rt u o u s activity ; we

 2 70 C ON C E P TS A ND P RIN C IPLE S
regard i t as base wh e n i t is obtai n ed by sti m u l ati n g the l ower
, ,

S e n s u o u s side o f o u r n ature an d by s u ppressi n g ou r highe r

S pirit u al capacities .

5 N ow t hat we have rejec t ed the hedo n istic theory let u s

.
,

atte m pt t o give a positive de n itio n o f the highest good We .

m ay say i n a m ost ge n eral way that the goal at which the will
Of every livi n g creat u re ai m s is t he n or m a l e x e r ci s e of t he vi t a l
,

f u n cti on s w hi ch con s ti tu te i ts n a tu r e Every a n i m al desires to

.

live the li fe fo r which i t is predisposed Its n atu ral disposi .

tio n m a n i fests itself i n i m p u lses an d deter m i n es its activity

, .

Th e for m u l a m ay also be applied to m an He desires t o .

h live a hu m a n li fe an d all th at is i m plied i n it ; t hat is a ,

m en t a l, h i s t or i ca l life , i n w hi ch t her e i s r oom f or t he ex er ci se

f
o a ll h u m a n , m e n t a l p ow e r s He desires to play
and vi r tu e s .

an d to lear n to work a n d to acq u ire wealth t o possess an d t o

, ,

s
e n j oy to form an d to create ; h e desires to love an d t o ad
,
be
th ire to obey an d to r u le to ght an d t o w i n t o m ake poe tr y
, , ,

a n d to drea m to thi n k an d to i n vestigate

, A n d h e desires t o .

do all these thi n gs i n thei r n atural order o f develop m e n t as ,

2

li fe provides the m He desires t o ex perie n ce th e relatio n s of

.

th e chil d t o its pare n ts o f t he pupil to his teacher of the ap

, ,

pre n tice to the m aster ; an d his will for the ti m e bei n g n ds , ,

th e highest satis factio n i n s u ch a life He desi res t o live as a .

brother a m o n g brothers as a frie n d a m on g frie n ds as a com

, ,

pan io n a m o n g co m pa n i on s as a citize n a m o n g citize n s an d

, ,

also to prove hi m self an e n e my agai n s t e n e m ies Fi n ally .

,

he desires t o experie n ce wha t t he lover husba n d an d father , ,

experie n ce h e desires t o rea r an d ed u ca t e child re n wh o shall

I
preserve an d t ra n s m i t t he co n te n ts o f his o w n li fe A n d
.

afte r h e has lived s u ch a life an d h as acquitted hi m sel f like an

ho n est m an h e has realized his desires ; his li fe is co m plete
,

co n t e n tedly h e awaits the e n d an d his las t wish is to be

,

gathered peace fu lly to his father s This o u tli n e h owever , ,

r eceives its co n cre t e co n te n t fro m the h i st or i ca l l ife of t he

p pe o le He n c e we may also say :

. M a n s will seeks t o e x

a
2 72 C ON C E P TS A ND P RIN C IPLE S
a pic t ure which reveals i t self i n his m ode of life an d in his
j u dg m e n t of hi m sel f .

V j d m t h t i Bi ld d d
or e e s e e n e s, as e r r
w e de n 8 0 11 ;
S o la n g er d as n i ch t i st , i s t n i ch t se i n F ri e d e v oll 1 .

Not o n ly th e i n divi d u al bu t t he n atio n t o o has an ideal of

,

wh at it desires to be Th e i deal expresses itself i n i t s religion

.

an d poetry Th e gods a n d heroes represe n t th e types of per

.

fe cti on A t a later stage of develop m e n t his t orical r e colle c

.

tio n s are added an d pai n t a co m prehe n sive pic tu r e of the

,

n atio n s past

a pictu re which forms a poetical i deal i n th e
,

pop u lar co n scious n ess But the his t orical collective li fe of an

.

e n tire period o f civilizatio n an d of the aggrega t e of n at io n s is

also gover n ed by ideas Types of character an d li fe s pri n g .

u
p
,
gai n possessio n o f all hear t s m ove t he though t s of m e n , ,

an d a t last co n trol a ffairs

, ,
Thi n k of the Hu m a n is t ic m ove.

me n t i n t he ftee n th ce n tury an d its n e w ideal ; of t he

Re for m atio n an d its n e w type o f C hristia n fai t h an d life ; or
o f th e age o f L o u is X IV a n d i ts ideal o f power an d dig n i t y
.
,

o f the Fre n ch Revolutio n an d its n e w ideal o f a n a t ural an d

ratio n al mode of life N ew i deas of h u m an c u l t u re realized

.

the m selves i n these great his t orical epochs an d seizi n g t h e ,

i n divid u al wills forced the m i n t o harm o n y wit h i t

,
.

Here we plai n ly see that t he will u n co n ditio n ally st r ives t o

r ealize the ide a o r the type A peopl e desi res freedom o r .
,

powe r o r ho n or or whatever ca t ch word m ay desig n ate the

,
-

cherished ideal an d desires i t absolu t ely n ot for t he sake of

, ,

so m ethi n g else say pleasure o r happi n ess True all ac t io n

, .
,

te n di n g t oward s t h e realizat io n of th e ideal yields satisfactio n .

Bu t n o o n e cares whe t her this represe n t s the grea t es t a m ou n t

of pleas u re ob t ai n able by t he wh ole A n atio n does n ot .

recko n the cos t of i t s ideal it does n ot co m pute how m uch ,

happi n ess m ay be won o r lost i n a war for its freedo m or its

ho n or o r eve n for its positio n a m o n g other n atio n s In orde r
,
.

to r e a liz e i t s co n t rolli n g ideal it recklessly s acrices th e ,

1 B uck et t .
 THE H IG H EST G OO D 2 73

i n t e r e st s an d lives o f i n dividuals A n d the i n dividuals the m

.

selves desire it eve n th o u gh t hey d read the sacrice as i n di ~

v i du al s as m e m bers of the n atio n they desire that their

,

co u n try re m ai n tr u e to itsel f an d its i deal .

Th e historical j u dg m e n t like the historical will is deter

, ,

m i n ed by thi s goal A n atio n does n ot j u dge its o w n past by

.

the sta n dard o f pleasure ; i t j u dges historical perso n s a n d

eve n t s by the ideal which it happe n s t o have at the ti m e an d ,

deter m i n es their worth accordi n gly Th u s o u r j u dg m e n t o f .

Frederick the Grea t an d his wars is n ot based on a co m p u ta

t io n of the pleas u res a n d pai n s which they ca u sed b u t u po n ,

t he ho n o r an d dign ity which the Ger m a n people achieved

t hrough the m We ask o u rselves h as the n ati o n m ade an y
.
,

a dva n ce t owards its obj ective goal ? O ur age a n swers the

questio n i n t he a f r m a t ive ; the prevaili n g n otio n of the o bj e c
t ive e n d is t he Ger m a n E m pire o n a Pr u ssia n basis Th e .

S cie n tic historia n follows the sa m e pla n It n eve r e n ters .

his head t o balan ce pleasu res an d pai n s agai n s t each other .

I n deed this n otio n is a m ere fa n cy i n the heads o f a fe w

,

philosophers Bu t so far as I k n ow n ot o n e of the m h as ever

.
, ,

t ried t o a pply it i n practice .

6. Th e view h ere adva n ced o f the n al goal o f the h u m a n

w ill an d the ulti m ate s t a n dard o f o u r j u dg m e n ts of val u e is
n ot n e w It w as tho u gh t o u t an d de n itely for m ulated lo n g
.

a go ,
by Greek moral philosophy In deed we m ay say that .
,

all grea t ethical sys t e m s with t he si n gle excep t io n of hed o n

,

i s m advocate i t
,
Plato an d A ris t otl e expressly state : Th e
.

highes t good is life an d a ctio n i n harm o n y with the idea the

e u d aem o n i a of a m an co n sists i n the possessi o n an d exercise

o f al l h u m a n vir t u es an d capacities Th e S toa teaches the .

s a m e : Life accordi n g t o n a t ure is the e n d o f every bei n g ; fo r

m an therefore a life co n form i n g to h u m a n n at u re that is to

, , , ,

reaso n is th e absol u t e e n d i n i t h e n ds his wel fare ( bp o

, e ra

B ) Th o m as A q u i n as teach es th e sa m e : Every bei n g seeks

i ov .

i t s perfecti o n i n accorda n ce with its n ature ; ratio n al crea t ures

18
2 74 C ON C E P TS A ND P RIN C IPLE S
seek i t t hro u gh the ratio n al will se n sible crea t ures throu gh,

the se n s u o u s i m pulse i n se n si ble o n es through t he n at u ral

,

i m p u lse Th e sa m e co n ceptio n reappears i n Hobbes an d

.

S pi n oza . A ccordi n g to the m sel f preservatio n i s t h e goal ;

,
-

o n ly a l i vi n g bei n g preserves itsel f by livi n g an d acti n g an d

, ,

a thi n ki n g bei n g S pi n oza i n sists by thi n ki n g S i m ilarly

, , .
,

S ha ftesb u ry a n d Leib n iz declare that th e har m o n io u s devel

Op m e n t of capacities an d po wers i s the l a w o f m an as well as

o f the u n ive rse Ka n t t oo m igh t be called as a wit n ess for

.
, ,

this theory : Th e real an d i nn er m ost esse n ce of m an expresses

itsel f i n a will deter m i n ed by the practical reaso n o r the
,

co n scio u sn ess o f d u ty an d acts i n accorda n ce with its n at ure

,
.

Likewise Hegel an d S chleier m ache r regard the great b istori

cal co n te n t of h u m a n li fe as a thi n g o f objective val u e i n S O
far as the i n divid u al participates i n i t he gives a m ea n i n g a n d
val u e to his l i fe an d at the s a m e t i m e satises t he deepes t
lo n gi n gs o f his n at u re .

Darwi n wh o i n a certai n se n s e co n t i n ues the a tt e m pt of

,

S pec u lative Philos ophy to reac h an historical co n ceptio n of

the e n tire u n iverse an d tries to sol ve the proble m by n e w
,

m ethods reaches a si m ila r co n clusio n fro m the biological

,

sta n dpoi n t In t he fou rth chap t e r of his work on The

.

De s ce n t of Ma n h e exa m i n es the hedo n istic theory an d

,

atly co n tradicts i t Pleas u re pai n he co n cl u des is n either

.
-
, ,

the m otive n or the e n d of all actio n I q u ote the passage i n .

q u estio n : In th e case of the lower a n i m als it see m s m u ch

m ore appropriate t o S peak o f t hei r social i n sti n cts as havi n g

developed for the ge n eral good tha n for th e ge n eral h appi
n ess o f t h e species Th e term ge n eral good m ay be de n e d
.
, ,

as the reari n g o f the greatest n u m ber of i n di vid u als i n fu ll

vigor an d health with all their fac u lties perfect u n der the
, ,

co n ditio n s t o which they are s u bj ected A s the social i a .

s t i n ct s both o f m a n an d the l owe r a n i m als have n o d o u bt

bee n developed by n early the sa m e steps it wo u ld be ad vi s ,

able i f fo u n d practicable to u s e the sa m e de n i t io n i n both

, ,
2 76 C ON C E P TS A ND P RIN C IPLE S
S phere ; here everythi n g is both a mea n s an d an e n d o r a ,

par t of the e n d Hear t an d brai n ha n ds an d eyes m u scles

.
, ,

a n d bo n es are m ean s o f preservi n g bodily li fe ; b u t they

,

are at the sa m e t i m e par t s of the body Th e body d oes .

n o t exist apart fro m i t s orga n s or th e m ea n s of its sel f

preservatio n ; i t is co m posed of these Th e fu n ctio n i n g of .

each organ is a m ea n s of preservi n g life an d li fe a t t he ,

sa m e t i m e con sists i n the f u n ctio n i n g of all t he organ s .

Th e sa m e re m arks apply t o a work o f ar t Th e partic u lar .

sce n es i n a dra m a are esse n tial t o the whole o therwise they ,

wo u ld be m ere s u peruo u s episodes bu t t hey a re a t the sam e ,

ti m e n ecessary parts of the whole which is si m ply made u p ,

o f al l i t s par t s S o t oo i n the m oral S phere every excel

.
, , ,

le n ce or virt u e i s an orga n of the whole an d a t the sa m e ,

t i m e for m s a part o f li fe ; i t is there fore like the whole an , ,

e n d i n itself Th e m e n tal m oral life is an organ is m i n whic h

.
-

every power an d every f u n c t io n is both a m ea n s an d an

e n d ; every t hi n g i s val u able i n itself bu t everythi n g receives ,

addi t io n al i m porta n ce fro m its rela t io n to th e wh ol e C our age .

h as val u e for li fe as a m ean s of solvi n g cer t ai n probl ems ; i t

can n o t be co n ceived as an isolated ele m e n t an y m ore t ha n ,

the eye can exist for itself b u t o n ly as the orga n of a livi n g

,

body Just as sigh t however is valuable i n itself s o i s t he

.
, , ,

exercise of cou rage i n battle fro m which n o life can b e free

, ,

fo r a s t h e poet says : E i n M e n sch se i n h e i ss t e i n K ampf e r

'

, ,

s ei n Th e sa m e may be sai d of all vir t ues tha t is of all

.
, ,

posi tiv e vir tu es for the n egative vir t ues if we m ay call the m
, ,

s o t he virtues of n ot lyi n g n o t s t eali n g an d n ot co m m itti n g

,
-
,
-
,
-

ad u l t ery are val u able solely as m ea n s To re frai n fro m s u ch

,
.

ac t s is n ot good i n itself b u t m erely a m ea n s t o the goods

,

whic h they s u bserve : t r u th an d property an d m arriage Th e .

positive virt u es on th e other h a n d the love of tru th t he

, , ,

se n se of j u stice an d the do m estic virt u es are all both m ea n s

, ,

o r i n stru m e n ts o f the per fec t life an d parts o f its co n te n t .

V irtues o r cap acities which a re ex ercised i n the acq u isitio n of

 TH E H I G H E ST G OO D 2 77

k n owledge an d i n th e service of the t r u th i n l abor a n d i n the ,

a ccu m u latio n o f wealth i n the reg u latio n o f social a ffairs i n

, ,

f am ily li fe an d i n t he reari n g of childre n are m e an s t o life ,

an d at th e sa m e t i m e co n s t it u te i m porta n t parts of it .

Th e S t oics l o n g ago observed this tr u t h They divided goods .

i n t o three classes goods whic h have absol u t e worth goods ,

which h ave val u e as mea n s an d n ally goods which have , , ,

value bo t h as m ea n s an d e n ds (7 6 m d ya dd v 7 a uv e lva t r em/e d r

,

7 31
. SS n o u rr u c i 7 8 8G n ext /ed [Ca b n o mr c i )
c , 1.
1
A ll exter n al , u c .

goods are e fcie n t goods ( w rnri led) A ll ki n ds of a ctio n s o

-
.

do n e accordi n g to virt u e an d the acco m pa n yi n g feeli n gs o f sa t

i s fa cti o n are n al goods V irt u es are both e fcie n t an d n al
.

fo r i n as m u ch as they prod u ce perfec t happi n ess (e bb t u l ) a ov a ,

they are e fcie n t an d i n as m u ch as t hey co m plete i t by bei n g

,

the m selves part o f it are n al 2

,
.

A n d n o w we m ay go o n an d say : A ll vir t ues an d excel

,

le n ces are both m ea n s an d e n ds i n the m selves b u t n ot all o f ,

the m are s o i n the sa m e degree N ot all the m e m bers o r o r .

ga n s of a livi n g body are equally n ecessary j u s t as so m e ,

sce n es i n a dra m a m ore n early express t he leadi n g t h ought

o r idea of t he play t ha n o th ers S i m ilarly so m e fu n c t io n s i n .
,

moral li fe occupy a m or e ce n tral others a m ore peripheral , ,

positio n ; so m e are seco n dary mean s while others have thei r ,

p u rpose i n the m selves .

A ristotle recog n ized this t ru th Th e ce n tral purpose o f a .

creatu re i s the exercise of its sp e cic n at u re o r powe r N ow .

,

m a n s pec u liar ch aracteristic i s t he e x e r ci s e of r e a son He n ce

.
,

the fu n ctio n o f scie n tic k n owledge that is philosophy co u , , ,

s t i tu t es the ce n tral p u rpose o f hu m a n li fe Th e exercise o f .

th e ethi cal vir t u es all of which are based on p ractical reaso n

, ,

co m es n ext ; f u rther d ow n i n the scale co m e s the exercise o f

the eco n o m i c an d n ally of the a n i m al f u n ctio n s ; they are
1
[Of g d oom s l m
so e f i t
ar e d mna b th l
,
so ed a re e c en , an so e a re o na an

e ffi ci e n t ]
2
[Di og e n e s Lae rt i u s, V II 57 . E n gl . t ra n sl at i o n by C . D . Yo n
ge , p p .

2 94 f .
TR ] .
2 78 C ON C E P TS AND PRIN C IPLE S
th e ecessary pre co n ditio n s o r n at u ral fo u n datio n s o f re al
n -

hu m an li fe Th e n at u ralistic view is co n r m ed by the direct

.

testi m o n y of feeli n g : m an n ds the greates t satis factio n o r

e bb i
a
u v i
o a i n a life co n sisti n g o f the exercise of the theoretical

an d practical reaso n .

Th e evol u tio n istic th eory wi t h i t s pri n ci ple th a t the late r

,

form is a t the sa m e t i m e the higher o n e s u ggests a si m ilar ,

a rra n ge m e n t In the lowes t stages of a n i m al li fe acti o n

.
,

co n sists solely i n th e search fo r food an d the e n deavor t o e s

cape u n favorable exter n al co n ditio n s Grad u ally th e repro .

d u cti v e f u n ctio n s with the care of o ffspri n g i n r u di m e n tary

,

form an d o n the other ha n d i n tellige n ce a t rst i n the for m

, , , ,

of se n se perceptio n are added

-
,
Th e fo u n datio n s of s oci a l an d
.

i n te lle ctu a l li fe are n o w lai d They reach their high est de

.

v e l O m e n t i n m an
p Their evol u t io n for m s th e chief co n te n t
.

of the o n ly part o f t he his t ory o f progress o f which we have

so m e direc t k n owledge n a m ely th rough historical r e c ol le c

, ,

t io n , tha t is the hi s t ory of h u m a n ity No w what has t ake n

-
, .
,

place i n t he historical li fe of hu m an ity what is its esse n tial ,

co n te n t ? We have reached a m ore co m prehe n sive an d deeper

k n o wledge of reality an d we have developed a m ore co m pre
,

h e n si v e an d more co m plica t ed social orga n izatio n C orre .

s p o n d i n g to t his grow t h o f fu n ctio n we n ecessarily h ave a

perfec t io n of powers : r ea son t he f u n c t io n by whi ch the ,

k n owledge of thi n gs is at tai n ed an d th e will is g u ided i n th e

ki n gdo m of e n ds an d soci a l vi r tu e s t he f u n ctio n s u po n which
, ,

the fa m ily the state an d society depe n d co n s titu te the

, , ,

esse n ce of m an as a historical bei n g .

That h u m a n li fe will there fore be the m os t val u abl e which

s u cceeds best i n developi n g th e highest powers o f m a n a n d i n
subordi n ati n g the lower f u n ctio n s to the high er A life on .
,

th e othe r ha n d i n which the vegetative an d a n i m al f u n cti o n s

, ,

se n s u ous desires an d bli n d passio n s have co n t rol m u st be r e , ,

garded as a l ower o r ab n or m al for m A perfect h u m a n li fe .

is a life i n which the mi n d at t ai n s t o free an d full growth an d ,

 C ON C E P TS A ND PRIN C IP LE S
in S piri t m ay f u lly possess Here agai n we m us t guard
.
, ,

agai n st a false spirit u alizatio n We are n o t to u n derstan d

.

t hat the value of a n atio n is to be j u dged solely by wh at it

achieves i n scie n ce an d philosophy or i n ar t an d poe t ry Ou r .

ti m es are perhaps i n cli n ed to overesti m ate these t hi n gs A .

n atio n likewise n eeds its warriors an d states m e n t o de fe n d i t

a n d to adva n ce its ex t er n al i n teres t s i t s m ercha n ts an d sailors

,

to O pe n up n e w cou n tries an d ocean s t o co m m erce an d t o create

fr u itfu l relatio n s with foreig n n atio n s its i n ve n tors an d arti
,

sa n s to discover an d practise their cou n tless ar t s its peasa n t s ,

a n d laborers t o t ill the elds an d to feed the steeds an d its ,

m others to re ar i t s childre n i n love an d fai t h an d the childre n ,

the m selves who play abo u t t he streets A ll these belo n g t o .

the n atio n ; they are n ot merely the ex t er n al basis witho u t

which th ere co u ld be n o spiri t u al life b u t for m a par t of its,

life In deed t his perfec t S piri t ual life is prod u ced by the m as
.
,

well as for th e m Th e crea t ive leaders an d t he receptive

.

m asses exis t fo r each o ther .

W e m ay n ally also reg a rd the n at io n s the m selves as

, ,

m e m bers of a higher u n ity Ma n k i n d th e co n cre t e expres

.
,

sio n of the i d e a of hu m an i ty i n the i n n ite variety of the

pec u liar an d bea u tifu l for m s of which the latter is c apable ,

is t he u lti m ate goal i n ou r e m pirical co n ceptio n of the highes t

good Perfect h u m an ity or i n C hristia n phraseology t he
. , , ,

ki n gdo m of G od o n earth i s th e hi ghes t good an d the n al

,

e n d to which all n atio n s an d all historical prod u cts are

rela t ed as m ean s n o t as i n di ffere n t m ean s it is tr u e b u t as
, , ,

orga n s o r parts of the e n d This will also fu rn ish us with

.

the highest criterio n fo r j u dgi n g the n atio n s an d di ffere n t

stages of civilizatio n : their val u e i s m e as u red by the degree
i n which t hey serve t o realize an d express th e idea of h u m a n ity .

A lth ou gh n o n atio n an d n o stage of civilizatio n is absol u tely

worthless th e y n evert heless di ffer i n val u e an d i m porta n ce
,

accordi n g as the devel op m e n t o f th ei r social political m e n tal -

,

moral artistic an d religio u s li fe approxi m ates this idea

,
.
 TH E H IG H E S T G OO D 2 81

It is n ot hard t o see o f course th at we h ave n ow reached

, ,

a co n cep t which we c an n o t realize We ca n n ot give a con .

cre t e e xposi t io n of th e idea of h u m a n ity all we can d o is to

outli n e i t by m ea n s of t he ge n eral co n cepts of a historical

m e n t al life
. A ll a n thropol ogical an d his t orical i n vestiga t io n s
fu r n ish us with mat erials b u t we ca n n o t co n s t ruc t the idea
,

we can n o t form an ide a of the co n te n ts of t he h u m a n ity li fe -

i n which t he co n te n t s of t h e li ves o f all races a n d peoples ,

o f t he G reek s an d Ro m a n s Egyptia n s an d Babylo n ia n s

, ,

C hi n ese an d Japa n ese of t he co u n tless N egro an d In dian

,

t ribes S hall be i n cluded as teleologically n ecessary m ea n s o f

,

realizin g the idea . Th e divi n e poe m as the his t ory o f ,

h u m an i ty has bee n called s u rpasses o u r co m prehe n sio n ;

,

we observe isol a t e d frag m e n ts an d co m pare the m b u t we ,

ca n n o t grasp the u n ity o f the poe m the ide a o f the whole , ,

which will explai n the n ecessi ty of the m e m bers o r fr ag

m en ts . Th e s o called philosophy of his t ory has a t te m pted
-

t o ga the r t he fragm e n t s i n t o a wh ole an d to i n terpre t the m ,

from the s t an dpoi n t of t h e wh ole It has however n ot .

, ,

succeeded i n doi n g more t ha n m aki n g a sche m atic arra n ge

m e n t of t he m ; t aki n g the n arrow circle o f civiliza t io n e m
braci n g an t iquity a n d th e Middle A ges an d the begi n n i n gs
of m oder n t i m es ,
i t h a s a t mos t bee n able t o poi n t o u t a
his t orical co n n ectio n here an d t h ere which m ay t o a certai n ,

e x t e n t be regarde d as t eleologically n ecessary

, A n d there .

is evide n t ly lit tle hope t ha t t his scie n ce will ever attai n to

grea t e r perfec t io n i n the fu t ure Eve n the his t ory o f the
.

pas t is highly frag m e n t ary ; li t erature which Goethe o n ce ,

called the frag m e n t of frag m e n ts i s appare n tly the best ,

preserved port ion of his t orical t raditio n Bu t eve n if we had .

a clear an d Co m ple t e survey of the e n tire pas t history of the

h u m an race we should probably possess b u t a very i n s i gn i
,

ca n t fragm e n t of the whole : the f u tu re wo u ld be lacki n g .

Perhaps the his t ory of hu m a n ity i s i n its rs t begi n n i n gs ;

perhaps the his t orical life of par t ic u lar n atio n s an d ci vi li za o
2 82 C ON C E P TS A ND P RIN C IP LE S
tio n s is b u t a prel u de to the real his torical li fe of a u n i t ed
h u m an ity fo r which the m oder n era is prepari n g an d which
, ,

i n o u r age with its e n or m ously developed m ea n s o f c o m

,

m u n i cat i on see m s so close at ha n d

,
Perhaps the ce n t ralized
.

world m arke t an d th e u n iversal postal syste m are t he fore

-

r u n n ers of the co m i n g u n icatio n o f t he m e n tal his t orical -

li fe of h u m a n ity U n der these circu m sta n ces h o w can we

.
,

pres u m e to u n derstan d the pla n of u n iversal history which

S hall e n able u s t o assig n to each partic u lar ele m e n t o f his

t o ri c al li fe its place withi n t h e whole as we u n dersta n d th e

,

partic u lar parts an d verses of a poe m which are essen tial ,

m ean s of realizi n g the idea of the whole

It is s t ill m ore di f cult t o give a co n cre t e co n cep t io n o f
the ideal whe n we i n ser t the li fe of h u m an ity i n to a n other
gre at er an d m ore co m prehe n sive reality an d characterize i t ,

as a par t of a t ota l life of the A ll R ea l Here we are deali n g

-
.

e n tirely with sche m atic co n cepts which absol u tely t ran sce n d
t he i m agi n atio n Th e i n co n ceivable an d i n e ff able we can
.

ex press o n ly sy m boli ca lly ; i n so far as we desire t o char

acte r i ze t he A ll Real as th e highes t good w e call it
-
God .

A n d its m a n i festatio n i n a world of m e n t al historical life -

,

which i s e m braced i n t he u n ity of its spiri t u al esse n ce w e ,

call th e ki ng d om of G od Thes e co n cep t s do n ot like the

.
,

co n cepts of scie n ce co m prehe n d reality as i t i s give n t o us

,

i n percep t io n . N ay they d o n ot really belo n g to the do m ai n

,

of k n owledge ; th ey m erely i n dica te the directio n i n which we ,

as feeli n g an d willi n g bei n gs are m ovi n g wh e n we atte m pt to

,

co m plete o u r co n ceptio n o f reality They exp ress ou r belief

.

that all reality te n ds to s o m e highest e n d If the i dea of a .

d i v i n e pla n i n the hi stor y of hu m a n i ty already t ra n sce n ds o u r

co m prehe n sio n h o w m u ch m ore m u s t this be the case wi th
,

the divi n e w or ld p la n ! A ll atte m pts t o d e n e it th e o r e ti

-

cally res u lt eithe r i n the tri t e e n u m eratio n of a few e m pi ri

cal facts an d the reversal of the c a u sal order as i n th e ,

t eleology of the last ce n tu ry o r i n t h e barre n logical c on

,
 2 84 C ON C E P TS A ND P RIN C IPLES
co n scious processes I de n y that this feeli n g ele m e n t is the
.

thi n g of absol u te worth ; it belo n gs to th e phe n o m e n a of

i n n er li fe b u t n ot as their absol u te e n d
,
.

H owever I d o n ot desire to repeat wha t has already bee n

,

sai d I si m ply wish to say a word on on e poi n t G i zyck i con .

te n ds t hat m y syste m o i ethics has n o criterio n fo r m easuri n g

the worth of acts an d qualities S i n ce it rej ects the o n ly pos
,

sible o n e : th e feeli n g of pleas u re or happi n ess He n ce h e .

,

decl ares i t has n o righ t t o S peak as i t does o f higher an d

,

lower powers an d ac t io n s .

I believe however th a t i t possesses such a stan dard : t he

, ,

stan dard is what has bee n called the n or m al type o r the idea , ,

o f h u m a n life To be sure t his type ca n n ot be de n ed as

.
,

acc u rately as a m athe m a t ical co n cep t an d yet it exists an d ,

has i t s fun ctio n Ou r j udgm e n t of the sy m m etry an d beauty

.

of the bodily for m is b a sed upo n the fact tha t we u n c o n

sci o u sly c o m pare it with a n or m al t ype S i m ilarly o u r j u dg

.
,

m e n t o f t he me n t al m oral for m res t s u po n co m pariso n with

-

a n or m al type of the i n n er m an Th e sa m e i s t rue of t he .

co n scie n ce which pro n ou n ces u po n o n e s ow n life ; i t s j u dg

,

m e n ts are based upo n t h e co m pariso n o f a ctual life with an

ideal So far as I can see we n ever m eas u re th e value of a
.
,

li fe be it an i n divid u al or a social life by e m ployi n g a m eth od

, ,

which m igh t be design ate d as t h e m ethod of co m p u ti n g th e

bala n ce of pleasure Th e sam e fac t m ay be observed i n
.

practical a ff airs In choosi n g his re m edies the physicia n

.
,

does n ot rst con sider the balan ce of pleas u re but i n q u ires ,

i n to t hei r e ffec t u po n the fu n ctio n s o f life What he asks .

, ,

is the e ffect o f bodily exercis e of baths opia t es etc u po n

, , ,
.
,

the f u n ctio n s of li fe an d upo n th e orga n s ? N or does the

ed u cator ask wh ether s u ch an d s u ch m ethods of disciplin e
o r i n str u ctio n will give the p u pil the greatest possible a m o u n t

o f pleas u re but whether they will develop his i n t ellec t u al an d

,

m oral capacities Th e pol iticia n does the sa m e

. A m easur e .

is discussed i n a legislative gatheri n g ; o n e par ty favors i t ;

 THE H IG H E S T G OO D 2 85

t he other opposes it ; n eith er party bases its co n cl u sio n s u po n

a co m p u tatio n o f pleas u res b u t u po n th e s u pposed fa v orabl e
,

o r u n fa v orable e ffects o f the m eas u re u po n th e develop m e n t

o f the people alo n g th e li n e o f their ideal .

Is t hi s a de fec t ? Is s u ch co m pariso n with a n or m al type a

cru de an d m erely provisio n al m eth od an d m u st philosophy ,

s u bstit u te for i t the m ore perfec t m ethod of the bala n ce of

pl easures
It appears t o m e t hat if this i s so th e n th e proble m o f phi
,

l osophy is a rather h opel ess o n e Ou r m ean s o f n di n g s u ch a

.

bala n ce O f pleas u re are i n m y opi n io n exceedi n gly poor an d

, , ,

I d o n o t look fo r a n y great i m prove m e n t alo n g these li n es i n

th e f u tu re Be n tha m s sche m e of m eas u ri n g the qu a n t u m of
.

pleas u re is still waiti n g for so m e o n e to apply it an d will I , ,

believe have lo n g to w ait an d i n vai n

,
.

What ethics act u ally an d u n iversally d oes is thi s : i t at

te m pts to a n aly ze an d describe th e n orm al type o f which w e
h ave spoke n Th e d octri n e of virt u es th e f u n da m e n tal par t of
.
,

ethics gives s u ch a n an alysis an d t he doctri n e o f d u ties di ffers

, ,

f ro m i t o n ly i n for m ; i t gives us a ge n eral descriptio n of

the f u n ctio n of the vir t u o u s ch aracter J u s t as die t etics .

d escribes t h e n or m al fu n c t io n s o f the body an d poi n ts o u t ,

their i m po rtan ce fo r life so m oral philosophy describes t h e

,

n orm al f u n ctio n s o f m an as a ratio n al voliti o n al bei n g an d

, ,

shows thei r val u e for i n divid u al an d collective li fe calli n g at ,

te n tio n at th e sa m e ti m e to dist u rba n ces an d deviatio n s an d

, , ,

i n dicati n g h ow they m ay be avoided an d cou n teracted It like .

wise disti n g u ishes betwee n th e m ore an d th e less i m portan t

phases of li fe betwee n the co n trolli n g a n d the s u bordi n ate
,

f u n ctio n s Dietetics is satised without e n teri n g u po n a

.
,

co m putatio n of pleas u res that th e spi n al col u m n is a m ore

,

i m portan t part o f the body th a n a n ge r o r a t e e th that the ,

actio n o f the heart h as a greate r sign ica n ce for life tha n the
tear glan d that the prope r care o f th e fu n c t io n s of n u tritio n
,

i s m ore i m porta n t than th e c u t of o n e s h air S i m ilarly

.
,
2 86 C ON C EP TS A ND PRIN C IPLE S
ethi cs co n sideri n g th e co n ditio n s an d rela t io n s of hu m a n his
,

t o r i cal li fe is co n vi n ced witho u t calc u latio n s of this ki n d th a t

, , ,

sel f co n trol an d j u stice are m ore i m porta n t tha n polite m an

-

n e rs that the fu n ctio n s of th e teacher an d j u dge are worth

,

m ore t o a peopl e tha n those of a n opera si n ger or acrob at .

In hi s E thi cs G i zy ck i m odies the h edo n i stic theory as fol

lows Th e highest s u bj ective goal of li fe he says is th e sat , ,

i sfacti o n prod u ced by the co n scio u s n ess of havi n g do n e the

right or th e feeli n g of a good co n scie n ce Do ri n g agrees with
,
.
'

h i m whe n i n h i s G u t er leh r e he de n es th e highest good as th e

, ,

roper regard for self or t h e satis factio n of the desire fo r i hd i

p ,

vid u al worth We see thus that the differe n ce betwee n the

.

vario u s co n ceptio n s of m orality m ay be practically i n sig n ica n t

o r m ay e n tirely va n ish Th e questio n is a p u rely th eoretical
.

on e . But for this ver y reaso n it see m s proper to m e to say

Li fe i t sel f an d its heal th fu l virt u o u s an d beauti fu l activity i s
, ,

the absol u tely desirabl e an d val u able thi n g n ot th e isolated ,

feeli n g r e e x acco m pa n yi n g i t Feeli n gs of course exis t

-
.
, ,

an d belo n g to life but n o t as th e absol u te good ; they are n ot

,

the n al m otives of the age n t s will n o r the tr u ly valuable ele

,

m e n ts i n the j u dg m e n t of th e spec t a t or .

Th e di ffere n ce be t wee n Gi zyck i s co n ception an d m y ow n

has as h e hi m sel f ass u m e s its ulti m ate roo t i n psychology

, , .

He at t rib u t es m y error t o a false psych ol ogy an d correc t s i t ,

by re ferri n g m e t o Bai n an d others W ell I co n fess despite .

, ,

all m y respect fo r the E n glish thi n ke rs I d o n ot believe tha t ,

th e a n alytical psych ology h as said o r will say t he last word on

this s u bject A m ere a n alysis of co n scious processes which
.
,

m ore over fails to co n r m th e hedo n is t ic view

,
does n ot
go to the roo t of the discussio n It m u st be s u pple m e n ted by .

biologi cal reectio n s an d th ese d o n ot S h o w u s that the will

,

i s pri m arily deter m i n ed by pl eas u res an d pai n s an d i s thei r ,

prod u ct as i t were b u t favor th e view advocat ed by S ch ope n

, ,

hau er : that a p articularly determ i n ed will a s p e ci c -will ,

( e i n We sen wi lle ) to u s e Ten n ies s term i s t h e fu n d am e n

, ,

tal fac t of all psychical life .

 C ON C E P TS A ND P RIN C IPLE S
In far as these li n es represe n t the rea l feeli n gs of t he
so

poe t they are of co u rse i n co n trovertible j u st as i n con

, , , ,

t ro v e r ti bl e as th e li n es of Ma t the w A r n old

Is i t so sm all a th i n g

To h a v e en o ed
y j th e su n ,

To h a v e li v e d li gh t i n t h e Sp r i n g,
To h a v e lo v e d, t o h a v e th o u gh t , t o h av e d on e ;
r r
To h a ve a d v ance d t u e f i e n d s , an d b e at d o w n b affli n g foe s 1

Feeli n gs are n ot true or false they are facts which can be

an alyzed an d expl ai n ed which m ay be co n sidered praise ,

wort hy o r detestable b u t n ot re fu ted , .

Th e case is di ffere n t where pessi m is m ai m s to be a phil

os oph i cal theory S ch ope n ha u e r does n o t m erely desire to
.

ex press the feeli n g that he n ds n othi n g i n li fe b u t he tries ,

to prove that there i s n othi n g i n it an d that whoever n ds ,

a n ythi n g i n it deceives hi m sel f He gives reaso n s an d .

,

reaso n s u n like feeli n gs can be ex am i n ed an d may if false

, , , , ,

be re fu ted Th e arg u m e n t will n ot n ecessarily ch an ge the per

.

so n al m ood o f the pessi m is t b u t it will des t roy the validity of ,

his theory Su c h an ex a m i n a t io n I propose t o place be fore

.

the reader Un less I m is t ake its val u e it will sh o w that

.
,

philosophical pessi m is m is n ot a proved theory whose propo ,

s i t i o n s ca n l a y clai m to u n iversal validity b u t the expressio n ,

o f i n divid u al feeli n gs an d as such can be m erely subj ec t ively ,

tr u e 2
.

We m ay divide the at t emp t s wh ich h ave bee n m ade t o prov e

pessi m is m i n to t wo classes the sen su a li sti chgd on i sti c an d th e
m or a li s ti c By the for m e r I m ea n the arg u m e n t which e n
.

d e av o r s to show that life yiel ds m ore pai n th an pleasure

"

a n d co n cl u des fro m thi s t h at i t i s worth less tha n n othi n g

'

1 P o e m s IL, 3 2 ,
: E mp e d ocles on E tna .

2
[F o r p hi lo so p h i cal p e ss i m i sm see : S ch o p e n h au e r The, Wor ld as Wi ll an d
I d e a , v ol I , Bo o k I V ; vo l IL,
. . . App e n di xt o Bo o k IV . P a r erg a , ch ap s . X L,
X II X IV ; M ai n l an d e r , Di e P hi losop hi e d er E r lb su n q ; Har t m ann , D i e P hi lo

.
, .

so p hi e d es Un be wu ss te n Zur Geschichte a nd B egrii nd u ng d es P es s i mi s mus , e tc .

TR ].
 PE SSIMISM 2 89

Th e lat t e r adds tha t li fe con sidered objec t ively an d m orally

, ,

has n o val u e an d that it is there fore n ot o n ly u n h appy b u t

, ,

deserves t o be u n h appy I also m e n tio n a third fo rm : the

.

proof fro m t he p hi lo sop hy of hi s tory whi ch tries to S how that ,

as life devel ops especially with th e progress of civilization

, ,

pai n an d i m m orality i n crease .

2
. The he d on i s t i c arg u m e n t co n te n ds tha t h u m a n life yields
m o r e an d gre ater pai n s tha n pleas u res It is evide n t fro m .

the very n atu re of the case that s u ch an assertio n can be

proved o n ly by s ta ti s ti cs A phrase frequ e n tly u sed by th e
.

m ost rece n t pessi m istic wri ters w o u ld see m to i m ply that

s u c h an arg u m e n t can really be m ade ; they speak of a
ba la n ce of p le a su re which is agai n s t the val u e o f life
, Th e .

ter m is borrowed fro m co m m erci al l an gu age Th e m ercha n t .

ad ds u p the debit an d credit acco u n ts of his ledger an d ,

s trikes the bala n ce It wo u l d appear fro m the phrase t ha t

.

th e pessi m istic philosopher e m ploys a S i m ilar m ethod that he ,

keeps books as i t were e n teri n g on opposite sides u n der the

, , ,

headi n gs p lea su r e an d p a i n the respective a m ou n ts yielde d

, ,

by li fe ; that so m e day he posts his books an d n ds th at the ,

total o f the pai n col u m n s exceeds the t o t al of the pleasure

-

col u m n s.

I do n ot k n o w whe ther such an atte m p t has ever bee n

m ade ; I h ave discovered n othi n g o f th e ki n d i n the writi n gs
o f th e philosophical pessi m is t s with which I happe n to be
a cq u ai n ted A n d yet it see m s to m e n o m ethod co u l d f u r n i sh
.

so co n v i n ci n g a proof tha t the thi n g i s p ossi ble as th e

a tte m pt to post the ite m s eve n o f a si n gle day o f a h u m a n

li fe Im agi n e the average day o f an average h u m an li fe

.

t r eated accordi n g t o such a sche m e ! We m igh t have an

acco u n t like the followi n g : A Receipts i n Pleas u re : 1 . .

Slept well eq u al s o m a n y u n its ; 2 E n j oyed my break .

fas t 3 Read a ch apt e r fro m a good book

. 4 Received .

a letter fro m a frie n d etc B Pai n : 1 Re ad a d is agree

. . .

able story i n t h e pape r 2 Dist u rbed by a n eighbor s

.

19
2 90 C ON C E P TS A ND PRIN CIPLE S
pia n o 3 Received a tireso m e visit
. 4 At e burn t soup .

e tc. Th e philosopher is req u ested to In ser t the a m o u n ts

-

i n the proper places .

Bu t that is an abs u rd an d childish de m a n d y o u say ! I ,

certai n ly agree with yo u that it would be an abs u rd u n der

taki n g Bu t the de m a n d itself does n ot see m to be absurd
. .

If it is wholly i m possible t o m ake a statistical esti m ate

of the pleas u re a n d pai n q u a n ta h o w c an the assertio n be
,

proved that the pai n s exceed the ple as u res ? If it is i m pos

sible t o x a de n ite val u e for the separate ite m s how can the ,

value of the totals be co m pare d If we are u tterly u n able to

han dle the si m plest cases if we can n o t eve n say whether the
,

pleas u re yielded by a good breakfast is greater or less tha n

the pai n occasio n ed by b u r n ed soup h o w c an we m ake eve n the
,

fai n tes t co n j ect u re i n m ore d ifc u l t cases ? How can we i f ,

we are u n able to co m p u te the res u lts of a S i n gle day dare to ,

assert anythi n g co n cer n i n g th e resul t s o f an e n tire li fe an d ,

the n n o t of a si n gle i n divid u al life m i n d you b u t of all hu m a n

, ,

lives
In hi s n ovel F ou r G e r m a n s Melchior Meyer gives the his
, ,

tory of two you n g m e n wh o gro w u p toge the r u n der the sa m e

co n ditio n s with the sa m e prospects an d de m a n ds o n li fe
, .

They st u dy t ogether they are frie n ds an d hold esse n tially

, ,

the sa m e vi ews A t the e n d of their college days the di ff er

.
,

e n c e s i n thei r n at u res begi n to m a n i fest the m selves Th e .

o n e e n t ers the gover n m e n t service ; he beco m es an a ffable

-

an d capable o fficial a n d soo n discards s u ch n otio n s as are

,

co n sidered objec t io n able i n high circles He begi n s to rise .

m ore rapidly ; he e n ters the C abi n et beco m es the s o n i n law ,

- -

o f the Pri m e Mi n ister an d n ally Pri m e Mi n is t er hi m self .

,

His frie n d who has a m ore reective n atu re follows a u n i

, ,

versity career ; h e beco m es a privat doce n t an d a writer .

C ari n g o n ly fo r his o wn co n victio n s h e re fu ses to be gov ,

er n ed by the prevaili n g O pi n io n s Be fore k n owi n g it he

.
,

beco m es u n pop u lar the orthod ox thi n kers begi n to shake

,
2 92 C ON C E P TS AN D P RIN C IPLE S
would be obvio u sly fals e Is appetite pai n ? Is i t n ot
.

rather a n a n ticipati o n of pleas u re an d is it n o t felt as such ,

by the healthy m an ? With eager eyes the child w atches his

moth er baki n g cakes ; does he experie n ce pai n an d is this ,

sile n ced o n ly after he has eate n th e cake ? Does he after ,

waki n g fro m a healthy sleep soo n experie n ce pai n fu l tedi u m

, ,

a n d does h e get rid o f the feeli n g o n ly a fter it has forced hi m

t o pl ay N 0 on e can believe such a thi n g u n less h e ig n ores

the facts an d m akes u p hi s m i n d to see n othi n g b u t the pro
positio n s of hi s syste m Besides th e falsity of the v iew
.
,

m ay be show n i n a n other way If pleas u re were freedo m

.

fro m the pai n of desire i t wo u ld have t o be t he greater the

, ,

greater the desire has bee n That is by n o m ea n s always the

.

case On the co n trary the i n dividuals wh o h ave th e stro n ges t

.
,

desires experie n ce the least pleas u re a fter realizi n g the m .

Th e p eople w h o wait m os t pa t i e n tly e n j oy th e p u res t an d

i n te n sest pleasures whe n they obtai n what they n either asked
,

for n o r expected We see this i n childre n ; I believe it

.

always h appe n s tha t t he grea t e r th e desire th e less pleasure ,

its satis factio n yields .

S ch ope n h au e r proves pessi m is m by re fere n ce to the n a t u r e

o
f t he w i ll which p er se is u n i n tellige n t a i m less s tr i vi ng
, ,
.

It is n ot origi n ally m oved by the idea of an e n d b u t appears ,

as a bli n d will to live He n ce he says there can be n o state

- -
.
, , ,

n o good which c a n give th e w i ll de n ite satisfac t io n

,
This .

deter m i n es th e n at u re of th e feeli n gs : pai n an d m is ery dis ,

appoi n t m e n t an d t edi u m are th e i n evitable result Th e pai n .

w hich i s ca u sed by n eed urges the will to actio n ; i n case

it does n ot realize its e n d t he pai n beco m es t orture If it

,
.

realizes its e n d th e relief is m o m e n tarily felt as pleas u re

,
.

Bu t soo n this disappears ; possessio n which fro m a di s ,

t a n ce pro m ised per m a n e n t satis factio n soo n fails to aro u se ,

feeli n gs of pleasu re ; he n ce the e n d of all pleasure is d is ap

poi n t m e n t In case the will e n deavors t o p u t an e n d to this
.

restless s t rivi n g tedi u m soo n goads i t i n t o preferri n g m isery

,
 PE SSIM IS M 2 93

an d t or t ure to a s t at e of res t These are the feeli n gs betwee n

.

which the will co n sta n tly oscill at es We m igh t th ere fore .

, ,

co m pare life to a foot path r u n n i n g betwe e n t wo thor n y

-

hedges a path so n arrow t ha t whe n the wa n derer atte m pts

,

t o avoid on e of the hedges he is i n variably tor n by the ,

o ther .

Im par t ial j u dges will regard this view as ex t re m ely o n e

sided Perh aps n o li fe is absolutely free fro m s u ff eri n g an d
.

t edi u m b u t m an y an existe n ce will for so m e days be al m ost

, , ,

e n tirely witho u t t he m Th e path betwee n the h edges is n ot s o

.

n arrow as to m ake i t i m possible fo r an y o n e but an u n usually

awkward m an t o p u rs u e it witho u t serio u s i n j ury A healthy .

child reared i n si m ple heal t hy s u rro u n di n gs will n ot k n o w

,
.

, ,

very m uch abo u t di s t ress an d tedi u m whe n le avi n g the pare n tal
ho m e A n d if the co n ditio n s of life co n ti n ue half way favor
.
-

able he m ay n ot experie n ce the m to an y grea t exte n t fo r

,

m a n y years t o co m e Th e peasa n t does n ot wait for wa n t to

.

urge h i m t o his work In t he day t i m e h e rej oices a t wha t

.

he has acco m plished an d a t n igh t h e e n joys hi s res t I t

,
.

would be a vai n u n der t aki n g to m ake hi m believe t hat th e

form er is pai n an d the lat ter tedi u m A n d s o work days an d .
-

holidays s u m m er an d wi n t e r may co m e an d go year i n an d

, ,

year ou t witho u t brin gi n g grea t t ro u bles an d without leavi n g

,

m uch o pportu n ity fo r tediu m Of course so m e sorrows will

.
,

co m e b u t we also n d th a t s orrows t ur n i n t o blessi n gs

, .

He n ce we m igh t perhaps quo t e a t t he e n d of s u ch a li fe

, , ,

the words of t he Psal m is t i n a slightly m odied for m : Th e

,

days o f ou r years a re t hreescore years an d te n ; an d if by

reaso n of s t re n gth they be foursco r e years an d if their ,

stre n gth h e labor an d sorrow yet th ey h ave bee n sweet ,

A re .

s u ch live s m ere isolated exceptio n s ? In as m uch as we h ave

n o statistics o n the h appy an d u n h a py lives the s u ccesses
p ,

an d fail u res I a m fo r th e prese n t i n cli n ed to u t as m u ch

, p
faith i n th e j u dg m e n t of a pl ai n m an o f th e people as i n th e
eloq u e n ce of a pessi m isti c philosopher Th e plai n m an would .
2 94 C ON C E P TS A ND P RIN C IPLE S
m ost likely a rgue somewhat as follows : If an h o n orable a n d
healthy li fe is n ot an exceptio n the n a happy li fe is n o t a n ,

isolated excep t io n either Th e will as described by the phi

.
,

los op h e r o f pessi m is m is n ot the will of a healthy h u m a n

,

bei n g b u t that o f a m oody an d spoilt child an d s u ch a will

, ,

m ay perh aps experie n ce t he thi n gs m e n tio n ed .

Bu t S chope n h au er replies it m ay be that so m e lives are

, ,

fai rly success fu l i n avoidi n g collisio n s b u t does that chan ge

the fact that li fe as a whole is a n e mp ty a i m le ss str i vi ng ? ,

We m ay he believes co m pare li fe t o the str u ggles o f a

, ,

shipwrecked m ari n er wh o for a fe w m o m e n ts str u ggles with

,

all his m igh t t o save hi m sel f fro m d row n i n g o n ly to be e n ,

g u l fed by the waves at last Li fe is a ceaseless battle with

.

death to which we are approachi n g n earer an d n earer every

,

day A n d the h opeless n ess o f thi s futile b u si n ess is i n creased

.

by the cr u el i ro n y of n at u re which d eludes us with t he co n

,

s t a n t pro m ise To m orrow there will be a cha n ge fo r the be t

-

ter If o n ly I were a m an sighs th e u n happy schoolboy ; if

,

o n ly m y exa m i n atio n s an d appre n ticeship were over an d I had ,

a n i n depe n de n t positio n an d for t u n e says the you t h cha n g ,

u n der restrai n t ; if o n ly I we re a m illio n aire or a privy co u n

sell e r c ri es the t roubled m an how I sho u ld e n j oy li fe A n d
, ,

all these wishes are ul t i m a t ely f u llled b u t the satis factio n ,

n ever co m es Y e t t h e illusio n s c o n ti n u e u n t il ol d age car

.
,

ries the las t o n es i n to the grave Bu t lo n g be fore this th e .

,

cycle has begu n a n ew i n childre n an d gran dch ildre n Does .

n o t the will to live play u s a m iserable trick ? Th e tort u res

-

described by Greek m y t hol ogy the S isyph u s s t o n e t he barrel, ,

o f th e Da n a i des t he wheel o f I xi o n represe n t li fe itself n o t

'

, , ,

the exceptio n ally u n h appy li fe b u t the average life of all m or

,

tals whose absol u te f u tility i s experie n ced every day an d ye t

,

re m ai n s forever n e w .

In deed it is t r u e tha t t he will t o live i s ai m l ess i n th e se n se

,
- -

o f n ever attai n i n g t o a state of absolute satis factio n ; it is tr u e

that it daily looks forward t o t he morrow expecti n g fro m i t ,

2 96 C ON C EP TS A ND PRINC IP LE S
f u lly re m embers every par t of his t ravels especially the m os t ,

dan gero u s an d di ffic u lt parts an d e n j oys the pl eas u re o f m ak

,

i n g pla n s fo r a n other trip n ex t year .

Well t he arg u m e n ts agai n st the val u e o f li fe prove n o m ore

,

than the sa m e arg u m e n ts agai n s t the val u e o f a pleas u re trip .

In spite o f its ai m less n ess i n spite o f its ill u sio n s an d d i sap

,

i n t m e n t s i n spite o f its pai n s an d ex ertio n s i n spite o f the

p o , ,

fact n ally t hat we n ever reac h a stoppi n g place where we

,
-

could bear t o abide per m an e n tly it m ay be a very e n joy

,

able affair on the whole S o lo n g as it i s fu ll o f actio n a n d

.

chan ge i n work an d i n play f u ll of care fo r self an d oth ers

, ,

the m i n d will delight i n recalli n g th e m e m ories of the pas t ,

li n geri n g with special satis factio n u po n the da n gero u s an d

t e m pest u o u s tro u bleso m e an d di ffi c u lt parts o f the traversed
,

j o u rn ey In achievi n g this the will realizes the goal at which

.

it ai m s : an ho n orable hu m a n li fe with all the experie n ces

bel on gi n g to i t .

Ol d people deligh t i n n arra t i n g i n cide n ts fro m t h ei r lives ,

either by word of m o u th t o t hei r fri e n ds o r to the worl d a t

large i n pri n t ed au tobiographies Wo u ld they feel i n cli n ed
.

to do so i f life were a S isyphea n l abor They evide n tly r e

gard it i n a d i e re n t light as an i n teresti n g d ra m a perhaps
, , ,

f u ll of ac t io n an d exc i te m e n t for both ac tor an d spec t ator ,

which i n spite o f its tro u bles an d co n icts its happy an d

, , .

d a n gero u s crises a t las t co m es to a peace fu l e n di n g

, Th e .

exci t e m e n t is ove r the acto r i n th e play breathes m ore

,

free l v ; as a specta t or h e n o w reh earses the co n te n ts of th e

dra m a i n his m i n d Wo u l d h e be willi n g to play the role
agai n ? S chope nh auer believes that i f we we re to ask th e
dead i n thei r graves Wh ether they wo u ld be willi n g to live
agai n they would shake thei r heads Perh aps he i s right ;
, .

who wo u ld be willi n g t o w itn ess a pl ay o n ce m ore i m m e d i ,

ately after havi n g see n it per for m ed ? Bu t th at s u rely d oes

n o t prove a n ythi n g agai n st the val u e o f the d ra m a We .

s houl d n o t be willi n g eve n t o repeat t he experie n ces o f t h e

 PE ssnuI S M 2 97

mos t delightf u l j o u r n ey i m m ediately a fter h avi n g reached

,

ho m e Besides i s it so rare a thi n g to hear o l d people

,

exp ressi n g the wish t o b e yo u n g agai n ? Th e m atu re m an

does n o t desire to be a yo u th agai n the yo u th does n ot wis h ,

t o be a boy agai n t h e boy does n ot wish t o b e a child agai n ;

,

b u t m a n y an ol d m a n wishes t o be yo u n g agai n Is it n ot .

because h e has e n j oyed hi s rest an d n ow has th e courage t o

,

begi n the j o u r n ey afresh ?

I ca n n o t t here fore co n vi n ce m yself t h a t the s t a t e m e n t
, ,

Life u n i for m ly bri n gs m ore pai n than pleas u re m ore d i sap ,

poi n t m e n t than s atis factio n th e s u bj ective evide n ce of feel

,

i n g declares it to be val u eless is proved by these reectio n s

,

o f the philosophers o f pessi m is m .

3
. The m or alii iq aw m en t asserts that life is as worth
less as i t i s u n happy tha t i t is absol u tely d evoid of an y
,

thi n g that obj ectively co n sidered c an m ake i t worth livi n g

, , .

V irt u e an d wisdo m are the ex cep t io n wicked n ess an d fool ,

i sh n e ss the r u le S chope n h a u er does n ot w eary of abusi n g

.

m a n ki n d i n this strai n N at u re h e i s fo n d of sayi n g

.
, ,

prod u ces hu m a n bei n gs i n bulk like wor thless fac t ory wares
, ,

a n d throws th e m away i n b u lk i n accorda n ce with t he ,

maxi m o f wh olesal e prod u ctio n as cheap an d bad M alice , .

a n d ig n ora n ce are th e two charac t eristic q u ali ties of the

average m an Medi ocrity is m ore co n spic u o u s a m o n g th e
.

m asses ; the m an y are poverty stricke n w re t ches with n o -

,

higher spiritual desire s i n te n t o n ly u po n eki n g o u t thei r

,

m iserable existe n ce t o the very l ast Thei r sole ai m is t o .

proc u re food an d perhaps t o prod u ce proge n y for th e sa m e

,

u n happy lot G rovelli n g i n th e dirt they live o n an d whe n ,

.
,

they ar e go n e the very trace o f thei r existe n ce is wiped o u t .

N or are they free fro m an ad m i xt u re of m alice : they l ook with

e n vy an d ha tred upo n th ose wh o excel th e m i n m e n tal an d
physical gi fts o r i n wealth an d ra n k O n ly with grea t e f
, .

fort can the police keep th e m fro m attacki n g each othe r As .

wil d beasts m u st be kept apart by cages m e n m u s t be p r o ,

2 98 C ON C E P TS A ND P R I N C IPL E S

t e ct e d agai n s t each other by cri m i n al la ws cages whose bars ,

are forged by fear Whe n ever an opport u n ity is o ffered o f

.

che ati n g a fello w s u fferer o r i n icti n g da m age u po n an

e n vied on e witho u t da n ger of p u n ish m e n t i t is i m m ediat ely
, ,

e m braced Eve n their s o called vir tu es are whe n rightly

.
-
,

viewed m ade of the sa m e st u ff They are soci able fro m van

,
.

ity co m passio n ate fro m sel f l ove h o n es t fro m fear peace

,
-
, ,

lovi n g fro m cowardice be n evole n t fro m s u perstitio n , There .

is a s m all m i n ority a m o n g who m m alice prepo n derat es over

ig n oran ce an d si n ce greater i n te lli ge n ce i s us u ally co n n ec t ed
,

with a stro n ger will the laws are i n variably powerless to r e

,

strai n the m fro m pou n ci n g upo n the others like beasts of ,

prey Th e m a ny are like sheep cowardly st u bborn an d n ar

.
, , ,

ro w ; t he few like w olves an d foxes ferocio u s a n d deceit fu l ,

.

Wisd o m a n d virt u e on the other ha n d are rare prod u cts

, , .

N atu re scarcely succeeds i n prod u ci n g two or three ge n iuses

i n a ce n t u ry an d sai n ts are equa lly few an d far be t w ee n
,
.

Th u s S chope n h a u er the despiser a n d acc u ser of t he h u m a n

,

race describes with passio n at e eloq u e n ce its moral an d i n tel

, , ,

lect u al shortco m i n gs He is n ot the o n ly m an who e n t ertai n s

.

this O pi n i o n Ever si n ce the old Greek sage declared tha t

.

th e m os t are w orthless the se n ti m e n t has bee n con

,

s t an tly repeated Hobbes holds th e sa m e view of m an an d

.
,

La Roche fo u ca u ld has give n u s i n his R e e cti on s a n d Max im s , ,

a ki n d of h an d book o f philosophical m e d i san ce which i n ever

-

, ,

cha n gi n g periods proclai m s selsh n ess an d va n ity as th e real

,

m otives of h u m a n n at u re N or did Ka n t have a very favor

.

able O pi n io n of h u m a n bei n gs .

A re these views correc t ? A gai n I ask : How can their

tr u t h be proved ? In m y j u dgm e n t u lti m a t ely by statistics ,

alo n e Th e a ssertio n that there are m ore wicked m e n tha n

.

good o n es m ore fools t ha n sages c an be proved o n ly by a

, ,

ce n s u s We h ave o n ly to m ake s u ch a de m an d t o see the

.

i m possibility o f the u n dertaki n g In teresti n g though s u ch .

a n i nv e s t i ati on woul d b e the classes bad wi se an d st u pid

g , , ,
3 00 C ON C E P TS A ND P RIN C IPLE S
an d m alicesh oul d hav e o u rished m ost u n der such co n di
ti o n s Frederick the Great is q u oted as havi n g said to S u lzer
.

that he S u lzer did n o t k n ow the acc u rsed tribe to which

, ,

they belo n ged Thi s was n ot a ch a n ce re m ark the outbu rst

.
,

o f a te m porary m ood b u t revealed a co n te m pt for h u m a n ki n d

,

which had beco m e h abit u al with the ki n g d u ri n g his old age .

Di d Frederick possess a k n owledge o f h u m a n n at u re ? He

u n doubtedly di d b u t wi th wh a t ki n d of people h ad h e co m e
i n c o n t act ? W ith people o f course wh o gath ered at his , ,

cour t : with diplo m ats whose busi n ess i t was to o u twi t h i m

,

an d e ach other ; wi th li t erati an d sava n t s wh o begged for ,

favors a n d supp or t an d e n vied each other for wha t they r e

,

c e i ve d with servil e an d beggarly offi ce seekers who vied with -

,

e ach other t o ge t t he bes t places ; w ith a crowd whose pur

poses th e practical eye co u l d n ot fail to fatho m There were .

d oub tless good people arou n d h i m t oo ho n orable o f cers an d ,

upright o i ci als bu t th e o thers t ook the great es t pai n s t o

a tt ract his atte n tio n Th e grea t m aj ority of h i ss u bjects who
.

were q u ietly c u ltivati n g the elds o r m aki n g shoes h e did n ot ,

see ; they m ere ly represe n t ed s o m a n y u n its i n the ce n s u s

lists .

Th e philosophers t oo have the reputatio n o f k n owi n g if

, , ,

n ot m e n a t least m an
, Di d S ch ope n hau er Ka n t o r Hobbes
.
, ,

h ave favorable O pportu n ities fo r st u dyi n g h u m an n atu re ? I

do u b t it Their poi n t of vie w was ab n or m al i n m ore than
.

o n e r espect A bove all they lacked the e n viro n m e n t i n

.
,

which a re developed the m os t i m porta n t relatio n s of m an to

hu m a n ity : th ey had n o fa m ily ties S u rro u n ded by stra n gers .

who m they distrusted t hey r eached a helpless old age as

,

l o n ely a n d disco n solate ol d bachelors Frau Marth a S ch wert .

1
lei n i s certai n ly right : E s ha t n och k e i n e m w o hlg e tha n

.

We ca n n ot read withou t the deepes t pity the d e s cr i p

t io n s o f Ka n t s O ld age of his worries over h o u seh old

,

aff airs o f his t roubles with his serva n t ; o f S chope n ha u er s

,

1 G o e t h e , F a u st
.
 P E SSIMISM 01

e ffor t s t o co n ceal his m o n ey fro m b u rglars of his despair ,

o f ever e n j oyi n g a dece n t co n versatio n a t t he h otel table .

These m e n n ot o n ly n eeded so m e o n e t o care for the m ;

m ore t ha n th at t hey n eeded so m e o n e fo r who m t o care
, .

Man is eve n m ore attache d to those for who m h e c ares an d

whom h e l oves than t o those wh o love an d care for h i m .

Wha t w o n der i s i t the n th a t t hese m en could n ot sy m pathize

, ,

wi t h m a n ki n d a t large whe n t hei r r elatio n s to i n divid u als

were s o u n sati s fac t ory ? A m a n s co n de n ce i n an d love for

h u m an ity depe n ds upo n a few experie n ces S hould any on e .

o f us lose t h e ve o r t e n perso n s w h o are n e a r an d dear t o

h i m h e wo u ld be a s t ra n ge r i n the world ; h e wo u ld b e
,

co m e an e n e m y t o m a n ki n d if these ve or t en should prove

false t o h i m We m us t als o re m e m ber tha t t hese pessi m is t s
.

were wri t ers an d sch olars an d t h a t their k n owledge of h u m a n

,

n at u re was acq u i re d i n t h e world o f a u t hors an d sch olars .

Bu t where are we m ore ap t t o n d va n i ty an d dog m atis m ,

attery an d an i n abili ty t o recog n i ze th e m erits of o thers ,

tha n i n such surro u n di n gs I believ e also t ha t S chope n hau er

wo u ld n ot h ave form ed so l ow an esti m ate of the i n t ellige n ce
of m en if he had paid less att e n t i o n t o book an d n ewspaper
,

writers an d m ore to t he c om m o n se n se people wh o a re e n

,
-

gaged i n the practical pursuits of life .

Le t us n ow hea r th e opi n io n of healthy u n prejudiced m e n

, ,

o f real m e n of the people .Take Goe t h e His w as a rich an d

.

healthy n a t ure an d few perso n s c a m e i n t o such direc t perso n al

,

con t ac t with an d gai n e d s o d eep an d wide a k n owledge o f the

, ,

li fe of th e Germ a n peopl e a s did he In deed we can say tha t

.
,

h ardly a si n gl e phase of it was e n ti rely u n k n ow n t o h i m He .

als o possessed re m arkable p owers of perceptio n an d had the ,

h appy f aculty of describi n g his i m pressio n s with u n u s u al force .

Hi s le t ters an d au t obiographic writi n gs acq u ai n t u s with th e

worl d i n which h e lived ; we a re i n trod u ced to the pare n tal
h o m e an d the surro u n di n gs of h is yo u th i n Fra n k fo rt ; the n
t o th e circle s a t Leipsic S t rasburg S ese n hei m Wetzlar an d
, , , ,
3 02 C ON C E P TS A ND PRIN C IPLES
Wei m ar Wha t ki n d of peopl e does h e mee t ? We n d
.

a greeable an d disagreeable characters a m o n g the m ; m ost o f

the m are n ot t ro u bli n g abo u t t heir m orality ; th ey live as

hu m an bei n gs u s u ally live as their n ature s dictate Few of ,
.

the m r ese m ble the descrip t io n s of t he m oralistic pessi m is t .

Here an d there o f c o u rse we n otice a little perverse n ess an d

, ,

so m e m alice bu t m ore o fte n w e n d o u rselves face to face with

,

n at u ral a m iable ho n es t an d se n sible h u m a n bei n gs Goethe s

.
, , ,

poetical c reati o n s i n which he typies his co n ceptio n s o f

,

h u m a n n ature i m press us si m il a rly In G ifts i n Egm on t i n

,
.
, ,

Her m a n n u n d Dor ot hea works i n which he por t rays the p op u

f
,

lar phases of Ger m a n life everywhere w e discover vigorous , ,

cal m an d e n erge t ic cheerful an d co n t e n ted characters True

,
.
,

the petty effe m i n at e deceitful an d viole n t n at u res a re n ot

, , ,

lacki n g ; but afte r all t hey m erely serve a s foils for t he

, ,

others .

Was Goe the u n a cquai n t ed with t h e o t her side of th e pic

t ure ? Di d he fail t o s e e wha t co n s t a n tly aro u sed S chope n
hau er s a n ger an d i n dign at io n ? S u rely n ot In his X en i e n

.
,

i n his Sp r i tche i n Ve r sen a n d P r osa i n which Goethe settles ,

a ccou n ts with his literary co n te m po r aries man y a hars h ,

wor d is u ttered a gai n s t van i ty an d e m p t i n ess agai n s t n arrow ,

mi n ded n ess an d base n ess It wo u l d n ot be hard t o f or m a .

c om pl e t e c at e ch i s m o f pessi m i s m by collecti n g di ff ere n t pas

'

sages fro m Goethe s w riti n gs ; thi n k of what m ight be do n e

with Mephis t opheles alo n e ! Bu t all this did n ot preve n t hi m

fro m goi n g righ t o n l ovi n g an d trusti n g h u m an ity .

If n ow we are n ot sa t ised with th e testi m o n y of t his wit

n ess let u s t u r n t o Jere m ias Go tt helf an d his ch ar m i n g storie s
,

of S wiss peasa n t life o r t o Fritz Re n t e r s i n co m parabl e

-
,

S tr omti d He re we beco m e acq u ai n ted with th e base s cou n

.
,

drel the reckl ess idle r the vai n fool who r u i n s hi m self ; bu t
, ,

we also co m e i n con tac t with m odest q u iet fruitf u l labo r , , ,

r u gged ho n es ty healthy co m m o n se n se a wholeso m e love of

,
-
,

everythi n g beauti fu l an d good active devotio n to the welfar e ,


3 0 1: C ON C E P TS A ND PRIN C IPLE S
m ore rece n t Fre n ch an d N or t her n poe t s see m t o believ e tha t
,

the closer we co m e t o li fe an d the cl earer the view which we

,

get of it th e more co m pletely the beauti fu l ill u sio n van

,

ishes Sple n dor an d happi n ess a m i ability an d cordiality are

.
, ,

but the theatrical m asks o f li fe ; behi n d the sce n es we co m e

face t o face with its w retched n ess an d br u tality Wh o .
-

would de n y that this i s o fte n the case ? Bu t is it n ot t rue

t hat this descrip t io n applies t o ci rcl es i n which the chief
busi n ess of li fe is t o appear upo n the stage of p u b licity be i t ,

i n t he garb o f the politicia n o r actor the artis t o r society ,

m an th e pro m oter o r a u tho r ? It has bee n said that politics

,

r u i n s the charac t er I believe we m u st say that all for m s

.

o f p u blic li fe h ave a t e n de n cy t o destroy ch aracte r Oste n .

t at i o n an d sha m are al m os t i n separable fro m p u b licity Bu t .

t hese pe rso n s who i t is t r u e partic u larly attract th e public

, , ,

eye do n ot co n stitute the e s s e hc e o f a peop le ; a n atio n c on

,

sisti n g m erely o f s u ch actors co u ld n ot li ve .

Is this cravi n g fo r t heatrical effect a peculia r produc t of

o u r age ? It al m os t see m s so A n d ye t wha t age h as eve r
.

bee n free fro m it ? A n d whe n h ave perso n s bee n wa n ti n g wh o

m ade it t hei r b u si n ess to d estroy the ill u sio n by givi n g u s a
gli m pse at the life behi n d the sce n es It i s do u bt fu l however , ,

whether an y age has eve r t ake n s u ch delight i n di se n cha n ti n g

us as the prese n t To cast aspersio n s u po n m a n ki n d an d t o
.

expose th e less bea u tifu l phases of o u r n at u re is o n e of the

m ost pop u lar literary occ u patio n s o f the ti m es ; it h as beco m e
a fad to sho w u p falsehood a n d coarse n ess i n poetry an d i n ,

prose Is this a favorable sig n ; d oes i t m ea n tha t the p u blic

.

m i n d i s t ur n i n g towards the t r u th I co n fess I a m n o t wholly ,

co n vi n ce d of it Besides th e cravi n g fo r t ruth there i s

.
,

a n other i m p u lse i n u s tha t m ay be satised by these thi n gs ;

i t i s the cravi n g which feeds upo n gossip a n d sca n dal I .

therefore do u b t very m uch wheth er the n e w school o f ar t ,

which calls itself th e realistic school i s t o be welco m ed as ,

a healthy m ove m e n t To be sure falsehoo d is n o t good an d

.
, ,
 PE SSIMISM 3 05

We sho u ld n o t cl ose ou r eyes t o t he real N o do u b t t here are .

,

pe n ite n tiaries an d hospitals an d i n sa n e asyl u m s to boot an d

, ,

perhaps n o t all are i n the m who ou ght t o be there Bu t that .

m os t perso n s o u ght t o be the re as o u r pessi m istic li tte r at i ,

try to m a k e u s believe by care fu lly selecti n g the m aterial fo r

o u r s t u dy o f h u m a n n at u r e ca n n ot as yet be regarded as
, , ,

proved A n d perhaps eve n those who really o u gh t to be i n

.

these i n stit u tio n s do n ot like to visit the m We ca n n ot advise .

every on e to visit t he d issecti n g roo m George Eli o t so m e .

where bea u tifu lly says : Poo r outli n es an d shadows of soul s

tha t we are with b u t a quickly passi n g gli m pse of the perfect
,

a n d the tr u e well wo u ld i t behoove us to help eac h other i n

,

beholdi n g the blessed ligh t of he a ve n i n s t ead o f searchi n g each ,

1
other s eyes i n order to de t ec t t he m otes i n the m

A nd .

A ugust Fra n cke u tters a n o less valuable t r u th whe n he says :

We may praise t he work s of G o d bu t w e mus t be very ,

careful i n speaki n g of the w orks of the devil F or t he .

hu m a n hear t co n tai n s sp arks of evi l which easily cat ch re .

B esides we ca n n o t p erh aps aba n do n ourselves t o pessi

, , ,

m istic r e ectio n s witho u t so m e da n ger provided of c ourse , , ,

we do n ot ai m t o destroy the will t o live as S ch ope n haue r - -

,

i n te n ds that we sho u ld It is u n doub t edly wise n ot t o expec t

.

too m uch o f life he n ce we shall do well t o fa m iliarize ou r

,

selves with the t hough t t ha t n ot all ou r wishes will be fu l

lled an d t hat n ot everybody can be t r u s t ed Th u s we shall
, .

g u ard agai n st disappoi n t m e n ts On t he o t he r ha n d co n ti n u ed

.
,

co n ce n tratio n of t he a t te n tio n u po n t he sh adow sides of li fe -

an d huma n n ature will hel p t o create an habit u al co n te m pt fo r

h u m an ity an d a ha t red of li fe eve n i n cases where these wo u l d

n o t n ecessarily have e n sued Pessi m istic reectio n s will have
.

bu t li tt le i n u e n ce u po n an e n ergetic an d healthy n ature bu t ,

where th e perso n i s disposed t o be pessi m istic h e will by , ,

broodi n g u po n these thi n gs t oo m u ch develop an ab n or m al ,

1
[I h ave n ot b e en abl e t o n d t hi s p as s ag e i n t h e o r i g i n al, an d h ave t h e re fo r e
bee n c o m p e ll e d to t ransl a te i t fro m t h e G e r m a n TR ]
.
.

20
3 06 C ON C E P TS A ND P RI N C IPLE S

s t a t e of m i n d i n re fere n ce to the m If a m an were co n s t an tly

.

t o watc h the weather to see whether it was n ot too war m o r t o o

,

c old too m oist o r t oo dry for h i m he w o u l d m os t likely soo n

, ,

discover tha t n o t three days i n the ye ar were S u itable fo r a

walk S i m ilarly i f a m an sho u ld t ake S chope n ha u er s advice
.
,

,

an d care fu lly t reas u re u p i n his m i n d as a li m e n ta m i su n ,

t h r op i ce all the disagreeable experie n ces which h e had h ad with

,

h u m a n bei n gs broodin g ove r the m day a fter day h e wo u l d

, ,

certai nly co m e t o regard all m e n as sco u n drels an d abor

tio n s o r factory wares of n ature an d s u cceed i n m aki n g
,
-
,

hi m self m iserable If you are n ot willi n g t o do this it

.
,

will be wiser for you t o con t e m pl ate the s u n n y sides o f li fe ,

an d t o search for what will raise yo u r esti m ate o f m a n ki n d ,

o r a t leas t serve t o ex c u se the m S ch ope n h a u e r advises u s to

.

be co n stan tly o n the l ooko u t for the base n ess of m e n an d to ,

use i t as a mea n s of feedi n g ou r h a t red o f h u m a n ity Perhaps .

t he followi n g woul d be so u n der adv i ce Do n ot expect h u m a n

bei n gs to serve y ou wi thou t aski n g so m ethi n g i n re tu rn b u t ,

rej oice n evertheless whe n y ou n d an excep t io n an d believe ,

r m ly t ha t t here are n ot o n ly perso n s wh o will t ake advan t age

o f thei r fellows w h e fe ve r t hey c an d o so with i m pu n ity b u t also
, ,

t ha t there are some wh o will deligh t i n bei n g able t o help t he m

with ou t bei n g asked Likewise do n ot co u n t u po n grati t ude ;
.

bu t rej oice whe n you mee t a m an w h o ch eer fu lly an d si n cerely

accep t s you r help an d whose eye betoke n s his appreciatio n of
,

the gift as well as of the giver ; an d r m ly believe that s u ch

m en still exis t pessi m is m an d social de m ocra t ic arroga n ce t o
,
-

t he co n trary n o twiths t a n di n g A n d I sho u ld regard i t as on e

.

of the fu n c t io n s o f poe t ry to aro u se s u ch se n ti m e n t s To be .

s u re i t ough t to portray people as th ey are an d n ot sh adowless

, ,

ph an t o m s Th e s u gar dolls of se n ti m e n tal n ovels destroy ou r

.
-

taste for reality an d prod u ce m oral dyspepsia u t terly cor ,

ru p ti n g the t as t e Th e prese n t t see m s is a fic t ed wi t h this

.
, ,

very disease Du ri n g the days of A u erbach s an d Frey t a g s

.

n ovels we at t ered t he va n ity o f t h e virt u o u s bou rg e oi si e an d

,
3 08 C ON C E P TS A ND P RIN C IPLE S
th e di ffere n ce be t wee n th e good an d th e bad It i n t e n sie s .

o u r pai n t o tell o u rselves t ha t wha t we h ave su ffered is a n

exceptio n an d co n trary t o fat e as it we re ; o u r grie f is

, ,

ass u aged by the reectio n t hat i t is the u n iversal lot S chope n .

ha u e r m ade a theory fo r all t he pai n s he su e r e d for thos e ,

ca u sed by wo m e n an d by m e n by stree t arabs an d u n iversi ty ,

pro fessors His pessi m is m is the ge n eral theory of his partie

.

u lar theories It u n do u btedly h elped h i m to e n d u re his

.

sorrows Pessi m is m was his household re m edy agai n st hi s

.

chro n ic ill h u m or w hich res u lted fro m his t e m pera m e n t al

-

de fect olg scholi a Th e re m edy did n o t s u cceed i n re m ovi n g

,
.

the disease but i t acted like an O piate it ass u aged hi s pai n

, ,
.

Wh o d oes n ot u se i t i n th e sa m e way occasio n ally ? It has

a n other property : i t qu ie t s the co n scie n ce Th e u n iversal .

propositio n acq u its the ego s o t o speak If I were the o n ly , .

o n e havi n g a h ard ti m e o f i t if I al o n e were u n abl e t o ge t ,

alo n g with m e n i t would be hard t o de n y tha t n ot th e others

, ,

b u t t hat I m yself was at fa u lt In case however everybody .

, ,

m eets with th e sa m e experie n ces t he n they are perfectly ,

n atural an d I a m n o t t o b e bla m ed
,
Besides I am i n cli n ed .
,

t o t hi n k t ha t t he m os t pro n o u n ced e gois t usually co m plai n s

m ost o f egois m He accuses others o f egoism whe n t hey
.

re fu se to le n d the m selves t o his selsh desi res Goethe see m s .

t o have n oticed the sa m e thi n g : h e dedicated t he followi n g

li n es t o th e C ro t ch e t m o n gers ( G r i lle nf anger)
-

F ur h t t h i t r d i L
c e n e e se n au n e n ,

Di m t i t S hm r
e se au s s a er e n c e z,

Di tr b A g b e se ne u en u en r au n n

L rh i t d r hl h t ee Hr e O e sc ec es e z.

4 . The ai m s t o S h o w
h i st or i ca l-p h i losop hi ca l ar
g u men t
that as civilizatio n adva n ces m a n ki n d beco m es more an d ,

m ore u n happy an d bad S chope n hau er represe n ts historical

.

philosophical pessi m is m on the hedo n istic side Rousseau on ,

the m oralis t ic side Th e for m er is fo n d o f t elli n g u s t hat ci vil

.

i zat i on t e n ds t o i n crease pai n while the l att er e m phasize s th e

,
 PE SSIMI S M 3 09

o th e r aspec t an d clai m s tha t civ ilizat io n t e n ds to de s troy

,

m orality .

It is wor t hy of n o t e t ha t t he pessi m is t ic vie w of history

c an,
i n a ce rt ai n measure app e al fo r suppor t t o co m m o n
,

s e n se Th e co n cepti o n o f historical life w hich h as bee n cu r

.

re n t a m o n g E u ropea n n atio n s si n ce t he adve n t of C hris t ia n i ty

follows t he Jewis h m yth an d places perfec t io n a t th e begi n
,

n i n g o f t hi n gs Th e origi n al s t at e o f th e h u m a n race was

.

divided be t wee n t he happi n ess an d i n n oce n ce of Paradi se .

His t ory really begi n s with th e fall of m an an d th e e n d ,

t ow ards which i t i s movi n g i s t he judgm e n t day Sin .

,

misery an d corr u ptio n wi ll co n ti n ue t o i n crease u n t il they

,

r each t heir maxi m u m i n t he ki n gdo m o f t he A n t ich ris t an d ,

i n augurate t he e n d of th e worl d Th e Greeks t oo wer e , ,

fa m iliar with t his co n ceptio n of t he progress of hu m a n his

t ory H esiod gives expressio n t o i t i n his descrip t io n of t he
.

ages o f the world begi n n i n g with th e golde n age an d e n di n g

,

with the i ro n age i n whi ch the poe t co m pl ai n s t hat h e has

,

bee n con de m n ed to liv e Perhaps the co n cep t io n may be

e xpl ai n e d psychologically Th e t e m pera m e n t o f ol d age is
.

opti m istic i n refere n ce t o the past Th e ol d m an i s u n able .

t o keep i n t o u ch with the prese n t ; he is powerless t o a e co m

p l i sh a n ythi n g an d seeks the ca u se for it n ot i n hi m self b u t
, , ,

i n the t i m es which i n his O pi n io n are growi n g worse an d

, , ,

worse Th e pas t on t he other ha n d gl ows with the me m o

.
, ,

ries of you th O ld age i s t he bearer of historical r e m i n i s

.

ce n ces fro m i t the you n g receive i n t ellige n ce of the pas t an d ,

are ta u ght t o view the pas t i n th e ligh t o f old age Th e t en .

do n cy t o ad m ire which is peculia r t o youth an d t he t e n de n cy

, ,

t o believe i n a great an d glorio u s desce n t assis t i n t he pro ,

cess Fi n ally the t e n de n cy t o e m ploy his t ory as an i n s tru

.
,

m e n t of moral pre a chi n g has the sa m e e ffect Whoever for .

,

an y reaso n o r other i s dissatised with t h e prese n t loves t o

, ,

hu m iliate i t by h oldi n g u p t o it the pict u re of a bet t e r pas t .

With th e rise of historical research t he sp l e n do r wi th ,

31 0 C ON C E P TS A ND P RIN C IPLE S
w hich lege nd s u rro u n ded the begi n n i n gs va n ished Th e .

sci e n ti c i n vestigatio n s o f m oder n ti m es have beg u n to thro w

l ight u po n the real past A s a Co n seq u e n ce o u r historical c on
.
,

ce p ti on s h a ve bee n co m pletely c hanged Th e leaders Of the .

sev en tee n th ce n tu ry t ra n s ferre d the golde n age fro m the pas t

t o the fu t u re an d the eightee n th ce n t u ry sys te m atized the n e w
,

c o n ce i v i n g history as a Steady progress fro m m eagre

l

view ,

begi n n i n gs to a s t ate of glor i o u s per fectio n which i t was , ,

S upposed wo u ld be realized i n t he period o f E n ligh t e n m e n t

,
.

Ro u sseau i n au gurat ed a reactio n agai n st th e O pti m istic c o n

cep t i on o f history Ro m a n ticis m created the n otio n o f a wise
.

a n d perfect pri m i t ive race which a lso h a u n ted the philosophy

,

o f S chelli n g S chope n h a u er too is a ge n u i n e child of Ro m a n

.

ti ci s m i n his phil osophy o f history He absol u tely fail s to

.

see a ch a n ge for the better i n history i n deed he is i n cli n ed to

d e n y t hat there is an y l og i c i n history Th e n a m es an d cu s .

t o m s ch an ge b u t the co n te n ts of the play re m ai n eter n ally

,

the sam e On ly i n o n e respect does S chope n hau er n d n u

.

m istakable evide n ce s o f devel op m e n t : pai n is cer t ai n ly i n

creasi n g Bru tes are the happi est o r rather t he least n u
-

.
, , ,

happy crea t ures ; while m ercase of k n owledge m e an s i ncrease

o f sorrow fo r m an Qu i a u g e t sei e n ti a m a u g e t d olor em
.
,
.

H is reaso n s for th i s V l e W may be s u m m arized a s follows

( )1 Wit h t h e i n creasi n g co m plexity o f its n a t ure a crea t u re ,

b eco m es more an d m ore se n sitive t o pai n Now every ad .

,

va n ce i n civilizatio n m ea n s a m u l t iplica t io n o f n eeds an d

the n ecessary m ea n s of satisfyi n g t he m He n ce as civiliza .
,

tio n advan ces desire m isery an d disappoi n t m e n t i n crease

, , ,
.

2 I n tellige n ce develops an d m an gai n s a n i n sight i n to the

( ) ,

fut u re Th e a n i m al lives i n the prese n t ; i t feels the pai n o f

.

th e m o m e n t o n ly In case t he co n ditio n s of li fe beco m e t o o

.

u n favorable it dies witho u t really experie n ci n g the death

,

w hich i t did n ot foresee Man sees t he evils c o m i n g u po n

.

h i m ; h e foresees o l d age an d dea t h ; fear a n d an xiety are

a dded t o pai n an d t hey are greater t ortu res than pai n i t self
, .
312 C ON C E P TS AN D P RI N C I PLE S
We m u s t t here fore s u ppleme n t the above pessi m istic
r eectio n s i f we wo u ld reach the t r u th It is said : ( 1 ) As
.

li fe develops n eeds an d there fore pai n s i n crease V ery tr u e ;

, .

b u t the m ea n s of satis fyi n g the n eeds also i n crease To .

this e n d actio n becom es m ore an d m ore co m plex greater ,

an d m ore developed powers an d capacities are set i n m otio n ,

a n d as a co n seq u e n ce t he acco m pa n yi n g pleas u res ar e also

i n creased C o m p a re the li fe an d ac t ivity o f th e prehistoric

.

i n habita n ts of o u r coast wh o have left the traces of their

,

existe n ce i n th e s o called Kyolch en m oddi ng er n with the li fe

'

-
,

an d t he activity Of t h e peasa n ts an d m echa n ics the sher m e n ,

a n d sailors who at prese n t i n habi t the sa m e regio n s

,
We .

are s u rely justied i n sayi n g that for the i n crease o f tro u ble ,

wa n t an d wretched n ess i n their lives there has bee n a corre

, ,

s p on di n g i n crease o f pleasure i n their work an d its results .

I do n ot wish t o clai m that the i n creas e i n ple a sure ex ceeds

the i n crease i n pai n ; this m ay be so bu t i t c an n o t be proved
,
.

Bu t it is surely just as h a rd t o prove t he reverse .

2
( ) It is held th at the fear a n d a n xiety c a u sed by the pre

v isio n o f fu ture pai n i n creases pai n In deed i f all pai n s

.
,

co n sisted m erely i n m o m e n tary feeli n gs they wo u ld n ot be ,

hard to be ar ; privatio n s sorrows an d eve n physical pai n s

, ,

oppress u s s o beca u se they are regarded as the be gi n n i n g o f a

lo n g series Bu t pleas u res to o o we t hei r real h u m a n char
.
, ,

ac t er an d worth t o the fac t th at they are a n t icipated by hope ;

an d w e m ay say tha t t he hu m a n hear t is n ot so u n happily

co n s t ituted as t o b e m ore susceptible t o fear th a n t o hope .

Temperame n t s d i e r ; b u t perhaps o u r expec t at io n s of the

future are falsied by h ope m ore ofte n t ha n by fear A n d .

perhaps m e m ory is a still greater fal s i e r if you please , ,

than hope i n givi n g u s a cheerf u l view of li fe Th e happy

, .

an d j oy fu l days which we have spe n t li n ger i n me m ory as a

source o f pleasure ; n ay m emory idealizes th e m ; i t reto u ches

,

th e picture by re m ovi n g the u n pleasa n t an d dist u rbi n g ele

me n t s whic h ar e seldo m wa n ti n g i n reality Days o n the .
,
 PE S S I MI SM 313

ot he r h an d which were full of m isery a n d stru ggle sorrow

, ,

an d care lose thei r sti n g i n m e m ory

,
sorrow at the loss o f a
good is tra n sfor m ed i n to a m ild te n der sad n ess the re m e m ,

bra n ce of m iserie s an d tro u bles e n d u red lls us with pride

oli m m em i n i ss e j u va bi t so the Ro m a n poe t co n soles
,

the heavy l ad e n -
A re n ot a u tobiographies almos t always
.

b i odi cie s
Di e F re u d e n b lii h n m i r n o ch ,
Di e Le id e n si n d e rbli ch e n 1 .

3
( ) A s for the pai n s caused by hur t s t o t he ideal self we ,

may also say that they are supple m e n ted by the pleasures which
res u l t fro m the recogn i t io n we receive fro m o thers an d fro m t he ,

s u ccessfu l str u ggle for the prize bestowed upo n m eri t A n d .

co u ld the higher h u m a n f u n c t io n s ever have bee n developed

if m e n did n ot s t rive after ho n or an d dis t i n c t io n ? We may
also call to m i n d t ha t hu m a n n a t ure possesses a cure agai n s t
ideal wo u n ds In j u ry an d n eglec t make us proud an d pride
.
,

heals pai n S ch ope n hauer had am pl e oppor t u n ity for ob se rv

.

i n g t his tru th i n his ow n case .

4 Th sa m e may be said o f t he pai n s which arise from

( ) e

sy m pathy : th ey t oo are suppleme n ted by the pleas u res which

, ,

arise fro m ou r par t icipat i o n i n the weal an d woe of o thers .

If we m ay believe a n o l d proverb sy m pa t hy , with t he l ot

favorabl e e ff ect upo n t he happi n ess of

o f others has a very

G i l S hm i t h lb S chm e r z ;
the p a r t ies con cer n ed : e t e t e r c e r z s a e r

2 which would m ake a four

e t ei lte F r e u de i st d opp e lte F r eu d
e
g
fold g ai n .

up A s civiliza t io adva ces t he sorrows an d t he

To su m : n n ,

pleas u res grow i n e x t e n si ty an d i n i n te n si ty Does the pleas .

u re exceed the pai n ? H is t orical O p t i m is m co n de n tly asserts

tha t th e progress of history i n creases happi n ess Pessi m is m .

with eq u a l co n de n ce sets u p th e cou n ter clai m tha t i t i n -

creases sorro w I regard both asser t io n s as eq u ally i n capable

.

1 B u ck e t t .

A di vi d e d p ai n i s h alf a p ai n ; d i v i d e d pl e as u r e i s do u ble pleasu re .

 3 14 C ON C E P TS A ND P RIN C IPLES
of proo f Both of the m m ay be m ade v ery pl au sible by
.

rhetorical arg u m e n ts b u t there is really n o way of d e n i t el v

,

decidi n g the m atter On e thi n g alo n e see m s certai n to me

.
,

th at as se n sibility i n creases sorrows an d pleas u res beco m e ,

m ore i n t e n se In the sa m e ratio

. Perh aps Bu t this would .

n o t m ea n tha t t he s u m total o f t he pai n s a n d the pleas u res

-
,

co n sidered an d added as n egative an d positive qua n tities was ,

al ways eq u al to ze ro I rather i n cli n e to the vie w that j u st as

.
,

heal th an d n or m al for m s are m ore co m m o n th an disease an d

m al for m atio n s pleas u re is m ore co m m o n tha n pai n
,
Bu t le t .

m e repeat : We ca n n ot m eas u re an d add the feeli n gs o r thei r

i n te n sities N ay I believe that if an y o n e with a view to
.
, ,

gatheri n g sta tistics wer e to ask partic u l ar i n divid u als whether

,

they felt pai n or pleas u re at that partic u lar m o m e n t he wo u ld ,

freq u e n tly r eceive the an swer : I have n ot paid an y atte n tio n

to th e m at ter ; an d if he were t o persist i n i n t erroga t i n g his
s u bj ects h e wo u ld be told : I really d o n ot k n o w m yself
,

which would plai n ly Sho w tha t th ey did n ot at tribu te the i m

por t a n ce to pleas u re an d pa i n which hedo n is t ic an d pessi m is t ic
philosoph ers ascr i be to the m .

5 Let m e say a fe w wo r ds i n refere n ce t o t he m oralisti c

.

pha se of historical pessi m is m which Ro u sseau preached with ,

s u ch i m passio n ed eloq u e n ce d u ri n g th e seco n d h al f of the last

ce n t u ry He regards the pri m itive state of m an as a s t ate o f
.

i n n oce n ce an d vir t u e fro m whi ch civilizatio n is deviati n g m ore

,

an d m ore Th e n earer we approach the origi n al state the

.
,

m ore p u rity an d vi rtu e we n d Th ese virt u es m ay i n .

,

Ro u ssea u s opi n i o n s t ill be fo u n d a m o n g S hepherds a n d

,

peasa n ts ; we S hall seek for the m i n vai n i n Parisia n society 1 ,

at th e court of V ersailles In his celebrated m aide n work i n .

,

which he disc u sses the q u es t io n whether the revi val o f scie n ce

a n d letters has co n trib u ted a n ythi n g to p u ri fy m orals h e is i n
,

c l i n e d to seek the ca u ses of m oral decay i n the de v elop m e n t of

the sc i e n ces an d the art s A seco n d qu es t io n proposed by .

,

1
[Dis cours s ur les sci ence s e t les a r ts, 1 74 9 . TR .
]
316 C ON C E P TS A ND PRIN C IPLE S
produce s n e w vir tu es There a r e l ordly vir t ues as well a s
.

vices : courage m agn an i m ity sel f co n trol dig n ity circ u m

, ,
-
, ,

s pect i o n be n evole n ce
,
A n d serva n ts t o o have their virtues
.
, ,

as well as t heir vices : loyalty devotio n faith fu l n ess Whe n

, , .

his social positio n correspo n ds t o the n at u ral e n dow m e n ts of a

m an whe n every m an take s the place for which his n a t u ral
,

capacities t h i m there can be n o m o re favorable co n di t io n s

,

for the develop m e n t of char a cter an d both sides w ill regard ,

the relatio n as a happy o n e Just as little reaso n have we to .

believe that the co m m odities which civiliza t io n produces have

m erely an articial value S cie n ce an d ar t surely possess
.

n atural an d ge n ui n e worth eve n though perverse for m s of

,

pedan try an d pseudo cul t u re are n ot i n frequ e n t n or h ave th e

-

c o m m odities produced an d m ad e accessible by trade an d com

merce mere ar t ici al value Rousseau s dre am of a happy

.

an d i n n oce n t s t a t e of n a t ure belo n gs t o the pas t ; i t is the

drea m of the a ge of Louis X V i t does n ot reec t a .

real world fo u n d i n the S ou t h S e a Isla n ds or am o n g the

In dian s b u t represe n t s t he ex ac t opposi t e of the society which
,

drea m ed i t C o n t ac t wi th u n civilized peoples n ever reveal s t h e

.

prou d an d si n cere the v irt uous an d happy sav a ges wh o are

,

m e n tio n ed i n the n ovels of t he eigh t ee n t h ce n t ury J S Mill . . .

h olds i n an essay On Natu r e th at n o re m arkable h u ma n

, ,

quality i s a n at u ral e n dow m e n t bu t the resul t of civilizatio n ,

.

C o u rage veracity clea n li n ess

, ,
self con t rol j u s t ice b en e vo
,
-
, ,

le n ce a re acquired charac t eristics ; fear m e n dacity lth i n ess , , ,

i n te m peran ce bru tality selsh n ess

,
these are t he ch arac t er
, ,

i sti cs which i m par t i al observers discover i n t he physiogn o m y

of the savage .

Shall we the n say t ha t th e r a ce grows m ore moral as civil

, ,

i zat i o n adva n ces ? I sho u ld n ot de n y i t b u t historical pessi ,

m is m m igh t bri n g so m e powerf u l argu m e n ts to bear ag ai n s t

Mill s vie w

It may be t h a t the u n civilized do n ot possess the
.

virtues referred t o bu t they al so l ack th e vices o f civilization

,
.

If we look at t he cri m i n al li fe o f a E u ropea n m etropolis o r ,

 PE S SIM ISM 317

peer i n t o t h e secrets which hi de behi n d the n a m e o f polite

society an d which the writers m ost popular w ith that class
,

are so fo n d o f divu lgi n g we shall have to co n fes s th at the

,

vices of th e savage are childish pra n ks co m pared with the

s u btle form s of repulsive pleas u re decei t fu l m alice a n d utter, ,

base n ess to be fo u n d the r e C an we say th at these a re

u n fortu n at e exceptio n s ; that ge n erally S peaki n g there is a
, ,

grea t er gai n on th e S ide of vi rtu e t h a n 0 11 th e sid e o f

vice ? Ho w hopeless i t wo u ld be to atte m pt t o p rove s u ch an
assertio n m ay be see n by aski n g a con crete q u estio n : A re th e
Germ an s of th e n e w E m pi re better or worse m orally c o n ,

s i d e re d tha n the Ger m a n s of the A uf /clar u ng t he Re for m a

'

, ,

tio n the C r u sades o r o f th e days o f Herm an n ? A ll that

, ,

can be sai d with certai n ty i n thi s co n n ectio n i s agai n t ha t , ,

the re is an i n crease i n m oral differe n tiatio n J u st as th e .

pai n s an d pleas u res are growi n g i n i n te n sity t he virtu es an d ,

vices are beco m i n g great er an d m ore S pecic A n i m als we .

,

might say sta n d a t th e zero poi n t ; they are n eithe r good n or

,
-

bad Mor alizatio n begi n s with hu m a n izatio n In th e lower

. .

s t ages the di ffere n ces are i n sig n ican t the i n divid u als rese m ,

ble each other they are exe m plars whi ch on th e wh ole ex press
, , ,

the ge n us i n the sa m e way A S civilizatio n adva n ces i n di

.
,

v id u al i zat i on i n creases ; good an d evil sta n d ou t i n grea t e r

relie f Th e m asses to be s u re d o n ot ri se be y o n d a col orless

.
, ,

m ea n t hey have good as well as evil i m p u lse s Bu t i n par .

t i cul ar perso n alities good an d evil sta n d ou t i n bold relie f .

On the o n e ha n d we h ave deep an d revere n t love sel f sac r i c

, ,
-

i n g loy alty passio n a te devo t io n to t r u t h a n d j u stice ; o n t h e

,

other co m plete an d total depravi t y N evertheless n othi n g

,
.
,

preve n ts u s fro m believi n g th at th ere i s m ore good th an evil

i n the world tha t the evil a s the ab n or m al i s the l e ss fre
, , ,

q u en t On e thi n g al o n e see m s u n de n iable an d that is t ha t

.
,

the co n trasts are beco m i n g m ore m arked A n d perhaps this .

will co n ti n u e to be the case J u st as accordi n g to the .

,

Hebrew m yth th e n a tu ral world bega n with the separa t io n

,
318 C ON C E P TS A ND P RI N C IPLE S
of d ark n ess fro m light s o accordi n g t o the sa m e profo u n d
, ,

story the historical w orld bega n with the disti n ctio n betwee n
,

good an d evil A n d accor d i n g t o the C hristia n co n ceptio n

.
,

whi ch adop t s this m yth history co n sists i n co n ti n u i n g the

,

process of separatio n In the ki n gdo m of G o d an d i n t he

.

ki n gdo m o f the devil the oppositio n betwee n good an d evil i s

m ost highly m arked H u m a n ity sta n ds betwee n t he t wo an d
.
,

grad u ally divides i n to t wo gro u ps so m e bei n g attracted an d ,

wholly absorbed by the ki n gdo m of G od others by the ki n g ,

d o m o f th e devil u n t il the j u dg m e n t day shall bri n g abo u t the

,

absol u te an d n al expul sio n of the evil .

6 Bu t so m e on e m ay ask if all this is s o if o n e thi n g

.
, , ,

alo n e i s certai n n a m ely t ha t as civilizatio n ad va n ces se n si

, ,

bi li ty an d co n seque n tly t he i n t e n sity of pleasures an d pai n s

i n crease an d m oral di e re n ti atio n an d a correspo n di n g
,

i n crease i n t he i n te n si ty of good an d evil t ake place ; an d if

i t i s do u btfu l whethe r t he gai n o n t he sid e of vir tu e an d
h appi n ess exceeds tha t on th e S ide of vice an d u n happi n ess ,

if th e n at u ral co u rse o f hi storical develop m e n t d oes n o t lead

to th e exp u lsio n o f evil b u t this m u s t await the co m i n g of
,

the j u dg m e n t day th at is t he e n d o f o u r te m poral earthly

, ,

life i f all this is so th e n i s n ot pessi m is m i n th e right ?

, ,

The n i s n ot S chope n h a u er s state m e n t co n cer n i n g the ai m

less n ess a n d u n worthi n ess o f li fe correc t ? A re n ot all work

an d care all str u ggl e an d sacri ce i n vai n ?
, ,

I do ri ot t hi n k so It wo u l d n ot be t h e case eve n if we
.
,

gran t ed t ha t good an d evil pleas u re an d pai n were always , ,

prese n t an d i n creased i n th e sa m e rati o so tha t their s u m , ,

as positive an d n egative q u a n tities would al ways be eq u al ,

to zero We sh all be still less willi n g to decide i n favor of

.

pessi m ism whe n we m ake an ass u m p ti o n which ca n n ot be

proved b u t which n othi n g hi n de rs u s fro m believi n g n a m ely
, , ,

th at vir tu e an d welfare always overbal an ce vice an d failure ,

a n d th at this prepo n dera n ce is always i n the s a m e ratio .

Th e pessi m istic arg u m e n t falsely ass u m es that the wor th

320 C ON C E P TS AND P RI N C IPLE S
the d ra m a be m ore tha n disco n n ected fragm e n t s ; we e xp e ct
the m to m ake a ra t io n al wh ole i n which each partic ular ele ,

me n t shall have i t s teleologically n ecessary place We expec t .

a si m ilar co n n ectio n an d p rogress i n history Th e parti cu .

lar e ve n t s an d the par t icular actors m u s t n ot m erely for m a

disco n n ec t ed aggreg ate or s u ccession b u t a n atural an d h ar ,

m on i ou s whole It is true as I have repeatedly poi n ted ou t we

.
, ,

ca n n o t r eveal t he logical co n n ectio n i n the his t ory of

h u m a n ity as we c an i n terp r e t a dra m a an d show how th e
, ,

di ffere n t parts n ecessarily follo w fro m th e ide a of the whole ;

t his woul d be th e b u si n ess of t he philosophy o f history Bu t .

t o this bran ch of k n owledge the Pythagorean m axi m tha t God

alo n e h a s philosophy is partic u larly a pplicable We hu m an .

bei n gs look a t his t ory as th e m ul ti t ude a ccordi n g t o Goethe , ,

look at a pl ay ; t hey see the par t icular occurre n ces an d are

pleased wi th the co n s t an t cha n ge of sce n e bu t t hey do n ot ,

grasp t he mea n i n g of th e wh ole So ou r his t oric al scie n ce .

bri n gs toge the r a lo t of frag m e n t s ; bu t the mas t er who will

form t he m i n t o a whole wh o will re thi n k the divi n e though t
,

o f t he history o f hu m a n i t y an d give i t expressio n has n ot ,

yet a ppeared an d will perhaps n ever appear On ly occ a

, .

s i on ally do we see m to see ratio n al co n n ectio n s Thi s may .

s t re n g t he n o u r faith t h at t here is a u n ive rsal reaso n per

vadi n g the u n iverse which co m bi n es th e ele m e n t s o f b is t ori

,

cal life accordi n g t o an i n n er n ecessi ty I sai d above th at .

au tobi ographies wer e u sually b i o di ci e s If ever hu m an ity .

wri t es its au t obiography a t t he e n d of its days reple t e tho u gh ,

it m ay be with acco u n ts of work an d s t ruggle m isery an d ,

failure i t will we believe be a b i odi cy an d a t heodicy 1

, , , .

Di e M e n sch h e i t se lb st in ih r em du nkle n D r an ge

War si ch de s r e ch t e n We ge s wohl b e w u sst .

1
[Wi ll i am s ,
A R eview of E volutiona ry E th i cs , Part II , ch a s V IL
p , III . . V
M ack e n zi e , M a nua l, M o ral P r og r ess, ch ap XV
S ee also , Le ss i ng , E rziehu ng
. .

d es M e ns cheng es ch/echts (E n g l t r i n Bo hu s Librar

. .
y ), an d K ant, Das mag i n d er
The or ie r i cht ig sei n TR ]
. .
 C H APTER I V

THE E V IL , T HE BA D , A ND THE ODIC Y 1

1 . ar e n ot i n favor i n ou r ti m es We deriv e
THE ODIC IE S -
.

more pleas u re fro m the an alytical co n te m pl atio n o f evil an d

fro m revili n g the n at u r e which prod u ces it N everthe l ess I .
,

sh all ve n t u re to m ake the u n ti m ely atte m pt to j u sti fy th e

evil i n the world Of cou rse we ca n n ot prove th at the world
.
,

as it exists is absol u tely good o r eve n tha t it is the best o f

, ,

possible worlds w e do n ot k n ow m u ch of the absolute or

th e possible ; but w e can e n deavor to say wh at it is f o r u s .

A n d it m ay i n m y opi n io n be sh ow n that the u n iverse as

, , ,

i t is i s esse n tially adapted to o u r n at u re It s u pplies u s with

,
.

a ppropriate co n ditio n s of growth fu rn ishes ou r capacities ,

with th e n ecessary tasks an d gives to o u r life i f o n ly we ,

wish i t a rich an d beau t i fu l con te n t We co u ld n ot bei n g

,
.
,

what we are h a e an y u se fo r o r tolera t e a world di ff ere n tl y

,
v , ,

c o n sti tu ted Whoever regard s this as sel f e v ide n t holdi n g

.
-
,

th at ou r n at u re n o l ess th an th e organ is m o f eve ry a n i m al

speci es i s s u ited t o its e n vi ro n m e n t m ay dis m iss all dis ,

e u ssio n s co n cer n i n g th e evil as s u per u ou s I d esire t o add .

,

h owever th a t the e v il i n t he worl d c an be j u stied o n ly i n a

,

g en e r a l w ag It will al ways be i m pos s ibl e to poi n t o u t t h e

.

t eleol ogi cal n ecessity o f a partic u lar evil i n a partic u lar case ,

1
[Se e t h e w r i t i n gs o f t h e S t o i cs Pl o t i nu s
, , A u
g u s t i n e ; al s o S p i n o za, Tr a c ta t us
p oliticas ; L e ib n iz , Theo d i ce K an t . Re l ig i on i n ne r ha lb d e r G re n ze n d e r b/osse r
Vern un ( F i r st Part t r . in A bb o tt ) Ube r
, l
( as i ss li n q en ller p hi losop hi sche n
a

Ver s u che i n d er Theod i c cfe ; J M u lle r Di e Le hi

. . e r o n ( fe r S u n d e ; Il n ffd i n g E th i k,
,

VI Das e t h is ch BOse ; R u n z e , E thik , 1 3 , 1 8 ; P au l se n , I n h od uch on to P hi l

.
.

os o p hy , pp . 2 6 2 ff TR ]
. .
322 C ON C E P TS A ND P RIN C IP LE S
j u st as physics ca n n ot explai n the ca u sal n ecessi t y of e very '

par t icular m ove m e n t Bu t it m ay be show n that h u m a n

.

historical li fe with all the tr u ly val u able ele m e n ts it co n tai n s ,

as a rule de m an ds the ve ry co n ditio n s u n der which it act u ally

,

exists Take away all evils an d yo u abolish li fe itsel f Evil

.
, .

re m ai n s evil n o n e th e less an d bad bad b u t they are n o t thi n gs

, , , ,

that ought absol u tely n ot to b e 1

They m u st be n ot fo r their .
,

o w n sake however b u t fo r the sake of the good

, , Y e t it ca nn ot .

be de n ied that however we m ay look at th e m atter o u r thi n k

, ,

i n g is co n fro n t ed wi t h pec u liar di f c u lties We are i n a m e as .

,

ure co m pelled t o for m the n otio n of a life that is wholly free

,

fro m evil but every atte m pt to give it co n crete expressio n

,

fails .Th e ki n gdo m o f God an d e t e r n a l blessed n ess are t ra n

s ce n d e n t co n cepts .

2 It is custo m ary t o disti n guish be t wee n physical an d

.

m oral evils We m ay subdivide the for m er accordi n g as

.

they are cau sed by n a t ure ou t side of us or by the n at u re

withi n u s .

To the rs t class belo n g all t he th i n gs i n n at u re which

oppose the n eeds an d wishes of m an : the barre n n ess of the
soil which con de m n s a people to abject poverty extre m e cli
, ,

m atic co n ditio n s oppressive heat o r severe cold w hich dwarf

, ,

th e vital powers ; also all th ose u n fortu n a t e accide n ts which

des t roy t he fr u i ts of labor an d e n da n ger l i fe : oods an d
d ro u gh t s which r u i n the crops l ight n i n gs which co n s u m e
, ,

ho u ses earthq u akes whi ch overtu r n cities

,
.

A ll evils of this ki n d m ay be e m braced u n de r a co m m o n

head : they thwart o u r pla n s o r p u rposes Let u s rst c on .

side r the n or m al i m pedi m e n ts It is easy t o see that there .

co u ld be n o acti o n an d p u rpose witho u t the m A ll work all .

,

civilizat io n co n sists i n overco m i n g s u ch obstacles If the

,
.

elds yielded h arvests of their o w n accord if the forests pro ,

d u ce d an ab u n da n ce of all fr u its there wo u ld be n o a gr i c u l ,

i s t i n ct i on m a d e i n t h e G e r m an l an g u ag e b e t w e e n e vil an d ba d ,
1
[F o r t h e d se e

Kant , P ra cti ca l R e a s on , Bk I
. .
,
ch . 11 .
(A b b o tt ,
pp . 1 50 f .

) TB ] .
3 24 C ON C E P TS A ND P RIN C IPLE S
were t o fall i n to laps with o u t an y e ffort o n ou r par t Th e
ou r .

P a ter S e r ap hi cu s at the e n d o f F a u s t speaks o f h i s eyes as

orga n s of th e earthly sph ere This h olds o f o u r e n tire .

n at u re it i s adap t ed to the u n iverse an d the ear th an d he n ce ,

t he latt er are adapted t o ou r feeli n gs an d volitio n s O ther .

creat ures m ay requ ire othe r organ s ; ours are suited to o u r

t asks Wha t was said above o f accide n tal m i s fortu n es m ay
.

also be said of those which d warf o u r n ature an d ou r powers ,

o f disease an d i n r m ity an d bli n d n ess a n d other orga n ic de

feets Disease has prod u ced the ar t o f m edici n e an d the

.

scie n ce o f the body an d o f li fe it ed u ca t es t he patie n t an d hi s

s u rro u n di n gs it war n s an d i m pels h i m to eco n o m ize his vital
,

pow ers i t is t he gre a t school of patie n ce resig n atio n te n der

, , ,

love an d m ercy q u alities which are val u able n ot o n ly i n ti m e

, ,

o f sick n ess
1
S i m ilarly bli n d n ess an d de afn ess give t o m an
.
,

n e w a n d u n u sually di fcul t proble m s t o solve bu t they thereby

aw ake n n e w powers an d i n ve n t n e w aids A n i n ge n io u s .

lege n d deprives Ho m er of the ligh t of his eyes m erely to ,

e n dow hi m with a m ore brilli a n t ligh t No r can we prove i n .

t his case tha t every evil i s i n variably n ecessary to d evelop

m e n t an d ed u ca t io n but we may say here as before that it is by
,

n a t ure tt ed for s u ch a purpose an d tha t it is a good for him ,

wh o t ur n s i t t o good acco u n t At all e ve n ts i t i s wise t o i a

.
,

t e r p re t i t so t o regard evil as religio u s faith regards it as a

, ,

t rial i n te n ded for ou r salva t io n A n d we m us t also le a r n fro m .

faith the lesso n of m odesty an d n o t cl ai m t o u n dersta n d th e ,

co n n ectio n be t wee n evil an d sal v ati o n i n partic u lar cases .

O n ly i n a ge n eral way c an w e u n ders t a n d that evils are n ot

o n ly real b u t n ecessary t eleol ogically n ecessary
, ,
.

Th e ligh t dove dividi n g the air i n h er igh t an d feeli n g

1 Ho w m u ch su r g ery, th e car e o f t h e si ck , an d t h e h u m an e re
g ar d fo r life ow e

to the re ce n t g r e at w ars , so t h at w e m ay p e rh ap s say t h at t h e li v e s of mo re

t h r ou gh t h e m d u r i n g t h e l ast t w e n t y- ve y e ar s of
p e o pl e h av e b e e n sav e d p e a ce
t h a n h a v e b e e n l o st i n t h e w a rs , h a s b e e n sh ow n b y Dr Br i n k m ann i n
. a b e au t i ful
e ss a y in w o r k p u b l is h e d b v
a . L i ce n t i at e W eb e r : Ge s chi chte d er s i ttliche n , r e lig'

i b se n u n d s ozi a le n E n twi chclu n

g De u tschland s i n d e n le tz te n 3 5 J a hren
 THE E VIL , THE BA D , A N D T H E O DIC Y 325

i ts resis t a n ce mi ght perhaps i m agi n e th at she co u ld s u cceed

,

m u ch bet t er i n a vac u u m Th u s Ka n t ill u strates the n e ce s
.

s i ty o f the facts o f experie n ce fo r the activity o f ou r u n der

s t an di n In the sa m e way the will n eeds the resista n ce of

g
.
,

the object evil there can be n o actio n witho u t resis t an ce n o

,
.
,

happi n ess witho u t obstacles P u re happi n ess like pure

.
,

t ruth exists fo r God alo n e We n eed th e additio n al i m pe t us

, .

o f ig n ora n ce an d error of oppositio n an d evil ,

.

3 Bu t co u ld n o t an d should n o t a t leas t m oral evil the

.
, , , ,

bad have bee n left ou t ?

,

I believe we m u s t a n swer t he q u estio n i n the n ega t ive curi ,

o u s tho u gh it m ay so u nd Moral evil too is i n a certai n

.
, , ,

se n se t eleologi cally n ecessary If it were wh olly eli m i n ated

, .
,

h u m an his t oric al life wo u l d lack an i n dispe n sabl e ele m e n t

M oral evil appears i n two f u n da m e n tal for m s as se n s u ality ,

an d selsh n ess Th e for m er e m braces all the weak n esses an d

.

vices which res u l t whe n reason an d m orality s u rre n der the

co n t rol of life to par t ic u lar se n s u ous i m p u lses : i n t e m pera n ce ,

dissipa tio n i n dole n ce frivolous n ess cowardice Sel sh n e s s

, , ,
.

i s the root of the vices which t hreat e n the welfare of the

surrou n di n gs : avarice i n j u s t ice m alice ha u ghti n ess ,
We
, , .

can n o t co n ceive of t he possibili ty of exter m i n ati n g evil i n

eithe r form wi t ho u t a t the sa m e t i m e striki n g a t the good .

Th e vir t ues o f th e rs t class pr u de n ce persevera n ce cour , , ,

age all pres u ppose the exis t e n ce of se n s u o u s n ess as a m edi u m

,

of resis t a n ce W itho u t the se n suo u s m a n s fear of se n s u o u s

.

pai n or evil there wo u ld be n o co u r age with out the sti m u l u s

, ,

of pleasure n o m oderatio ;
,
n he n ce with o u t pote n tial bad n ess ,

virt e that i s n o h u m a n vir t u e Th e virt u es o f the a n gels

no u , ,
.

be a di ffere t t ype b t we for m n o n otio n o f

m ay of n u c an
,

the m S o t oo th e social vi rt ues pres u ppose the n atural sel f

.
, ,

i sh n e s s of the se n s u o u s m a n : witho u t this there wo u ld be n o

virt u es of j u stice an d be n evole n ce i n their p ar t i cu l al l v h u m a n

for m ; they t oo possess an ele m e n t o f sel f de n ial

, ,
-
.

o ly i s h pote tial evil i n our o wn n a t u re an i a

Bu t o n t n t e n
 326 C ON C E P T S A ND P RIN C IPLE S
dispe n sable m ean s of realizi n g th e good b u t the actu al evil ,

o u tside o f u s is the sa m e i n battli n g agai n st it vi rtu e grows

stro n g In j u stice aro u ses i n the spectator o r vi cti m th e idea
.

o f the right an d the se n se o f j u stice ; falseh ood a n d decei t

m ake t r u th an d veracity val u able ; c ruelty an d m alice form

the foil for ki n d n ess an d n obility o f so u l In a poe m e n titled .

My Te a cher s Robert H am m e r l i n g bri n gs ou t t he thought tha t

,

we rst beco m e co n scious of the t ru e worth of good n ess

thro u gh evil 1
.

A ll the grea t heroes o f h u ma n i ty beca m e wh at they were

o n ly by s t r u ggli n g with evil Th e se n te n ce a n d exec u t i o n of
.
-

S ocrates gave his life t he p r oper setti n g Jes u s had t o be .

gloried by death He hi m sel f tells u s so :

.

O ugh t n ot
C hrist to have su ffe red th ese t hi n gs a n d t o e n ter i n t o hi s

glory ? N othi n g i n this world so m oves the hear t of m an ,

n o t hi n g has aroused greater revere n ce a n d h as gi e n grea t e r v

co n sola tio n t o h u m a n i t y t h a n the pic tu re of th e Q ru ci e d On e .

1 I q u o t e a f e w l i n es fr om th e p o e m , wh i ch w as p u b li sh e d i n t h e j ou rn al

De u tschc Di chtung ( 1 8 8 9 )

V on w e m i c h wa hr s ei n ler n t e V d e n Lu g n e rn ,
on

De n He u ch l e rn S ch m e i ch le r n
, , DOpp e lz un g ig en ,
K lat s ch bru d e rn u nd S k an d alg e se h i ch t e n j ag e r n ,
'

Ni ch t m i n de r von Ph a n t ast e n , P h r ase n d re ch sl e rn ,

S ch en far b e rn , g e ck e n h a ft en F as e l h an s e n .

Bi s i n d e n G r u n d d e r S e e l e so zu w i d e r
W ar d m i r d i e U n w ah r h e i t d u r c h all e d i e se ,
S e lb st d i e g e ri n g st e d ass i ch h a ss en s i e
,

U n d m e i d e n le rn t e f u r m e i n g a n ze s L e be n .

V on w e m i ch M t i de l ern t e V on d e n S p li t t e rr i ch t crn ,
V o n r uck s i ch t sl o s e n S p Ot t e rn , b Ose n Zu n g e n ,
M e i nu n g sty r an n e n u nd P a r t e i w ut r i ch e n .

V on w e m i c h li e be n le rn t e ? V on d e n B as s e ra ,
V on E g o i st e n ,M e n sch e n fe i n d e n Ne i de rn , ,

V on S e e l e n m ak le rn Thi e r u n d M e ns ch e n q u ale rn
'

, ,

V i vi se k t o re n , se e l e n lo se n W e i b ern .

V o n w e m i ch schwe igen l e rn t e V on d e n S e h w a t zern !

V o n w e m i c h tr e u se i n l e rn t e ? V on F l at t e r se e le n
C ha r a cte r/e st V on Wind und W e tt e r fa h n e n .

Habt D an k , ih r m e i n e L e h re r W as als L e h rg e l d
Ich e u ch e n t r i c h t e t , n i ch t zu t he ue r ach t

i ch

s .
328 C ON C E P TS A ND P RIN C IPLE S
evil als o recogn ize i t as on e o f t he l egiti m ate co n stitue n ts of
,

reality eq u al i n val u e to the rest ?

,

That is n o t m y m ea n i n g Th e evi l has n o val u e wh a t eve r .

as s u ch an d n o clai m to existe n ce It exis t s o n ly for the

,
.

sake of the good to e n able it to ac t an d real ize itself W e

,
.

h ave the sa m e rel atio n here as betwee n light an d dark n ess .

Th e pai n ter ca n n ot pai n t witho u t e m ployi n g shadows : h i s

ai m howeve r is n o t to pai n t shadows b u t lights an d colors
, , , .

S o too the poet ca n n ot pai n t witho u t S had ows h e n ee ds the

, , ,

u gly th e v u lgar a n d th e base It i s n ot his purpose h owever

,
.
, , ,

to portray these b u t th e beau ti fu l the good an d the gra n d

, , , ,

a n d i n order to bri n g the m o u t m ore clearly b e places th e

b ase by the side of the good to co n fo u n d the evil an d ,

exalt th e good S o too the good e xists i n history an d i n li fe

.
, ,

fo r its o w n sake an d evil fo r th e sake o f the good as a sti m

, ,

u lu s ,
as an obstacle as a foil It is a n egati v e qua n ti ty ,
.
,

val u eless as s u ch ; i t receives a ki n d of power an d reality

o n ly throu gh its opposite t he good Bu t its power does n ot ,
.

be n e t i t for it is ch aracteristic of evil t ha t it h as n o con

,

str u ctive force because it i s di v ided agai n s t itself It h as as

,
.
,

Kan t o n ce said the quality i n separabl e fro m its n a tu re o f

,

, ,

bei n g opposed t o itself an d self destr u ctive This is also -
.

show n by the fac t th at there c an be n o positive a n ti m orality -

i m m orality is like error witho u t l aw A ll tr u th for m s a

, , .

u n ied syste m b u t t h ere i s n o syste m o f errors

, There is n o .

m ark says Epi ctetu s for th e m isses

, ,
.

Goethe has a si m il ar con cep t io n of t he purpose of evil i n

the world : it i s the pri n ciple of n egatio n an d destr u ctio n the ,

n othi n g which co n sta n tly opposes t he so m ethi n g reality ,

.

B u t M ephis t oph eles co n fesses

S i l l i h h t r mm o v e a s c sc on u n e no en,

Ich w u ss t e n i ch t ih r b e i zu k o mm e n .
l

1
[T h at w h ich t o N au g h t is in r e s i st an ce s e t ,

Th e S o m e t h i n g of t h i s cl u m s y w o r l d, h as ye t ,
Wit h all t h a t I h av e u n d e r t a k e n ,

No t b e e n by m e di s t u rb e d o r sh a k e n .

Ba v ar d Ta vl o r ]

s Tr a n slat i on
 V
THE E IL, T H E BA D, A N D T H E O DIC Y 32 9

On t he co n trary ; the spirit whic h i n variably de n ies always ,

wills th e bad an d always works the good A n d the Lor d .

e xpre s ses the sa m e idea i n th e Prolog u e

D M es h Th t i gk i t k
e n sc llen l i h t r hl ffa e an n a zu e c e sc a en,

E r li e b t si ch b ald di e u nb e d i n
gt e R u h
Dru m ge b i ch ge r n i h m d e n G e se lle n

zu ,

De r r e iz t u n d w i rk t u n d m u ss als Te u fe l sch a ff e n .
1

Th e i n here n t u n worthi n ess an d fail u re o f th e evil also m an i

fests itsel f i n self co n scious n ess : the co n scio u s n ess o f good
-

n ess i s peace a n d j oy the co n scio u s n ess o f evil is discord a n d

,

u n h appi n ess This is Mephistopheles experie n ce Fro m his

. .

rst m eeti n g w ith Fau st i n which he bitterly co m plai n s that ,

so fa r everyth i n g has gon e wro n g with h i m dow n to the very ,

end m a n m ochte r a sen d wer d en

to his las t appe ara n ce at

t he co n cl u sio n o f the seco n d par t w he n he feels ,

Hi ob sar ti g, Be u l an Be u le ,

De r gau z e K e rl, d e m s v or si ch rg

s e lb e r an t

Un d r
t i u m p hi e t r zu
gle i ch ,w e n n e r si ch g an z du r ch s ch au t 2

hi s m ood re m ai n s th e sa m e : disco n te n t an d sel f derisio n are -

the feeli n gs which h e h arbors agai n st hi m self Whatever he .

u n dertakes th o u gh a t rst it succeeds ad m i rably n ally

t u r n s o u t agai n s t hi m Both parts of the poe m e n d with the
.

resc u e of th e sou l al ready cau gh t i n his m eshes Th e last .

word u ttered by h i m is
Du b i st ge t au sch t i n d e i n e n alt en Tage n ,
Du h ast s v e r d ie n t, e s ge h t d i r gri mm ig schle ch t

.
3

Goethe i n t erprets the his t ory o f m a n ki n d i n his poe m Th e .

me m ory of m an favors this i n terpretatio n History readj u sts .

[M
1 ti

t
an s a c gg i g k t th l
ve n a u re , l; a n ,
se e s o o soo n e e ve

U q li d
n ua
p h l t e ; re os e e ea r n s o crav e

W h e n ce w ill i n g ly t h e co m rade h i m I g ave

, , ,

W h o w o rk s e x ci te s an d m u s t cre at e a s De v il
, , ,
.

Bay ar d T a) lo r s t ra n sl at i on

[L i k e
2 me
J o b , t h e b o i ls h av e cl e ft

F ro m h e a d to fe e t , so t h at m y s e l f I sh u n

Ye t t r i u m p h a ls o , w h e n my s elf -
i n sp e ct i o n s do n e . Ih

g re a t d i s g u s t i s ;
3 in
[Tr ic k e d

so o n e s o ld d ay s ,
a

A n d I d e s e r ve i t , t h i s i n fe r n a l s p i t e lh ] . .
330 C ON C E P TS A ND PRI NC IPLE S
th e good an d the bad which so o fte n see m t o ch an ge places
,

i n the prese n t ; she exalts the good a n d great which d u r

i n g li fe appeared i n the ser v a n t s garb a n d sat i n the priso n er s

dock an d proclai m s it to all the world ; she co n fo u n ds the

,

evil an d base which o n ce bestrode the world i n po m p

,

a n d glory an d which w as proclai m ed so l o u dly by its satel

,

lites as the great an d real an d reveals it i n all its n oth

,

i n gn e ss Th u s she derives good fro m evil

. Y e t ho u gh t .

evil agai n st m e b u t God m ea n t it u n to good : tha t i s
,

the great l esso n of history That is the teachi n g of the.

grea test history that was eve r lived o n earth the history of ,

Jes u s There is n o m ore elevati n g an d co n soli n g his t ory

.

tha n the history o f the passio n How great Pilate see m ed .

to hi m sel f wh e n he sat i n j u dg m e n t u po n Jes u s : Do you n ot

see that I have the power t o co n de m n y ou or to se t y ou
free ? Th e poor m ad fool arraig n ed be fore h i m as th e J e w i sh
,
~

prete n der s u rely did n o t look like a da n gero u s m an like

, ,

a m an desti n ed to i n u e n ce the history of the world S u rely .

there was n o n eed of killi n g h i m h e wo u ld n ot distu rb the ,

peace o f the Ro m a n E m pire Bu t Pilate m igh t have bee n .

,

sayi n g it is a very provoki n g affair If I t u rn h i m l oose I

,
.
,

shall have this ba n d of fa n atical priests with their t rou bleso m e

co m plai n ts at m y back ; the hou n ds will n ot lose the sce n t o f
the ga m e A n d a fter all what di ffere n ce does it m ake whethe r
.
, ,

the fool lives a day m ore o r l ess ? Therefore take h i m away

a n d p u t a n e n d to this b u si n ess ; I do n t wa n t to be a n n oye d

with it agai n A n d n o w how the r oles have cha n ged !

.

Lo n g ago Pilate wo u ld have bee n co n sign ed to th e grea t s e a

o f oblivio n which had e n g u l fed so m a n y proc u rators an d high

priests be fore h i m had n o t his n am e attached itself t o the

,

m e m ory o f the m an who m h e n ailed t o th e cross : t he his

t ory o f this crucixio n can n ot be t ol d witho u t the n a m e of
Pilate A n d so the story of th e se n te n ce pro n o u n ced u po n
.

Jes u s by this easy goi n g proc u rator wh o was witho u t do u bt

-
, , ,

a n xi ou s t o please his s u periors an d at the sa m e ti m e t o

the foo l li ve s
a nd u t
p
w i th it
Lo ng
o f o b]

p ri e s t s bafo
me mory o f
t o r y o f th i s
 TH E E VIL , TIE BA D, A N D T H E O DIC Y 331

be popular wi th t he ms scs an d if possible als o t o be a

j u st m an will b e t ol d s lo n g as historical me m ory l as t s
,

upo n t his earth ; an d a too the story will be told till , , ,

the c rack o f doo m o f b e extre m ely cau tious high pries t , ,

wh o succeeded so ad m i raly i n provi n g to his o wn s ati sfac

t io n an d t ha t of th e w or ry college o f c o u n sellors th at it was
be t ter for o n e m an to d! tha n that a w hole n atio n sh o u ld
perish Th e story will e told n o t because of a n y m erit on
.
,

the par t of these m e n ad n o t to t hei r c redit b u t i n order , ,

to i m p ress i t s t ro n gly no n all high priests an d proc u rators

of j u stice i n all th e co r ers o f th e earth t h a t thei r j u dg
m e n t i s n ot t he n al j u gm e n t upo n th e value of m e n an d
thi n gs ; an d co n ve rsely 1 orde r to give to all those accused ,

a n d co n de m n ed fo r th e ake o f truth a n d j u stice t he c o n

soli n g certai n ty that thei cau se will be decided be fore a still

higher trib u n al tha n th ab f their p rese n t j dges u
1
.

S o m oral evil i s c on san tly a n n ihila t ed i n the m e m o ries

which m a n ki n d p r e se r v r o f i t s life ; it is degraded t o the
ran k of t he wor t hless ad n on ex is t e n t servi n g m e rely a s a -
,

foil for so m ethi n g else .

Wo u ld i t be fo olish t o m agi n e t ha t t his m e m ory is a frag

me n t o f an absol u t e di v ie m e m ory an d tha t the tr u e reality ,

o f spirit u al thi n gs co n sis t i n their exis t i n g i n s u ch a n etern al

co n scio u s n ess an d n ot n their bei n g part s of a passi n g

, ,

te m poral c o n sci o u s n ess 3 i n divid u als an d tha t the good

alo n e co n sti t u tes the r e ai n th e absolute co n scio u s n ess w hile ,

the evil appe ars m e r el v s the n o n e xiste n t j u st as dark n ess -

,

i s n ot a reality as c o m pr e d with th e li ght b u t m erely its ,

n egatio n

1
Th m oC rlylas th g t
a t h i t e,i d l
e p t h i
r ea t h g h
oet i -ll h i
s o r an , e ve o s s ou n a s

h i t ri l d m
s o ca Wh t
ra i
as .l t d j t i
a ev e r h d by h i t y
s ca ,
t
ru e , an us s on o re s or ,
no

m e re ly b y w i t t b t by r t h i t y ; w h il f l h d
en, u ac u d l h s or d e a se oo an se s n e ss an

van i ty ar e ig d t th
con s ti gne t wh i h t h y b l
o e no g Thn i r
n e ss o c e e on . e u n v e se

i t s e lf co n st an t l st r i v es t o d o a wv w i t h t h e w o r t hl e ss i ns t i t u t i o ns w h i ch h av e no
y
m ore v i t ali t
y; a m o n ar ch y or a a r i st o c r a e y t h at no lo n g e r la b o rs b u t m e re ly
en oj y s, is c as t o ff . On ly t h at h i ch l ab o rs i s r e al ; t h a t w h i ch doe s n ot lab o r
do e s not d ese r ve t o b e r e al .
 bu t -
ode the wo rld in
pomp
n

loud ly by its tel

to m adma n you or to ar t you

00 k li ke a d un g -
m un man, like

say i n g , it
s ha ll h a ve t ica l
pri m wi th the i r t ro u ble some
co m l i t at b o u nds wi ll
p scent of
a n s
no t loco t he
th e ga me . Au

a nd
pu t bus i nes s ; I d n t wan t to bo
'
an no e y d
w i th it
Lu n g ago Pi ln ha ve bee n w ani mcd to th o ra nt
g g ees
o f o bl i vi o n wh i

i t
p es s
r befo re
 TH E E VIL , TE BA D, A N D T H E O DIC Y 331

be pop u lar wi t h t he m s cs an d if possible als o t o be a s

jus t m an will b e t ol d 8 lo n g as historical m emory las t s

,

upo n this earth ; an d 5 t oo th e story will be told t ill , , ,

t he c rack o f d oo m o f i e extre m ely cautious high pries t

, ,

wh o succeeded so ad m i r aly i n provi n g to his o wn s at i sfac

tio n an d t ha t of th e w orty college of co u n sellors that it was
be t ter for o n e m an t o d tha n that a w hole n atio n sh ould .

perish Th e story will e told n ot becau se of an y m eri t o n

.
,

the par t of these m e n all n o t t o thei r c redit b u t i n order

, ,

to i m press i t s t ro n gly u o n all high priests an d procurators

of j u stice i n all the co r e rs o f th e earth th at their j u dg
me n t is n ot t he n al j u gm e n t u po n th e val u e of m e n an d
t h i n gs ; a n d co n versely i order to give to all those acc u sed
,

an d co n de m n e d fo r th e ak e o f t ruth a n d j u stice t he c on

soli n g certai n ty that thei ca u se will b e decided before a still

higher trib u n al tha n th at f t h eir p rese n t j u dges 1
.

So m oral evil i s c on stn tly a n n ihilated i n the m e m o ries

which m a n ki n d preserve o f i t s life ; it is degraded t o the
ran k of the worthless an n on ex is t e n t servi n g m erely as a -
,

foil for so m ethi n g el se .

Wo u ld i t be fo olish t o m agi n e t ha t t his m e m ory is a frag

m e n t o f a n absolu t e divi n m e m ory an d that the tr u e reality ,

o f spirit u al t hi n gs co n sis t i n thei r exi sti n g i n s u ch a n eter n al

co n scio u s n ess an d n ot 1 their bei n g part s of a passi n g

, ,

t e m poral co n scious n ess 0 i n divid u als an d that the good

alo n e co n sti tutes the r e al n the absol u te co n scio u s n ess w hile ,

the evil appears m e r el v a th e n o n existe n t j u st as dark n ess ,

is n ot a reality as co m p re d with th e light b u t m erely its ,

n egatio n 7

1 Th om as C arlyl e , th e g re at j e t h i st o r i an , d e v el o p s t hi s t h o u gh t i n all h i s
-

h i s t o ri cal d r a m a s . .
,
j
W h at e v e r i s al t r u e , an d u st i s h o n o r e d by h i s to ry , n o t
m e r e ly b y w r i tt e n , b u t b y act u ai i st o ry ; w h i le fal se h o o d a n d s e l s h n ess a n d
v an i t ar e co n s i g n e d to th e n ot h t o w h i c h t h e y b e lo n g Th e u n i v e rs e
y g n e ss .

i t se lf co n st an tly st r i v es to do aw a w i t h t h e w o r t hle s s i ns t i t u t i o ns w h i ch h av e no

m o re v i t al i t
y; a m o n ar ch y or an r i s t o e r a cy t h at no l o n g e r la b o rs b u t m e r e ly
j
e n o s,
y is ca s t o ff . On l y t h at wi c h l ab o r s i s r e al ; t h at w h i ch d oe s not la b o r
d oe s not d e se rve t o b e re al .
332 C ON C E P TS A ND PRIN C IPLE S

This co n cep t io n re m i n ds us of an ol d re m ark which A ugus

t i n e followi n g A ristotl e addressed to the Ma n ich aea n s
, ,
Th e

evil has n o real esse n ce b u t the loss or the abse n ce o f th e

,
1
good has received the n a m e of evil Both S pi n oza an d
.

Leib n iz are of the sa m e O pi n io n Per fectio n an d reality alo n e

.

are i n God We m ake a disti n ctio n betwee n good an d evil

.

si m ply beca u se ou r way of l ooki n g at thi n gs is i n adequ ate

we si m ply j u dge the world by its relatio n to a pe ripheral
poi n t tha t i s to o u rselves Everythi n g is n ecessary an d
, ,
.

perfect i n relati o n to the u n ity of reality that is G od , ,

.

T r u e it m u st be added we co n t i n ue t o be peripheral poi n ts

, ,

an d ca n n ot get away fro m ourselves Bu t we can u n ders t a n d

.

that such i s the case that ou r co n cep t io n of thi n gs i s n o

,

m ore absol u te i n these m atters th a n i n oth ers A n d we .

shall at all eve n ts adhere to the view t hat evil i s n ot o n

a p ar with reality an d does n ot possess the force of a
n egative q u a n ti ty ove r an d agai n s t reali t y He n ce we can .
,

n ot by addi n g up t he good an d evil prove t h at t he world

is worthless .

4 Does this co n cep t io n of th e n a t ure an d i m por t o f evil

.

m ak e u s qu i e tgst i c 9 It has bee n ch arged that it does I do

'

. .

n ot beli eve tha t t h e ch arge is well fo u n ded Ou r co n ceptio n .

does n ot e n cour age a m an to fold his h a n ds t o recog n i ze the evil ,

as i n evitable an d t o give it free sce p e b u t rather i n ci t es h i m

, ,

t o co m b a t it an d overco m e it wherever he n ds it ; i n deed ,

its s ole purpose i n the world is t o be a n t ago n ized an d ove r

co m e On ly 1 n this way can its existe n ce be j u sti ed n ot by
.
,

letti n g it alo n e A n evil tha t is give n fu ll sway m isses its

.

mark A disease that fails t o sti m u late th e scie n ce of m edi

.

ci n e tha t is n ot e m ployed as a m ea n s of exercisi n g p atie n ce

,

an d be n evol e n ce ; poverty which is s t olidly bor n e ; falseh ood

which i s n ot opposed by th e truth ; wicked n ess which i s n ot

co n fou n ded which is n ot overco m e b v th e good with good
,

n ess all t hes e a re really evils

,
Yo u make evils of t hem
.
,

1 De C i v De i, X L ,
. 9 .
 TH E E V IL ,
THE BA D, A ND T H E O DIC Y 3 33

you wh o ough t t o t urn t he m t o good bu t s urr e n de r t o t he m ,

i n s t ead an d give the m free s cope

,
.

But i t is said if evil will abide wi t h us an d i n a cer t ai n

, , , ,

me as u r e mus t a bid e wi t h u s so lo n g as the e a rt h sta n ds

,

a n d hu m a n ity has his t orical problems t o s olve will n o t the ,

struggle be a futile on e ? Of wh at u s e is i t t o s t rike off a few

h eads from Hydr a if n e w o n e s are co n sta n tly t o t ake their
place ? Will n ot t hose wh o u n de rs t a n d t he n a t ure of evil
n ecess a rily gro w t ire d of t he g a me an d r esig n t he m sel ves to ,

fate
My an swe r i s Th e impulse to c o m ba t evil d oes n o t spri n g
from a co n cep t io n of a perfec t s t a t e to be re alized by t he con
i ct b u t fro m th e fe e li n g a r oused by t he pressure of the
,

particular evil a t h an d Th e ge n er al belief t hat t he s ati sfac

.

t io n of eve ry n eed the removal of every evil will i n variably

, ,

be followed by n e w o n es will n ei ther hi n der actio n n or weake n

i t s e ff ec t s E ve n if we should be co n vi n ced that wa n t an d
.

misery i n j us t ice an d falsehood will exis t world withou t e n d

, , ,

we sh all n ot cease co m ba t i n g the m wherever they sh o w

t he m selves A n d t his is as i t should be ; t he s t ruggl e can
.

n ever be absol u t ely i n e ff ec t u a l On e result is bou n d t o follow

.

u n der all ci rcu m st a n ces : ou r a n t ago n is m places us i n the

ra n ks o f th ose wh o are gh t i n g fo r t he good an d th e right .

Th e i m m ediate an d r eal purpose o f every hu m a n bei n g i s n ot

t o ob t ai n h appi n ess an d perfec t io n for t he hu m a n race bu t to ,

live his o wn life wor thily an d t his e n d he c an realize u n de r

,

all co n di t io n s Th e i m por t an t thi n g to the m an of acti o n is

.

tha t he d o the righ t ; whe th er the right i s do n e o r n ot n eed

1
n ot co n cer n h i m Whoever is gu ided by these tho u ghts will
.

r e a lize so m ethi n g besides Whoever weakly succ u m bs to evil

.

as t o so m ethi n g tha t ca n n ot be overco m e will surely be over ,

co m e by it ; i n actio n is follo wed by discourage m e n t an d

weari n ess So soo n h oweve r as a m an begi n s to de fe n d h i m
,
, ,

s elf h e becomes co n scio u s of his o wn activity an d s t r e n gt h

, ,

1 G o e t h e , S p ruc ke i n P rosa , 9 9 .
3 34 C ON C E P TS A ND P RIN C IPLE S
an d fee l s t h at th e evil wh ich he is a t tacki n g recedes Th e .

s atis factio n thus experie n ced by h i m is n o t destro ed by the

y
tho u ght th at a n oth er evil m ay t ake the place of the v an
q u i sh e d o ne. Let the co m i n g ge n eratio n s c e pe with the u n

k n ow n evils i n store for the m as best they m ay Tha t is n ot .

o u r co n cer n ; s u fficie n t u n to the day is the evil t he reof .

On ly i n a certai n se n se will ou r co n ceptio n m ake us n ot ,

q u ietistic b u t cal m an d pa t ie n t It m akes u s h ope fu l of the

, .

n al o u tco m e the good will co n quer for i t is God s cause it ,

,

is the o n ly tru e reality A n d it so fte n s o u r a n ger it tra n s

.
,

for m s it i n to the deepes t pity If the evil doers were really .

-

an d u lti m ately successful i n t he world i t wo u ld be di fcul t o r

,

i m possible to tolerate the m o r t o forgive them But the evil .

d oes n o t be n et itsel f ; n ay it be n ets the good i t serves

, ,

as a m ean s to its perfectio n i n spi t e of itsel f Jesus d oes n ot

, .

part fro m the world with a c u rse u po n his lips but with a ,

praye r : Forgive t he m fo r th ey k n ow n ot what they d o They

, .

will n ot acco m plish wha t they d esire m y death b u t they a re ,

worki n g for wha t th ey do n ot desi re the curse will fall upo n

the m n ot m y cu rse b u t the co n seque n ces of their o w n deeds
, ,

as the eter n al ord er of t hi n gs de m a n ds It m ust n eeds b e

.

th at o ffe n ces co m e ; bu t w oe t o t ha t m an by who m the c en ce

co m eth .

S o t o o the grea t poe t le t s his good characters depar t from

, ,

th e world wi t ho u t h atred an d bi tt er n ess a fte r they h ave suf ,

fe r e d the deepest an d m ost cr u el w ro n gs : C ordelia a n d De s

de m o n a die i n peace with o u t h atred Thus they overco m e
,
.

evil with good the evil has n o powe r over t he m i t ca n n ot

, ,

destroy thei r i n n er peace it i s a m ea n s o f testi n g an d p u ri fy

,

i n g the m ; the evil de feats itsel f an d i s a n n ihilated .

Th e proper u se therefore which we shoul d m ake o f evil

, ,

a n d wicked n ess is this : w e sho u ld an tago n i ze it ho n estly an d

e n ergetically an d m ake i t a m ea n s of o u r o wn perfectio n an d

, ,

so far as we c an o f that o f oth ers

,
.

On the othe r h a n d i t m ay also be p u t to a false u se

,
We .
3 36 C ON C E P TS AN D PRIN C IPLE S
hi m self ou t of i t so t o speak ; his exit is th e l as t n ecessary
,

step i n a lo n g j o u r n ey A ti m ely death is n ot t o be i n ter

.

r e t e d as t he overthro w o f li fe by an ex t er n al force bu t a s
p ,

its i n n er n ecessary c on cl u sio n S o i t is regard ed by the

.

frie n ds of the dyi n g m an an d n ot i n freque n tly al so by

,

the dyi n g m an hi m self A ft er t he c o m ple t io n of his li fe

.

h e desires t o be gathered t o his fathers ; he par t s fro m life

'

wi t h tha n ks t o its give r If s u ch a death w ere t h e rule n o

.
,

o n e wo u ld cal l i t an evil n eithe r t he s u rvivors n o r t he dyi n g

,

m an . He has realized h i s desires a n d t ha t for which h e ,

live d abide s ; his desce n dan ts his n a t io n the t rue t he, , ,

beau tif u l an d the good ; everythi n g fo r which he lived abides

, , .

It is differe n t whe n death cuts o a life before i t s t i m e be ,

fore i t is co m pleted perhaps eve n before i t has begu n

, .

Here we s t a n d as before an i n sol ubl e riddle A n epidemic .

breaks o u t i n a t ow n like a bli n d fat e i t s t eals t hrough t he

m u ltitude a tt acki n g n o w t his pers o n n o w tha t o n e as
, , ,

cha n ce decrees Eve n t he m os t cocksure i n t erpre t ers of th e

.

way s of Provide n ce are i n t he h abit of co n fessi n g here t ha t

God s cou n sel s are i n scru t able In deed i t woul d evide n tly b e

.
,

pres u m ptuous for the h u m a n m i n d to atte m pt t o u n ders t an d

the teleological n ecessity of t he par t ic u la r cases H er e .

h u m bl e resign at io n alo n e is t t i n g A n d i t is possible For

. .

n o o n e k n ows wha t migh t have bee n i n s t ore for him wh o ,

as we say dies before his ti m e Ma n y a m an wo u ld h ave

,
.

been estee m ed h appy if an e arly deat h had S p a red h i m fro m

o u tlivi n g wha t was the j oy o f his life A s m ay be gathere d .

fro m S olo n s re m ark a beautifu l dea th i n the bloo m of you th

,

was n ot regarded by the G reeks as n ecessarily a m i sfor t u n e .

A n d th e t eleological n ecessi ty of th e u n iversal l aw tha t deat h

does n ot merely t ake away t he ol d an d decrepi t bu t also ,

c u ts d own you th i n th e f u ll powe r an d e n j oy m e n t of life ,

may also be expl ai n ed i n a n othe r way Th e Greek sage .

,

Bias of Pri e n e is sai d to have u t tered th e foll owi n g wis e

,

re m ark : S o seek t o live as th ou gh you we re fated t o live a

 THE E V IL ,
TH E BA D, A ND T H E O DIC Y 337

1
lo n g an d a short t i m e Th e th o u gh t which this m axi m
.

wishes to co n vey is this : Y ou do n ot k n ow whe n the e n d will

co m e he n ce arran ge yo u r li fe s o tha t yo u m ay ch eer fu lly die
,

t o morrow an d als o so that y o u m ay h ave the stre n gth an d the

-
,

co u rage for a lo n g life To be prepared i s everythi n g ; y o u.

ough t t o b e r e a dy for life as well a s fo r death If yo u are .

,

y o u will believe wha t t he hy m n says tha t the best t i m e fo r ,

dyi n g i s God s t ime

.

Wh e n th e i n divid u al dies h e i s u plift ed by the tho u ght th at

his li fe an d i t s achieve m e n ts will be n e t those who co m e
after him ; he hi m sel f i s perpet u ated i n the li fe of his
desce n da n t s an d people Bu t suppose we are forced to ass u m e
.

t ha t ou r peopl e t oo wi ll die ; yes that t he t i m e will co m e

, , ,

whe n t here shall be n o m ore li fe on the earth Does n o t this

bre ak dow n t he las t s u ppor t t he las t prop as it were upo n , , ,

which all v alues are base d A n d i t see m s hardly possible t o

escape t he th ough t Tha t the peoples repeat the stages of li fe
.

passed th rough by th e i n dividual on a larger scale or rather , , ,

th a t t he i n divi d u al repeats t he evolutio n of t h e race on a

s m all scale is a fac t which forces itsel f upo n us History
,
.

shows us t hat n ation s t oo gro w ol d an d sta n d still Th e

, , .

s tock of xed habi t s o f though t an d actio n traditio n al con ,

c e pt i o n s i n sti t u tio n s rights an d custo m s grad u ally i n creases

, , ,
.

Tradi t io n robs us of t he powe r an d courage to ac t u po n the

world ; t he pas t weigh s heavily upo n the prese n t Th e i n a .

b i l i ty t o adap t the m selves t o n e w co n ditio n s causes the death

o f his t orical i n sti t utio n s al though the i n dividuals m ay say
, ,

by receivi n g n e w bl ood i n t o thei r vei n s perpet u ate the m selves ,

an d be e m ployed with t h e ele m e n t s of the ol d civilizatio n to ,

form a n e w his t orical bei n g It i s t ru e history does n o t .

,

sh ow u s tha t th e sa m e t hi n g will h appe n t o h u m a n ity as a

whole n a m ely t ha t it will exhaust itsel f ; b u t that i n dee d
, , ,

1 I n d t h e q u ot at io n i n o n e of t h e ab l e add resse s o f F r an z K e r n, S ch ulr eden

be i der E n tla ssu ng von A bi t ur i e nte n 2 d , ed 1 88 7 o r m 1r e t Gir3
pc l 61 3 Kat 671 17 0 1! ica l
fro m m xp dvo v Bt wa dju e vos

[S ee Di og . Lae r t i u s , Bo o k I .
Tn ] .

22
338 C ON C EP TS A ND P RIN C IP LE S
has i t h ardly beg u n to live as a sel f co n scio u s whole A n al -
.

o gy h owever s u ggests this tho u ght while physical re flectio n s

, , ,

also see m to lead u s to it A w orld body too a stella r sys .

-
, ,

t e m experie n ces so m ethi n g like bi rth growth a n d death , ,

.

It arises thro u gh separatio n fr om a m o th e r body it develops , ,

ripe n s prod u ces tho u sa n ds o f livi n g for m s ; the n grows ol d

,

a n d dies Th e wh ole earth wit h all th e livi n g for m s u po n it

.
,

h u m a n ity i n cl u ded u n dergoes this process

, .

Would t hese thoughts i f they we re i n evi table prove th e

, ,

worthless n ess of h u m a n ity an d all li fe ? Does the t ra n sitori

n ess of th e worl d prove i ts n othi n g n ess ? I do n o t believe it .

Th e ower bl oo m s b u t fo r a m o m e n t an d we h ave n o faul t t o ,

n d . A dra m a a to n e poe m h as an e n d ; we do n ot believ e

, ,

that lesse n s its val u e A n i t e thi n g can n o t e xte n d its real

.

ity i n to i n n ity so to speak Th e sa m e may be said of th e

,
.

li fe o f a m an It will also hold of the life of a people n ay

.
, ,

o f t he li fe o f h u m a n ity ; its esse n ce too i s n ite an d is ex , ,

han sted by a n i t e evol u ti o n E verythi n g n ite is perish .

able ; G od alo n e the In n ite On e lls all ti m es wi t h His

, ,

prese n ce Bu t wo u l d n ot th e destru ctio n of h u m an i t y m ean

.

th e destructio n o f all goods an d va lu es ? For wh at the n , ,

h ave the u n told ge n era t io n s labored battled an d s u ff ered , ,

Well s u rely n ot fo r a n al ge n eratio n fo r o n e tha t i s

, ,

n o t to appear u n til th e e n d of t hi n gs If the li fe of a ge n .

cratio n has n o val u e i n itsel f i f its rel atio n t o i ts i m m e d i

,

ate a n cestors an d desce n da n ts ca n n o t m ake i t v al u able the n ,

i ts rel atio n to t hose m os t re m ote s u ccessors ca n n ot gi v e i t

worth Th e value o f o u r scie n ce an d philosophy o f o u r
.
,

art an d poetry depe n ds upo n wh at they do for u s ; it is ex

,

t r e m e ly do u btfu l whether a re m ote fu t u re will have a n y u s e

for the m S chol astic philosophy has passe d away ; w e n o
.

lo n ger pri ze it That i s n o argu m e n t agai n s t its value If

. .

i t m ade th e ge n era t io n s wh o live d i n th e seco n d hal f o f the

Middle A ges wiser an d m ore pr u de n t i f besides it prepared , , ,

the forces which were capable o f risi n g above i t it did every ,

 C H A PTER V
DUTY A ND C O S C IE N NC E 1

1 . The Or ig i n the precedi n g o f the F e e li n g o f Du ty . In

ch apters we r eached the co n clusio n : Tha t is good which
satises t h e will or t oward which i t is by n a t ure direc t ed , .

We fou n d th at t he will ai m s a t the preservatio n an d perfec t io n

o f i n divid u al an d soci al li fe With this V ie w t he results of .

o u r an alysi s o f t he j u dgme n t s o f val u e which are expressed

i n la n guag e a greed : S uch h u ma n acts an d quali t ies are

calle d good as h ave the te n de n cy t o promo t e the welfar e of
t he age n t an d h i s s u rrou n di n gs .

Here however w e see m t o be co n fro n t ed with a con t radi c

, ,

tio n : Good we m ay also say i n co n for m ity with popular

,

usage i s n ot t o d o wh a t we wi ll t o d o bu t wha t we oug ht t o

, ,

d o To d o goo d mean s t o d o o u r d u ty an d o u r d u ty does

.
,

n ot see m t o coi n cide wi th the n a t ural will ; he n ce there is a

1
[F or e x pl an at i on s o f c onsci ence , s ee Rat i on al i n t u i t i on i s ts : th e m e di a v al
sch ool m en C u d w o r t h ; C lar k e ; K ant ; F i ch t e ; Ja n e t , Theory of M ora ls , Bk
; .

II I , ch ap I
. C ald e r woo d , H a n d book, P ar t I , ch ap s I - V I E m o t i onal i nt u i t i on
. . . . . .

i st s : S h aft e sb u ry ; Hu t ch e son Hu m e ; S m i t h R o u sse au ; He r bar t Br en t an o, A .

V om Ur sp r u ng s i ttliche r E r ke nn tn i s s S ch wa r z , Gr u n d zug e d er E thik P e rce p

'

t i onal i n t u i t i o n i st s l u t le r , S er mons on H u ma n N a tur e ; M art i n e au , Tgp es , vo l .

II ; L e cky , ch ap I E m p i r i ci s t s : Ho bb es ; L ock e ; Pa ley ; Be n t h am ; Jam e s

. . .

M ill ; J oh n St u ar t M ill ; Bai n , The E m oti ons a n d the W171, The E mo tions , ch ap .

XV ,
The Wi ll, ch ap X , also M e n ta l a nd M ora l S c ie nce E v olu t i on i st s : Darwi n ,
. . . .

De scent of M a n IV ; He rb e r t Sp e n ce r, Da ta of E th i cs ,
, ch ap . . 4 4 , l nd w .

ti on s of E thics , S oci a l S ta tics ; St e ph e n , S ci e nce of E thi cs , pp 3 1 1 ff ; Ho ffd ing , . .

E thi lc, I V ; Jh e r i n g , vol II , pp 9 5 ; W u n dt , E thi k, P a rt III , ch I , 4 , p p

. . . . . . .

4 80 ff . Re , Di e E nts tehung d es Ge w i ssen s M ii nst e rb e r g Ursp ru ng de r S i ttli chke i t

.

S i m m e l, E i n le i tu ng i n d i e M or a lwi sse ns cha , v ol . I .

, c h ap . I ; Bal d wi n , S oc ial
.

I n te rp re ta ti on s See als o Hysl o p , pp 2 5 0- 3 4 8 ; G as s , Die Lehre vom Ge wi ssen

T
. . .

R .
]
 DU TY A N D C ON S C IE N C E 3 41

co n ic t be t wee n d u ty an d i n cli n a ti on Before t he act th e .

,

feeli n g of d u ty opposes the i n cli n atio n : i t acts as a deterre n t ;

after the ac t if th e i n cli n atio n has t ri u m phed agai n st the
,

feeli n g of d u ty i t co n de m n s : i t was ba d t o do wha t t he

,

i n cli n a ti o n ch arac t erized as good We call that phas e of .

o u r n a t ure which O pposes i n cli n atio n a n d m a n i fes t s itsel f i n

t he feeli n g of obligatio n an d d u ty con sci e n ce 1

,
.

Wha t is the m ea n i n g of this phe n o m e n o n an d h ow can ,

we resolve t he a n ti n o m y : Tha t i s good which I will an d tha t ,

is good which I o u gh t t o do ? O r is ou r e n t ire previo u s

co n ceptio n false ? Is t he t ruly m or a l good a fter all abso , ,

lu t e ly di ffere n t fro m the other good t he e n d of the n a t u ral ,

will an d o n ly like it i n n a m e ?
,

A n ex a m i n atio n of the or ig i n of t he f e e li ng of d u ty will

assis t u s i n a n swe ri n g this qu es t io n .

How does obligatio n arise i n th e willi n g bei n g ? Whe n ce

this co n ict be t wee n n atural i n cli n atio n an d d u ty ? Is i t
so m ethi n g s u per n atural so m ethi n g breaki n g i n t o the u n i ty
,

of t he willi n g bei n g fro m without ? A ccordi n g to t he

religio u s view it is : for i t co n scie n ce is t he voice of God , .

This n otio n co n t ai n s a ger m o f t r u t h b u t it has n o value ,

as an expla n atio n We h ave n o m ore righ t t o appeal to God

.

as th e cause i n morals th an i n physics Both t he n atural .

l aw an d the m oral law m ay poi n t t o so m ethi n g beyo n d the m ,

to so m ethi n g t ra n sce n de n t Bu t we ca n n o t ass u m e th e

.

t ra n sce n de n t i n order to deduce fro m i t th e facts of e x p e r i

e n ce ; we m ust see k fo r the explan atio n wi thi n the e m pirical

world ; an d I believe th a t we can n d i t there .

Darwi n atte m pts s u ch an expla n atio n i n t h e fourth ch apter

o f his De s cen t of M a n He refers t o the traces o f si m ilar
.

processes a m on g an i m als A fe m ale dog i s wi th her p u ppies ;

.

1 t h e p syc h ol ogy o f c on sci e n ce se e

[F o r e sp e ci ally : S u lly, The H u ma n f i n d ,
vo l II.
pp 1 5 5 ff Bal d w i n , F e e li ng a n d
. . Wi ll
p p 2 0 5 ff,
Ho ff d i n g , P s ycholo gy,
. .

V I , 8, 9
. L add ,
De scr ip ti ve P sychology , pp 5 7 9 ff ; Jo dl , Le hr bu ch d e r P s ychologi e,
. .

p p 7 1 5 ff
. . TR .
]
342 C ON C E P TS A ND P RIN C IPLE S
she sees her m aster getti n g ready for the chase ; she hesi ~

tates fo r a while an d n ally sli n ks away to the m U po n .

the ret u rn of her m aster she m eets h i m with all the sign s
o f sha m e ; she feel s re m orse fo r havi n g proved u n faith
fu l to h i m A str u ggle m ay o fte n be observed i n do m estic
.

an i m als be t wee n di ffere n t i n sti n cts or betwee n an i n sti n ct ,

a n d so m e habit u al dispositio n Here we have Darwi n .

,

believes the phe n o m e n o n i n its m os t pri m itive form ; it

,

is the res u lt o f a co n ic t be t wee n an acqu i red h abi t o f

the will an d an origi n al n a tu ral i m p u lse Th e feeli n g .

o f i n n er co m p u l sio n to obey the acq u ired h abi t i n stead

of the n at u ral i m p u lse i s the feeli n g o f d u ty i n its most

pri m itive form ; th e feeli n g o f disco m for t an d sha m e which

arises a fter the origi n al n atural i m p u lse h as bee n satised i n
S pite o f t his O ppositio n i s t he m ost pri m itive for m of r e
,

m orse . We m ight t herefore de n e the l atter as the reactio n

, ,

o f a persis t e n t social o r articial i n s t i n c t agai n s t t h e g r at i

catio n o f an origi n al i m p u lse which thou gh n ot per m a n e n t

, , ,

i s for the ti m e very powerfu l Th e co n ditio n of its appear .

an ce i s a m e m ory s u fci e n t ly developed t o retai n vivid

i m pressio n s of pas t acts N ow these feeli n gs n ecessarily
.
,

beco m e especially i n te n se i n m an His m em ory retai n s the .

pas t lo n ger an d m ore faith fu lly while his will is per m an e n tly ,

a n d power fully de t er m i n ed by custo m s which to a large , ,

exte n t e m a n cipate his co n d u c t fro m te m porary i m pulses

,
.

Th e obj ectio n is u rge d : This ca n n ot e xplai n the a u t hor i ta

ti v e charac t er which belo n gs to th e h u m a n feel i n g o f d u ty 1
.

Th e peculiar co m p u l sio n charac t eristic o f O bligatio n does

n o t spri n g fro m the i m pulsive n a t ure o f the i n dividual ; r e

actio n s of co n scie n ce are to t ally di ffere n t fro m the feeli n gs

aro u sed by the n on sa t is actio O f i p lses
f n m - u
2
Duty opposes .

the i n divid u al will with an a u thority which ca n n ot be

derived fro m the n at u ral i m p u lses .

1
[S e e , for e x a m pl e ,S ch u r m an , E thi ca l I mp ort of Da rw in is m, c h ap V T R. ]

. .

[M art i n e a u , p 4 1 9 ff TR ]
2 v o l II
. . . . .
 344 C ON C E P TS A ND P R IN C IPL E S

n ot, like i n sti n cts i n herited orga ni cally as n at u ral charac

,

t e r i sti cs b u t tra n s m itte d by c on sci ou s a ct i vi ty thro u gh e d u ca

, ,

ti on . Moreover c u sto m s are u pheld by the con sci ou s actio n o f

,

the co m m u n ity an a n i m al that does n ot obey i ts i n sti n cts is

left t o su ffer the n at u ral co n sequ e n ces o f its behavior ; a
m an who ac t s co n trary to c u sto m cau ses a reactio n i n his
surrou n di n gs which m ay assu m e m a n y for m s all the way fro m
, ,

a scarcely perceptible for m o f disapproval to exterm i n atio n l

.

Let us t ake an ex a m ple A m o n g m a n y higher a n i m als the.

s exual f u n ctio n is gover n ed by a peculiar i n sti n ct Their .

i n t ercourse is n ot pro m isc u o u s b u t o n e m al e l ives with ,

o n e o r m ore fe m ales a t leas t d u ri n g the bree di n g seaso n

, ,

jealo u sly e xcl u di n g othe r males This habit i s n oticed i n .

a n thropoid apes a m on g o t hers ; they are eithe r m o n oga m o u s o r

,

polyga m o u s each fa m ily livi n g separately or several fa m ilies

, ,

livi n g associated i n a body ; b u t u n der all circ u m sta n ces the

male j ealo u sly excl des all rivals
u
2
He n ce i n sti n ct reg u lates.
,

the fu n ctio n o f reprod u c t io n so as t o hi n der pro m isc u o u s

i n terco u rse as m uch as possible ; an arra n ge m e n t whic h
d o u btless te n ds to prese rve life In m an we fi n d the sa m e
thi n g i n the cu stom of m on og am ou s a n d p olyg a mou s m a r r i ag e .

Th e custo m is i m pressed u po n th e s u cceedi n g ge n eratio n by

ed u cati o n partic u larly upo n the fe m al e ; it is establish ed i n
,

t he i n divid u al by the virtues of m odesty a n d chastity .

Whatever o ffe n d s agai n st these i s kept ou t o f re ach an d ,

every Ope n breach of propriety i s frow n ed upo n as abo m i n able

an d detestable Th e social e n viro n m e n t co n ti n u es the process
.

o f ed u ca t io n deviati o n s fro m t he rules of chastity are severely

ce n s u red especially i n wo m e n an d by wo m e n ; the d isapproval
,

of the surro u n di n gs is show n by the cha n ge i n their attit u de

t owards the o ffe n ders In case t h e c u s t o m itsel f is viol a t ed

.
,

1 Wu n dt al s o co m p ar e s i n st i n ct wi t h
'

E thzk , p p 8 8 ff [E n g t r an s
cu st o m , . . . .

pp 1 2 7
. S e e al s o i n t h e sam e p l ace i n t e r es t i n g di s cu s s i o n s on t h e r e lat i on b e
t wee n cu st o m a n d l a w , u s a g e , h ab i t , fas h i on , an d w o rsh i p .

2 D ar w i n Desce nt of Al a n ,
, ch . XX .
 DU TY A ND C ON S C IE N C E 345

a s t ro n ger reac t io n e n s u es the u n m arried wo m a n i s excl u ded

fro m m arriage an d a m an who m arries h er an d thereby abro
,

gates t he pu n ish m e n t is hi m self p u n ished with co n t e m pt In .

case however th e o ff e n der i s a m arrie d wo m a n c u sto m

, , ,

de m an ds t he pu n ish m e n t o f each of the g u ilty parties th e ,

p u n ish m e n t bei n g especially severe a m o n g polygam o u s

n atio n s.

We m ay perhaps n d a si m ilar basis fo r o t her c u sto m s i n

, ,

n a t ural i n s t i n cts Th u s for exa m ple the c u sto m u po n whic h

.
, ,

the oldest legal code s were u n i versally based th e c u sto m pro ,

h i b i ti n g t he killi n g assa u l t o r robbery o f a m e m be r o f the

, ,

sa m e t ribe m ay have spr u n g fro m the i n sti n ct which hi n ders

,

t he i n di vi du al s of a herd fro m attacki n g each other Th e .

relatio n o f authority an d obedie n ce which reaches its highes t ,

perfectio n i n the s t ate is also prese n t i n germ i n the a n i m al

, , ,

herd .

We can n ow u n ders t a n d why du ty does n ot appear t o be

roo t ed i n the will of the i n divid u al b u t see m s to be so m e ,

thi n g exter n al t o h im so m ethi n g opposi n g hi m with absol u te

,

authority Cu stom f or m s the or igi n a l con ten t of d u ty In th e

. .

higher stages o f develop m e n t the relatio n betwee n d u ty an d

c u sto m cha n ges ; d u ty gradually ass u m es a m ore perso n al
an d i n dividual character ; a poi n t t o which I shall ret u r n
la t er o n Bu t origi n ally d u ty e n j oi n ed a li fe i n accorda n ce
.
, ,

with c u s t o m Pop u lar u sage follows the old co n ceptio n whe n it

.

calls du t if u l beh avior si ttli ch (c u sto m ary ; m oral ) u n d u ti fu l ,

co n d u c t u n si ttli ch H e n ce we m ay say : Du ty is i n vested

,
.

with th e a u thor i ty of cu stom In it the will o f pare n ts a n d .

ed u cators the will of a n cestors t he will of th e people spe ak

, , ,

t o the i n divid u al will To t hese highes t h u m a n a u thorities

.
,

a still higher an d n al au th ority t he a u thor i ty of t he g od s i s , ,

u n iversally added Th e gods who are m ade i n th e i m age of

.
,

m an ad m i t i n to t h ei r n at u r e th e will of the people tha t

,

crea t es the m A s religio n develops they u n i for m ly beco m e

.
,

th e guardia n s o f custo m an d l aw This triple a u thority of .

346 C ON C E P TS A ND P RIN C IP LE S

pare n ts people an d gods reveals itsel f i n th e se n se o f d u t y

, , ,

it is a feeli n g of obligatio n to a highe r will which se t s a ,

li m it to th e i n cli n atio n s To be s u re this higher will is n o t

.
,

s u pra powerf u l like on e gover n i n g by forc e o r fea r ; it is

-
,

ack n owledged i n t er n ally by th e i n divid u al w ill as on e h avi n g

absol u te right to co m m a n d as o n e which m u st u n der all cir, ,

c u m s t a n c e s be obeyed
,
eve n where it has n ot the power to
,

co m pel 1
.

2 . R e la ti on be tw e e n Du ty a n d I n cli n a ti on We retu r n to the .

q u estio n raised at the o u tset What is th e relatio n betwee n .

the good i n th e se n se of the d u ti fu l an d the good as ,

so m ethi n g which agrees with o u r i n cli n atio n s an d pro m o t es

wel fare
In the ligh t o f o u r previous disc u ssio n s we m ay n o w say ,

Th e t wo co n cep t io n s o f the good are har m o n ized i n the i n ter

m ediate n otio n of custo m ( S i tte ) C u sto m s are like i n .
,

s t i n ct s to which they were fo u n d t o be a n alogo u s u r osi ve

, p p ,

m o d e s of be ha vi or for solvi n g th e vario u s proble m s of li fe .

They co n d u ce to the preservatio n o f the social whole which

creates the m a n d to t he n orm al develop m e n t of the i n divid
,

n al s o f who m t he whole co n sists In so far as d u ty .

req u ires th e i n divid u al to regulate his acts accordi n g t o cu s

t o m d u ti fu l co n d u ct will t e n d to pro m ote the wel fare o f the
,

i n divid u al an d his s u rro u n di n gs A n d i n as m u ch as the will .

o f every i n divid u al pri m arily ai m s at this e n d the will u lti ,

m ately ai m s at what d u ty de m an ds I n cli n atio n an d custo m.

,

the i n divid u al will an d the social will ten d on the whole to , , ,

deter m i n e co n d u ct i n the sa m e way Th u s to co m e back t o .

,

o u r exa m ple c u sto m de m a n ds tha t sex u al li fe co n for m t o

,

m o n oga m o u s o r polyga m o u s m arriage In r e al i t the will of .

the i n divid u al n at u rally ai m s at th e sa m e thi n g ; o n ly i n ex

c e p t i on al cases d o o u r i n cli n ati o n s deviate fro m the n or m al .

C u sto m prohibits the i n divid u al fro m killi n g robbi n g or , ,

m o r e d e t aile d of t h e vi e w ad v an ce d i n t h i s
paragrap h ,
1
[F o r a ac cou n t se e

S pe n c e r and Ba i n . TR .
]
348 C ON C E PTS A ND PRIN C IPLE S
exceptio n to be made i n his favor A custo m obeyed by n o .

o n e an d s u pported by n o o n e would n o lo n ger be a c u s t o m .

Th e l a w of c u sto m i s therefore also a n at u ral law i n the se n se

that the for m u l a is an expressio n of act u al u n iversal occ u r ,

re n ees an d n ot merely of p u re obligatio n

,
.

Bu t how does it h appe n tha t d u ty an d i n cli n a t io n oppose

each other i n co n scio u s n ess i f n ot u n i for m ly at l east fr e
, ,

q u e n tly I believe t his may be explai n ed as follows Th e

i n divid u al beco m es clearly con scio u s of c u sto m o n ly whe n his
i n cli n a t ion s a re direc t ed t ow a rds so m ethi n g co n trary to cu s
t om . S o lo n g a s t hey co n for m to custo m co n scie n ce has ,

n othi n g to say t o h i m ; sile n ce gives co n se n t C o n j u gal aff e c .

tio n is n o t fel t as a d u ty b u t whe n the i m p u lse takes a di ffer

,

e n t directio n c u sto m arises i n co n scio u s n ess an d declares tha t

,

t he sat isfac t io n of such i m p u lses is co n trary t o d u t v Th e .

i n cli n a t io n to marry i s n ot felt as a d u ty ; o n ly i n case the

i m pulses n o lo n ger te n d i n the direc t io n o f m a t ri m o n y as ,

happe n ed d u ri n g the decli n e of the a n ci e n t n atio n s is m ar ,

r i a e regarded as a d u ty by the co m m u n ity a n d fel t to be

g
,

s u ch by th e i n di vi du al We d o n o t speak of the d u ty o f liv

.

i n g beca u se the will n at u rally ai m s at li fe

,
But whe n ever a .

m an feels an i n cli n atio n to aba n do n li fe h e beco m es co n scio u s ,

o f the fact that s u icide is i m m oral a n d that it is a d u ty to ,

live We d o n ot l ook upo n the satisfactio n o f h u n ger as a

.

d u ty bu t if it is a duty to live it s u rely m u s t be a d u ty to

, ,

satisfy h u n ger S o lo n g as we satis fy o u r hu n ge r accordi n g

.

to custo m an d usage the voice o f d u ty is sile n t b u t whe n we

, ,

feel i n cli n ed to violate cus t o m it appears i n co n scio u s n ess

, ,

say fo r exa m ple as a prohibitio n agai n s t excess o r a parti

,

on lar ki n d o f food S o t oo we feel it t o be ou r d u ty to

.
, ,

acqu ire an d preserve property on ly whe n the n a t u ral i m p u lse

t o acq u ire an d possess is abse n t as a r u le we regard i t as a ,

d u ty m erely to li m it the i m p u lse he n ce the co m m a n d : Thou

shal t n ot steal cheat be avaricio u s greedy o r extravaga n t
, , , ,
.

We do n o t feel that it is o u r d u ty to speak i n cli n atio n i m pels

 DU TY A N D C ON SC IE N C E 349

as to do it ; i t i s a d u ty to li m it the desi re ; he n ce the c o m

m a n d : Tho u shalt n o t be garr u lo u s a n d i n discreet th o u shalt ,

n o t l ie .It m ay there fore be said that d u ty u n i for m ly arises

as a l i mi ta ti on of i mp u lse s whose existe n ce i t pres u pposes ;
,

witho u t i m p u lses there wo u ld b e n o d u ty It is i n i ts .

origi n esse n tially n eg a ti ve : Th ou s h a lt n o t i s the form u l a

with which c u sto m l aw d u ty origi n ally oppose the i n di
, , ,

vi d u al whe n his i m p u lses go too far Th e positive for m u la

.

does n ot read : Tho u shal t b u t : I will O n ly wh e n the n at u ral

, .

i m p u lse o r will i s l acki n g does th e form u l a o f d u ty m ake

its appeara n ce an d chan ge the I will i n to the Thou
, ,

shalt .

He n ce a co n tradictio n betwee n d u t y an d i n cli n atio n is t o

be explai n ed as an e xcep t io n Th e co m m a n d s o f d u ty o r th e
.

m oral laws are for m u l ae expressi n g the n atu re an d d i r e c

tio n o f th e r e a l will o f a c o m m u n i ty w h i ch as a r u le m a n i
, , ,

fests itself i n all the m e m bers o f t he sa m e It is n o m ore .

stran ge that there sh o u ld b e excep t io n s i n these rules tha n i n

ph y siology they are e m pirical laws of e xceedi n gly c om
plica t ed phe n o m e n a Th ere are bli n d m e n a n d dea f m e n an d
.
,

yet it i s th e r u le tha t m e n h ave sight heari n g an d speech , , .

S i m ilarly th e existe n ce o f ad u ltery theft an d falseh ood d oes

, , ,

n ot d o away with th e r u le that m e n live i n per m a n e n t fa m ilies

,

possess propert y an d gi v e expressio n to thei r i n n er states i n

,

speech Whe n we look at a people as a wh ole th e m atter b e

.
,

co m es per fectly plai n obliga t io n an d will co i n c i de th e people ,

wills its c u sto m s an d laws fo r these are n ot i m posed fro m

,

witho u t ; they are the expressio n s of the n ati o n s partic u lar

will Will an d obligatio n d o n o t e n ti rely coi n cid e i n the i n

.

divid u al th ere are case s i n which h e wills what he o u ght n o t

t o do a n d co n versely the n he looks upo n the l aw as so m e
,

thi n g o u tside o f h im as so m ethi n g li m iti n g his will G e n erally

, .

speaki n g h o we v e r h e too wills what c u sto m wills an d i s always

, , ,

ready to assist i n hi n deri n g deviatio n s o n th e part o f othe rs i f ,

n ot i n deed at least i n word a n d th o u gh t .

3 50 C ON C E P TS A ND P RIN C IPLE S
3 . C r i ti q u e of A ccordi n g t o Kan t the
the Kan ti an Vi ew .
l

co n ict bet w ee n i n cli n atio n an d th e feeli n g o f d u ty is esse n

tial to m oral ity A n act i n his opi n io n has m oral worth
.
, , ,

o n ly whe n t he feeli n g o f d u ty deter m i n es the will i n the abse n ce ,

o f al l i n cli n atio n s o r i n spite o f th e m He n ce he does n ot r e .

gard i t as m eritorio u s to do good fr o m i n cl i n at i on Th e V icar .

of Wakeeld co n fessed th at n othi n g gave h i m greater pl eas u re

tha n to m ake people happy ; a n d that h e was n ot u n s u ccess fu l i n

his e fforts his frie n ds are well aware Bu t accordi n g to Ka n t .
, ,

the m oralist wo u l d h ave t o say that an actio n o f this ki n d

,

however prope r h owever a m iabl e i t m ay be has n evertheless

, ,

n o tr u e m oral worth b u t is o n a level with other i n cli n atio n s

, .

Fo r the m axi m lacks the m oral i m port ; n a m el y that ,

s u ch acti o n s be do n e f r om d u ty n ot fro m i n cli n atio n P u t , .

the c ase that the m i n d of th at phila n th ropist were cl o u ded by

sorrow o f his o wn exti n g u ishi n g all sy m pathy with the l ot o f
,

others an d that while he still has the power to be n et others

,

i n distress he is n o t t o u ched by t heir t ro u ble beca u se he i s

,

absorbed with his o w n ; an d n o w s u ppose that he tears h i m

self ou t of this dead i n se n sibility an d perfor m s the actio n ,

witho u t an y i n cl i n atio n to it b u t si m ply fro m d u ty the n rst , ,

2
has his actio n its ge n u i n e m oral worth Th e sa m e is tr u e .

o f the preservatio n o f o n e s o w n li fe an d th e pro m otio n of

o n e s o w n h appi n ess : Th e an xio u s care w hich m os t m e n

take for it h as n o i n tri n sic w orth On the oth er h a n d if .

,

adversity an d h opeless s orrow h ave co m pletely take n away

the relish for li fe ; i f th e u n fortu n ate o n e stron g i n m i n d , ,

i n dig n an t a t his fate rather tha n despo n di n g or dejected ,

wishes for death a n d yet preserves hi s li fe witho u t lovi n g

,

i t n o t fro m i n cli n atio n o r fear b u t fro m d u ty the n his ,

3
m axi m has a m oral worth .

[Ja ne t Theory of M or a ls M ack e n zi e Ilf a nu al

1 Bo o k I II , c h ap
, ch ap V ; , ,
.

TR ]
.
, . .

IV .
,
8 ff . M u i r h ead E le me n ts
, , 5 6 ; B ra d l e y , E thi ca l S t u di e s, E s say IV .

2 G r u n d le q u nq Jl e ta p h ys zk d e r S i l zen H a r te n s te i n e di t i o n, IV

zur ,
s .
, p 246
. .

K a nt Theory

[A b b o t t E thi cs , p 1 4

s t r a n sl a t i o n , s f
o .

3
I bid e m .
3 52 C ON C E P TS A ND P RIN C IPLE S
n ever bee n a co n ict betwee n i n cli n atio n an d d u ty where th e ,

will has n ever had an O pport u n ity of d ecidi n g agai n st i n eli

n ati o n a n d fo r d u ty the character has n o t bee n tested
, We .

have n o ass u ra n ce o f m oral tr u st w orthi n ess u n til the will has

shown itsel f proo f agai n st te m ptatio n .

On the other ha n d we shall n ot co n cede th at a will which

,

always n at u rally i n cli n es to the right is o n that acco u n t less ,

worthy than on e which has had to battle for its rectitu de

a gai n st a n u n willi n g o r d a n gerous te m pera m e n t Ka n t lea n s .

to this view If n at u re
. we read i n the sa m e place has
, ,

p u t little sy m pathy i n the heart o f t his or that m a n : if

b e s u pposed to be an u pright m an i s by te m pera m e n t cold an d
, ,

i n di ffere n t to th e s u fferi n gs o f othe rs perhaps beca u se i n ,

respec t of his o w n h e is provided with the special gi ft of p a

t i e n ce an d fortit u de an d s u pposes o r eve n req u i res that
, , ,

others sho u ld ha e th e sa m e an d s u ch a m an wo u ld cer

v

t ai n ly n ot be the m ea n est product of n a t u re b u t if n at u re

had n ot specially fra m ed hi m fo r a phila n thropist wo u ld he n ot ,

still n d i n hi m self a source fro m whe n ce to give hi m self a f a r

h ig her w or th tha n t hat o f a good n at u red te m pera m e n t co u ld be
-

U n q u estio n ably It is j u st i n this that the m or a l w or t h of the

.

c ha r a cte r i s br o u g ht ou t w hi ch i s i n comp a r a bly th e hig he s t o f a ll ,

n a m ely that h e is b e n ee e n t n ot fro m i n cli n atio n b u t from

, ,

1
d u ty . S u ch a m an wo u l d certai n ly be a n esti m able m an ,

m u ch m ore so tha n an e ffe m i n a t e will less perso n wh o yielde d,

-
,

to the pro m pti n gs o f a co m passio n ate h eart ; it d oes n ot see m

i m probable to m e that Ka n t was thi n ki n g of hi m sel f whe n h e
drew this pict u re n evertheless s u ch a character woul d n ot be
the highes t an d m ost per fect type of h u m a n n atu re i m agi n able .

A n a n gel fro m heave n wo u ld accordi n g to the Ka n tia n fo r

,

m u la n ecessarily lack the m oral wort h

, which is i n co m

p a r a bly the highest o f all i n so fa r as hi s te m pera m e n t
,

wo u ld n o t be i n n eed o f an d capable o f bei n g i m proved by

th e will A n d yet who wo u ld reproach h i m for this de fect ?
.

1
[A b b t t t
'

l ti pp 1 4
o s r an s a on, .
 DU T Y A N D C ON S C IE N C E 3 53

the poe m Da s G lit ch S chille r co n trasts t w o perso n s the

In
o n e has thro u gh his o wn exertio n s m ade an h o n est m a n o f
, ,

hi m sel f while the other has bee n e n d owed by the gods with
,

a bea u ti fu l an d n oble n at u re He calls the latter happy an d .

,

assign s to h i m the higher ra n k i n the m oral order :

V or U n w ur d i ge m k an n d i ch d e r VVi lle , d e r r
e n ste , b e w ah r en,

A ll es H o ch s t e ,

es k o mm t f r e i vo n d e n G o t te rn he r ab 1 .

He expresses th e sa m e idea i n a si m ilar poe m De r G en i u s

M u ss r
i c h d e m T i e b mi sst r au n , d e r le i se m i e h w a r nt, d e m G e se t z e ,
Das d u se lb e r N t r
, a u m i r i n d e n Bu se n ge p r agt ,
,

Bi s au f di e e wi
ge r
S ch if t d i e S ch u l i h r S i e ge l ge d r ii ck e t ,

Und de r F o r m e l G e fass b i n d e t d e n u ch t i ge n G e i st ?2

He a n swers the qu estio n

H t d Gl kli h
as u, uc c e r, n i e de n sch u t z e n d e n E n ge l verl r o en,

N i d fr mm I
e es o en n st i n c t s li e b e n d e W arn u n g v e r wi rk t
O d g h d bi
an n e e a n i n d e i ne r k o tli s ch e n U n se h u ld l
Di ch k an n di e W i sse n sch aft n i ch t s le h r e n , si e le r n e v on dir !
J e n e s G e se tz , d as m i t ehe r nem S t ab d e n S t r au b e n d e n le n k e t ,
Di r n i ch t
gilt

s . W as d u th u st, w as d i r ge fallt, i st G e se t z .
3

Ka n t an d Fich t e s t ill m ore exaggera t e t h e r ol e

In deed , , ,

which th e co n scio u s n ess of d u ty i s desti n ed to play i n li fe .

N o t o n ly is i t n ot true that we are i m pelled at eve ry s t ep w e

take by the co n scio u s n ess of d u ty b u t we can n ot eve n regard ,

t his as a fa u lt It is n ei th er co n ceivable n o r desirable that the

.

n at u ral i m p u lses should be replaced by the respect fo r the

m oral l a w as the sole m otive of th e will Th e m oral phil .

1
[Th e w i ll ,
t h e se r i o u s w ill , can g u ar d t h e e ag ai n st u n w orth y t hi n g s ; but eve ry
t h i n g g re at i s fre e ly b e s t o w e d b y t h e g o d s ]
[M u s t
2 I d i s t ru s t t h e i m p u lse w h i ch y w ar n s m e t h e l a w w h i ch t h o u
s il e n t l ,

t h ys e l f, N a tu re h as t w r i tt e n u p o n m y h e a r t , u n t il t h e sch o o l h as se t i t s se al
,

u
po n t h e e t e r n al i m p re s s , a n d t h e r i g i d for m u l a b i n d s t h e so a r i n g s p i r i t 7 ]
3
[If t h o u h as t n e ve r ,
t h o u b l e ss e d o n e, l o s t t h y g u a r d i a n a ng e l a n d h as t n e v e , r
su
p p r e s se d t h e lo v i n g w a rn i n g o f t h e p i o u s i n s t i n ct ; 0 t h e n g o o n i n t h y p r e c i o u s
i nn o c e n ce ! S ci e n ce ca n t each t h e e n ot h i n g , n ay , l e t h e r le a r n fr o m t h ee

Th at l a w , w h i ch w i t h an i r on r od ru l e s t h e r es i s t i n g o n e s, is n ot m e a n t fo r
th e e . W h at t h e n d o s t , w h at p le ase s t h e e , i s la w .
]
3 54 C O N C E P TS A ND P RIN C IP LE S
o s o ph e rs , to b e s u re are all i n cli n ed to regard tha t as th e
,

m ost perfect state i n which the actio n o f the will is solely de

t e r m i n e d by the idea o f d u ty S pi n oza s s age is gover n ed

.

wholly by the dictates o f reaso n (e x d i cta m i n e r a t i on i s d u ci tu r ) ,

the i m p u lses n o lo n ger i n u e n ce his co n d u ct ; a n d the wise

m an o f Be n tha m or Mill does n o t esse n tially di ffer fro m h i m .

In deed they are both m odelled a fter th e S toic an d Epic u rea n

,

sage In th e real world t h e rea so n or th e idea of d u ty does

.
,

n o t play so i m porta n t a par t It is a n ecessary reg u l ator o f

.

the n at u ral i m p u lses b u t i t can n ot replace the m ; th e i m

,

p u lses are th e w eights so to speak which keep the clockwor k

, ,

o f li fe i n m oti o n ; th e reaso n ca n n o t take thei r place it h as

,

n o m otive force o f its o w n .

Ka n t is h ere still e n ta n gled i n the n otio n s of t he old ratio n

al i s m wh ose power it m u st h e co n fessed he did s o m u c h to
, , ,

break In the foll owi n g period n ature agai n received he r d u e

.
, ,

th e fu n da m e n tal co n ceptio n bei n g th at the highes t a n d bes t is

n o t i n ve n t ed by t he reaso n a n d m ade accordi n g to co n scio u s

r u le b u t is the res u l t o f an u n co n scio u s growth Thi s h olds

,
.

tr u e of the good n o less t ha n of the beau ti fu l ; th e bea u t i fu l

i s n ot th o u ght ou t an d prod u ced by ratio n al reecti o n ao ,

c ordi n g to the r u les o f aesthetics a n y m ore tha n the good an d ,

per fect is pla n n ed an d m a nu fact u red accordi n g to the r ules o f

ethics Th e tr u e work o f art i s u n co n scio u sly co n ceived
.

a n d prod u ced by the ge n i u s ; a e sthetics does n o t play an i m

porta n t part i n th e process S o too th e m oral ge n i u s th e

.
, , ,

beau ti fu l sou l safely g u ided by i n sti n ct lives a good an d
, ,

beau ti fu l li fe w itho u t co n sta n tly reecti n g u po n the m oral

,

law Th e r u les of aesth etics an d ethics possess n o i n here n t

.

m otive power . It is their provi n ce to g u ard agai n st tra n s

e s s i o n s ; t h ey are n o t prod u ctive b u t restrictive A nd it
g r ,
.

is by n o m ea n s n ecessary that the r u le be prese n t i n co n

sc i o u s n e s s d u ri n g th e p rod u ctio n o f the work o f art o r m oral

a c t or e v e n occ u py the ce n tre o f atte n tio n ; this wo u l d i m pede

,

a n d d ist u rb th e process of o rga n ic growth It i s a well .

3 56 C ON C E P TS A ND P RIN C IP LE S
tha t the laws of d u ty are ax i om a ti c for m u l ae w h ich are recog
,

n i ze d with i m m ediate a n d i n tu i ti ve certa i n ty like th e m athe,

m at i cal axio m s Th e propositio n s : J u st a n d ho n est actio n is

.

good Lyi n g an d cheati n g is bad are accep t ed as absol u tely

, ,

tr u e as soo n as they are u n ders t ood It is n either n ecessary

.

n o r possible t o prove t hei r validity .

We shall ha ve to co n cede that t he m oral laws are i m

m ediately an d u n iversally recog n ized as valid propositio n s .

They are n othi n g b u t the positive o r n egative expressio n s o f

c u sto m an d every m e m ber o f the c o m m u n ity is co n sciou s O f
,

custo m if he has an y par t i n th e li fe O f th e co mm u n i ty He

, .

k n ows Of c u sto m (S i tte ) thro u gh th e co u n tless partic u la r j u dg

me n t s by which others an d he hi m self h ave approved an d dis
approved of acts ; the certai n ty wit h which he i m m ediately
d ecides i n i n divid u al cases depe n d s u po n practice He also .

k n ows o f c u sto m th ro u gh u n iversal for m u l ae co m m an d m e n ts

an d prohibitio n s h ave bee n i m pressed upo n h i m fro m child

hood u p ; an d S chope n hau er says n ot witho u t re aso n th at

, ,

tr u ths which we d o n ot re m e m ber havi n g lear n ed are regarded

as i n n ate Moreover la n g u age has i n corporated m oral j u dg
.
,

m e n ts i n t o th e m ea n i n g Of the w ord s which desig n ate m odes

o f co n d u ct : t he ter m s falseh ood a n d avarice express d i s ap

proval j u st as fra n k n ess a n d fr u gality express approval

, .

He n ce the propositio n : Falsehood i s bad is a n a n aly t ic
,

j u dgm e n t which i s for m ed a p r i or i Fi n ally i t is n o less cer

.
,

tai n that the m oral laws arise i n co n scio u s n ess as categorical

i m peratives : they do n ot co u n sel us to pro m ote i n divid u al
o r u n iversal happi n ess b u t appe ar as absol u te c o m m a n ds an d
,

prohibitio n s S o far there fore i n t uitio n al ethics asserts facts

.
, ,

which ca n n o t be do u bted Bu t it is i n error whe n i t goes o n

.

to clai m tha t these i m peratives are obj e ct i ve ly gro u n dless an d ,

that the sole b u si n ess of e thics co n sists i n syste m atizi n g the

partic u lar c o m m an d m e n ts an d prohibitio n s a n d perhaps i n .

s u bs u m i n g the m u n der a u n iversal pri n ciple say fo r exa m ple

, ,

thei r t n ess to beco m e u n iversal l aw There is u n q u estio n

.
 DUTY A N D C ON SC IE N C E 3 57

ably an objective g r o u n d fo r the existe n ce an d validity o f the

m oral l aws which appear i n co n scio u s n ess i n the for m o f a h
,

sol u te c o m m a n ds a n d prohibitio n s ; thei r observa n ce is the

co n di t io n o f the welfare o f th e i n di vid u al a n d the species .

A n d it is the b u si n ess of m oral philosophy t o discove r this

gro u n d j u st as i t is the b u si n ess of a philosophy o f law to ex
,

plai n the r ai son d etr e o f l aw tha t i s to prove i t s t eleological

, ,

n ecessity by i n dica t i n g the proble m s o f h u m a n collective li fe

which it solves In ve n tories an d co di cati on s will n eve r

.

m ake a scie n ce le as t o f all a philos ophical scie n ce

, .

A n other error to which i n tuitio n al ethics i n cli n es is th e

error t ha t co n scie n ce i n variably reveal s t o everybody with ,

s u bj e ct i ve ce r t a i n ty a n d o bj ecti ve i nf a lli bi li ty what d u ty de ,

m a n ds .Th u s Ka n t co n te n ds th a t the co m m o n est i n telli

ge n ce c an easily an d witho u t hesitatio n see what the m oral

law requ ires to be do n e ; o r what d u ty is i s plai n of itsel f to
,

,

every o n e ; b u t what is to bri n g true d u rable adva n tage s u c h ,

as will exte n d to t he w hole of o n e s existe n ce is always veiled

,
1
i n i m pe n etrable O bsc u ri ty .

Th e latter state m e n t is cer t ai n ly t rue ; b u t i t is as cer

t ai n ly n o t tr u e t ha t n o o n e is ever i n d o u bt as t o what d u ty
de m a n ds In m an y cases o f c o u rse ou r d u ty see m s perfectly
.
, ,

clea r i m m ed iately b u t by n o mea n s i n all

, .

A n O fcial O f an i n sura n ce co m pa n y i n violatio n o f th e ,

rules O f his corporatio n sh ows partiality t o an i n s u rer an d

, ,

receives co m pe n sat io n for his act Tha t i s theft says con .

,

scie n ce He d oes th e sa m e thi n g t o please a colle ag u e o r

.
, ,

beca u se o f his frie n dship for a n eighbor b u t witho u t gai n ,

to hi m self Tha t is co n t rary to d u ty says his co n scie n ce

.
, ,

o u are e m ployed to use yo u r bes t e n deavors to pro m o t e the

y
i n terests Of th e co m pa n y an d t o protect it agai n st loss Bu t .

let u s a gai n ch a n ge th e co n ditio n s let u s say that the i n s u red

,

has fu llled all his O bligatio n s t o the co m pa n y b u t has ,

1 S e e C r i ti q u e o
f P ra ct i ca l Re a s on , Bo o k I .
,
Ch . I 8 , R e m a rk I I ,. A bb
o tt s

t r a n s l at i o n , p 12 0
3 58 C ON C E P TS A ND P RIN C IPLE S
overlooked a t rii n g p u rely t ech n ical detail a n d that this
, ,

o v ersight l egally releases the c o m pa n y fro m its O bligatio n s .

Let u s i m agi n e that u po n the d ay of pay m e n t the o f cial acci

, ,

de n tally discovers the m istake He k n ows that the co m pa n y .

c an re fu se pay m e n t Bu t he also k n ows that u n less th e

.
,

pay m e n t is m ade the i n s u red or his heirs will s u ff er extre m e

,

h ardships Th e co m pan y however is payi n g a divide n d of

.
, ,

eighty per ce n t What S hall he do ? Has he the right to

.

overl ook t he m is take ? Or S hall h e appeal t o the co m pa n y s

se n se of j u stice ? A S th o u gh he did n ot k n ow tha t corpora

tio n s have n o so u ls ! His co n scie n ce does n ot t ell h i m what
to do . C an a Ka n tia n wit h hi s m agic for m ula : A c t as i f the
m axi m o f thy actio n were t o beco m e by thy will a u n i versal
l a w o f n at u re reach an u n a m big u o u s co n cl u sio n ?
,

It is u n do u btedly co n trary t o d u ty t o gai n possessio n of m y

n eighbor s property by b u rgl ary o r the ft Bu t there are other

.

m ea n s : h e is i n t roubl e an d I c an le n d h i m m o n ey a n d I
, ,

c a n by skil fu l O peratio n s ge t hold o f his property i n a law fu l

w ay That is u s u ry savs co n scie n ce Bu t to a n other m a n s

.

,
.

co n scie n ce it m ay see m perfectly prope r : what is n o t pro

h i bi te d is allowable ; b u si n ess i s b u si n ess a n d everybody will ,

have to look o u t for hi m sel f Bu t let u s m odi fy the case . .

IS it right for m e to le n d a m an m o n ey a t i n teres t whe n I ,

k n o w that it i s to m y adva n tage b u t n o t to his to do so ? , ,

Mu s t I a t least rst co n vi n ce m ysel f tha t I a m n ot b e n e t

i n g m vs e l f a t his expe n se ? A n d how abo u t co m m ercial
t ra n sactio n s ? A ba n ker is in possessio n o f a piece of n ews
that is n ot y e t k n ow n to others ; say fo r exa m ple he has , ,

heard of a revol u tio n i n S pai n He sells his Span ish bo n ds .

,

an d the b u yers i n stead of h i m lose a m illi o n as the n ext

, , ,

m or n i n g sh ows IS that right ? A begi n n er o n the stock

.

excha n ge m ay feel so m ewhat ill at ease a fter s u ch a ve n t u re .

His co n scie n ce re m i n ds h i m : Do n o t do u n to others as y o u

wo u ld n ot h ave the m d o u n to yo u ; he wo u ld pres u m ably n o t
li k e to look his c u sto m ers i n the face the n ext d ay Bu t .
3 60 C ON C E P TS A ND P RIN C IPLE S
as an esse n t ial doc t ri n e O f the par ty o r as a speci al ai m of
,

the gover n m e n t He i s asked to S ig n the paper What

. .

o u gh t he to do ? S ig n it But the n he wo u ld be s u b s cri b

i n g to a li e Leave the par ty ? By doi n g this he wo u ld n ot
.
,

o n ly e n d his public career b u t perhaps also serio u sly da m age

,

the cause which he is s u pporti n g W hat S hall he d o Will an

.

appeal t o the Ka n tian for m ul a of duty tell h i m ? I do n o t b e

lieve i t He will ask hi m sel f whether i t is a m atter o f great
.

i m porta n ce If n ot the n it will be possi ble for h i m to com

.
,

pro m ise ; for h o w could there be co operatio n without co m pro

-

m ise If h o w ever the m at t er i s of vital i m porta n ce h e wil l

, , ,

say to hi m self : It i s better for m e to separ ate fro m m y col

leagues tha n to be an i n si n cere an d h al f hearted follower -
.

But what are th e esse n tials Whe n the Ger m an bishops

wh o O pposed t he dogm a of i n fallibility accepted the dogm a ,

aft e r t he decisio n h ad bee n re n dered they were bitterly r e ,

p r oach e d O u ght th ey to h ave co n ti n u ed i n th ei r oppositio n

.
,

an d le ft t he church ? Bu t could they n o t j u s t ly h ave sai d the

church is m ore tha n a piece of ch u rch co n stit u t io n ? Still ,

does an y on e a m o n g the m recall th ose days with an y degree of

satisfactio n ? A n d h as an y on e o f those wh o t ook the O pposite
co u rse reproach ed hi m self for i t
But it m ay be retorted this m akes all m oral ques tio n s
, ,

u n certai n an d s u bjects the m to u n bridled cas u istry

, I do .

n o t believe t ha t it m a ke s t h e m u n certai n they a r e u n certai n , ,

an d will always re m ai n so Th e m atter i s really n ot so

.

si m ple as those i m agi n e who hold that an i n n ate power called ,

prac t ical reaso n or co n scie n ce i n fallibly regulates a m a n s

, ,

co n d u c t by s u bs u m i n g each case u n der a ge n eral ru l e Th e .

p roble m s u rely does n ot co n sist m erely i n decidi n g give n

c ase s accordi n g to a ready m ade for m u la -
.

Th e m is t ake n idea th at th ere can be n o do u bt i n partic u lar

cases con cer n i n g what i s d u ti fu l or u n d u ti fu l co n n ects itself
with a n other e rror pec u liar to i n t u itio n al ethics that the
, ,

laws o f m orality are la ws wi th a bsolu te ly n o ex cep ti on s an d ,

 DU TY A ND C ON S C IE N C E 361

t ha t every act n o t agreei n g with the form u la of the law m u s t

be co n trary to d u ty an d i m m oral We h ave already touched
,

upo n this poi n t above ( pp 2 3 3 . In as m u ch as i t m ost

clearly e m phasizes the di ff ere n ce betwee n the two schools of
m oral philosophy I shall agai n co n sider it here
, .

Ka n t regards the absol u te l ogical n ecess i ty of t he moral

l aws as the backbo n e of his e n tire theory ; accor din g t o h i m

u n ifor m ity G e se tz m a ss i gh e i t) is i n separable fro m m orali t y

( .

For teleol ogical ethics on th e other ha n d the m oral l aws

, ,

are e m pirical la ws like the laws o f physiology or t he ru les

, ,

of dietetics based upo n the m Like all e m pi rical laws they

.

are ope n to exceptio n s A ltho u gh it i s u n do u btedly t r u e tha t

.

certai n m odes o f co n d u c t have the t e n de n cy to pro m ote o r ,

as t he case m ay be to i n j u re the life of the age n t an d his s u r

,

rou n di n gs it is always possible owi n g t o the great co m plexity

, ,

o f h u m a n relatio n s fo r ci rc u m s t a n ces to arise i n which th e

,

n a t u ral e ff ec t is cha n ged i n t o its O pposite He n ce t he for m al

.

breach o f a m oral l aw m ay b eco m e m orally possible n ay ,

n ecessary . We are n ever i n do u b t abo u t this w he n it co m es

to actu al practice Th at i n t u i t i on al ethics ca n n ot explai n this
.

fact is a f u rthe r proof of its i n s u fcie n cy .

Let u s take an exa m ple Th e rst d u ty of the soldier is

.

O bedie n ce u n co n ditio n al O bedie n ce i n th e servi ce Military

,
.

obedie n ce is a fu nda m e n t al co n ditio n of the existe n ce o f the

m oder n s t ate . With wh at terrible serio u s n ess we regard this
duty m ay be see n fro m t he severity of the pe n alties i m pose d
for the slightest i n fractio n of the r u le N evert heless circ u m .
,

sta n ces can arise u n der which this d u ty m ay be violated with

o u t re m orse an d witho u t reproach In the co n ve n tio n o f
.

Ta u rogge n Ge n eral Y ork m ade a trea ty with the e n e m y o n his

ow n respo n sibility basi n g his actio n u po n his i n di v idual
,

Opi n io n o f the political sit u atio n i n ope n oppositi o n to the

,

co m m a n ds o f the ki n g an d th ere fore ope n ly breaki n g the

, , ,

rule of m ilitary O bedie n ce Was the act co n trary t o duty

.
,

an d t here fore m orally wro n g ? C ertai n ly accordi n g t o t he ,

362 C ON C E P TS A ND PRIN C IPLES
Ka n tia n for m u la Y ork s u rely co u ld n ot have willed that the
.

m axi m o f his actio n beco m e a u n iversal l a w o f n at u re an d

determ i n e the actio n s of the Pr u ssia n soldie r as for i n sta n ce : , ,

Whe n the S ituatio n o f the co u n try see m s to y ou to de m a n d a

di ffere n t co u rse o f co n d u ct fro m t he on e ordered by the c o m
m an der i n chief the n act accordi n g to yo u r o wn j u dg m e n t a n d
- -
,

con trary to his co m m a n d N evertheless Y ork deci de d a fter

.
,

m u ch hesitatio n to do th at very t hi n g
,
Th e o u tco m e was .

do u bt fu l h is co n d u ct m ight t o say n othi n g o f the breach o f

,

obedie n ce an d the bad ex a m ple h ave cau se d th e r u m o f ,

th e S tate . A n d yet he acted as h e did It see m e d possible .

to h i m t o save th e co u n try fro m a h u m iliati n g an d u n te n

able positio n a t tha t particular ti m e perhaps o n ly at tha t ,

ti m e an d o n ly by his i n d ep en d e n t actio n Th e res u lts j u sti .

e d his co n d u ct ; the k i n g hi m sel f a fterwards recog n ized

this an d histor y n e w praises Y ork s decisio n eve n a Fre n ch
,

historia n will h ardly bl a m e h i m This a m o u n ts t o a co n .

fe s si o n that cases c an occ u r i n which the safety o f the ,

co u n try m ay de m a n d of an o fcer what th e f u n da m e n tal la w

o f the service prohibits : i n depe n de n t acti o n i n pol itical
q u estio n s agai n s t th e express co m m a n d O f th e gover n m e n t
,
.

NO ge n eral r u le can state whe n s u ch an e m erge n cy exists .

We can l ay d ow n as the o n ly p os sible u n i ver sa l r u le : Th e

soldier m u st obey an d u n der n o circ u m stan ces shall he be
,

i m pelled by i n depe n de n t political reectio n s to act co n trary to

his orders Bu t n evertheless a co n ditio n is t acitly added
.

P rovided the wel fare of the co u n try does n o t m ake a di ffere n t

proced u re absol u tely n ecessary S a la s p op u li s u p r e m a le x
.

a n aw fu lly da n ge ro u s yet n ever to b e abolished proviso o f all

,
- - -

partic u lar laws eve n o f the m ost i n violable It is j u st that a

,
.

m istake n appeal to this law o n the part o f t h e soldier sho u ld

be p u n ished with death .

Th ere is n o m oral law which i s n o t S u b j ect t o t he sa m e

co n diti o n n o n e there fore that d oes n ot ad m it o f exceptio n s
, , , .

Like the S abbath the m oral laws are m ade fo r m an n ot m an

, ,
3 64 C ON C E P TS A ND P RIN C IPLE S
varied as varied as the cus t o m s t he m selves which the di ffer
, ,

e n t tribes a n d n atio n s evolve accordi n g to thei r di ffere n t

n atures an d di ffere n t co n ditio n s o f li fe Th e for m h owever .
, ,

I S u n l v e rs all
y the sa m e : a kn owle dg e of a hig her w i ll by ,

w hi ch t he i n d i vi d u a l wi ll f e e ls i tse lf i n t e r n a lly bou n d This .

higher will is i n the las t a n alysis u n iversally reg a rded as

, , ,

th e will of a sup er hu ma n Of a di vi n e power , .

Those who i n terpre t co n scie n ce as a voice fro m above an d ,

r egard t heir co n ceptio n as a n expla n atio n o f its origi n re j ect

,

the historical psychologic al expl a n atio n n o t o n ly as an u n sat

-
,

i sfactory bu t eve n d a ng e r ou s theory : it robs co n scie n ce o f its

,

san c t i ty an d he n ce also des t roys i t s e fcacy A n d this co n

,
.

e l u sio n is n ot i n freque n t ly accep t ed by t hose at who m i t is

ai m ed Thus P Ree i n his s u b tle work o n the Or ig i n

. .
,

of C on sci e n ce
1
holds Th e practical co n seq u e n ce o f the his
,

t o r i cal psych ological ex a m i n at io n is t hat the co m m a n ds of

-

co n scie n ce will lose their sa n ctity whoever k n ows h ow h u m an

were th e age n cies whic h produced co n scie n ce loses the ab s o
2
lute fear of violati n g its co m m an ds .

I ca n n o t share this vie w It does n ot see m t o m e that th e

.

loss Of th e au thority of co n scie n ce is either a l ogical con se

u e n ce o r a n ecessary psych ol ogical e ffect o f the an th r o ol o
q p g
ical expl a n ati o n It is n ot a logical co n seq u e n ce fo r why
.
,

S houl d the m oral laws l o s e thei r validity beca u se w e are c o n

v i n c e d that they express the experie n ce grad u ally acq u i red by

the race i n regard to wh a t i s wholeso m e an d har m fu l ? On

th e co n trary what stro n ger proo f can we desire tha n the
,

heredi t ary wisdo m o f a people ? In co n scie n ce we have the

s u bj ective reex of the O bjective n at u ral order of m oral li fe ,

a s it has devel oped i n c u sto m an d l aw ; s u rely this k n owledge

can n ot destroy the validity o r the t eleological n ecessity of th e
A

1 Ursp r ung d es Ge w i ssens .

G u y a u , E s q u i ss e d u n e l sa ns obliga t i on n i s a n c ti on :

2 mor a e
[S e e als o Th e
s c i e nti S
c p i ri t i s t h e e n e m y o f all i n s t i nct ; i t t e n d s t o d e s t r oy t h e se n se Of
,

Ob li g at i o n o n w h i ch i nst i n ct i s b as e d E v e ry i ns t i n ct d i sapp e ars u p o n co n sci ous

.

ness .
TR
 DU TY A ND C ON S C IE N C E 365

O rde r . the psych ological e ffect of the view be

No r c an

i n d i e r e n ce to c u sto m No t eve n whe n w e h ave co n vi n ced

.

o u rselves o f the false n ess o r absurdity of i n herited o r ed u ca

t i on al ly acq u i red ele m e n t s o f so u l life d o they cease to -
,

i n u e n ce us I sho u ld like t o k n o w h o w m an y of o u r m os t e n
.

lighte n ed n atu ral scie n tists are absolutely free fro m s u p e r s ti

-

tio u s fear ; people who do n ot believe i n ghosts i n t he day ti m e -

are ple n ti fu l b u t h o w is i t a t n ight ? A n d h ere i n o u r case

, , ,

we are n o t deali n g with false o r m ean i n gless ele m e n ts O f pre

sc u tatio n an d feeli n g b u t w ith highly esse n tial an d i m porta n t
,

o n es S u rely n o on e believes t hat a n atio n wholly devoid of

.

wha t we call custo m an d co n scie n ce i n which t he i n divid u al ,

is gover n ed i n his actio n s by pr u de n ce a n d fear co u ld live a ,

S i n gle day Eve n the m ost e n lighte n ed philosopher is guided

.

i n his daily co n d u ct n o t by m oral philosophy b u t by i m p u lses

, ,

an d feeli n gs by cus t o m an d co n scie n ce by his love fo r the

, ,

good his aversio n to t h e v u lgar an d bad C he m istry is good

,
.

a n d use fu l bu t i t does n o t m ake t as t e an d s m ell s u peruo u s ;

,

we S hall co n ti n u e t o e m ploy t hese se n ses i n discri m i n ati n g

s u bsta n ces ; i n dee d they ofte n p rove t o be vastly superior to
the r e age n ts of the che m ists A n d wh o w o u l d rathe r obtai n
-
.

his kitche n recipes fro m a che m is t ry o f foods t ha n t rus t the

hereditary wisdo m o f t he race co n cer n i n g what is whol eso m e
a n d palatable which has bee n t ra n s m itted an d i n creased fro m
,

ge n eratio n to ge n erati o n ? It i s t he b u si n ess o f che m istry

n o t S O m u ch to i n ve n t as to ex plai n t hese s u btle thi n gs ;
which of co u rse will n ot hi n der i t fro m givi n g u s so m ethi n g
, ,

better n ow an d t he n Bu t if an y o n e sho u ld d ecide to thro w .

away appetite an d heredi t ary wisdo m a n d tr u st hi m sel f ,

solely to che m is t ry we sho u l d regard h i m as ve ry foolish It

,
.

wo u l d be eq u ally foolish for a m an to discard co n scie n ce an d

custo m a n d to reg u la t e his li fe solely by m oral ph ilOS Oph y
,
1
.

1 Th e p a i n fu l fe e l i n g s o f s h a m e o r the p ract ical

a b ad co n s c i e nc e s e r ve

e nds o f n a t u re Th e y a r e t h e p r e v e n t i v e s ,
. as i t w e r e , w h ic h h i n d e r us fr o m d o i n g
w h at i s i n j u rio u s t o t h e t o t a li ty o f ou r or
g a n is m , j l
u s t as a n i m a s c a n d i st i n g u i s h
366 C ON C E P TS A ND P RIN C IPLE S

Bu t t he tr a n s cen d en t sa n cti on w o u ld s u rely disappear !

Here le t m e S i m ply say that i n m y opi n io n the ti m e will n eve r
co m e whe n m e n will cease to regard the morality an d h oli
n ess which they h ave evolved fro m their i n n er m ost bei n g as

derived fro m the esse n ce Of God o r the n at u re of the A ll Real -

.

Ho w co u l d these e n ter i n to th e heart o f m an we r e they n o t

rooted i n the very n atu r e of t hi n gs ? IS m an an a n o m aly i n
the u n iverse IS he m erely an accide n tal o r exter n al object
i n it A re n ot he h i ms e lf an d his e n tire esse n ce gro u n ded i n
the A ll Real -
Th e words Of Hippocra t es with which S tei n ,

thal pre faces his t reatise o n t he Or ig i n of L a ng u ag e are ,

applicable t o every historical psychological view of h u m a n -

a ffairs : A ll t h i n gs are divi n e an d all thi n gs are also h u m a n

(m i l/ T a Ce i a fea t d v dp w n iva w ei r/ 7 a ) .

C er t ai n i n divid u als may n o do u bt whe n e n ligh t e n ed as to

, ,

t he origi n of co n scie n ce c o m e to believe t hat everythi n g i s

,

right tha t can be do n e withou t da n ger of falli n g i n to the

ha n ds of the police Whe n a perso n wh o h as bee n acc u s
.

t o m e d t o look upo n t he m oral l aws as the arbitrary co m m a n ds

o f an al m ighty bei n g who has declare d his i n te n tio n o f p u n
,

i s h i n g all violatio n s soo n e r o r later begi n s to do u bt the e x i s ,

te n ce of s u ch a bei n g o r to disbelieve i n h i m altogether he will ,

n ecessarily co n cl u de t ha t these laws have n o m ea n i n g A nd .

I d o n ot k n ow h ow we c an escape the co n cl u sio n if we accept

t he pre m ises upo n which it rests In deed I k n o w of n o .
,

way O f escapi n g it ex cept by s h owi n g that these l aws are n o t

,

t h e accide n tal i n j u n ctio n s of an arbitrary bei n g b u t that they ,

a r e i n here n t i n the n ature o f thi n gs i n the n at u re o f m an , .

S o teleological ethics co n ceives the m ; a nd co n scie n ce i t c o n

c e i ve s as the reectio n o f the O bj ective u n i for m ity o f m oral

l ife i n the co n scio u s n ess of the i n divid u al He n ce it regards .

b e t we en w h ole s o m e an d u n w h o l e so m e fo o d b y m e an s of t h e i r m o r e n e ly d e v e l
Op e d n e r v e s o f t as t e . W h en eve r an i n d i v i d u al o r a n at i o n i s d e p r i v e d o f t h e i n
s t i n ct i v e fe e li n g s Of sh a m e , d i ss o l u t i o n foll o w s .

Z o ll n e r, Ue ber d i e Na tu r d ef
K o rne te n, 3d e di t i o n , 1 8 83 , p 4. .
368 C ON C E P TS A ND P RIN C IPLE S
the organ destroy the co n scie n ce an d this may u n q u es
. To
t i on ably be do n e to a certai n exte n t n o t o n ly by false ,

m ethods o f ed u catio n b u t by false theories n a m ely by the

, ,

hal f e n ligh t en m e n t resulti n g fro m a false theol ogical ex

-

plan a t io n i s the m ost serio u s i n j u ry which can be do n e

an i n divid u al or co m m u n ity A S S idgwick ad m irably says
.

Fo r t hough the i m perfectio n tha t we n d i n all t he actual

,

co n ditio n s of h u m an exis t e n ce is ulti m ately fo u n d eve n i n

m orality itsel f still prac ti cally we are m uch l ess co n cern ed
, , ,

with correcti n g an d i m provi n g th an we are with realizi n g

an d e n forci n g i t Th e U tilitaria n m u s t rep u dia t e altogether
.

t ha t t e m per o f rebellio n agai n s t established m orality as ,

so m ethi n g p u rely ex t ern al an d co n ve n tio n al i n to which the ,

reective m i n d is always ap t to fall whe n it i s rst co n vi n ced

tha t its r u les are n ot i n tri n sically reaso n able He m u st o f .
,

course also rep u diat e as s u perstitio u s tha t awe O f it as an

,

absol u te or Divi n e C ode which i n t u i t io n al m oralists i n culcat e .

S till he will n a t urally co n te m pl ate i t with revere n ce an d

,

wo n der as a m arvellous prod u c t of n at u re the resul t of

, ,

lo n g ce n t u ries o f growth sh owi n g i n m a ny parts th e sa m e n e

,

adaptatio n of m ea n s to co m plex exige n cies as t he m os t elab

orate stru ct u res of physical organ is m s exhibi t : he will ha n dle
i t with respec t f u l delicacy as a m echa n is m co n s t r u c t ed o f ,

t he u id ele m e n t of O pi n io n s an d dispositio n s ; by the i n dis

pe n sable aid of which the act u al q u a n tu m of hu m a n h appi n ess
is co n ti n u ally bei n g prod u ced ; a m echa n is m which n o politi
eia u s or philosophers co u ld create ye t with ou t which the ,

harder an d coarser m achi n ery of positive law coul d n ot b e

per m a n e n tly m a i n tai n ed an d the li fe of m an wo u ld beco m e
,

-
as Hobbes forcibly expresses i t solitary poor n asty
, , ,

bru tish an d shor t,

1
.

6 I n d i vi d u a li za ti on of C on sci e n ce C o n scie n ce is origi n ally

. .

the m a n i festatio n o f c u stom or O b j ective m orality i n the con

s ci ou sn e s s O f th e i n divid u al ; it acts esse n tially as an i n
1 bl e tho ds of E thi cs , pp 4 7 0 f
. .
 DU TY AN D C ON S C IE N C E 369

h i b i t i on particular will i m p u lses which deviate fro m th e

of -

n or m al .Bu t this is n ot its n al an d high est for m It e x e r .

cises a m ore positive fu n ctio n i n that it reects an ideal

o f the p erfec t li fe Th e ele m e n ts of this ideal it rst O btai n s
.

fro m the O bj ecti ve m orality o f the people In its religio u s .

a n d poetical creatio n s every n atio n prod u ces co n cre t e i m ages

o f per fectio n ; these take possessio n Of t h e co n scio u s n ess of

t h e i n divid u al an d fashio n his n at u re a n d will

,
He m eas u res .

hi m self an d his co n d u ct by the ideal ; he is pai n ed whe n he

falls short o f it pleased whe n he approxi m ates i t
,
.

With the develop m e n t o f m e n tal li fe this life ideal grad u ,

-

ally ass u m es a more specic an d i n divi dualistic for m A ll .

his t orical evol u tio n proceeds by di ffere n tiatio n Fro m the .

origi n al u n ity of th e h u m a n species which we m u st p r e su p ,

pose the di ffere n t types Of races an d n atio n s have grad u ally

,

bee n di ffere n t iated ; di ffere n t religio n s an d di ffere n t c u sto m s

express thei r m e n tal i n divid uality A s civilizatio n adva n ce s
.

still fu rther the i n divid u al s als o di ffere n tiate the m selves

fro m the m e n tal life o f the people an d l ead separate m e n tal ,

existe n ces In the l ower s t ages O f civilizatio n the di ffere n t

.

m e m bers O f a people are wholly alike ; they have th e sa m e

ideas th o u ghts opi n io n s h abits m odes of co n d u c t ; i n shor t
, , , , ,

their lives are lled with th e sa m e co n te n t deter m i n ed by ,

their religio n an d c u sto m s A S the race develops its li fe

.
,

beco m es richer an d m ore varied an d at the sa m e ti m e ,

greater di ffere n ces appear a m o n g t he i n divid u als Th e i h .

divid u al begi n s to thi n k his o w n tho u ghts ; he i s n o lo n ger

satised with th e ge n eral co n ceptio n s o f the w orld an d li fe ,

O ffered by his religio n an d m ythology ; he begi n s to ph il oso

p h i ze . A ll philosophy begi n s with the e m a n cipatio n o f the

i n divid u al fro m co m m o n ly accepted opi n i o n s A n d i n th e .

sa m e w ay th e i n divid u al s attit u d e t o c u sto m a n d to the O pi n

,

i on Of his s u rro u n di n gs ch a n ges he begi n s to follo w his o w n

be n t an d to m o u l d his o w n li fe s ideal Th e sphere o f free

.
,

i n d ivid u al actio n expa n ds Th e riche r a n d m ore varied the

.

224
3 70 C ON C E P TS A ND PRIN C IPLE S
ac t ivities an d relatio n s Of the i n dividual beco m e t he less ,

able is c u sto m t o r u le a u th oritatively the m ore perso n al the

li fe o f the i n divid u al a n d his relatio n s to others beco m e
for i n sta n ce the relatio n s existi n g betwee n h u sba n d a n d wi fe ,

pare n ts an d chil dre n the m ore d i i c u lt is i t t o s u bject the m

t o r u le the m ore they call fo r S pecial laws
, .

C o n scie n ce th u s acq u ires a n e w m ea n i n g at rs t it

m eas u res t he val u e o f the i n divid u al li fe solely by c u sto m ;
n o w it m eas u res the act u al l i fe by i t s S pecial ideal This .

i n divid u al i de al will exhibit the t raits o f t h e partic u lar

n atio n al li fe of which it is th e prod u ct it will n o t be ,
'

u n related t o c u sto m ; still it m ay d iffe r wi d ely fro m the

u n iversal co n ceptio n a n d m ode o f li fe S O widely i n deed t hat
, , ,

it m ay eve n bri n g th e age n t i n to co n ict with c u sto m an d ,

that this co n ic t m ay n ot a ro u se pa n gs of co n scie n ce b u t be ,

recogn ized as a m or al n ecessity Obj e cti ve m orality i s n o w

.

O pposed by a su bj e cti ve morality a high er for m which applies

, ,

a n e w s t a n dard to thi n gs .

Whe n eve r the perso n ality wh ose i n d ivid u al ideal bri n gs it

i n to a n tago n is m with the ob j ective m orality o f the ti m es an d
leads to a recasti n g of moral val u es is e n dowed with re m arkable
powers Of i n tell ect an d will th e s e co n icts arise which form
,

the dram atic cli m axes i n history Th e real heroes of m an

.

ki n d have fo u gh t s u ch battles They rebel agai n st the c o n

.

v e n t i on al val u es agai n s t the ideals which have beco m e u seless

,

a n d false a gai n s t sh a m an d falsehood agai n s t the salt tha t

, ,

has lost its savor They preach n e w tru th s poi n t e n t n e w

.
,
~

ai m s an d n e w ideals whi ch i n stil n e w li fe i n to the so u l an d

,

raise i t to a highe r pla n e Jes u s fo u gh t this ght He rose

.
.

above th e religio n an d the c u sto m s o f his n atio n he co n ceive d

o f a d i ffere n t a n d highe r relatio n to God th a n that recog n ized

by his people an d h e n ce he was n o t satised with th e righ t

e o u s n e s s of his people with their p u n c ti l i o h s an d ye t sca n t

a n d sel f s u fc i e n t fu ll m e n t o f the l a w
- S o he placed h i m sel f
.

an d his disciples o u tsid e o f the l aw o f his peopl e ; h e broke

3 72 C ONC E P TS A ND P RIN C IPLE S
for i n sta n ce gives u s a poetical t ho u gh appare n tly fai thfu l
,

pict u re i n the tyran t O f the R ep u bli c or who m J B u rck ,

.

hardt describes with historical accuracy i n his H i s tory of the

R e n a i s sa n ce i n I ta ly : those t errible characters t he Sforz a ,

a n d Borgia who feari n g n either Go d n o r m an acco m plish

, , ,

th eir n e fario u s desig n s with s u perhu m a n e fforts an d absolute

reckless n ess .

Perhaps w e m ay say t ha t every on e of t hese t re m e n do u s

pe rso n alities has i n h i m the m aki n g o f a tr u e h ero as well as
o f a cri m i n al tyra n t Goeth e s F a u st portrays the t ra n sfor m a
.

tio n o f o n e of thes e bei n gs i n to t he o ther In th e rs t part .

Fa u st appears as th e t ita n ic i n divid u al wh o has e m a n cipated

hi m self fro m the beliefs an d c u sto m s of his people an d n ow ,

seeks satisfactio n for his desi res : tha t which i s allotted to

the e n tire race he desires to e n j oy i n his o wn perso n an d ,

the n like t he race t o perish He des t roys the peace of a

, , .

fa m ily h e sacrices t h e happi n ess o f an i n n oce n t an d lovable

,

girl to his l u sts ; th ro u gh h i m G re t che n m u rders her m other ,

he r brother an d he r child He forsakes her an d j oi n s the

, .
,

cavalcade which m oves u po n t he B locksbe rg There is n u .

do u btedly so m ethi n g o f Goethe s o w n n atu re i n all this ;

we n d si m ilar traits i n the Pro m ethe u s poe m s Th e seco n d .

part o f F a u s t ai s to S how o w the s u perh u m an bei n g

m h

( U be r m e n sch
) agai n s u bjects hi m self t o m eas u re a n d la w .

Th e exec u tio n of this pla n however falls far belo w t he m ark

, ,
.

Fa u st co u ld have bee n p u ri ed a n d saved o n ly by grea t

s u fferi n gs or by str u ggli n g zeal o u sly to attai n s o m e high e n d

, .

His salvatio n by th e eter n ally fe m i n i n e is i n tr u th a ra ther

easy sol u tio n o f t h e proble m ; n o r are we satised with the
c u rio u s hydraulic e n terprises Of the o l d m an It is true .
,

Goethe s o wn li fe was free fro m great s u fferi n gs an d great

str u ggles an d he w as either too h o n es t o r t oo s u bj ective t o

,

i n trod u ce i n to his poe m a n ythi n g th at did n o t form a pa r t

o f his o w n ex perie n ces .

Th e t wo types h owever which o u twardly rese m ble e ac h

, ,
 DU TY A N D C ON SC IE N C E 3 73

o ther i n i gn ori n g c u sto m an d law di ff er i n thei r i n n er rela ,

tio n s to c u sto m s an d the p eopl e Th e tyra n t despise s an d .

breaks the m oral laws i n order t o give full pl ay t o his de

si res ; he wishe s t o e n j oy an d t o r u le Jesus a n n o u n ces as .

his m issi o n n o t the destruc t io n O f th e l aw b u t its fu l l

m e n t his objec t is t o give i t a highe r co n t e n t tha n the p ro

fe ss i o n al i n terpreters can give i t He k n ows wh at his fate will .

be he does n o t a n ticipate sple n do r an d power b u t hu m iliatio n

, ,

a n d death Th e s o n o f m an ca m e n o t to be m i n is t ered
.

u n to b u t t o m i n ister an d t o give his li fe a ra n so m for m a n y

, , .

7 M or a l n i hi li sm
. Th e disti n g u ishi n g m ark of m oral
.

n ihil i s m i n co n crete i n dividual cases i s a co m ple t e abse n ce

,

o f co n scie n ce both i n th e for m of the co n scio u s n ess o f d u t y

as well as o f a li fe ideal A s a theory o r arg u m e n t it de n ies

.

th e validity o f all r u l es o f duty or m oral l aws It declares .

Du ty i s an e m pty word ; life i s a struggl e for exi s t e n ce an d ,

i n the str u ggle for existe n ce all m ea n s are per m issible Mu r .

der falseh ood viole n ce are good provi ded they are s u ccess
, , ,

fu l ; they are m erely decried as bad by weakli n gs an d gre

gario n s bei n gs because these are m ad e to s u ff er by t he m
,
.

O r : Jus t ice an d law an d religio n were i n ve n ted by despo t s to

e n sl ave th e m i n ds o f th e O ppressed ; the e n lighte n ed m an
k n ows that n othi n g bi n ds h i m A n d j u s t as there are n o .

d uties t oward s others th ere c an be n o d u ties towards sel f

,
.

So called ideals are soap b u bbles to delight child r e n o r i n

- -
,

t e n ded by cleve r peopl e to del u de the fool s Good n ess c on .

sists i n d oi n g an d boldly carryi n g ou t wha t ou r m o m e n tary

desires de m a n d S o m e on e has q u o t ed as th e motto O f an
.

aristocratic Ru ssia n : J e n e cr oi s r i en j e n e cr a i n s r i e n j e , ,

n a i m e r i en or N othi n g bi n ds m e n either m orals n o r d u ty
, , ,

n either fear n o r h Op e n eithe r love n o r ideals ,

th e free sov e r
e i gn i n divid u al lives i n the mo m e n t regardless of the fut u re ,

as well as the past 1

.

1
[S e e t he G r e e k S op hi sts Plat o s Gor gi as 4 8 1 ff ; S t i rn e r , Der E i n z ig e a n d

.
,

se w E i gen th u m , 1 8 4 5 , 2 d c d , 1 8 8 2 ; Ni e t zsc h e (pp 1 5 0 ff s up ra ) ; S t e i ne r,

. . . .
 3 74 C ON C E P TS A ND P RI NC IP LE S
Is it possible t o re fu te n ihilis m ; c an we pro v e t o an y o n e
who reaso n s th u s th at h e is i n the wro n g ? I d o n o t believe
i t We c an tell an d S how h i m that others feel d iffe r e n tly b u t
.
,

h e will an swer : What d o I care ? Yo u m ay n d feeli n gs of

d u ty an d ideals i n yo u rselves ; i n m e t here is n othi n g o f the
ki n d an d I d o n ot regret i t either If we say t o h i m
,
.

That i s a de fec t ; a h u m a n bei n g capable o n ly O f m o m e n

tary pleas u res is a co n te m ptible c reat u re h e will reply ,

I d o n ot agree with y o u ; o n the co n trary he i s co n te m ptible ,

wh o has n ot the co u r age t o d o what h e pleases b u t lets all ,

ki n ds Of i m agi n ary scr u ples defrau d h i m of the pleas u res o f

th e m o m en t This positio n m ay be logically m ai n tai n ed
.
-
.

We can n o t force the n ihilist to co n fess its fal se n ess this w e

co u ld do o n ly i n case there were so m e poi n t of agree m e n t
betwee n u s a co m m o n regard fo r tha t which gives li fe its
,

v al u e Witho u t this all reaso n i n gs are vai n n ay perhaps

.
, ,

evil becau se they si m ply co n r m the n ihilis t wh o is i n love

, ,

with his O pi n io n s an d his o w n astu te n ess i n his error Th e ,

.

feeli n g that he ca n n ot be re fu ted will S i m ply i n te n si fy his co n

v i c t i o n that he I s In the right A ristotle did n ot regard the .

foll owi n g hi n t as s u per u o u s : It is n ot n ecessary to exa m

i n e every proble m o r every assertio n b u t o n ly s u ch abo u t ,

w hich so m e o n e is really i n do u bt who n eeds i n str u ctio n a n d

n ot p u n ish m e n t o r sharpe n ed wits a tr u th o f which th e
age of paradoxe s n which we l ive also n eeds to be re m i n ded
i 1
.

It is q u ite a di ffere n t q u esti o n h owever whether n ihil is m , , ,

which ca n n o t be re fu ted l ogically c an b e co n siste n tly applied ,

i n practice a n d wh ether an y m an really feels that o n ly the

,

satis factio n of m o m e n tary desires h as worth Perhaps he .

P hi lo sop hi e de r F r e i he i t ,
1 894 . C o m p ar e K r e i b i g , Ges chi chte un d K r i ti k d es
e th s che n
i S cep t i ci s mu s , 1 8 9 6 No r d au Dege n er a t i o n
, ,
v ol . II . See al so Tu rg n e v

s

n o v e l s, N e w ; F a the rs an d S ons (E n g l is h t r a n sl a t i on s by M rs C G arne t t ) . . . TR .

]
1 A ri st o t le , Top i cs , .
'
I , l l : o f; 8 6 ? w ay n d An/a a o bb wd o a v Os o w
/
in! owro p ha e i e v ti v 7 1 s r ib A dy o v Be an s vow Ka i uh x o k da e w s i) a i a da e w s f

i
o AA
'
,
o

p v y ap dr o p o vr e s , m i r e po v 8 6 ?r o bs de a f/ s T rudi! i) o f) n oAdo e ws Oo x
ra i
, of , 1r
7 epo v i) x b v A c me); ij
u o b, i
a a
'
ij a e w s
'
.
3 76 C ON C E P TS A ND P RIN C IPLES
Itis j u s t as i m poss ible t o force the n ihilist by a rgu m e n t t o
aba n do n his positio n as it is logically to re fu te a m an who
de n ies th e existe n ce o f the s u n i n the h eave n s Bu t this does .

n o t m ea n that n ihilis m is a valid theory We ca n n ot p r ove to .

the fever patie n t that h e sees o n ly h all u ci n atio n s o r to th e

-
,

m ad m a n that his xed i deas are crazy n otio n s Tha t does n o t .

preve n t t he form e r fro m bei n g S ick o r the latte r fro m bei n g

c razy A n a n thro p ologis t a biological observer of the ge n u s
.
,

hom o le t u s as su m e i n orde r t o i n s u re his pe rfec t i m partial

'

ity tha t he has desce n ded fro m S at u rn to t he earth as i n

, ,

V ol taire s M i kr o m eg a s wo u ld soo n c o n vi n ce hi m self tha t a

m an really li v i n g accordi n g to the pri n ciples o f m oral n ihilis m

was ab n or m al He woul d say : H e l acks an orga n which i s
.

u s u ally prese n t n a m ely co n scie n ce A n d he wo u l d add : It

, , .

see m s to be an o rga n o f so m e i m porta n ce for i n divid u als ,

i n w ho m i t i s l acki n g i n variably perish A n d if h e were t o .

i n vestigate m ore closely he would perhaps n d th at as a r u l e , , ,

s u ch ab n orm al n at u res a t th e sa m e t i m e exhibi t da n gerous

perversio n s o f i m p u lse ; alcoh olis m a n d perverse sex u al de
si res whic h are ofte n hereditar y are the us u al co n co m i t a n ts
, ,

o r the ca u ses o f s u ch perverse feeli n gs a n d volitio n s Th e .

us u al co n seq u e n ces o f the dise ase h owever he m ight say are , , ,

d isg u st with life a n d suici de 1

O n ly i n case the ab n or m al
,
.

m o r al re ect i o n s ; an d p an g s o f c o n s ci e n c e a ffe ct h er onl

y fo r a m o m e n t Th e .

l aw h e r b e i n g p r o v e s t o b e s tro n g e r t h an t h e
of m o r al l a w : i t i g n o r es h e r o w n
co n sc i e n ce a n d t h e Op i n i o n o f h e r su r r o u n d i n gs . As so o n as sh e reach e s her
o al an d h e rs e lf i n t h e p l ace fo r w h i ch n at u r e i n t e n d e d h e r , sh e
e s t a bl i sh es
g
l ab o r s fre e ly a n d a b l y , w i t h o u t wo rryi n g m u ch a b o u t t h e p a s t .

p sy ch i at r i st s r e g ar d m o r al i ns an i ty as a p e cu li ar fo r m o f d i s ease
1 Some .

It i s c h a r a ct e r i ze d by a c o m p le t e l ack Of c o n sci e n ce . K rafft E b i n g -

(Lehr buch
d er P sy chi a tr i c , II 6 5 ) d e s cr i b es t h e d i s e ase as c o m pl e t e mor a l i n se nsi bi li ty
. .

M o r al n o t i o n s an d j u dg m e n t s a re app r e h e n de d by t h e u n d e rst an d i n g an d t h e
m e m o r y, b u t t h e y h av e ab s ol u t e ly n o fe e l in g acc o m p an i me n t s , a n d a r e t h e r e for e
-

w h o lly i n ca p ab le Of m o v i n g t h e w i ll .

W i th ou t i n t e re s t i n a n yt h i n g t hat is
n o b l e an d b e a u t ifu l , d e ad t o all fe e l i n g , t h e s e u n fo r t u n at e m alfo r m a t i ons sh o w

a w o e fu l l ac k Of li al a n d d o m e st i c l o v e , o f a l l s o c i al i n s t i n ct s, i n d iffe r e n ce t o t h e
w e al an d w oe of th eir s u r ro u n d i n g s . Th e y ar e u tt e rly i n se n s i b l e t o t h e m o r al
a pp r o v al o r d i s ap p r o v al Of t h e i r fe l lo w s, w h olly d e v o i d o f fe e li n g s of co n s c i e n c e

a n d r e m o r se . Th e y d o not k n o w w h at m o r ali ty m e an s t he la w t h e y l o o k u
pon
 DU TY A ND C ON SC IE N C E 3 77

feeli n gs are n ot the res u lt of orga n i c co n di t io n s bu t of i n t el ,

lectual error Of half t ruths can th e diag n osis be m ore favor

,
-
,

able Her e a m ore thoro u gh k n owledge based u po n w ider

.
,

experie n ce n e w proble m s Of li fe an d a d van ci n g age m ay lead

, ,

t o the r e m oval o f the e rro n eo u s views an d co n seque n t ly t o a

chan ge of feeli n g an d volitio n .

8 In co n cl u sio n le t m e a n swer a fe w ques t io n s sugges t ed

.
,

by the n otio n of duty What do we mea n by m eritorio u s con .

d u ct ? C an a m an d o m ore tha n his duty What is allowabl e

A re there acts which du ty n either e n j oi n s n or prohibi t s th a t
is i n diffe re n t acts ? A re there du ties towards self
,

S u ch a n d si m ilar q u es t io n s de a l with d i i c ult i e s which a rise

m ore fro m the a m bigui t ies of la n guage t han fro m th e n a t u r e O f
the s u bj ect i t self They m ay b e easily an swered by a m or e
.

careful de n itio n of t he t erms .

Du ty i n th e n a rr owe s t sen se me a n s t he perfor m a n ce of ac t s

o r the abste n tio n fro m ac t s i n which o t hers have a legal i n ter

est It is yo u r d u ty t o pay your deb t s t o keep your co n t rac t s

.
, ,

n o t t o steal o r defraud On the other ha n d i t is n ot a du ty i n

.
,

this se n se to d o a m an a favor t o help hi m whe n i n t roubl e , .

Th e for m er is an O bligatio n the la tt e r a p u rely vol un t ary ,

a ff air A ccordi n g t o t his m ea n i n g of the t e rm t here can

.
, ,

O f course be n o du t ies t oward sel f

,
.

m e r ely p o li ce re g u lat i o n , an d t h e m o st h e i n ou s cr i m e t h ey v i e w ab ou t a s
as a

a n e t hi cally sou n d p e r so n w o u ld r e g ar d t h e v i o la t i on of a p oli ce o r d i n an ce T hi s .

d e fe ct r e n d e r s s u c h i n fe r i or be i n g s i n cap ab le o f l i v i n g p e r m a n e n t ly i n s o ci e ty a n d
m a k e s t h e m t can d i d at es fo r t h e w or kh ou se , i n s an e p e n i t e n t i ary asy lu m , o r .

Be s i de s t h i s lack o f e t hi cal , alt ru i st i c fee l i n g s t h e y m an i fe st fo r m al affe c t i ve

,

d e ra n ge m e n t , g r e a t e m o t i o n al i rr i t a bili ty, w h i c h i n co n u n ct i o n w i t h t h e a bse n ce j

of m oral fe e l i n g s i m p e ls t h e m t o act s o f g r e a t b r u t al i t y a n d c r u e l t y On t h e .

o t he r h an d , t h e s e p a t i e n t s s ee m t o b e u n aff e c t e d i n te llec tu a ll , i f w e r e ar d for m al

y g
l o g i cal t h o u g h t , p ru d e n ce , act io n ac c o r d i n g t o p la n , as d e c i s i v e . Hallu ci n at i o n s
a n d i ll us i o n s a r e ab se n t S t ill , i n t e lle ct u a l d e g e n e r acy i s n e v e r
. e n t i r e ly l a ck i n g .

No t y onl t h ar e
e y i g n o r a n t o f w h at i s i m m o ral b u t t h e y d o n o t e v e n k no w w h at
,

is d e t ri m e n tal t o t h e i r i n te re st s I n s p i t e o f a ll e v i d e n c e o f s h r e w d n e ss t h e y o ft e n
.

s u r p r ise u s b y t h e i r t ot al d i sre g a rd of the s i m p le s t ru l e s of

p ru d e n c e i n t h e i r
c r i m i n al act s . On t h e fo r m al side w e m u s t e s p e c i a lly e m ph as i ze t h e d e fe ct i ve
w ay i n w h i c h t h e y r e p ro d u ce i deas F i n al ly , p e rve r se i m p u ls e s a re co m m o n i n
th e o r g a n i c an d p a rt i c u larly i n t h e se x u a l s p h e re .
3 78 C ON C E P TS A ND P RIN C IPLE S
Du ty i n a wi d e r s e n s e m ea n s co n d u ct i n accorda n ce with
the de m a n ds o f c u sto m o r the laws o f m orality A ccordi n g , .

t o this i n terpretatio n o f the ter m it wo u ld u n do u btedly be , , ,

a violatio n o f ou r d u ty to h u m a n ity to ref u se to a n s wer a

stra n ger s polite q u esti o n co n cern i n g the road to t ake : the

duty o f l ove o f n eighbor e n j oi n s ki n d n ess On the other .

ha n d d u ty d oes n ot d e m a n d th a t I save a n other s li fe a t the

,

risk of m y o wn : whoever does th i s p e r fo rm s a m eritorio u s act ,

but wh oever refrai n s fro m doi n g it viol ate s n o d u ty Herois m .

an d holi n ess are n o t duties In this se n se we also speak o f .

d u ti e s t o s e lf It is a d u ty t o develop o u r o w n capacities ;
.

it is a violatio n of d u ty for on e to r u i n his health by acts

o f i m pr u de n ce to w aste his m e n tal powers i n idle n ess an d
,

dissipatio n Bu t here too there is a li m i t to the req u ire m e n ts

.
, ,

o f duty an d here too we h ave herois m which does m ore t ha n

, , ,

is de m an ded which is m eritorio u s He n ce m e r i t co n si s t s i n

,
.

doi n g m ore tha n average virt u e req u ires This likewise de .

term i n es the co n cept o f th e a llowa ble It is allo wable to t ake .

recrea t io n alth o u gh we h ave ple n ty of work to do an d the

,

power t o d o it ; it i s allowable t o seek e n j oy m e n t although ,

there are others who m we m igh t help by de n yi n g o u rselves .

In a word i t is allowable to re m ai n withi n the li m its of

,

aver age virtue .

Th e w ord d u ty n ally is also used i n a w i d e st f u llest

, , ,

se n se i n which both the n otio n of mer i t an d the n otio n of the

,

allowable have n o m ea n i n g C hristian ity co m m a n ds its dis .

c i pl e s : Be ye there fore perfect eve n as yo u r Father which

is i n heave n is perfect In the face o f this i m perative there
.

c an o f co u rse be n o ex cess i n virt u e ; he n ce there c an be n o

, ,

m erit be fore G od Whoever has kept the co m m a n d m e n ts

.
,

let h i m say I have d o n e m v d u ty ; or as th e sai n t pre fers to ,

s a y si n ce h u m a n bei n gs do n o t achieve this goal : I a m an

,

u n worthy serva n t .
3 80 C ONC E P TS A ND P RIN C IPLES

s o u gh t at th e expe n se of others wel fare Pop u la r usage

.
1

see m s to favor this view ; th e adj ective se lsh i m plies bla m e .

,

while the adjec t ive u n se lsh i m plies moral approval 2

.

Th e absol u t e altr u is m o f S chope n ha u er an d his disciple s i s

Opposed by its direct co n trary absol u te egois m This is n ot , .

so co m m o n an d appears i n th e for m of a paradox N ietzsche

,
.

approxi m ates i t : i t is t he reactio n a gai n st S chope n h auer s

altr u is m Besides t here i s a te n de n cy to absol u t e egois m i n

.
,

S chope n hau er hi m sel f ; his co n t e m pt for th e masses a n d

h u m a n ity an d the high esti m ate which he places upo n ge n i u s
, ,

s u ggest it If h u m a n ity has worth solely because of the fe w

.
,

ge n i u ses i t produces t he n i t is r igh t t ha t the m asses be ,

r egarded an d e m ployed by t h e m as mea n s ; a n absol u te aris

t o crati c egoistic m orality w o u ld be t he co n seque n ce

-
Bu t a .

de m ocratic egoistic form of m orality i s eq u ally co n ceivable

-
.

T e n
h i divid u alistic utilitaria n is m o f Hobbes 3
an d S pi n oz a

approxi m ates i t : Everybody strives excl u sively for his own

sel f preservatio n that is the order of n atu re b u t likewise
-
, ,

the m oral order Whe n a m an solely purs u es his o wn real

.

good he does righ t t hat is all that m orality de m a n ds More

, , .

over he at the sa m e t i m e does the bes t h e c an for others ;

, , ,

by a ki n d of pre established harmo n y th e t rue i n t erests of all

-

i divid als coi n cide

n u
4
.

In deed the stan dpoi n t o f absolu t e egois m i s logically t e n

,

able ; we can i m agi n e a society i n which eve ry o n e acts a ccord

1 Gr u ndlage d er M ora l, 16 .

2
[C f . F i ch t e , C ha r a cte r i s ti cs f
o the P re s en t A g e, 70 : Th e r e i s b u t one v i r tu e,

and t h at i s t o fo rg e t o n ese lf as a
p e r so n bu t i
one v ce : t o t h in k o f o n e s elf . W ho
e ve r in t he sli
g h t e s t d e g r e e t h i n k s o f h i s o w n p er son ali t y, a n d d e s i re s a life a n d
j
b e i n g a n d a n y se l f e n o y m e n t w h at e v e r , e ce pt fo r t h e r a ce , i s fu n dam e n t all y
-
x
a n d r ad i call
y a l o w , p e t ty , w i ck e d , an d w re t ch e d fe l lo w
.

TR ] .
.

3
[Le via tha n ; On Li be rt y a n d N e cess zty ] .

4
[E g o i sts z Man de v ille E n q u i r y i n to the Ori g i n of M ora l V i r tu e F a ble of the
,

Bees La R o ch e fo u c aul d , Refl ex i on s , 1 6 6 5 La Bru y ere , Les ca ra cteres et les m oeu rs .

de cc s i ecle , 1 687 La m e tt r i e , L ho mme m a chi n e, 1 7 4 8

He l v e t i u s, De l esp r i t, 1 75 8 ;

Ho lb a ch S ys teme de la
, n a tu r e , 1 77 0 ; P al e y , M o ra l P hi los op hy ; Be n t h am P ri n ,

ci
p le s of M or a ls a nd Leg i s la t io n Har tl ey an d t h e asso ci at i o n i st s d e r i v e th e
. sym

p at h e t i c fe e li n g s fr o m e g o i s m S e e al so Jh e r i n g , vol II
. TE ] . . .
 E G IS O M A ND A LTRUI SM 3 81

ing t o th e m axi m of p u re egois m wh ere as a s ociety i n whi ch ,

every o n e u n ifor m ly acts accordi n g to t h e m axi m o f p u re

altr u is m i s n o t eve n co n ceivable In so far as the eco n o m ic .

worl d is base d upo n c o n tract an d co m m erce it ap pr o x i ,

m ately realizes th e pri n ciple o f egois m ; we h ave h ere a p lu

r ality o f i n divid u als each o f who m has i n vie w o n ly his o w n
,

i n terests an d yet a certai n h ar m o n y o f the i n terests of all

,
.

If o n t he other ha n d we m ak e p u re altr u is m the l e a di n g

, ,

pri n cipl e every m an cari n g o n ly fo r the i n terests o f others

,

an d n ever fo r his o w n we evide n tly bri n g abo u t s u ch an

,

a bsurd excha n ge o f i n teres t s as t o m ake collective li fe i n co n

c e i v abl e . N everthless p u re egois m too is practically j u st

, , ,

as i m possible as p u re altruis m A society based solely u po n.

egois m is co n ceivable b u t psychologically i m possible Eve n

,
.

i n eco n o m ic affairs other m otives besides c alc u lati n g sel f

, ,

i n teres t play a part e g e m o t i o n al i n flu e n ces o f all ki n ds a

, .
,
. .
, ,

se n se of wh at is proper an d i m prope r a regard for th e c on ,

ditio n of others th e i n hibiti o n o f egoistic i m p u lses by sha m e

,

an d co n sci e n ce A n d it i s really d o u btf u l whether the c o m

.

pl e t e eli m i n atio n of these m otives co u ld be bor n e whethe r ,

w e co u ld alwa y s ch e e s e with s u fcie n t acc u racy betwee n o u r

true i n terests an d o u r appare n t i n terests whether a te m porary ,

adva n tage wo u ld n ot ofte n defeat a real adva n tage an d whether ,

the war of all agai n st all wo u ld n ot p u t an e n d to the li fe of

society Still less possible woul d be the m ore perso n al rela
.

tio n s s u ch as those existi n g betwee n h u sban d an d w i fe o r par

, ,

e n ts an d childre n witho u t thei r n at u ral fo u n datio n th e

, ,

sy m pathetic feeli n gs We m ay perhaps co n ceive o f a m o t her

.
, ,

wh o cares for a n d ed u cates her childre n solely fro m sel fi sh

co n sideratio n s ; b u t n obody will regard her as psychologically
possible u n less of co u rse he i n cl u des the wel fare o f the child
, , ,

i n th e selsh i n terests o f the m other i n which case t h e dis ,

p u tc i s m erely a verbal o n e For we called the feeli n g for the

.

we al a n d woe of othe r i n divid u al s altr u isti c or sy m pathetic

feeli n g as disti n g u ished fro m egoistic o r idiopathic feeli n g .
3 82 C ON C E P TS A ND PRIN C IPLE S
Bu t if I i n sis t that t he sy m pathetic feeli n g too is m y feel , ,

i n g a n d co n seq u e n tly an egoistic m otive there c an o f co u rse , , ,

be n o other m otives than egoistic m otives I can be deter .

m i n e d t o ac t io n o n ly by my m otives a n d feeli n gs n ot by th ose ,

o f a n other S till t his does n o t oblitera t e th e disti n ctio n ; we

.
,

sh o u ld the n h ave directly egoistic an d i n directly egoistic

i m p u lses ; the latter however wo u ld be t he sa m e as thos e
, ,

us u ally called sy m pathe t ic o r altr u istic A n d we sh o u ld have .

t o say th at witho u t t hese sy m pathetic altru is t ic m otives a -

,

h u m an life wou l d be j u st as i m possible as witho u t the egoi stic

o n es Both t oge t her are n eeded t o m ake the li fe of the i n
.

divid u al an d the l i fe o f the whole possible .

Both of these fals e m oral pri n ciples p u re altruis m an d p u re ,

egois m are u lti m ately based upo n a false a n thropology They

, .

presuppose with the ol d sys t em of ra t io n alistic i n dividualis m ,

tha t every i n divid u al i s an absolu t ely i n depe n de n t bei n g an d ,

co m es i n co n tac t wi th o th er bei n gs o n ly occasio n ally an d acci

de n tally In these rela t io n s fo r which we can keep separat e
.
,

acco u n ts h e is either egoistic o r altr u istic In the latter case

,
.
,

altru is m says his co n d u c t is m oral a t other ti m es i t is i n diffe r

,

e n t o r bad whereas egoism de m a n ds that h e seek his o wn

, ,

a dva n tage eve n i n his occasio n al deali n gs with others Both .

theories are fo u n d ed u po n a view l ike th e o n e adva n ced by

Jere m y B e n tha m at the begi n n i n g o f his P r i n cip le s of M or a ls
a n d L eg i sla ti o n : A c o m m u n ity is a ctitio u s bo dy co m posed ,

o f i n divid u al perso n s wh o are co n sidered as c on s ti tu t i ng as it ,

were its m e m bers

,
This co n ceptio n has bee n aba n do n ed
.

si n ce the eightee n th ce n t u ry at l east i n Ger m a n y ; a people

,

i s n ot a cti ti ou s bo dy of which th e i n divid u als are the cti

,

t i ou s m e m bers b u t a u n ied bei n g t o which th e i n divid u al s

,

bear the sam e relatio n as orga n s to a body J u st as the .

organ s are prod u ced by the whole an d exist i n it alon e so ,

the i n divid u als are prod u ced by the people an d live an d m ove
i n it alo n e ; they fu n ctio n as its orga n s they speak its l an ,

g u age they thi n k its tho u ghts they are i n terested i n its wel
, ,
3 84 C ON C E P T S A ND P RIN C IPLES
a bsolu t ely r u i n ed his health he beco m es a pe n sio n e r an d so
, ,

i n cre ases the public b u rde n s C o n versely whoeve r cares fo r

.
,

his health perhaps d oes his s u rro u n di n gs the greatest servic e

which h e can d o the m ; he n ce we m ay say with S pi n oz a ,

C on a tu s s e se c on se r van d i p r i mu m et u n i cu m vi r t u t i s e st fu n
d a m en tu m . In dee d,
with o n ly a little more ratio n al self love -
,

t he largest portio n of h u m a n m isery wo u ld disappear Take .

away dru n ke n n ess an d dissipa t io n an d n i n e te n ths of the ,

-

wretched n ess would be gon e It is the sa m e i n the e con om i c

.

sphere To acq u ire wealth see m s to be the ce n tral p u rpose

.

o f o u r egoistic strivi n gs Bu t i n dustry e n ergy an d fr u gality

.
, ,

m ay with equal right be de n ed as duties towar d s others

, , .

Th e b e n e ce n t e ffects m ake the m selves di rectly felt i n the

fa m ily an d i n the educatio n o f the yo u n ger ge n erati o n
,
Bu t .

the co m m u n ity too an d n ally t he n atio n n ay eve n th e

, , , ,

e n tire eco n o m ic world have an i n t erest i n t he m Th e welfare

, .

o f a co m m u n ity o r a n atio n co n sis t s i n t he welfare of t he

, ,

particular fa m ilies C o n versely the vagra n t the spe n dthrift

.
, , ,

i n j u res rst hi m self th e n his fa m ily perhaps t o re m o t e ge n

, ,

e r at i o n s for shiftless n ess an d m e n dica n cy are heredi t ary as

well as bodily defec t s an d a t last the e n tire n ation ei th er , ,

by beco m i n g a b u rde n upo n public charity o r by helpi n g t o ,

t ur n prod u c t io n i n to false cha n n els an d by des t royi n g m or

ality with his bad exa m ple .

So we m ay say i n ge n eral : A ll q u alities an d acts which

pro m ote o r disturb the heal thy develop m e n t of i n divi du al li fe ,

at the sa m e ti m e te n d to have be n ecial o r i n j u rio u s e ffects

u po n th e develop m e n t o f collective li fe O r as S pi n oza p u ts .

,

it : Quu m m a xi me u n u s u i sq u e
g su u m si bi u ti le gu a er i t, tu m

m a x i m e ho m i n e s s u n t s i bi i n v i cem u t i le s .

Bu t the co n verse is likewise tr u e : S oci a l vi r t u e s t e n d to

h ave a good e ff ect upo n i n divid u al welfare whereas thei r ah ,

se n ce i s detri m e n tal to i n divid u al li fe .

Th e f a m ily i s t he m ost i m por t a n t sphere for t he devel op

m e n t o f social virt u es ; fo r t he large m aj ority of m e n t he
 O M
E G IS AN D A LTRUISM 3 85

mos t serious d u t ies t owards others are e m braced i n this circle .

It requires n o arg u m e n t to show that all acts a n d qual

ities which pro m ote th e wel fare o f the fa m ily have be n eci al
e ffec t s upo n the i n divid u al Th e s u rest an d greatest so u r c e
.

o f happi n ess to pare n t s n ay al m ost the o n ly o n e i n their o ld

, ,

age i s t he good t rai n i n g which they h ave give n thei r childre n ;

,

hardly an y other n eglect of d u ty is followed by such cert ai n

a n d pai n fu l pe n al t ies as i m proper trai n i n g We are acc u s .

t e m ed to regard ho n esty i n eco n o m i c li fe as a duty t o others .

It is n o less a d u t y of th e i n dividual towards hi m sel f Ma n y

-
.

proverbs express the experie n ce of th e race o n this poi n t

Ho n esty is the best policy ; Ill gott e n goods seldo m prosper ;
-

Th e bite r is so m eti m es bi t ; Ill g o t ill spe n t We can n ot , .

add u ce a statistical proo f for the t r u th of these observatio n s ,

b u t a psychological proof is n o t hard to n d Disho n esty .

deade n s the desi re for ho n est acq u isitio n ; an d the ft is al ways

an u n certai n a n d precario u s m ea n s o f livelih ood What we .

have h o n estly acqu ire d is prod u ctive o f blessi n gs ; stole n

goods have the opposite e ffec t A n d if all this were n ot tr u e
.
,

i f it were possible to e n j oy the fr u its o f thef t per m a n e n tly an d

i n safety wh o is proo f agai n st his o w n co n scie n ce ? Every
m an shares th e se n ti m e n ts an d judg m e n ts of society ; they
m ay be t e m porarily obsc u red b u t n o on e can be s u re th at
,

they will n ot m a n ifes t the m selves agai n so m e day ; n o o n e

has ever d o n e well to bur d e n hi m sel f with a black secret A .

m odest ope n peaceable de m ea n or we regard as a d u ty to

, ,

wards others There i s n o s u rer way o f m aki n g o n e s o w n

.

li fe happy It wi n s frie n d s for o n e it creates an at m osphe re

.
,

o f peace an d good cheer i n the s u rro u n di n gs which is reected ,

back to its source A n d vi ce ve r s a a h a u ghty e n vio u s

.
, , ,

q u arrelso m e deceit ful m alici o u s n at u re is a certai n m ea n s

, ,

to an u n h appy sorrow fu l li fe
,
.

He n ce d u ties towards others an d d u tie s towards sel f d o n ot

excl u de ea ch other ; i n divi d u al we l fare an d th e wel fare o f th e
collective bodies o f w hich every o n e for m s a part the fa m ily ,
25
3 86 C ON C E P TS A ND P RIN C IP LE S
the s ocial a n d eco n o m ic sphere th e co m m u n ity the state are
, ,

so i n terwove n that wh oever cares fo r his o w n tr u e wel fare at

the sam e ti m e pro m otes that of these bodies ; a n d vi ce v e r sa ,

wh oever faith fu lly perfor m s the duties which are i m posed by

the m works fo r his o wn good .

3 It is as i m possible to disti n guish a bsol u tely be t wee n

.

egoistic an d altr u i stic acts o n th e gro u n d of their m oti ve s as

it is t o separate the m accordi n g t o th eir effects In deed it is .
,

a somewh at c u rio u s n otio n this n otio n that every act m u st

,

h ave on e m otive N ay j u st as m a n y cau ses co operate i n the

. ,
-

physical world to produce a m ove m e n t so m a n y m otives work ,

togethe r to deter m i n e the will A s a rule a partic u lar act.

,

res u lts fro m the i n teractio n of a per m an e n t te n de n cy of th e

will which i n turn depe n ds u po n the age n t s n at u re an d li fe
,

co n ditio n s an d the surrou n di n g circu m sta n ces A l t ruistic

,
.

m o t ives h ave i n variably co n trib u t ed t o educa t e t he will ,

while a m o n g the co n di t i o n s referred to we m ay ofte n recko n

the e n treaties co m m a n ds e xhor t atio n s ad m o n itio n s pr aise
, , , ,

an d ce n s u re o f perso n s wh o exert an i n ue n ce either directly ,

i n word o r by their m ere existe n ce eve n witho u t bei n g

, ,

ac t ually prese n t Is i t an egoistic or an altr u istic m otive

.

that i m pels the peasa n t to c u ltivate his elds to i m prove his ,

la n d to work i n d u strio u sly year after year an d day after d ay ?

, ,

This is an abs u rd al t er n ative If th e peasa n t hi m self were

.

asked whether h e did all these thi n gs fo r his o w n or oth e rs

sak e he would look a t the q u estio n er i n a perplex e d way as

, ,

t ho u gh doubti n g his sa n ity an d if h e a n swered a t all h e

, ,

wo u ld say : I do th e m beca u se they m u st be do n e ; otherwise

m y property will go t o rack a n d r u i n A n d why sh o u ld n t it

.

go to rui n ? Well i t wo u ld be a sha m e to r u i n it Besides it

,
.
,

ives m e an d m y fa m ily a livi n g A n d if the m oralist were

g
to i n vestigate m ore closely h e wo u ld perh aps n d th at thi s
,

sam e peasa n t was labori n g zealo u sly fo r his co m m u n ity that ,

h e was reari n g so n s fo r his co u n try an d fu r n ishi n g the ar m y

with soldiers an d that h e really desi red to d o all these thi n gs
, ,
3 88 C ON C E PTS A ND P RIN C IPLE S
in a perfec tly h u m a n way On the co n trary the val u e o f
.
,

work s co m posed fo r others i s perhaps m u ch m ore do u btfu l

t ha n th e val u e of those wh ose authors w ere i n terested solely

i n the s u bjec t itsel f an d perhaps occasio n ally tho u ght of their
,

fa m e S chope n ha u er was n o t i n t he habit o f w orry i n g m u ch

.

abo u t t he we a l an d w oe of others ; wh at he t ho u gh t an d wrote

h e wrote for his o wn sake i n orde r t o solve the grea t riddle o f

,

e xiste n ce ,i n order to preserve t h e th oughts which pleased

h i m i n t he h appy m o m e n t o f t heir bir th an d t o create for
, ,

hi m self happy s u r rou n di n gs i n t he m H e did n o t wri t e fo r.

others ; he wrote n o text books n o sys t e m s n o learn ed works

-
, , ,

b u t he wro t e fo r hi m self j u s t as th e tr u e poe t writes poetry

for hi m self an d the tru e ar t is t creates for hi m self an d gives
,

expressio n to wh at his so u l co n ceives Of course i f there .

,

were n o o thers n othi n g wo u ld be creat ed N o orator
, .

wo u ld speak wi thout an a u die n ce t o hear h i m n o poe t make ,

poe t ry withou t a people t o rea d o r si n g his so n gs n o author ,

w ri t e u n less t here were a t leas t i n his i m agi n a tio n perso n s

, ,

wh o w ould read wha t he wro t e N e ve r t heless if a m an is n ot

.
,

so f ull of his s u bj ec t t ha t he c a n n o t help spe aki n g of it if he ,

mus t rs t be i m pelled t o d o so by his co n sideratio n of others

a n d t heir good he m ay save his e ffor t s without e n da n geri n g the
,

welfa re of othe rs Hoffdi n g quotes a re m ark o f Goeth e t o

.

Ecker m a n n : I n ever asked m yself i n m y p rofessio n as a lit

c rary m an : Wha t d o t he m asses wa n t an d h o w c an I serve ,

h u m an ity ? Bu t I always si m ply e n deavored t o make myself

wiser an d be tt er t o e n rich m y o w n perso n ality an d t he n
, ,

always to say o n ly wh at I had fo u n d t o be good an d tr u e .

A n d t he sam e m ay be sai d o f ge n ui n e s e lf sa cr ice also -

.

Was the m otive which act u ated Leo n idas an d his ban d e go is ,

t i c o r altr u is tic ? Th e q u esti o n i s absurd an d tries to separate

what ca n n ot b e separated C ertai n ly they battled for their
.
,

co u n t ry b u t of c ou rse the co u n try was the i r cou n try an d n o t

,

a foreign co u n try On the other h a n d they fo u ght an d fell fo r

.
,

the i r o wn gl ory b u t their glory was likewise the glory of S parta

,
.
 E G IS O M A ND A LTRUISM 3 89

How woul d i t be possible t o dis t i n gu ish bet wee n th e person al

an d the altruistic ele m e n t here ? He n ce we m ay say Every ,

sel f sacr ice is a t th e sa m e ti m e self preservatio n n a m ely

- -
,

preserva t io n o f the i d e a l self ; i n deed it is the pro u des t ki n d ,

o f self asserti o n fo r m e to sacrice m ysel f for m e to stake m y

-
,

li fe i n battli n g for a good which I estee m higher tha n m y li fe

,
.

A purely passive sacrice would n o t be m y act an d he n ce n ot ,

sel f sacrice There is the re fore always a selsh ele m e n t

-
.

i n it u n selsh co n d u ct is a co n tradiction i n ter m s Th e .

sel f is always i n volved it sacrices a good o n ly for a highe r

,

good possessio n s for fa m e a good n a m e for a good co n sci e n ce

, , ,

li fe for the freedom an d ho n or of the pe opl e A n d vi ce ver sa .

,

the t raitor sacrices hi s frie n d o r his reputatio n or his people

for thir ty pieces of silver ; h e too would rather h ave the , ,

thirty pi eces of silver without the sacrice Th e o n ly di ff er .

e n ce lies i n the eval u atio n of th e goods an d t his is what de

t er m i n es t he value of the m an : he expresses hi s o wn worth ,

his i nn er m os t dispositio n i n the v alues which h e places upo n

,

the goods .

Physicis t s clai m tha t the re is n o isolat ed poi n t i n t he u n i

verse tha t every ele m e n t of t he corpo real world sta n ds i n
,

reciprocal rela t io n with every other on e There is n o isol ated .

poi n t i n t he m oral world either Every act of every m an i n

.

u e n ce s t he e n t ire m oral u n iverse an d every act i n the u n iverse

,

reacts u po n every i n dividual We ca n n ot trace these e ffec t s

.

a n d sho w wha t t hey are n or ca n we do t his i n t h e physical

,

world : the fall of a sto n e does n ot ch a n ge the earth s ce n tre

o f gravity to an y perceptible degree b u t i t cha n ges it n o n e

,

the less S i m ilarly an i n dividual s liki n g fo r o r aversio n to

.
,

co ffee o r t obacco does n ot n o t iceably affect the m arket val u e

o f th ese co m m odities yet it ch an ges it an d thereby i n u e n ces
, ,

agric u lture an d the econ o m ic activity of m a n ki n d Th e i n di .

v i d u al s like o r dislike fo r a m ode o f co n d u ct a for m o f art

, ,

a tho u ght or a word does n ot perceptibly cha n ge b u t still it

, , ,

cha n ges th e m orals the art th e opi n io n s an d the la n guage

, , , ,
3 90 C ON C EPTS A ND P RIN C I PLE S
of his s u rrou n di n gs his people an d h u m a n ity That there is
, , .

s u ch an i n t er relatio n bet wee n all is see n fro m the fact that

-

n o o n e is wh olly i n di ffere n t t o the behavior o f others : he

approves or disapproves others co n d u ct as soo n as he wit

n esses it an d every j u dg m e n t is the begi n n i n g o f so m e for m o f

,

i n ter fere n ce which fu rthers o r retards s u ch actio n It see m s

, .

as tho u gh every o n e felt : Whatever m y fello w m a n does con

cern s m e it p ro m otes or opposes m y u lti m at e e n ds
, .

Is the a n tithesi s betwee n egois m an d altr u is m therefore

m ea n i n gless Is there n o di ff ere n ce i n acts an d m otives ,

w hich gives rise to this divisio n ?

I d o n o t o f course clai m that
, C ases u n q u estio n ably arise
,
.
,

i n which i n divid u al i n terests co n ict or see m to co n ic t with , ,

foreig n i n terests A cts do u btless occu r i n which the i n divid

.

ual seeks his o w n adva n tage at the expe n se o f others wel fare
,

an d co n versely there are acts i n which i n divid u al i n teres t s an d

,

i n cli n a t io n s are sacriced for th e wel fare o f oth ers f ro m whic h

i t does n ot n ecessarily follow th a t i n divid u al welfare i f we take ,

the word i n i t s pr ofo un dest m ea n i n g is pro m oted i n the for m er ,

i n s t a n ce an d re t arded i n the lat t er An d it ca n n ot be disp u ted

.

t hat these facts have great moral sig n ica n ce Th e above r e .

e ct i on s si m pl y desi re t o show t ha t th e O pposi t io n bet w ee n i n

dividual an d ge n eral welfare selsh an d al tr u istic m otives is
, ,

n ot th e r u le b u t the ex cep t io n
,
A s a r u le there i s har m o n y
.
,

i n the effec t s as well as i n the m otives Li fe is n ot such an .

a n t ago n istic affair as so m e m oralis t s m ake i t appear : it is

n o t o n e co n sta n t str u ggle be t wee n m i n e an d t hi n e No hu .

m an life perh aps i s wholly free fro m co n ic t b u t there are

, , ,

m a n y lives i n which i t plays n o pro m i n e n t par t Perso n s wh o .

e n joy healthy do m estic relatio n s an d live i n well reg u lated -

co m m u n ities an d p u rs u e ho n orabl e an d regular calli n gs do

, ,

n ot experie n ce m a n y s u ch co n icts n o r do t hey by an y mea n s ,

believe that the altruistic settle m e n t of such co n icts for m s

the esse n t ial co n t e n t of t heir li fe an d determ i n es i ts m oral
,

wort h .
3 92 C ON C E P TS A ND P RIN C IPLES
violatio n of duty to n eglec t their welfare i n order to gratify
,

the wishes of others There fore we m ay say the sacric e

.
, ,

o f i n divid u al desires a n d i n terests is n o t good i n i t sel f bu t ,

o n l y i n case t he vital i n terests of others de m a n d i t : wh oeve r

risks his life to save a n other s whoever sacrices hi m self fo r

his people will be ad m ire d an d praised co n versely whoeve r

, ,

allows a fello w m an m iserably to perish rather tha n sacrice

his co m forts o r a pl eas u re is co n de m n ed as selsh an d
,

hardheart ed .

It see m s th erefore t ha t ou r j u dg m e n t depe n ds upo n o u r

, ,

esti m ate of th e objective value o f the e n ds C an we .

,

the n m aki n g this o u r star t i n g poi n t set up as th e u n iversa l

,
-
,

n or m for decidi n g betwee n the i n t erests o f sel f an d o f o t hers

Th e greater i n terest u n iversally takes precede n ce over th e

s m aller i n teres t regardless of whe ther m y i n terest or that of
,

others is t he greater ? Un iversalis t ic u t ili t aria n is m see m s to

hit u po n this s t a n dard : If th e greates t happi n ess of t he
greatest n u m ber is th e absol u t e e n d,an d if t he obj ec t ive worth
o f acts is m eas u red by their ple a sure produci n g q u alities the n -
,

t h e sacrice o f perso n al happi n ess is n ecessary whe n eve r i t

bri n gs greater happi n ess to others an d i n ad m issibl e whe n ever
,

i t bri n gs less o r n o h appi n ess t o o t hers .

Perhaps the u n iversal for m ula c an sta n d a s s u ch In orde r .

t o gu ard it agai n st m i sco n ception s it will be n ecessary how , ,

ever to de n e i t more accurately A bove all i t m u s t be

,
.
,

re m e m bere d that h appi n ess o r welfare i s n ot like a coi n t hat

m ay be passed fro m h a n d to han d Happi n ess i s the result of
.

s u ccess fu l actio n it ca nn ot therefore b e bestowed upo n a m an

as a gi ft ,
h e m ust work for it A ll that a n othe r can do is
.

to provide h i m with the ex t er n al m ea n s of reali zi n g it tha t is , ,

to le n d h i m occasio n al assis t a n ce This a t o n ce shows that th e

.

fo rm ula is n ot s u ited to solve m ere proble m s i n arith m etic .

It will n ever be possible to calc u late wha t directio n m y al tru

i sti c deeds m u st take at a n y partic u la r m o m e n t i n order to
y i eld the m axi m u m of h appi n ess Here m oral tac t will .
 O M
E G IS A ND A LTR UI SM 3 93

a lways have to decide Thi s tac t however ca n n o t be g u ided

.
, ,

s o m u ch by bala n ci n g t he obj e cti v e m ag n i tu d e o f the i n t erests

i n volved as by a ki n d of n at u r a l hi e r a r chy of e n d s Firs t i n .

i m porta n ce are t he d u t ies which m y positio n an d calli n g i n

li fe i m pos e u po n m e ; n ext co m e the d u ties which m y par
t i cu l ar relatio n s t o others i m pose upo n m e ; an d the n thos e
depen di n g upo n occasio n al relat io n s t o people i n ge n eral .

Eve n t ho u gh the i n terests of the lat t er m ay i n the m selves be

grea t er m y actio n is i n variably part ially i n u e n ced an d as
, ,

a r u le dete r m i n ed by t heir dista n ce fro m the ego the ce n t re

, ,

o f m y activity It is evide n t that o u r co n duct is ac t ually g u ided

.

by s u ch co n sideratio n s every ego we m ight say arran ges all

, ,

othe r e goe s arou n d i t i n co n ce n tric circles ; the farther away

the i n terests fro m this cen t re the less weight an d m oti ve force
'

t hey possess Tha t is a law of psychical m echan i cs Its

. .

t eleological n ecessity i s Obvi o u s : i f t he di ffere n t i n t erests

were to i n u e n ce us a ccordi n g t o thei r obj ec t ive val u e i t ,

w o u l d lead t o the m os t curio u s co n fusio n i n ou r n at u res A .

correspo n di n g co n f u sio n i n ou r ac t io n s wo uld re n der the latter

u tterly fr u itless ; the ef cacy of all ai d ge n erally decreases

i n direct propor t io n t o t he dis t a n ce bet wee n t h e giver a n d th e

recipie n t .

This view does n o t o f course de n y tha t re m o t e i n t erests

, ,

m ay u n der certai n circu m sta n ces n ecessitate the sacrice of

, ,

n earer i n t erests N 0 li fe i s t oo precious whe n i t co m es t o pre

.

servi n g t he li fe an d freedo m o f a people A n d this is right . .

Th e i n terests o f j u s t ice an d of t r u th m ay de m a n d an d j u sti fy

the sacrice o f do m estic h appi n ess A n d we sh all praise the .

m ercy o f the good S a m arita n who witho u t thi n ki n g of his ow n

, ,

i n te rests an d safety haste n ed to the resc u e o f the m an who

,

had falle n a m o n g t hieves : at that m o m e n t h e was i n deed tha t

ma n s n earest frie n d h e was able to hel p h i m an d he alo n e

was able to help h i m Bu t the r u le still holds that those

.

n eares t t o us are dearest to u s Cha r i ty beg i n s a t hom e says

.
,

a good old E n glish proverb .

3 94 C ON C EP TS AND P RIN C IPLE S
5 . Le tadd a fe w words co n cer n i n g the a tt it u de o f the
me
t he or y of e volu ti on to the a n tithesi s o f egois m an d altr u is m .

It is clai m ed that a syste m of m oral philosophy which is based

u po n the theory of evol u tio n ca n n ot explai n the s oci a l virt u es .

N at u ral selectio n m ay perhaps devel op stre n gth shrewd n ess

, , , ,

an d e n ergy i n the p u rs u it o f selsh i n terests b u t it can n eve r ,

prod u ce sel f de n ial an d still less sel f s ac ri ce N ay t he m ore

-
,
-
.
,

sel shly an i n divid u al asserts his o w n i n teres t s t h e stro n ger ,

he m u st be other thi n gs bei n g equal ; an d n at u ral selectio n

,

will n ecessarily prod u ce s u ch types Moreover evolutio n istic .

,

ethics m u st regard these types as bes t adapted t o the s u rrou n d

i n gs a n d m u st approve o f th eir develop m e n t the m os t sel sh
,

egois m gives the i n divid u al the great est power t o asser t his
clai m s an d th erefore t he grea t es t perfec t io n 1
,
.

Ou r a n swer is : This wo u ld be the case if m en live d i n

i solatio n Bu t they live an d as hu m an be i ng s can live o n ly i n
.
, ,

societies an d co m m u n ities i n t ribes an d n atio n s Beasts of

, .

prey live i n isolatio n a t leas t m os t of t he m an d here we ac t u

,

ally n d the type m e n t io n ed above Tha t however which .

, ,

has gi ve n m an s uch an i m m e n se adva n tage over all other liv

i n g creat u res eve n ove r the stro n ges t a n d ercest br u t es is
, ,

his pec u li ar t n ess fo r collective li fe an d collective activity ,

to whi ch are du e the develop m e n t o f la n gu age an d i n tellige n ce ,

an d like wise the i n ve n tio n of t ools Th e u n i o n of m a n y i n di

.

v i du al s for p u rposes of co n ce n t rated e ff or t prod u ce s power fu l

e ffects He n ce s oci a blen e ss beco m es a life preservi n g q u ali ty

.
-
,

l ike the qu alities u po n which it depe n ds s u ch as loyalty an d ,

delity to co m pa n io n s devotio n an d obedie n ce t o leaders eve n

, ,

at th e sacrice of i n divid u al i n terests n ay o f li fe itsel f These ,

.

qu alities i n t u r n are deeply an d r m ly rooted i n the i n d i vi

, ,

d u al s feeli n gs o f attach m e n t an d piety to the social whole an d

i n his a ffectio n for all its m e m bers He n ce all these q u alities

.

t e n d to preserve th e life of a social bei n g an d c an therefore be ,

devel oped by n a tu ral selectio n Th e v will be e xercised an d .

[S H x l y E l t i
1 ee u e d E thi ; K i d d S i l E l ti
,
vo u on a n csT ] ,
oc a vo u on .
- E .
3 96 C ON C E P TS A ND P RIN C IPLE S
co m e a d aily n eed a level s u ch tha t the lowe r egoistic
,

satis factio n s will be co n ti n u ally subordi n ated t o this higher

egois t ic sat isfactio n S i m ulta n eo u sly with t he progress of
.

civiliza t io n n atural s u fferi n gs an d privatio n s of all ki n ds

,

beco m e less freq u e n t an d altruis m grad u ally ceases t o be

,

co m passio n an d sel f s acr i ce an d ass u m es the for m o f sym

-

pathetic graticatio n which costs the receiver n othi n g b u t

, ,

i s a gratis additio n to his egoistic g raticat i o n s In deed .
,

S pe n cer is occ u pied with t he t hought that the desire fo r al tr u i s

tic satis factio n s m ay a t so m e fu t u r e t i m e beco m e s o stro n g
th a t e ach m ay i n sis t on taki n g an u n d u e share of the m ; b u t ,

he hopes ,
altr u istic co m pe t itio n rst reachi n g a c om

,

pro m ise u n der which each restrai n s hi m sel f fro m taki n g an

u n d u e sh are of altru istic satisfactio n s eve n tually rises to a ,

co n ciliatio n u n der which each takes care tha t others shall

,

have their O ppor t u n i ties for altruistic sa t isfactio n s .

S pe n cer adds tha t he does n ot expec t t hat these co n cl u sio n s

will m eet with an y co n siderable a ccepta n ce o r t ha t t hose w h o ,

p rofess C hristia n i ty an d prac t ise paga n is m can feel sy m pathy

wit h s u ch a v ie w Eve n at the risk o f bei n g recko n ed a m o n g
.

the latter I ca n n o t re frai n fro m recordi n g m y objectio n s

,
.

S pe n cer bases his expec t atio n s of the fut u re upo n the pas t
co u rse o f devel op m e n t which is their o n ly possible grou n d
, .

His i dea of t his evolutio n however see m s t o m e to be

, ,

o n e sided
-
. He overl ooks a fact of which h e i s of course , , ,

us u ally aware tha t war i s a stro n gly socializi n g force ; s i m

,

u l t an e o u s l
y with t he hostile i n sti n cts i t prod u ces social
i n sti n cts C i vil i zati on wh i ch m akes wars less freque n t weak
.
, ,

e n s t he m ilita n t i n sti n c t s on t he o n e ha n d an d loose n s the

, ,

i n t er n al u n i ty o n th e other S pe n cer d escribes historical

.

de velop m e n t a s a progressive socializatio n i n which there is ,

a grad u al aba t e m e n t o f w ar S o m ethi n g like this n u .

doubtedly occ u rs ; w e n o l o n ger live like the In dia n with , ,

weapo n s co n sta n tly i n ou r ha n ds ; an d eco n o m i c labor is b e

co m i n g m ore an d m ore di ffere n tiated an d orga n ized We .
 EG IS O M A ND A LTRUISM 3 97

also h a v e t he righ t t o assume t ha t h u m an n at ure will ad ap t

itself to t h ese cha n ges i n the co n ditio n s of li fe that it wil l ,

beco m e bett e r tted for social labor Th e German s who .

fo u gh t agai n s t Mari u s an d C aesar t wo t housa n d years ago

, ,

could hardly work side by side with their m oder n desce n da n t s

i n the factory o r the c ou n ti n g roo m But we sh ould n ot .

ide n ti fy tn ess fo r collective life wit h altr u i stic feeli n gs m e n

may work t oge t her con sta n tly witho u t experie n ci n g feeli n gs
o f bro t herly love : t heir feeli n gs m ay b e i n te n sely egoistic I .

believe there can be n o doub t tha t feeli n gs of dis t ru s t hatred , ,

an d e n vy are much m ore co m m o n i n o u r i n dus t rial society t ha n

they were a m o n g t he ol d Germ a n peasa n t s a m o n g the latter

co m petitio n forgery fra u d speculatio n frictio n betwee n labor
, , , ,

ers an d e m ployers were u n heard of ; every ho u sehold form ed

,

an esse n tially sep a ra t e eco n o m ic u n i t y Th e more complicated

.

the co opera t io n t he gre at er t he oppor t u n ity for frictio n

-
,
.

Where sh all we n d t he m os t collisio n s : a m o n g a gro u p of

O f cials t eachers an d clergy m e n o r amo n g a gro u p of peas
, , ,

an ts o r a compa n y of s oldiers ? NO on e will be i n doubt as

t o his a n swer O f course I do n ot wish t o de n y that whereas
.
, ,

i n a peasa n t village m e n a re ra t he r i n di ff ere n t t o each o t her ,

feeli n gs of respec t d evotio n an d fr ie n dship are i f n o t m ore

, , ,

freq u e n t a t leas t more i n t e n se i n partic u lar cases am o n g

, ,

the form er gro u p ; all I m ea n t o say is that the person al

relatio n s existi n g betwee n the m embers are m ore pro n ou n ced
i n every directio n : there is g reate r e n m ity a n d disrespect o n
the on e side an d m ore frie n dship an d co n de n ce o n the
other.

S pe n cer a ppeals t o the evol u t io n o f do m estic relatio n s i n

su pport of his vie w I believe these rel atio n s S ho w the sa m e
.

characte ristics ; they are m ore pro n ou n ced i n every way .

Fa m ilies are n o w livi n g toget h er i n m u ch close r u n i o n tha n

was possible i n pri m itive ti m es ; b u t the re are also fa m ilies
a m o n g whose m e m bers discord an d m u t u al hatred prevail
t o a deg ree absol u tely u n k n ow n to pri m it i ve ages Th is is .
3 98 C ON C E P TS A ND P RIN C IPLE S
qui t e n at ural for the more marke d the i n dividualit i es th e
, ,

more i n te n sely will the y att rac t an d repel each o ther How .

happily an d i n di ffere n tly t h e an i m als dwell toge th e r i n the

herd !
Th e same is t rue of t he relatio n s existi n g be t wee n t he
di ffere n t n atio n s Tr u e peace see m s to be the per m a n e n t
.
,

co n ditio n of civilized n atio n s w ar an i n t err u pti o n while

, ,

a m o n g sav a ge tribes the per m a n e n t co n ditio n is war Bu t .

by the side of the bloody an d destructive wars of t he for m er ,

the con icts o f th e lat t e r see m like child s play Will wars
.

disappear ? S pe n ce r an ticipat es tha t they will Bu t will .

n atio n s cease desiri n g powe r ho n or advan t ages an d fa m e

, , , ,

at each o ther s expe n se ? I fear n ot u n ti l they cease to

,

prefer th ei r e xi s t e n c e to t he existe n ce of others t h at is n ot , ,

u n til t hey cease t o e xis t Perhaps t he n at io n s will ceas e

.

t o be wha t t hey n o w a re i t see m s idle h oweve r t o speculat e , ,

u po n wh a t will happe n t he n wha t n e w historical for m s of life

,

will take t hei r pl a ce an d wha t relat io n t hese will bear t o

,

each other .

Is S pe n cer s error supposi n g t h a t t he drea m of e t er n al

peace is an ill u sio n a usefu l error Perhaps so m e will be

i n cli n ed t o believe that i t is ; tha t i t gives us stre n gth an d
co u rage to labor fo r th e fu tur e It m ay do this for partie.

ular i n divid u als although s u ch re m ote co n sideratio n s can

,

hardly ex ercise a grea t i n u e n ce u po n hu m an feeli n g an d

actio n We love an d hat e desire an d despise t hi n gs that are
.
, ,

n ear us . It m ay also have a n other e e ct : i t may m ake u s

disco n te n t ed with an d u n j u st t o the pas t an d the prese n t .

S pe n cer does n ot al ways see m to be free fro m this fau l t .

J u st as h is great biological ge n er alizatio n s n o t i n freq u e n tly

bli n d h i m to t he m an ifold n ess of historical reality so his fan ,

tas t i c op t i m istic vie w o f the future re n ders h i m i n capable o f

u n dersta n di n g an d appreci ati n g the pas t Eve n if the f u ture .

sh ou l d be blessed with perfec t happi n ess an d virt u e the pas t ,

g e n eratio n s m ight still m ai n tai n i f they co u ld de fe n d thei r

 C H A PTE R VII

VIRTUE APPINE SS
A ND H

I like t o p rese n t th e views which I h a v e e xp resse d

S HOUL D

at ra n do m i n the foregoi n g pages on the relat io n be t wee n ,

vir t ue an d welfare i n co n n ec t ed for m We m ay co n sider the

, .

s u bjec t fro m t wo poi n t s of vie w : ( 1 ) Wha t i n ue n ce h as

vir t ue u p o n happi ness 2
( ) What i s t he e ffe ct of h a ppi n ess
upo n charac t e r ?
1 Th e rs t grea t an d fu n dame n tal t ru th t o which all
.

peoples h ave bee n led i n t hei r re ec t io n s upo n m oral ma tt ers is

the t r u th th a t th e good m an fares well an d th e wicked m an ill .

Thi s co n victio n which represe n t s the expe rie n ces of t he r ace

, ,

is expressed i n cou n tless proverbs L S ch m id t has m a de an . .

exh a u s t ive collec t ion of such proverbs an d passages fro m

Greek li t era t ure i n the rs t chapte r of his work on t h e E thi cs

of t h e G r eeks It was r m ly believed by t he a n cie n t G reeks
.
,

so he begi n s his work t ha t t he fa t es of m en we re co nt rolled

,

by s t er n justice which rewards the good an d pu n ishes th e

,

bad . H e shows th at this t hough t which remai n ed th e ,

fu n da m e n tal the m e of Greek poe t ry an d his t ory already per ,

vaded the Ho m eric poe m s Th e ad m i n istrat io n of j u s t ice an d

.

t he fates of m e n are i n the ha n ds of the gods or r a ther of ,

the divi n e pri n ciple for th e gods as i n divid u al s are a t leas t

, ,

for the poe t f u ll of hu m a n m oods an d feeli n gs ; where a s the

,

gods of popular faith are esse n tially the g u ardia n s of justice

an d m orals They p u n ish the evil d e er w h o b reaks his oath
.
-
,

viola t e s pie ty o r the l aws of hospitality they pursue the ,

m urderer u n t il his cri m e is ave n ged To be sure ve n gea n c e

.
,
 VIRT UE A ND H APP I N ES S 4 01

i s o fte n delayed perhaps it rst strik es the desce n d an ts of

,

the cri mi n al or i t m ay n o t overtake the victi m accordi n g to

, ,

the beli e f i n t he t ra n s m igratio n o f so u ls an d th e j u dg m e n t of

th e dead which ca m e fro m the Orie n t u n til i n t he here after
, , .

But n o e vil d e er escapes p u n ish m e n t Th e good m an o n

-
.
,

the other han d i s t he favorite of the gods They protect h i m

, .

an d his o wn agai n st evil an d per m it h i m to co m plete his li fe

,

i n happ in ess an d witho u t s i n In th e co n cep t o f the God

. ?

l ove d on e ( de qbt xnq ) the n otio n s of piety phila n thropy an d

o

, ,

divi n e favor are i n separably i n terwove n .

We discover the sam e fi m dam e n t al n ote i n th e h is torical

a n d poetical books of the O l d Tes ta m e n t Th e historical books .

show h o w the Lord m akes good th e pro m ises an d threats

with whi ch He acco m pa n ie d th e laws i n th e lives o f the i n ,

di v i d u al s an d of t he people In the Psal m s t oo th e righteo u s

.
, ,

n ess, faith fuln ess an d tr uth o r trus tworthi n ess of God

,

are a s u bject of praise : He does n ot forsake the righteo u s

wh o keep His co m m a n d m e n ts b u t rewards their childre n a n d
,

their childr en s childre n for thei r o bedie n ce Th e righteo u s

.

m an too s u ffe rs but the L ord does n o t forsake h i m n ay the

, , , , ,

su ff eri n gs themselve s t urn i n t o blessi n gs ; t he u n go dly o n ,

the other ha n d perish ; the wages of s i n is death

, .

Th e theoretical develop m e n t of th i s th ought for m s the con

te n t of Greek m oral philosophy V irt u e an d h appi n ess are .

co n n ected n ot m erely accide n tally through th e m ediatio n

, ,

o f the gods b u t i n the very n ature o f thi n gs

, Th e c o n ce p .

tio n of happi n ess h owever is spiritualized ; n ot ex te r n a l

,

happi n ess o r good fortu n e (cir ru xl ) but i n te r n a l happi n ess a , ,

peace an d repose o f spirit is directly j oi n ed with the e x e r

,

cise of vir t ue o r follows as its n ecessary e ffect Exter n al

, .

wel fare does n ot al w a vs fall t o the lot of the wise an d vi r

t u ou s m an ; but vi rt u e te n ds to realize t his also ; an d i n
case h e does n o t obtai n it h e is s u re o f n di n g happi n ess
i n hi s o wn h eart This i s also the prevaili n g se n ti m e n t i n
.

Hobbes an d S pi n oza Leib n iz an d Wol

'

m oder n ethics .
,

,

26
4 02 C ON C E P TS AN D P RIN C IP LE S
S haftesbu ry H u m e all atte m p t t o poi n t ou t the n e ce s
an d ,

sary co n n ectio n betwee n righteo u s n ess an d wel fare They .

,

too regard as their cardi n al d octri n e th e propositio n tha t

,

good co n d uct h as welfare bad co n d u ct m is fort u n e as its n at u

, ,

ral co n seque n ce V i r t u e wel fare ho n or an d i n n er peace go

.
, , ,

together as well as vice m i sery disgrace an d i n n er dis

, , ,

cord This is especially true o f the t w o extre m es : virtu e an d

.

i n n er peace v ice an d i n n er discor d Th e t wo m iddle term s

,
.

o f th e series are n o t so co n s t a n t .

A p e ssi m i s ti c co n ceptio n r u n s parallel with this vie w of th e

relatio n of virt u e an d h appi n ess which m ay be called the
o t i m i s ti c view : T h e evil d e er is the v e r v on e who fares
p
-

well ; fortu n e favors h i m ; while the good m an fares ill It .

wo u ld n o t be di fc u lt to gathe r a co n siderable n u m be r of
e xa m ples fro m the literatu re an d th e proverbs o f n atio n s ,

all of which ai m t o sh o w that the wicked m an s u cceeds

bette r i n the worl d with his e vil arts tha n the m an wh o
p u rs u es th e path of t r u th a n d j ustice S trategy an d vio .

le n ce the latter agai n st t he weake r t he for m er agai n s t the

, ,

stro nger ar e the m ea n s by which m e n rise an d m ai n t ai n

,

the m selves Th e Ol d fable of Re n ard the fox which Goeth e

.
,

o n ce calle d a profan e world b i ble i llu st r at e s t his : th e lio n an d

-
,

the fox viole n ce an d s t ra t egy co n trol a ffai rs th ey are th e ki n g

, , ,

a n d the cha n cellor ; t he ho n es t r a m an d the i n n oce n t b ar e ,

the straigh t forward bear an d the i n experie n ced wol f alway s ,

get the wors t of the bargai n A n d the o ther bible tha t is

.
, ,

the Bible of the N ew Tes t a m e n t does n ot seem t o co n tradic t

,

thi s farcical a n i m al bible It is on e of the f u n da m e n tal con

.

c e pt i o n s of pri m itive C hristi a n ity tha t t he j u st m u st s u ff er

m u ch fo r t he sake o f j u stice an d t r u th Like the m aster .

,

th e disciple s m u st e n d u re m a n y s u fferi n gs disgrace an d , ,

persec u tio n .

Which of these two views is t h e correct on e ? Is t he t ru th o f

th e rst overthrow n by t h a t of the seco n d ? I do n ot th i n k so .

Th e sporadic pessi m istic m oods which n o w an d the n t ak e

4 04 C ON C E P TS A ND P RIN C IPLE S

There is however an imp or t a n t exceptio n to the las t r u le

, ,

a m o n g t he vicious vir t ue does n ot beget love but hatred ,

.

Th e sh a meless stru m pe t hates the virtuous m aide n ; t h e very

exis t e n ce of t he l a t t er i s a reproach t o h e r she seeks her re ,

ve n ge i n ridicule calu m n y an d what ever her hatred may pro m p t

, ,

h er t o do It is the grea t est so u rce of satisfactio n to her to

.

drag her i n n oce n t sis t er dow n t o h er o w n disgracef u l level for ,

i t sile n ces reproach This explai n s th e awful i m pulse t o lead

.

o th ers i n t o t e m p t at io n which is so co m m o n t o vice S o too .

, ,

t he atter e r an d place hu n t e r h at es the ho nes t an d t ru th fu l

-

m an wh o goes t hrough life wi t h his head erect ; he i m agi n es

,

t hat th e la t ter w at ches sees t hro u gh an d despises him

, ,
.

S hould vice ever gai n th e a sce n de n cy i n s ociety vir t u e ,

w ould n o l o n ger be att rac t ive ; i t wo u ld arous e a m on g m os t

m e n if n o t co n t e m p t a t lea st h at red an d aversio n
, ,
A nd .

si n ce t he vices ca n n o t m ak e those wh o possess t hem agre e

able i n the sigh t of m en for vir t ue is a gree a bl e to th e vir
t u o n s bu t v ic e i s n ot es t ee m ed by t he vicious especially n ot
, ,

social vi ce a feeli n g of u n iversal hat red woul d t ak e p os

sessio n oi socie ty S uch a co n di t io n is fore t old i n t he r e
.

markable li n es of Hesiod s pessimis t ic ally colored poem

-
,

Wor k s an d Da y s

Nor si re wi th son , wi th bre th r e n b r e th re n ble n d ,

Nor h o st w i th gu e st , n o r fri e n d as e r st , w i th fri e n d ,

R e ckle ss of h e av e n
s r e v e n ge , th e son s b eh old
Th e h oa ry p r a en ts w ax t o o s w iftl y old ;
A n d i m p i ou s p oi n t th e k e e n d i sh o n o i n g t o ngu e , r
Wi th h a d e p oo fs an d b i t te m o ck e i e s h u n g :
r r r r r
Nor gr ate fu l i n d e cli n i n g age r e p ay

Th e rt r i g f d
nu u f th i r b e tt r d y
n on n e ss o e e a .

N w mo ri gh t h d i l w f poil th ey w ai t
an s

an s a : or s ,

A d l y th i r m t l i ti
n a e d l te u ua c es e so a :

U h n r d h e by w h m hi th i f red ;
o no e o s oa s ea

N th e g d b l
o r ar e d th j t roo rd
e ov e , e us e ve e :

Wi th f r gr d th
av o il d r t ace d e ev -
ee s an s,

N rb s w i th h m
o r cu q ity h i h d ;
s a e n or e u s an s

Wi th r k d l d r w d s th i rt
c oo e s an m e s ou n e v u ou s an ,

A d t mp w i th p rj ry w h t h t e b g
n s a s e u a a e an .
 VI RTUE A ND H A PPIN E S S 4 05

L0 ! i ll -
rj
g E nv , win
e o i ci n
y g d w i t h li e s,

t r
S ca te i n g calu m n i o u s u m o s a s sh e i e s, r r
Th e st e p s o f m i se able m e n p u su e r r
Wi th h agga r d a sp e c t , b last i n g t o t h e view .1

We have here a descrip t io n of hell o n G recia n soil .

This will help us t o u n ders t a n d the C h ristia n co n cep t i o n of

th e worldly success of vir t ue Th e ol d C hris t ia n view of th e .

world was very m u ch like Hesiod s descriptio n C o m pare

.

with the latt e r the pictur e o f th e Gr ee c e Ro m an worl d i n the -

rs t chap t e r of the Ep i stle to t he R om a n s Bei n g lled with

all u n r igb te ou s n e s s for n icatio n wicked n ess coveto u s n ess
, , , ,

m alicio u s n ess fu ll o f e n vy m u rder debate deceit m align ity , , , ,

whispere rs backbiters ha t ers of God despite ful pro u d

, , , , ,

boasters i n ve n tors of evil thi n gs disobedie n t to pare n ts

, ,

with ou t u n ders t a n di n g cove n a n t breakers withou t n at u ra l

,
-
,

a ffec tio n i m placable u n m erci fu l wh o k n owi n g t h e judg m e n t

, , ,

o f God t ha t t hey whi ch co m m it such t hi n gs are worthy o f

,

d ea th n ot o n ly d o t he s a m e b u t h ave pleas u re i n t he m th a t
,

do the m .E n teri n g t h e world with such n otio n s o f th e
world which they made n o e n deavor t o co n ceal th e old
, ,

C hris t ia n s could n ot o f co u rse ex pec t t o please the worl d ;

, ,

they could n ot hope for a n ythi n g but hatred an d persecu t io n ,

which did n ot fail t o over t ake t h e m .

Th e ol d C hristia n s expected so m e thi n g else besides : th e

e n d o f t he world They fel t t ha t such h u m a n bei n gs co u ld
.

n o t live a n d di d n o t deserve t o live

, They were right : a .

world like the world described by Hesiod an d S t Pa u l co u ld .

n ot possibly exist Bu t the world did n ot co m e to a n e n d ;

.

n ay th e u n expected has h appe n ed an d t he world afte r ex , ,

h au st i n g all t he m ea n s of persecutio n a t i t s co m m a n d has ,

i n a certai n m eas u re accepted C hris tia n ity an d prese rved i t

t o the prese n t d ay He n ce w e are justied i n assu m i n g th a t
.

th e pic tu re which was pai n ted o f hu m an ity co u ld n ot have

bee n an exact like n ess Moreove r pri m itive C hris t ia n ity is.
,

1
[Ban ks

s t ran sl at i o n , Bo h n

s L i brary ,
l i n e s 2 3 9 ff , p 345
. .
T E .
]
4 06 C ON C E PT S A ND P RIN C IPLE S
n ot always so hopelessly pessi m istic : C h ristia n s are n ot
i n freq u e n tly exhorted to d o good that they m ay see their ,

good works an d glorify their Father whic h i s i n Heave n .

A n d i n a n other place we eve n read tha t godli n ess is p r o t

able u n to all t hi n gs havi n g pro m ise o f the life that n ow is

, ,
1
a n d o f tha t which is to co m e a passage which it m ust h e
, ,

co n fessed wo u ld so far as the pro m ise of this life is con

, ,

cer n ed have s u rprised u s less i n the O l d Tes tam e nt

, .

We m u st add m oreover th at afictio n s an d persecutio n s

, ,

are n ot evils for th e C hristian ; t hey are esse n tial t o his per
fe c ti o n ; n ay they ca n n ot dist u rb his peace o f m i n d his godli
, ,

n ess eve n for a si n gle m o m e n t

,
Persec u tio n gives h i m th e .

blessed co n vic t io n that he is n ot of t his w orld bu t a child of ,

t he e t ern al ki n gdo m of G od A n d so for h i m t oo an d for .

,

h i m especially virtue an d ou t ward h appi n ess or a t an y rate

, ,

pie ty an d i n n er blessed n ess are mos t i n timately co n n ected, ,

n ay t hey are on e an d the same as t h e word e bo e t a ( G o tt

,

s e lig lce i t) i n dica t es .

Here t o o t he n w e reach t h e co n clusio n th at for t he t ruly

, , ,

good m an fo r o n e whose will is co m ple t ely ruled by virt u e

, ,

virt u ous actio n is always t he great est blessi n g eve n tho u gh it ,

sho u l d n ot bri n g ex t er n al happi n ess an d sho u ld prove hard ,

fo r hi s se n s u ous n a t u re S pi n oza s maxi m applies to h i m

.

B e a ti tu do n on p r a em i u m v i r t u ti s s e d vi r tu s ip sa He h ow , .
,

ever whose will is n o t ruled by virtue wh o does good fro m

, ,

fea r or Calc u l a t i o n m ay feel disappoi n t ed whe n the o u tward

, ,

s u ccess which he hoped to realize fro m his ho n esty t e m per ,

a n ce an d be n evole n ce does n ot appear To such a perso n vir

, , .

t u e see m s t o be an u n protable o r at least u n certai n m ea n s o f , ,

happi n ess an d h e u tt ers pessi m istic co m plai n t s holdi n g that

, ,

the evil doers fare well an d the good fare ill Thi s h owever
-
.
, ,

does n o t m ea n t ha t he wo u l d have bee n better s atised i f he

h ad reached by crooked m ea n s th e goal which he co m plai n s of
havi n g m issed by fair ea s m n He n ce t he fac t r e m ai n s that
.

1 1 Tim ot hy, IV . 8 .
,
4 08 C ON C E P TS A ND PRIN C IPLE S
u n do u bte dly well fo u n ded that prosperity an d s u ccess h av e
-

th e te n de n cy to m ake on e sel f s at i s e d a n d i n sole n t Th e -

.

p rospe ro u s m an is pro n e to j u dge others harshly an d hi m self

m ildly His success he co n siders t o be d u e e n tirely t o his
.

o w n exertio n s he is ready t o speak u n ch aritably of the m i s

fortu n e o r failure of others an d to lay all the bla m e on the m
, .

He has n o respect fo r the strivi n g o f others n or sy m pathy ,

with their m is for t u n es an d thus arises the h abi t of m i n d s o

,

hated by gods an d m e n which t h e Greek s call {58 pt s i n so

, , ,

le n ce This leads t o t he co n te m p t u o u s t reat m e n t of both

.

thi n gs an d m e n an d t o the sh am eful ab u se of th e wea k an d

,

va n qu ished ; to a s t a t e of c arel ess self assura n ce that is soo n -

followed by t he f all th e i n evi table r esul t of i n n e r exh a us t io n

,

an d heedless n ess .

It is a n o t ewor t hy fac t t ha t t he mere sigh t of se n suous

e n j oy m e n t usually lls the spec t at o r wi t h d isgu s t ; th u s for ,

i n sta n ce t o wa t ch a co m pa n y of peopl e feas t i n g an d d ri n ki n g

,

is ap t to a rouse feeli n gs of repulsio n We n a t urally shri n k .

fro m observi n g the satisfac t io n of se n suo u s n eeds Love rs .

likewise seek s oli tu de an d i t is righ t for t he m t o do so ;

,
-

l o c kers ou are ap t t o be disgus t e d by t heir happi n ess Wha t

-
.

makes the v a i n m an s o u n be a rable is the fac t tha t he n eeds

an d seeks people to whom t o n arrat e his deeds an d su f
fe r i n gs B iographies usually beco m e u n i n teresti n g as soo n
.
,

as th e hero has overco m e all th e di i cu l ti e s an d obstacles the ,

dan gers an d bat tles which separa t ed h i m fro m his goal Th e

, .

ye a rs o f rest an d u n iversal recogn itio n o f fa m e a n d wealth , ,

however wel l deserved t hey may be are passed ove r by the ,

biographer Goethe sh owe d his good se n se i n n ot exte n di n g

.

his a u tobiography beyon d the peri od of his e n tran c e i n t o

Wei m ar
E n j oy m e n t i s degradi n g says Faus t a pro
.
,

fou n d tr u th for the so u l addicted t o pleasure i s co n que red

,

an d degraded Th e r eal secre t o f Faus t s power o f r esis t

.

p ow e r on ch aract e r . We m o d e r n s sh ou ld h av e t o add as a p rom i n en t form,

l i t e r a ry o r ar t i st i c s u ccess an d a b r i lli an t c ar e e r.
 VIRTUE A ND H A PP IN E S S 4 09

a n ce t o evil is his failure t o n d sa t isfactio n i n pleasure .

Th e devil hopes to deba se him by m ea n s o f e n j oy m e n t

S ta u b soll e r f r e ssen u n d m i t I m s t 1
Fau s t ea t s t he d u st b u t .
,

n o t wi t h zes t an d he n ce the devil ca n n o t wholly w i n hi s

,

soul Ther e is a n oble disco n t e n t i n h i m which makes his

.
,

salva t io n possibl e .

Wha t is true of i n divi dual s is also t rue of colle cti ve bodi es ,

o f n atio n s classes par t ies : prosperi ty rui n s the m

, , They l ose .

thei r capaci ty for self criticism an d sel f co n t rol they lose their
- -
,

s t re n gth an d dign i ty t hey lose t he se n se of wha t is proper an d

,

their sta n dard s of reality an d so i n wardly r u i n ed they are , , ,

i n gl orio u sly defea t ed by t he despised foe N othi n g i n the .

world is m ore rep u lsive than a co m pan y of well fe d an d sel f -

s at i s e d perso n s wh o boast of t heir fat n ess an d satiety ;

,

n othi n g is so apt to aro u se all the healthy i n sti n cts o f h u

m a n i ty agai n st it n othi n g t herefore so cer t ai n of d e st r u c

,

t io n as history proves Th e history of t he ch u rch also

,
.

co n r m s thi s t ru t h n ay perh aps it is n owhere s o sel f

, ,

evide n t as th ere for the ch u rch t riu m ph a n t an d do m i n a n t

,

i n variably beco m es h augh ty st ub born hard h earted an d per , ,

-
,

s e cu t i n g Bu t as h er extern al authority i n creases her i n n er

.
,

au thority decreases u n t il r u i n over t akes her The n co m es

, .

t he reac t io n Th e despised an d persecu t ed ch u rch revives ;

.

h u m ility self s acr i ce an d heroism agai n sho w the m selves ;

,
-
,

she agai n gai n s powe r over t he so u ls of m e n The n the .

cycle begi n s a n ew Th e powers of the w orld approach her

.
,

she beco m es a powe r a m o n g others who m ust be reck o n ed ,

with who can give favors an d accept favors Ho n ors an d

, .

wealth are showered upo n her sh e c o n trol s desirable posi ,

'

t io n s sh e places t he dog m as an d the w orship u n der th e

,

pro t ectio n of th e police A n d n ow co m e the clever the .

,

covetou s th e worl dly an d th e aristocratic an d are a n xi o u s

, , ,

t o serve th e church A n d the ch u rch allows the m t o serve

.

her a n d t o co n trol her an d agai n to r u i n her ,

.

1 Dust sh all h e e at a n d w i th a z e st .
41 0 C ON C E P TS A ND P RIN C IPLE S

S u ch are the co n seq u e n ces o f prosperity N ow look at t he .

other side of the pict u re at the ed u cati n g stre n g t he n i n g

, , ,

p u rifyi n g e ffec t s of a dversity fail u re an d s u fferi n g Mi sfo r

, , .

t u n e steels the will ; the will th a t c an bear tro u ble i s m ad e

elas t ic an d grows stro n g u n der press u re It gives us pa t ie n ce .

to bear t he i n evitable it exercises o u r ability t o m easure an d

,

t o t es t ourselves an d ou r p owers ; i t m akes us m odes t i n ou r

de m a n ds an d charitable i n o u r j udgm e n ts of oth ers faili n gs
.

Prosperity develops the repulsive qualities o f h u m a n n a t u re ;

adve rsity u n ites m e n m aki n g the m frie n dly patie n t an d
, , ,

j u s t Whe n a s t or m sudde n ly co m es up on a su mm er day

.
,

we m ay see h o w th e perso n s of high a n d low degree wh o

7

avoided an d repelled each oth e r while the su n was shi n

i n g n o w seek re fu ge be n ea t h t he sam e roof an d bear an d
, ,

eve n j es t with each o ther So i t is wh e n a grea t m isfor t u n e

.

over t akes a ci t y or a n a t io n ; i t bre aks d ow n all t he barriers

o f pride an d ha t red which were e rec t ed i n t he days o f pros

p e r i ty . Fi n ally the highes t m or al perfectio n is n ot m a t u red

,

withou t m isfort u n e an d sufferi n g C hris t e n t ered i n t o glory .

through su ff eri n g Rej ec t e d by t he leaders of His people

.
,

co n de m n e d by th e u n j u s t m is t rea t ed by the puppe t s of th e

,

might y reviled an d c u rsed by th e m ob de n ied an d forsake n

, ,

by His disciples He w on th e highes t crown Well co u ld

, .

He say upo n the cross with head bowed d ow n

, ,
It i s ,

n ished th e highes t that can be achieved upo n ear t h

h ad bee n acco m plished : He h ad s u ffered evil for the sake
o f the good withou t l osi n g fai th i n th e good an d withou t
, ,

cha n gi n g His i n n e r pe a ce i n t o ha t re d an d co n t emp t fo r

hu m a n ity .

C hristia n i t y is wholly a phil osophy o f s u e r i n g Ten ta ti o .

e s t vi t a h om i n i s s u er te rr am Job s m axi m e xp r esses t he fu n d

p , ,

a m e n t al m ood of C h ristia n ity No r did the Greeks fail to .

appreciate thi s tr u t h Misfor tu n e has an educati n g i n u e n ce

. .

No h u m an bei n g can be t rai n ed witho u t blows says a li n e ,

o f M e n a n d er which Goethe wh o cou l d h a rdly be called a fri e n d

, ,
41 2 C ON C E P TS A ND P RIN C IPLE S
wo u l d re m ai n ig n ora n t of all the resources of his m i n d an d ,

be u n able to u n fold the m s o a m an wh o has n ever wa n ted

,

fo r a n ythi n g an d has n eve r failed i n a n ythi n g would n ot

, ,

be able t o develop all the powers of his m i n d an d will He .

wo u ld feel tha t fa t e had withheld from h i m so m ethi n g esse n

tial to the perfectio n of his bei n g an d h e would perhaps lik e
, , ,

Polycrates feel t errie d a t his happi n ess
,
.

A n d so we may b e p e rmi tt ed t o say that life as w e n d it , ,

is on the whole adap t ed t o th e r e al n eeds of h u m an n ature i t

bri n gs to every on e good an d evil d ays success an d trials We , .

do n ot hear man y co m pl a i n i n g t hat there are too m a n y happy

days but the co m plai n t is com m o n t h at t here i s an ex cess of
,

m isery an d wa n t It can o f course n ever b e proved that

.
, ,

fate succeeds i n produci n g t he proper co m bi n a t io n i n e ve ry

case : t ha t is si m ply a matt er of faith A n d perhaps it is .

ofte n hard t o believ e i t perhaps h a rde r t o believ e it i n the

,

prese n ce of th e i n n i t e misery su ff ered by others t han of ou r

o wn . We see cou n t less cre at ures perishi n g from a lack of
care an d prosperi ty from a lack of app r opriate proble m s
,

to solve fro m a lack of th e n ecessaries of li fe A n d yet

, .

would other li fe co n di t io n s h ave produced m ore favorable r e

-

s u l ts ? Who can tell ? Ho w o fte n h ave n atio n s afterwards

l ooked back upo n t i m es w hich they a t rst regarded as ti m es

o f degradatio n a n d ex t re m e misery with feeli n gs of grati
,

t ude an d pride ! IS there an epoch i n the history o f Ger

ma n y upo n which the eye would rathe r dwell tha n u po n the
period aft er the battle of Je n a ? Is n ot t h e t i m e of the

gre atest hu m ilia t io n i n t ru t h also th e ti m e of the great es t

e levat io n ? Were all the good a n d great m e n e ver s o h o n

ored so u n i t ed as the n
,
A n d t h e reverse is also true Th e .

d ays of vic t ory s u ccess weal th an d great n ess look di ffer

, , , ,

e n t i n re t rospec t Th e Du tch pai n ters o f the seve n tee n th

.

ce n t u ry evide n tly wish to sho w us h o w a n atio n lives when

it i s too prosperous .We might i f we chose make so m e
, ,

observatio n s n earer h o m e .
 VIRTUE A ND H A PPIN ESS 41 3

We are re m i n ded of the tho u ghtfu l poe m of C ha m i sso

Di e K r eu zschau A m an co m plai n i n g of the heavi n ess of
.

his cross is take n t o a large b all wh ere the crosses of all

hu m a n bei n gs are stored He is allowe d to choose a n e w o n e .

fo r hi m sel f H e lays d ow n his o wn an d begi n s to look

.

aro u n d fo r a m ore s u itable on e A fter a care fu l an d deliberate .

search he n ally n ds a c ross that see m s m ost s atis factory

to h i m U po n exa m i n i n g it m ore closely he discovers that
.
,

it i s his o wn cross which he had for the m o m e n t failed to

,

recog n ize .

There are people who w oul d S ho w u s a be tt er worl d

tha n ou r re al world an d therefore de n o u n ce the real world
,

as a fail u re If they were allo wed to realize their i m

.

agi n ary world an d to live i n it they w ould perhaps discove r ,

that the co n diti o n s are far m ore sati sfactory i n ou r despised

world . It freque n tly h appe n s tha t perso n s leavi n g thei r
co u n try fu ll of ha t red an d co n t e m p t ex perie n ce a ch a n ge of ,

hear t afte r th ey h ave lived i n their n e w ho m e for a shor t

while an d discove r for the rst ti m e h ow deeply they
, , ,

really love their fatherlan d If ou r pessi m ists c o u l d be t ra n s .

ported t o a n o t her pla n e t for a S h or t period they wo u ld per ,

haps lear n to thi n k o f t he earth with lo n gi n g an d gratitud e .

Perhaps t he c u re i s n earer at han d than we i m agi n e .

Perh aps a t i m e will agai n co m e whe n m isfor t u n e an d sorro w

will t each o u r peopl e to appreci ate life an d its goods m ore
highly Pessi m i s m o u rishes i n ti m es of prospe rity an d
.

exubera n ce May t he followi n g li n es i n w hich o n e wh o

.

lived i n those days of m isfor tu n e an d spiri t u al exaltatio n ,

Wilhel m vo n H u m bol dt gi ves expressio n to hi s philosophy of

,

life prep a re us fo r the fu t u re

A h r G
n e t ef hrt g k tt t
ne n e se ze n u e e e

D i di h er G h l h t r W d l ih
r sc en e sc ec e an e re en

D S hi k l as rb i ttli h i Pf d ;
c c sa u ne c se n e n a

Z fri d u w d e h h Zi l
en, r tt t e nn as o e e es e e ,

Bl i b t k lt e b i l id ab i h fre s, o s e e e n, o s c euen .

A h h tuc fR uns i h t g b tt t ;
a e s au o se n n c e e e
4 14 C ONC E P TS A ND PRIN C IPLE S
Doch au s d e s Bu se n s Ti e fe str o mt G e d e ih e n
De r fe ste n Du ld u n g u n d e n t schlo ss n e r Th at
.

Ni ch t S ch m e r i st U n glu c k , G luc k n i ch t i mm e
z r Fr e u de ,

lVer se i n G e sch i ck e r fu ll t, d e m l ach e ln b e i d e 1 .

1 From Haym s Life if H u mbold t , p 2 58

[I x
n e orab l e F a t e l e ads t h e
. .

ch an g i n g ran k s o f t h e eart hly g e n erati o n s, sh ack le d b y i ron l aw s ; h appy w h e n

s he r e aliz es h e r h i g h g oal , s h e re m a i n s i n d iff e r e n t t o t h e i r j o y s an d s orr o w s .

We t oo h av e n o t b e e n r e s t i n g on a bed o f r o se s ; bu t our h e art s ar e s t r o n g in

p at i e n ce an d fu ll o f e n e r g e t i c a ct i o n . P ai n i s n ot a m is for t u n e , ple asu r e n ot

al w ays a bl e ssi n g wh oe ve r fu lls h i s d est in y s u ffe r s both ) .

416 C O N C E P TS . A ND PRIN C IPLE S
m orality ; pio u s an d good godless an d bad are sy n o ny m o u s , ,

terms C hristia n ity a n d Moha mm eda n is m accept this view

. .

W e n d it also a m o n g the Greeks an d Ro m a n s Hi n doos a n d ,

Persia n s Egypti an s a n d A ssyria n s Th e e n tire life o f the i n

,
.

divid u al an d society is reg u lated by religio n all th e i n s t itu t io n s

of th e sta t e an d society all c u s t o m s an d u sages which gover n
,

th e li fe o f the i n dividual have a religio u s basis We n o t e the

, .

sa m e co n n ectio n be t wee n religio n an d m orals a m o n g t he m os t

civilized t ribes o f all the n ative pe e ples o f A m erica a m o n g ,

th e Mexica n s an d Per u via n s Waitz quotes severa l exa m ples .

o f Mexica n wisdo m which woul d d o credi t to a Hebrew o r

C hristia n m oral philosopher This he co n siders a co n vi n ci n g .

proof of th e high state of m e n tal adva n ce m e n t reached by

th e se n atio n s There is this experie n ced st u de n t of
.
,

a n thropology adds hardly a m ore tru st wor thy sign an d a

,

safe r criterio n o f the civiliza t io n of a people t ha n t he degree

i n which the de m a n ds o f p u re m orali ty are s u ppor t ed by thei r

1
religio n an d i n terwove n with their religio u s l ife .

How a re we t o expl ai n the u n io n of r eligio n an d m orality

M a ny fac t s see m to O ppose the V iew t ha t the co n n ectio n is an
absol u tely n ecessary on e In the lowes t s t ages of develop m e n t
.

religio n exe rcises a separat e fu n cti o n It appears i n the for m .

o f m agic practices havi n g n o co n n ec t io n wit h m orali ty s o far

, ,

as there is s u ch a thi n g ; fe t iches are i n di ffere n t to t he co n d u c t

o f m e n excep t so far as the latter directly c o n cer n s the m ;
,

idolatry an d m orali ty have n othi n g t o d o with each

other He n ce if this is to be regarded as th e origi n al s t ate

.
, ,

how was the co n n ec t i o n be t wee n religio n an d m orality bro u ght

abo u t ? O r i f this q u estio n is left u n a n swered upo n wh a t
, ,

was the co n n ectio n origi n ally based

1 Th . W ait z A nthrop olog i e d er Na t ur vb llcer , IV , 1 2 8 A n e
,

lab orat e an d t h ou g h t
. .

fu l h i s t o r i ca l d i s c u s si o n o f t h e r e la t i o n o f r e li i o n t o cu s t o m a n d m o rali t y m a b e
g y
fo u n d i n W u n d t s E thi cs , S e ct i o n I , ch a s 2 a n d 3

p .
Th e w o r k o f P u s t e l d e
. .

C o u la ng e s , La c i te a n tiq u e (t ran s la t e d ), s h ow s t h at t h e o l i t i ca l a n d le al i ns t i

p g
t u t i o n s o f t he G r e e k s a n d R o m a n s w e r e o r i i n a ll
g y i n t i m at e l y co n n e c t e d w i t h
r e li i o n ; t h e o l d e s t co d e s e m b ra ce w o rsh i
g p m o ral i ty , a n d l a w , u s t l ik e t h e la w s
,
j
of M os e s La w w as fo r a lon g ti m e a
p r i e s t ly s ci e n ce a m o n th e Ro m a n s
g
.
.
 THE R E L TI A ON OF MO RA LITY To RELI G I ON 417

We m ight l ooki n g at the m atter i n a so m ewhat supercial

,

m a n n er a t te m pt th e followi n g expla n atio n

,
A cts o f worship .

co n stit u te the earlies t s u bj ect m atter of scie n ce -

C o m plete .

accuracy an d correct n ess are of th e u t m ost i m portan ce ; th e

slightest m istake m ay m ake the act i n e ffect u al or eve n i n j u ri
ou s ; thi n k of th e Hi n d oo o r Jewish sacricial worship .

He n ce the priests are the rst scie n tists They develop an d .

tra n s m it th e great scie n ce o f correct worship Here arise .

th e rst xed r u les which excl u de all arbitrari n ess To these .

th e de m a n ds of c u sto m an d of l aw are added a n d grad u ally

for m with the m a u n ied code of law which e m braces every ,

thi n g that i s bi n di n g u po n all the m e m bers of the people .

Th e tra n sce n de n t sa n ctio n which rst attaches to religio u s

,

d u ties is thereby exte n ded t o the decrees of m orals an d l a w

, .

A n origi n al i n n er a ffi n ity betwee n religio u s an d m oral legal -

d u ties perhaps favors the u n io n A ll religio u s co m m an d .

m e n ts rese m ble each other they de m a n d sacri ces abl u tio n s , ,

absti n e n ces res t rictio n s of desire A ll acts of worship ex

,
.

press s u b m issio n o f the i n divid u al will to a h igher an d m ore

,

m ighty powe r h u m ility wi n s the favor o f the gods i n sole n ce ,

provokes their wrath Th e sa m e is tr u e o f th e de m a n ds of

.

c u sto m ; they too li m i t an d bi n d the i n divid u al will they too ,

e n j oi n s u b m issio n t o au thority W ith the m too i n sole n c e

.

leads t o the viola t io n o f c u stom an d to i m piety towards the

gods Th e gods are e n e m ies of i n sole n ce an d so beco m e the
.
,

protecto rs o f c u sto m It i s worthy of n ote that the weak an d

.

o u tlawed stra n gers an d helpless o n es everywhere e n j oy th e

, ,

protectio n of the gods O ffe n ces agai n st g u ests o r agai n st

.
,

helpless old age o r ch i ldre n are partic u larly p u n ishable by the

gods .

Th e s u bject h o w ever i s capabl e of a profo u n der treat m e n t

, ,
.

We m ay de n e religio n i n a ge n eral w ay as faith i n the

tra n sce n de n t It i n variably pres u pposes a feeli n g o f the
.

i n s u f cie n cy o f th e e m pirical w orld F e ti ch i sm an d s ha m a n i sm

.

t oo a re atte m pts to acco m plish by m agic i n u e n ces u po n tra n s

7
41 8 C ON C E P TS A ND P RIN C IPLE S
ce n d e n t powers or bei n gs wh a t ca n n ot be att ai n ed by n atu ral
m ea n s A s li fe develops the will i s spiri tu alized In the
.
, .

l owes t stages of h u m a n existe n ce i t desires scarcely m ore

tha n the satis factio n of a n i m al n eeds With the adva n ce o f .

civilizatio n i t ai m s n ot m erely at life b u t at a beau ti fu l an d ,

good li fe a t an ideal o f h u m a n i ty This cha n ge i n the

,
.

di r ectio n of m a n s will produces a correspo n di n g cha n ge i n

the for m of th e tra n sce n de n t w orl d : the m a n i fold world o f

gods of p o ly the i sm is t he c rea t io n o f the higher will Per m a .

n e n t perso n al
,
historical bei n gs t ake the place of t he vagu e
, ,

perishable n a m eless m agic forces o f fetichis m In t he go d s

,
.
,

m a n s ideals o f a bea u tif u l an d good li fe are realized

Th e .

Greek w orl d o f gods is the obj ecti ca tio n of the ideal h u ma n

w orld cre ated by the lo n gi n g o f the G re k people for the
,

bea u tiful an d the good Each of these divi n e perso n ages

.

represe n ts so m e phase o f the Greek ideal of h u m a n ity A n d .

this tra n sce n de n t world is n ot i n differe n t t o or withou t

i n u e n ce upo n the e m pirical world ; the gods are ever m i n d
fu l of m an ; guidi n g h i m protec t i n g h i m an d p u n ishi n g
, ,

h i m th ey fashio n his will t o perfectio n

, Th e m agic char .

ac ter is n ot e n tirely l os t ; th e a tt e m p t t o i n ue n ce the will of

the gods i n order to realize t hro u g h t h em i mm edia t e i n di
vid u al p u rposes health wealth victory success u n do u btedly
, , , , ,

occ u pied a p ro m i n e n t place i n t he actual religiou s practices of

the peopl e Bu t the u rgy grad u ally lost i t s i m por t a n ce a m o n g
.

the leaders an d eve n a m o n g t he larger circles of the p Op u

latio n par t ic u larly thro u gh th e m ediatio n of ar t an d th e
disi n terested co n te m platio n o f the gods as the perfect m odel s
an d g u ides o f life an a t titude which is expressed i n the beauti
,

fu l gu re of the prayi n g boy ca m e to be regarded as o n e of the

,

esse n tial ele m e n ts i n religio n In m o n othe i sm which appears

.

i n history as t he l as t an d highes t devel op m e n t of religio n the ,

i deal e le m e n t i s still m ore pro n ou n ced C h ristia n ity doe s .

away with m agic e n tirely Jes u s teaches h i s disciples to pray ,

Th y will be do n e ! C hris t ia n prayer presupposes the belief

420 C ON C E P TS A ND PRIN C IPLE S
be fore the j u dg m e n t of t h e dead which is pictu red by s o ,

m a n y religion s as the grad u ally approachi n g goal o f li fe .

The n every t hi n g will b e bro u ght to light m erit an d g u il t ,

w ill be j u dged before a j u s t j u dge Whoever is fu ll of g u ilt

.
,

whoeve r h as li v ed an u n worthy li fe wh oeve r h as bee n re m iss ,

i n his d u ties t owards th e gods will s u ffer fo r it a n d c o n

, ,

ve r se ly whoeve r has lived a brave pious righteo u s li fe m a

, , y , ,

h opefully e n ter e t er n ity N owhere is this idea m ore e ffe c

.

t i v e ly bro u ght ou t t ha n i n t he C hristia n ch u r ch Th e grea t .

j u dg m e n t d ay which will e n d o u r e arthly history an d n ally

, ,

decide the fate of all h u m a n bei n gs re wardi n g s o m e wit h ,

etern al blessed n ess p u n ishi n g oth ers with eter n al dam n at io n

, ,

is a co n ceptio n which has m ade a p owerfu l i m pressio n u po n

the co n sci o u s n ess o f m an .

Th u s the fear a n d the hope o f th e herea fter beco m e

power fu l protectors o f m orality .

These i m p u lses appear i n p u re r for m i n deeper so u ls .

G o d is n ot m erely the ster n j u dge b u t also a father wh o i n ,

his m erci fu l love forgives m an Th e chief co n cern of th e .

piou s m an is n ot to prove u n worthy o f this l ove n ot t o dis

, ,

appoi n t the Holy On e n ot to excl u de hi m self by deeds of

,

dark n ess fro m fellowship i n the real m of light In the .

bas e so u l religio n beco m es base ; fu t u re re w ard an d p u n ish

m e n t beco m e a m atter o f spec u latio n as i t were : t he r e
m issio n of m oral d u tie s i s p u rchased by an exact f u ll m e n t
o f ecclesiastical d u ties the forgive n ess of si n s by dispe n sa
,

tio n s This is a perversio n o f religio n which th e sys te m at i

.

z at i o n o f worship te n ds t o prod u ce i n a ch u rch Jes u s fou n d .

it i n J u dais m as Pharisais m L u the r fo u n d it i n C hristia n ity

,

as t he sys t e m o f good works S pe n e r fo u n d i t i n L u ther
,

i s m as
orthodoxy ; faith
(fi d e s m e r ce n a r i a t o u se ,

Kan t s e x pressio n ) h ad beco m e the u lti m ate good work

,

taki n g t he place o f all the others ; an d we n d the sa m e thi n g

existi n g t o day Thi s
-
. pse u do worship ( Af te r d i e n st) o f
-

God i n the stat u tory religio n as Ka n t calls it is a gre at
, ,
 TH E REL A TION OF MO RALITY T O RE LIG I ON 42 1

me n ace t o religio u s ch u rch li fe It d u lls the se n se o f t r u th

-
.

a n d the m o r al feeli n g ; it also fosters fa n aticis m : Whoever

fa ils to respec t o u r worship ca n n o t res pect u s ; he i s o u r

,

e n e m y an d therefore God s e n e m y who favors an d recog n izes

,

o u r service ; t o persec u te an d kill h i m is therefore a good

work an d on e wit h which h e i s well pleased .

2 Le t us n o w re t u r n t o th e q u estio n which we asked a t th e

.

o u tse t : Is th e relati o n betwee n m orality an d religio n an e s

se n t i al o n e an d t here fore i n dissol u ble
,
o r is it m erely a pass ,

in
g phe n o m e n o n pec u liar to a partic u lar stage o f devel op m e n t
,

Will th e co n n ectio n be severed i n t he fu ture ? Will there

the n be a perfec t m orality witho u t an y religiosity ?
This q u estio n was n ot serio u sly d ebated u n t il rece n tly For .

ce n t u ries n othi n g s ee m ed m ore sel f evide n t t ha n th e i n s e p ar

-

able n ess of m orality a n d religio n Th e tie betwee n the t w o .

was rst loose n e d by the viole n t co m m otio n s t o which all

theoretical co n ceptio n s have bee n s u bjected si n ce the begi n n i n g
o f m oder n ti m es Th e ch u rch belief rs t bega n to wa n e i n
.

scie n t ic an d ed u cat ed circles ; i n delity h as grad u ally take n

possessi on of th e m asses also A p u rely physical co n ceptio n
.

o f the u n iverse n o w widely prevails Th e bel i ef i s also c o m

.

m on that m orali t y an d religio n ethics a n d m e t aphysics are

, ,

w holly di ffere n t thi n gs ; th a t co n du c t i s totally i n depe n de n t of

the idea which o n e m ay have of t he co n stitu ti o n o f the world ,

a n d th a t his w orld view i s t herefore th e i n dividual s private

-

co n cern A m an m ay be a m aterialist atheis t pa n theist

.
, , ,

sceptic o r a nythi n g else witho u t i n the leas t a ffecti n g o u r

, ,

esti m ate o f his m oral worth .

There are u n questi o n ably also n arrower ci rcles i n which thi s

vie w i s e m phatically opposed Th e co n sequ e n ce o f i n delity
.
,

it is declared is t o e n j oy th e prese n t regardless o f the f u t u re ;

, ,

theoretical m aterialis m n ecessaril yprod u ces practical m ateri

al i s m,
at an y rate this is its l ogical co n seq u e n ce eve n tho u gh ,

m a n y a theoretical m a t e r i al i s t i s hi n dered by c u sto m an d habit

fro m d rawi n g it i n practice .
 42 2 C ON C E P TS A ND P RIN C IPLES
A fte r all we h ave said be fore w e ca n n o t support th e view ,

that a li fe ig n ori n g the laws o f m orality follows as a log i ca l

n e ce ssi t
y fro m a n y particular m etaphysical belief or u n belie f .

We shall prefer t o say : Whatever m ay be a m a n s n otio n o f

the n at u re of thi n gs the laws of m orality are n o n e the less

,

bi n di n g u po n h i m ; th ey are n ot arbitrary prescriptio n s the ,

observa n ce o f which is advisable fro m the stan dpoi n t of r e

wards an d p u n ish m e n ts They are rather laws of n at u re i n
.

the se n se that the welfare o f a li fe depe n ds upo n thei r oh

serva n ce A n d th e O pi n io n s o f m e n i n n o wise a e ct the m
. .

He n ce if an y on e were to i n fer fro m an atheistic m aterialistic -

co n ceptio n tha t th e laws of m ora lity had n o f u rther clai m

u po n h i m he would be i n erro r an d would have to bear the
, ,

co n seq u e n ces of his error .

No r do I believe that an i mm oral life w ill ac t ually resul t

fro m u n belie f an y m ore tha n I believe that a moral li fe is the
,

i n variable co n seque n ce of fai th There are u n do u btedly .

, ,

ho n est an d reliable m e n n ay eve n passi o n ate an d self sacri c

,
-

i n g idealists i n t he ra n ks of t hose who h ave rep u dia t ed n o t

,

o n ly th e ch u r ch creed bu t all religi o n j u s t as there are

, ,

a m o n g those whose ch u rch belief has n ot bee n shake n i n the

-

least who perfor m all their religi o u s d u ties i n the m ost p u n c

,

t i li o u s an d co n scie n tio u s m a n n er an d wh o are also capabl e ,

o f tr u e religio u s feeli n g m e n whose lives an d acts are fu ll o f

,

st u bbor n perve rse n ess cold hearted pride an d hypocritical

,
-
,

falsehood .

S till I do n ot believe tha t m orali ty an d religio n co n d u c t

, ,

an d W e lt an scha u u ng are e n tirely i n di ffere n t to each othe r

, .

Th ere are two views o f the worl d which are radically

opposed to each othe r Th e ce n tral tho u ght of the o n e is tha t
.

the good is an esse n ti al ele m e n t i n the world t hat real ity ,

exists th rough th e good ari d fo r th e sake o f t he good We .

can call this co n cep t io n i d ea li st i c followi n g Pla t o s ter m i n ology

, ,

who bases th e worl d upo n the idea o f the good We m ay als o .

call it the isti c if we m ea n by belief i n God the t r u st that the

,
42 4 C ON C E P TS A ND P RINC IPLE S
In case the lat ter i s an ai m less whirl o f e m pty m om e n tarv
desires i t will be suited by a world which is itsel f an ai m less
,

play o f ato m s A n e m pty li fe prod u ces a n ihilis tic co n ceptio n

.

o f the u n iv erse . C o n versely whoever lls his o w n li fe with

,

thi n gs of per m a n e n t val u e whoever purs u es l asti n g e n ds g rea t

, ,

ideals will pl ace a di ffere n t val u e rst u po n his o w n l i fe th e n

, , , ,

u po n the li fe of hu m a n ity an d n ally u po n the world a t large

, .

He will see a p u rpose an d m ea n i n g i n history of which his ,

o w n life for m s a part h e will i n terpret the past i n the ligh t o f

his o wn aspiratio n s believi n g tha t all good an d great m en
,

bat tled for the sa m e cau se ; h e will l ook upo n the f u t u re as

his : m e n of faith an d actio n always believe th at th e f u ture is
o n t heir side ; n ally the whole o f reality will see m to h i m t o
,

be govern ed by th e p u rpos e t o bri n g abo u t the ve ry thi n gs for

which he i s zealously an d ho n es t ly strivi n g Th u s the value .

which we pu t upo n ou r o w n l i ves is n ally pre dic ated o f the

thi n gs th e m sel ves .

O n e s co n ceptio n of the u n iverse we m ay therefore say is

, , ,

so far a s i t i n cl u des an d expresses j u dg m e n ts o f val u e the ,

m irror of o n e s will Everybody i n terprets th e phe n o m e n a so

.

that they m ay har m o n ize with his character J u st as every .

l i fe s u rrou n ds itself with sy m bol s of wha t i t h olds dear an d

val uable s o it s t rives t o for m ulate a co n ceptio n of thi n gs
,

which will h ave a q u i eti n g an d elevati n g i n u e n ce upo n the

will A n e m p t y will is satised with a n ihilistic w orl d view
.
-

an i dealistic worl d vie w woul d leave a pai n fu l sti n g i n i t ; it

-

wo u ld appear before the world as the o n ly bei n g u n willi n g t o

harm o nize wi th th e purposes o f th e u n ive rse A will with .

ideals on the oth e r han d could n ot bear to thi n k of itsel f as

, ,

n othi n g b u t a stra n ge a n o m aly i n the world as a freak o f ,

n at u re agai n to be c as t aside Th e thought alo n e wo u ld

.

satis fy i t that i t was derived fro m the world pri n ciple i t -

sel f a n d i n esse n t ial h arm o n y with i t an d tha t n ei the r its

, ,

achieve m e n ts n o r its s t rivi n gs could be l ost .

Th u s li fe i n u e n ces fai t h Faith the n also u n do u btedly reac t s

.
 THE REL TI A ON OF MO R A LITY TO R ELI G I ON 425

u po n li fe Th e belief i n the power of the good the belief i n G od

.
, ,

stre n gthe n s t h e courage an d aro u ses hope We shall perhaps .

be co m pelled t o say that n othi n g t ruly grea t has eve r bee n

,

acco m plished i n t his world witho u t fai th A ll religio n s are .

based u po n faith ; through faith their fou n ders an d disciples

have overco m e th e worl d Believi n g i n an idea all m artyrs
.

h ave lived fo u ght an d su ffered believi n g i n the ulti m ate

, , ,

t ri u m ph of the good for which they sacriced thei r lives ,

they have died Who c ould die for a cause i n whos e ul ti m ate
.

an d e n d u ri n g success he did n ot believe ? A n d wh a t would

be left of the his t ory of the worl d if all these t hi n gs were
stricke n ou t ? U n belief on t he other h a n d is discouragi n g
, ,

wha t is t h e use i n t ryi n g ; l e t t h e thi n gs go as they please ;

who k n ow s wh at t he n ex t day w ill bri n g fort h ? S o Goeth e
says : Th e real an d s ole t he m e of t he his t ory of t he world

i s th e co n ic t be t wee n belief an d u n belief A ll epochs i n .

which faith reig n s s u pre m e u n de r wh atever form i t may be

, ,

are bright upli fti n g an d fruitf u l for co n te m poraries an d

, ,

posterity A ll epochs o n th e other ha n d i n which u n belief

.
, , ,

i n an y for m gai n s a weak vic t ory eve n t h o u gh t e m porarily

, ,

boasti n g o f a sh a m glory will pass away becau se n o o n e will

, ,
1
t ake the t ro u bl e to acq u ire a k n owledge of th e u n fr u itfu l .

3 Bu t has n o t the p r og r e ss of s ci en tic k n ow le dg e r en d e r e d

.

f a i th i d le A re n o t theis m an d idealism a mere sha m efa ced

s u rvival o f th e a n cie n t s u pers t itio n which rst o u rishe d so

lux u ria n tly i n the m irac u l o u s world of gods of polytheis m ?

Has n o t scie n ce co n vi n ced all those wh o are capable o f s eei n g
thi n gs as the y are t hat bli n d forces which k n ow n o thi n g o f
,

good an d evil deter m i n e the co u rse o f the worl d

Ma n y are o f the opi n io n tha t such is the case ; they believe
tha t scie n tic k n owledge has le ft religio n with n othi n g to
sta n d on I do n o t share this belief This is n o t the place
.
.

to devel op a syste m o f m etaphysics ; b u t I shall s u ggest a

few poi n ts of vie w fro m which th e m atter m ay be co n sidered .

1 N t t W t tl h Di
o es o e s os zc er va n.
426 C ON C E P TS A ND P RIN C IPLE S
It is tru e that the belief i n gods as i n divid u als r esembli n g
hu m a n bei n gs h avi n g an e m pirical existe n ce so m ewhere an d
,

o ccasio n ally acti n g u po n o u r world is dyi n g o u t a n d will n eve r

,

be revived A n d it is i m m ateri al whe ther we ass u m e several

.

such bei n gs o r o n ly a si n gle o n e A m o n otheistic sche m e .

,

which co n ceives G o d as a n i n d i vi d u al by the side of others

an d per m its h i m occasio n ally to act u p o n th e world as u po n
'

so m et h i n g exter n al an d foreign to h i m does n o t esse n tially ,

d i e r fro m polytheis m If it b e i n sisted that s u ch a co n ce p

.

tio n alo n e can b e regarded a s t heis m it will be hard to co n tra ,

dict those who claim t ha t scie n ce leads to a theis m We .

should howe v er have t o add t ha t a th eis m i n t his se n se is evi

, ,

d en tly n o t t he e n d b u t o n ly th e begi n n i n g of philosophy It .

is n o t a positi v e theory of reality bu t si m ply n egates the vie w

,

t hat t here exists be fore ou tside o f by t he side o f above th e

, , , ,

world a separate bei n g wh o m ade th e world as a wa t ch m ake r ,

co n struc t s a clock accordi n g t o a pla n an d n ow occasio n ally

, ,

i n te rferes wi t h its co u rse Th e repudiatio n of a false t heory

.

is howeve r n ot itself a theory Th e question r e m ai n s Ho w

, ,
.

shall we explai n the u n iverse h ow is i t co n s t ruc t ed wha t i s

, ,

its esse n ce
Or i s that n o lo n ger a proble m ? Is i t perhaps a settled
fac t tha t t he world is n othi n g b u t an accu m ul atio n o f an
i n n ite n u m ber o f little bodies which accide n tally co n gre ,

gati n g i n e m pty space co m e i n to reciprocal actio n with each

,

other an d i n this way prod u ce the particul ar co m bi n atio n s

,

which reality reveals to u s

There are perso n s wh o regard t his vie w al m ost as sel f
evide n t It i s especially co m m o n a m o n g yo u n g peopl e who
.

h ave j u st discarded t heir school n otio n s an d h ave s u bstitu ted ,

fo r the m a few ideas gathere d fro m pop u la r scie n tic writ

i n gs It is rarely held by the deeper an d m ore i n depe n de n t
.

t hi n kers i n deed s u ch m e n are n o t easily pers u aded that an y

thi n g is sel f evide n t N either Plato n o r A ristotle S pi n oza
-
.
,

n o r Leib n iz H u m e n o r Ka n t S chope n haue r n o r Hegel L otz e

, , ,
428 C ON C E P TS A ND PRIN C IPLE S
ato m is t n ot be surprised i f h e had n ever see n th e worl d as i t
n o w is but had m erely O bserved t h e ass u m e d chaos o f ato m s
, ,

a n d shoul d s u dde n ly after tryi n g a ll sorts of co m bi n atio n s

,

hit u po n se n satio n s an d th o u ghts ? Wo u ld he n o t perhaps say

It see m s tha t there is so m ethi n g m ore i n th e a t o m s t ha n ex
t e n sio n an d m o t i o n ? Would he n ot eve n co n clude : A fter
all reality ca n n o t b e co n s t r u c t ed ou t of a t oms howeve r
, ,

si m ple t he m a tter m ay a t rs t have see m ed ; i n so m e form

Or other u n i t y an d spiri t u a lity m u s t be assu m e d as origi n al ;

i t is n ot possible t o co n ceive th e m a s t he a ccide n t al results of

the co n j u n ctio n of a t o m s ?
We m ight by co n ti n u i n g t hese r eec t io n s reach a vie w like
, ,

t h at which Spi n oza logically for m u lat ed i n his E thi cs : Th e

w orld or re ality is an absolu t ely u n i t ary bei n g a su bstan ce ; ,

the p a r t icular thi n gs which at rs t see m i n depe n de n t are

, ,

i n truth o n ly depe n de n t ma n ifes t a t io n s O f t he esse n ce of the

u n iversal bei n g Th e A ll On e u n fold s i t sel f i n a d ual w orl d
.
-

of m odic a tio n s ,
i n a worl d Of co n scious processes an d i n
a worl d of processes of m oti o n ; be t wee n the m t here i s u n i
versal parallelism Th e l a ws of n at u re which govern each
.
,

o f the t w o worlds an d ar e co n ceivabl e by th o u gh t

,
are ,

n othi n g b u t for m s o f t he self de t er m i n atio n o f the A ll Real ;

- -

an d t he latt e r is n ot pushe d o r sh oved fro m without by

mecha n ical co m pulsio n fo r t here is n othi n g o u tside of it

t ha t could push o r sh ove i t b u t yieldi n g to the i n n er ,

impulse or cravi n g i t u nf olds i t s esse n ce i n th e fu l n ess of

,

reality an d i s itself i t s o wn an d free ca u se .

Had n ot S pi n oza bee n t oo deeply absorbed i n his a n ti

theological an d an ti te l e ol ogi cal spec u latio n s he wo u l d have ,

made the foll owi n g additio n s to these c o n ceptio n s : Ou r

k n owledge Of the u n iverse is i n t he m ai n a physical an d as
t r o n o m i c al k n owl edge d eali n g with the outside O f thi n gs
,
.

Their i n n er side the world o f co n sci ous n ess which o u r u n i

, ,

versal m etaphysical spec u latio n discovered to be as far reach -

i n g as the worl d O f m oti o n is n o t so O pe n to observatio n

,
.
 THE RE L TI A ON OF MO RA LITY TO RE LIGI ON 429

Everybody has i m m ediate k n owledge o f it o n ly i n so far as

he experie n ces it i n h is o wn i n n er sel f Reaso n i n g by a n al .

o gy we i n fer from t h e bodily m a n i festatio n s the existe n ce of

an i n n er li fe i n the h u m a n a n d a n i m al worl d A ssisted by .

the writ te n an d spoke n word w e attai n to so m e k n owl edge ,

o f th e historical m e n tal life of h u m a n ity

-
Of a superh u m a n .

spirit u a l life we h ave absol u tely n o k n owledge We i n terpret .

the so u l li fe of a n i m als by m ean s o f th e lower man ifestatio n s

-

O f ou r o wn i n n e r life This i s all we can d o here We read

. .

i n to the higher spiritu al life co n ceived by m etaphysics the

highest phases O f ou r bei n g In this se n se we a tt ribu t e t o
.

God o r th e A ll Real wisdom good n ess justice an d h oli n ess

,
-
, , , , .

We d o n ot i n te n d t hereby to de n e His esse n ce t heoretically ,

th a t i s u tterly i m possibl e we shall n ot eve n dare t o a tt ribute

reaso n an d will to Hi m reaso n an d will a re perhaps o n ly
,

earthly powers j u st as sigh t an d heari n g are possibly m erely

,

earthly organ s W e si m ply m ea n that we desire to i m agi n e

.

His esse n ce i n t he form Of t he m os t perfec t thi n gs of which

we k n ow A r t has alw ays pic t ure d God i n hu m an fo r m
. ,

an d will co n ti n u e t o do so ; here we d o n o t really i n te n d

to attribute such a form t o God ; we si m ply use the h u m a n

co u n te n a n ce t he m ost perfec t an d i m porta n t form of cor
,

p o r e al i t
y that w e h ave as a sy m bol o f absol u te perfectio n S O
, .
,

t oo w e use th e spiritual for m o f the mos t perfec t h u m a n ity

,

as a sy m bol of G od s esse n ce which we ca n n ot i m agi n e an d

co n ceive .

A n d i n this we see m si m ply t o be followi n g the s u gg es

t io n s of reality i t self Th e earth the o n ly m e m ber of the
.
,

u n iversal syste m w ith which we are i n an

y degree fa m iliar i s ,

predisposed to orga n ic li fe an d te n ds to realize i t Organ ic

,
.

life i n t u r n ai m s a t m e n tal li fe which re aches its goal i n ,

m an . Wha t S pec u la t ive Philosophy de n ed i n l ogical con

c opts m oder n biology atte m pts t o represe n t as a process O f
,

historical evol u tio n If n o w we discard the false co n cepts o f

.

ca u sality accordi n g t o which the ca u se p u shes o r forces the

,
430 C ON C E P TS A ND P RIN C IP LES
e ffec t i n t o exis t e n ce so t o S pea k an d co n ceive i t with Lo t ze
, , , ,

as the spo n tan eo u s orga n i zatio n of all parts o r m e m bers of

reality i n t o a u n ied s vste m of m otio n or cha n ge we can ,

rightly say Th e process Of develop m e n t of ou r pla n et which ,

cul m i n ates i n hu m a n historical life is m oved o r a tt racted by ,

this its highest co n t e n t as its goal A n d i n a si m ilar m an .

n e r to follow A ris t o t le t he A ll i s moved o r attrac t ed by God

, ,

as its goal .

Ou r co n cep t io n of t h e m oral laws as l aws of n a t ure th a t is , ,

laws of m e n tal hi s t orical life s u gges t s the sa m e view S i n c e

-
, .

historical life is a par t O f u n iversal life the moral laws to o ,

m u st be base d upo n t h e esse n ce o f t he u n iverse an d give ,

expressio n t o i t Y es we shall say if hu m a n m e n tal life i s

.
, ,

th e highes t an d fulles t develop m e n t O f i n n er life O f which

we k n ow the n t he m oral l a ws are for u s t he highes t for m s
,

O f the sel f de t er m i n a t io n of the A ll Real Here t oo the

- -
.
, ,

n e w biology serves as a bo n d o f u n io n be t wee n n a t ure an d

his t ory This n otio n agrees wi t h the O ld sayi n g O f Hera

.

cli t u s : A ll l a w s a re n ourished by on e divi n e law A n d .

Goe th e says t he s am e
So i m Kl i e wi g wi i m Gr
e n n e , e o sse n

Wi rk t N t r w irk t M
a u h g i t
, e n sc en e s ,
u nd b e i de
S i d i Ab gl
n e n j U li h t d r b
an z en e s r c s o en ,

D i h t b r ll We lt rl
as u n s c a ht ta e e eu c e .

In this se n se we m ay co n clud e with Bacon : U n do u b t edly

a superci al t i n ct u re of philosophy m ay i n cli n e th e m i n d to

1
ath eis m ye t a far ther k n owledge bri n gs i t back t o religio n
,
.

It is t rue n o t all the philosoph ers m e n tio n ed above have

,

accepted thi s world form ula altho u gh n o syste m has fewe r

-
,

O ppo n e n ts t ha n this Bu t t hey all agree that reality is far

.

fro m bei n g si m ple an d perfec tly i n t elligible They all .

decl are i n so m e form o r a n other that the u n iverse is a

, ,

wo n derfu l m iracle whose i n n ite depth s eve n the pro fo u n dest

,

hu m a n tho u ghts ca n n ot fatho m A n d they all asser t each i n .

,

1
[A d va nce me n t of Lea r n i ng , B k I . .
]
432 C ON C E P TS AN D P RIN CIPLE S
tw o ele m e n t s hu m ility an d t rus t ; hu m il ity t h e feeli n g of
, ,

o u r o w n little n ess an d i n si g n ic a n ce i n t he prese n ce o f t h e

In n ite ; t r ust the feeli n g tha t the In n i t e is n ot merely an

,

exter n al t ran sce n de n t force but harbors an d bears wi t hi n i ts

,

boso m ou r own li fe an d strivi n g as so m ethi n g th at was crea t ed

by i t an d ca n n o t be l ost O f suc h feeli n gs th e hear t bea t s o f
.
-

religio n co n sist Th e ideas i n which it clo thes itsel f th e

.
,

co n ceptual for m ul a i n whi ch philosoph ers a n d theologi an s

atte m pt t o co m prehe n d the ideas co n stitu te th e accide n tal ,

an d tra n si t ory ele m e n t i n religio n Th e value Of these ideas

.

a n d co n cepts co n sists i n this : they are sy m bols i n whic h

feeli n g Obj e cti es itself an d m ake religious fellow ship an d

,

c o m m u n io n possible ; for n o religio n can exist excep t i n a

per m a n e n t social life Th e i n dividual participates i n it as he
.

participates i n l an guage an d poe t ry morals an d law , .

Besides co n cep t ual formul a h ave n ever ex er t ed th e gre at es t

,

i n u e n ce i n the world ; art which G oethe call s th e m edia t o r

,

o f the i n e ff able an d worship with which t h e for m er is mos t

, ,

i n ti m at ely co n n ec t ed h ave always bee n more impor t an t bearers

,

a n d creators of religious life ; it is their fu n ctio n t o expres s

m a n s rel at io n t o t he suprase n suous i n a se n s uous v isible

-

m a n n er .

N ow I believe tha t these feeli n gs ar e quali ties o f huma n

n a ture which will n ever be los t Th e for m s i n which they
.

are clo thed will con ti n u e to ch an ge thei r esse n ce will re m ai n,

.

Whatever co n cepti o n s scie n tic research m ay for m o f reality ,

there will al ways be roo m fo r religio u s feeli n g Religio n will .

n eve r die ou t ; i t satises t he i n n er m ost an d deepest n eeds O f

the h u m an so u l In order that it m ay n ot be stricke n with

.

pride an d bli n d n ess i n prosperity the heart m u s t t u rn heave n

,

ward th a n kfu lly an d j oy fu lly accepti n g its happi n ess n ot as

, ,

so m ethi n g d u e to its o wn m erit b u t as a gi ft of grace In

,
.

the death o f its hopes an d pl an s i t m u s t re m e m be r th at

earthly thi n gs have n o absol u te worth i n its absolute n u ce r
ta in ty co n cer n i n g all h u m an thi n gs an d i n i t s ig n oran c e of i ts
,
 THE RE L TI A ON OF MO RA LITY TO RE LIGI ON 433

o wn f u ture tha t it m ay n ot fall i n t o ba n e fu l s u perstitio n i t

, ,

n eeds t he tr u st that whatever m ay co m e is m ea n t as a bless

i ng. It is s u rely n ot an accide n t t hat wherever this belief

disappears s u pe rstiti o n spreads .

I also believe that the hearts o f th e best m e n always have

bee n an d always will be m ost s u sceptible to religio u s feeli n g .

Th e p u rer a n d m ore beauti fu l a h u m a n soul the m ore capable ,

will it be of that revere n ce which co n stitutes the basis of reli

gio n the m ore seriou sly an d p rofo u n dly it reg a rds li fe th e ,

m ore hu m bly w ill i t ack n owledge h ow fa r sh ort it falls o f its

i deals Th e great er an d freer the aspiratio n s of a m an the
.
,

stro n ge r an d m ore i n te n se will be his faith i n the ulti m a t e

victory of th e good cau s e .

.4 But it will be said h o w does i t happe n t h a t so ma n y

, ,

serio u s able an d truth lovi n g m e n of our ti m es n ot o n ly sta n d

, ,
-

o u tside of the ch u rch b u t n ei the r have n or eve n clai m t o have

,

religio n i n an y form ? Gra n t i n g the t ruth of this s tat e m e n t

a n d I d o n ot believe that we c an doubt i t we may perhaps
ex plai n i t as follows : Firs t th e capacity for religio n i s n ot
,

eq u ally devel ope d i n all i n divi d u als There are m e n i n wh om

.

i n t ellec t or will s o s t ro n gly prepo n de ra t es as to hi n der t he

,

growth O f the more re n ed an d free r e m otio n s Th e story is .

told tha t a m athe m aticia n a fter h avi n g liste n ed to th e read

,

i n g Of a poe m i m p atie n tly i n q u ired : What does it prove ?

,

Hi s m i n d was so se t upo n de m o n stra t io n s that there was n o

place n o r i n terest i n it for a n ythi n g else ; fro m n at u re he
lear n e d n othi n g excep t that she gave h i m proble m s to sol ve .

Darwi n see m s t o h ave passed t h ro u gh a si m ilar expe rie n ce .

He tells us h ow hi s t as t e for poetry grad u ally disappeared

In deed n o o n e will wh olly escape these i n u e n ces who d evotes
,

his e n ti re s t re n gth to a sci e n tic task O thers are so deeply

.

i n terested i n practical proble m s as to care fo r n othi n g except

wha t bears o n these They m ay be ho n est e fci e n t an d
.
, ,

good m e n b u t we ca n n ot regard the m as n or m ally d evel oped

, .

A n esse n tial phase O f their i n n e r li fe see m s to be wa n t i n g ,

28
434 C ON C E P TS A ND PRIN C IPLE S
that par t of it n a m ely by which hu m an n at u re se n ses beauty
, , ,

poetry a n d freedo m We m ay perhaps say that o u r age is

,
.

especially prod u ctive O f m e n Of this sta m p Th e divisio n of .

labor the m echan izatio n o f li fe specialis m which co n stit u te

, , ,

the glo ry o f th e prese n t appare n tly favor s u ch a On e S ided

,
-

develop m e n t Ma n y are pro u d o f thei r li m itatio n s n o t to say

.
,

n arrow n ess Th e O l d Greek philosophers the m e d ia v al

.
,

scholars the thi n kers of t he seve n tee n th a n d eightee n th ce n

,

t u r ie s ca m e i n to broader a n d free r to u ch with the u n iverse

,

tha n m a n y of the i n vestigato rs of the prese n t who begi n t o ,

delve i n so m e special eld an d the n buried i n their S ha fts, , ,

see n othi n g O f heave n o r of earth Si m ilar o n e S ided n ess r e .

-

s u l ts fro m th e ex t re m e devotio n t o an o f cial or i n d u strial

sphere of activity which the prese n t de m a n ds Li fe u sed to

,
.

be si m pl er an d m ore versatile o u r relatio n s to m e n an d thi n gs ,

were m ore vari ed a n d he n ce fa n cy was m ore active an d th e

, ,

e m otio n al li fe riche r an d m ore u n i for m S pecialis m an d par .

,

t i cu l arly scie n tic specialis m e n co u rages the feeli n g least ,

favorable to religio u s li fe that is pride I read so m ewhere

, ,
.

tha t th e sala m an ders livi n g i n the stalactitic caves of C ar

n iol a h ave los t t hei r visio n accordi n g to a well k n ow n law Of
,
-

biology th at orga n s which are n ot exe rcised disappear It .

wo u ld see m t hat the scie n ce specialists o f o u r age ofte n m eet -

with a si m ilar fate A cc u sto m ed as they beco m e by co n stan t

.
,

practice to t he m i cr os cOp i c view Of thi n gs i n philology an d

, ,

history as well as i n n a tural scie n ce they grad u ally di m i n is h ,

a n d n ally lose e n tirely th e power to see t hi n gs i n t heir great

co n n ectio n s A n d i n the sa m e ratio th e t e n de n cy develops

.

t o regard all th ose who d o n ot see the littl e thi n gs as st u pid

ig n ora m u ses an d all those wh o strive to i n sert the m i n to a
,

larger whole as m eddleso m e an d fa n tastic b u n gl ers Is i t

, .

n o t possible tha t the b li n d sala m a n ders gropi n g abo u t i n ,

the dark n ess O f thei r caves have the sa m e co n te m p t for t hose

,

th at see an d regard eyes as dil e tt an t i c org an s Of orie n tati o n ?

,

A n other ci rc u m stan ce which ca u ses a great d eal o f co n fa

,
434 C ON C E P TS A ND P RIN C IPLE S
tha t par t O f it n a m ely by which h u m an n at u re se n se s beauty
, , ,

poetry a n d freedo m We m ay perhaps say that ou r age i s

,
.

especially prod u ctive of m e n o f th i s sta m p Th e divisio n o f .

labo r the m echa n izatio n o f li fe specialis m which co n stit u te

, , ,

the glo ry O f t he prese n t appare n tly favor s u ch a o n e sided

,
-

develop m e n t Ma n y are pro u d o f thei r li m itatio n s n o t to say

.
,

n arrow n ess Th e O l d Greek philosophers t he m e d ia v al

.
,

scholars the thi n kers o f the seve n tee n th a n d eightee n th ce n

,

t u r ie s ca m e i n to broader an d freer to u ch with the u n iverse

,

tha n ma n y of th e i n vestigato rs o f t he prese n t who begi n t o ,

delve i n so m e special eld an d the n buried i n their sha fts , , ,

see n othi n g o f heave n o r o f earth S i m ila r o n e sided n ess re .

-

s u l ts fro m the ex t re m e devo t io n t o an O f cial o r i n d u s t rial

sphere of activity which the prese n t de m a n ds Li fe use d t o

,
.

be si m pl er an d m ore versatile ou r relatio n s to m e n an d thi n gs ,

were m ore varied an d he n ce fa n cy w as m ore active an d th e

, ,

e m otio n al li fe riche r an d m ore u n i for m Specialis m an d par .

,

t i cu l arly scie n tic specialis m e n co u rages the feeli n g leas t ,

favorable to religio u s life th at is pride I read so m ewhere

, ,
.

tha t th e sal a m an ders livi n g i n t he stalactitic caves o f C ar

n iola have l ost thei r vi sio n accordi n g t o a well k n ow n law o f
,
-

biology th at orga n s which are n ot exercised disappear It .

wo u ld see m tha t the scie n ce specialists of o u r age ofte n m eet -

with a si m ilar fate A cc u sto m e d as they beco m e by co n sta n t

.
,

practice to t he m i cr OS C Op i c view o f thi n gs i n phil ology an d

, ,

history as well as i n n a tu ral scie n ce they grad u ally di m i n is h ,

a n d n ally lose e n tirely the power t o see t hi n gs i n t heir grea t

co n n ectio n s A n d i n t he sa m e ratio th e t e n den cy develops

.

t o regar d all t h ose who do n o t see the little thi n gs as st u pid

ign ora m uses an d all those who strive to i n sert the m i n to a
,

large r whole as m eddleso m e an d fa n tastic b u n gl ers Is it

, .

n o t possible t hat t he bli n d sala m a n ders gropi n g abou t i n ,

the dark n ess of their caves have the s a m e co n te m p t for t hose

,

that see an d regard eyes as dile ttan ti c org an s o f orie n tatio n ?

,

A n other ci rc u m sta n ce which ca u ses a grea t d e al Of co n fa

,
 TH E REL A TION OF MO RA LITY To RE LI GI ON 4 85

sio n a n d u n h appi n ess has the s am e e ffect : the co n tradictio n

,

betwee n o u r pro fessio n s a n d o u r real co n victio n s Th e creed .

co n tai n s m u ch th a t so u n ds stra n ge t o u s n o w fo r exa m ple , ,

th e belie f i n m i racles an d de m o n s N 0 o n e ob j ected to these .

t hi n gs as la t e as th ree h u n dred years ago Bu t with the .

t ri u m ph o f th e scie n tic m ode o f thou ght which starts fro m ,

the hypothesis O f t he u n iversal reig n o f l aw an d t he n seeks ,

t o verify i t i n p articular cases th e i n t ellec t has co m e t o rebel

,

s o m ewha t stron gly agai n s t m iracles an d magic There m ay .

be m ore t hi n gs i n h eave n an d earth than are drea m ed of i n

o u r philosophy as wit n ess the hyp n otic phe n o m e n a t he reality
, ,

Of which we fou n d i t so hard to ack n owledge Bu t th e t e n .

de n ey t o co n sider a ll phe n o m e n a as obeyi n g t he u n iversal

order of n atu re as u n ifor m occ u rre n ces whose for m u l a m u s t
, ,

be discove red will n ot disappear agai n u n less scie n ce itself

, ,

perishes A n d n o i n t ellige n t m an wo u ld welco m e s u ch a

.

cala m ity ; the decli n e O f scie n ce wo u l d prepare t h e soil for

the ran k weed o f s u perstitio n We are here co n fro n ted with
.

a n alter n ative ; t here are riddles says scie n ce which we can , ,

n o t as ye t
,
solve bu t there are n o m iracl es n o occ u rre n ces
, , ,

which excl u de i n pri n ciple the possibility Of a n a t u ral

, ,

expla n atio n .

Th e Biblical m iracles are n o excep t io n t o t his r u le ; they

belo n g t o a category Of worl d views which has dis appeared -
,

an d ca n n ot l o n g s u rvive the m If we accept the Biblical

.

m i racles we m u s t also ad m it t he possibility o f m oder n

,

m iracles . If we h ave n o t the co u rage or n d it i m possible to

accep t t he latter a t leas t i n the Protesta n t world we m u s t
, ,

draw the logical co n cl u sio n an d rep u diate t he for m e r also

, .

Protes t a n t theology evide n tly appreciates the S itu a t io n ; it at

t e m pts to set a li m it to m i racles or to discard t he m altogether ,

e g
. . by i n te rpreti n g the m n atu rally o r by ex plai n i n g the m
,

a w ay exegetically Th is w as the m ethod o f Ol d ratio n alis m

.
,

an d it gave rise to m a n y arti ci al a n d fo r ced i n terpretatio n s .

N evertheless s u ch a p roced u re was perhaps m ore ho n est an d

,
 436 C ON C E P TS A ND P RIN C IPLE S
also m ore appropria t e t ha n a la t e r on e i n which t he a t te m p t .

is m ade to co m plicat e the ques t io n b y all ki n ds of s o called -

spec u lative co n siderati o n s o r c r itical i n vestigatio n s of t he

s o u rces a n d so to avoid taki n g a de n ite sta n d i n t he matt e r
, .

Th e i m partial reader i s ap t to feel t hat s u ch i n vestigatio n s

are i n te n ded to co n fu se h i m an d to con ceal f r o m h i m th e
a u thor s failure t o reach any decisio n wh a t ever

.

I do n o t believe t ha t the ch u rch can agai n w i n t he co n

de n ce O f thi n ki n g m e n u n ti l she decides to discard the belief
i n m iracles A ll these e n deavors t o make the m iracles appear
.

credible si m ply serve I fear t o i n crease the dis t ru s t

, , , .

Besides it m ay perhaps be show n tha t m iracles n ot o n l y

,

co n tradict the scie n tic co n ceptio n s of ou r a ge b u t al so th e ,

spirit o f o u r religio u s faith They really belo n g t o the poly

.

theistic stage i n the e vol u tio n Of theis m gods work m iracles ,

G o d works n o m iracles A ccordi n g t o the dog m a of the

.

ch u rch God origi n ally created all t hi n gs ou t of n othi n g an d

, ,

it is He who is co n s t a n tly keepi n g t he m i n exi s t e n ce ; they ,

d o n o t exist th ro u gh th e m selves Tha t is s t ated i n di ffere n t .

,

words : God alo n e is an i n depe n de n t bei n g all t hi n gs are an d ,

exist n o t i n the m selves b u t i n Hi m o r accordi n g t o S pi n oza s

, ,

for m u l a : God is t he s u bs t a n ce t he t hi n gs are m odi catio n s

,

o f His esse n ce Miracles presuppose a di ffere n t relatio n Of

.

God to the world : God a par t icular bei n g by the side O f

,

other bei n gs upo n which He occasi o n ally acts arbitrarily b u t

, ,

which i n other respects h ave thei r o w n reality Miracles

, ,
.

are ex ceptio n al e ffects they are m akeshifts by which th e

, ,

world which us u ally ru n s its o w n co u rse i s correc t ed from

, ,

witho u t Fetiches an d gods o n ly c an work by miracles

. .

Th e all powerf u l G o d o f th e rst article h owever is an all

-
, ,

active God an d s u ch a God works n o m iracles Whoever

,
.

takes mo n o theis m serio u sly wh oe ver regards th e differe n ce

,

betwee n m o n o theis m an d p olyth eis m n o t as a n u m erical

d iffere n ce b u t as a di ffere n ce i n the divi n e esse n ce an d does
, ,

n o t look upo n God as t he o n ly s u rvivor of a g r ea t h os t of

 88 C ON C E P TS AND P RIN C IPLE S
be th at m iracles an d sig n s we re o n ce n eeded to s t re n gthe n
the fai th of the ch u rch ; at prese n t they m erely discredi t i t .

Th e story is told that F A Wol f o n ce chose the N ew Testa . .

m e n t the Gospel Of S t Mark as the s u bj ect o f his lect u res ;

,
.
,

b u t whe n h e ca m e to the fth chapter to the story o f t he cast ,

i n g o u t O f devils i n t he co u n try o f t he Gadare n es a n d the ,

eve n ts follo w i n g it he laid the book aside forever Why di d

, .

he n ot n d the sam e fau l t with t he ghost stories an d the -

fables i n Ho m er ? S u rely because he did n ot h ave to b e

lieve the m becau se he was allowed to take the m fo r wh at
,

they were worth Th e Gospel s certai n ly co n tai n wo n derfu lly

.

serio u s an d i m porta n t m a t ters m u ch m ore i m portan t m atters ,

tha n the works of H o m er ; b u t Wolf co u ld n ot see the m o n

acco u n t o f these m iserab le Gadare n e swi n e F o r a n other .

perso n Bal aam s ass or a si m ilar cala m ity proves t o be the

s tu m bli n g block He is tau ght i n the schools t o take s u ch

-
.

thi n gs literally ; the m iracles are perhaps e m phasized as

especially i m por t an t fac t s an d as corroborati n g the t r u th O f
all the other co n te n ts A s soo n as he escapes fro m th e
.

school roo m an d his i m p u lse to bel ieve an d to do u b t is n o

-
,

lon ger s u bj ected t o co m p u lsio n he reve n ges hi m self by rep u ,

d i a ti n g these books o n ce a n d fo r all ; to his o w n de t ri m e n t

o f course b u t n ot wholly thro u gh his o wn fa u lt
,
How .

wo n derfu l deep poetically a ffecti n g are the s t ories with

, , ,

which lege n d has surro u n ded the birth O f Jes u s the a u n uu

c i at i o n t he appeara n ce o f t he a n gels a m o n g the shepher d s
, ,

a n d the g lor i a i n e x ce ls i s the star which appeare d to th e , ,

w ise m e n o f the East an d showed the m t he way t o the,

n e w bor n babe the S avior O f t he world the ight t o Egypt

-
, ,

h o w fu ll o f m ea n i n g i s t he s t ory Of the te m ptatio n Of the ,

feedi n g of the m u ltitude o f the catchi n g Of the shes Bu t , .

who can e n d u re a ser m o n that u ses these n arratives to c on

t r ad i c t ratio n alis m an d to prove their literal possibility a n d
,

tr u th ? De m o n stratio n s are absol u tely o u t of place here ;

where these stories are accepted with the old faith proof ,
 TH E R E L A TION OF MO R A LITY TO RE LI G I ON 439

i s s u peru ou s ; where the faith is go n e s u ch arg u m e n ts ,

will n ever bri n g i t back they will si m ply des t roy the poetical
,

e ffect an d prod u ce distr u st which will s pread fro m poi n t

, ,

to poi n t u n til it has n ally eate n away all fait h a n d all

religio n .

If i n additio n to this th e ch u rch u n dertakes to de fe n d th e

, ,

creed by o u tward m ea n s i f the worldly powers aid her therei n

,

to their u t m ost an d i f re w ards are besto we d u po n oste n sible

,

orthodoxy an d p u n ish m e n ts i n icted u po n its O pposite

, ,

the n the si n ce rest n atu res will be th e rs t to ass u m e an

attit u de o f decided h ostility they will look u po n the creed ,

as the C a u di n e Forks th rou gh which the path leads t o ap

poi n t m e n t an d pro m otio n as the p r a e m i u m s e r i i ta ti s History
,
v
.

shows it ; fo r exa m ple the history of the forties an d fties ;

,

b u t wh o heeds he r war n i n gs ? It see m s to be fated that all

the abs u rdities of h u m a n ity sh o u ld be produced a n ew with
every ge n eratio n S O too th e atte m p t is periodically m ade to
.
, ,

bolster u p religio n by m ea n s of outward force A n d the con .

sequ e n ces are al ways the sa m e h u m a n n at u re rebel s agai n st

wh at is forced u po n it an d philosophers assert that s u ch
,

m ethods are absol u tely co n trary to h u m a n n at u re If the ex .

e ri m e n t co u ld be m ade t o e m pl oy force n o t i n behal f of b u t

p , ,

a gai n st religi o n an experi m e n t which the fi r st Fre n ch revo

l u t i o n act u ally tried an d which pres u m ably will be t ried agai n
,

i n so m e for m o r oth e r i t w o u ld be fou n d h o w deeply r e

l ig io n is rooted i n the hear t O f m an .

5 Le t m e also co n sid er briey t h e rela t io n be t wee n the

.

be l i ef i n i mm or ta li ty a n d m orality It has lo n g bee n believed

.

a n d is still cl ai m ed at the prese n t ti m e that t h e belief i n i m

m ortality i n the se n se th at death is followed by a n other life

, ,

i s the keysto n e o f all m orality If this li fe were the e n d o f

.

everythi n g virt u e wo u l d be an e m pty d rea m ; the n it wo u ld

,

be the part of wisdo m to e n joy th e m o m e n t .

A ccordi n g to th e V iew h erei n prese n ted In o ral i t v as a ,

scie n ce d oes n o t depe n d u po n this belie f Th e latte r is of .

440 C ON C E P TS A ND P RINC IP LE S
grea t i m porta n ce t o co n d u ct b u t n ot to m oral phil osophy
, .

Ethics will n ot cha n ge a si n gle propositio n whether there be ,

a lif e after death or n ot Th e m oral laws are n at u ral laws

.

O f the h u m an historical li fe existi n g at this ti m e an d u po n

this earth S h o u l d this li fe be the preparatio n for a n other
.

life we coul d n ot give the slightest i n dicatio n o f how to pre

,

pare o u rselves for i t excep t by lli n g ou r prese n t life with a

m oral co n te n t A n d S ho u ld this earth l y li fe be the whol e of
.

lif e the sa m e course wo u l d be ad vi sable an d n ecessary ; n or

,

wou ld s u ch a life n eed a n other as a reward i t would be a ,

s uf cie n t reward i n itself .

A n d I sho uld like to add tha t i t doe s n o t see m ad visabl e

fro m a p e d ag og i ca l a n d p r a ct i ca l sta n dpoi n t to m ake the tr u th
,

o r the val u e of the m oral l aws depe n de n t u po n so un certai n a

thi n g as th e belief i n a fu t u re life For it ca n n ot be de n ied

.

t hat this belief is b ecom i n g more an d more u n se t tled i n ou r

ti m es ; an d th e fu tu r e will h ardly succeed i n stre n gthe n i n g i t .

It is bei n g u n der m in ed by the i n creasi n g spread O f th e seie n

t i c an d a n thropol ogical m ode of thought Th e co n ceptio n O f
.

a li fe after death as a n thropol ogy shows u s i s a dre a m which

, ,

all peoples h ave drea m ed i n i n n itely di ffere n t for m s Th e .

In dia n s an d Esqui maux drea m e d O f h u n ti n g an d shi n g

gro u n ds the O l d Ger m an s of ba ttles an d d ri n ki n g bo u t s th e
, ,

Eastern Moham m eda n s Of beauti fu l wo m e n a n d beautif u l gar

de n s : everywhere the i m agi n ati o n creates a f u tu re world i n ,

which th e will realizes its desire for happi n ess .

The n I sho u l d co n ti n ue as follows Eve n t h ough a t e m

.

poral life after death were a drea m t h at w oul d n ot make the ,

belief i n i m m ortality a wholly vai n ill u sio n ; w e have here i n

se n suou s garb a possible an d perhaps n ecessary thought the ,

tho u ght to which th e Kan ti a n phil osophy leads The te mp or a l

l ife i s t h e p he n om e n a l f or m f
o a l ife w h i ch i s e te r n a l as

su ch .

C o n si derwhat i s t i m e ? Th e form of reality as such ?

:

If so to be i n ti m e wo u ld be th e co n ditio n o f bei n g real

,
In .
4 42 C ONC E P TS A ND P RIN C IP LE S
ge t her Whe n ever we appear before m e n eve n tho u gh i t
.
,

be b u t for a m o m e n t it is n o t i m m aterial t o u s what pic

,

ture they for m o f u s ; w e k n ow th a t it will hardly abide

with t he m fo r a seco n d t he n t o be forgo t te n forever an d
, ,

ye t we take care that i t may n ot be a rep u lsive o r ugly pic

t ure C ou n tl ess h u m a n bei n gs have live d an d die d thi n ki n g
.

o f t he picture which fu t u re ge n eratio n s will for m of t he m ;

an d S hould we t he n care n othi n g fo r t he pic t u re which is

i m pressed n ot upo n a m o m e n t ary co n scio u s n ess n ot u po n

, ,

the m e m ory of th e s u cceedi n g ge n erati o n s bu t as i t were , , ,

upo n the ve ry esse n ce of reality fo r all e t ern ity ? A n d n o t a

pict u re m e rely b u t rather our very bei n g ? Should we seek ,

i n g o n ly the e n j oy m e n t O f the m o m e n t h e careless whethe r

,

o u r bei n g m a n ifests i t self forever i n the eter n al reality as a

u seless e m pty an d co n te m p t ible o r as a beautif u l an d good

, , ,

thi n g ?
Bu t t he world has n o co n sci ous n ess an d I m yself will have
,

n o co n scio u s n ess ; an d w ha t do I care for an exis t e n ce i n

which n either I n or an y o n e else i s t o have co n scious n ess ?

Well who says that reality is withou t co n sci o u s n ess ? May
,

n o t the A ll Real have an absolute co n scio u s n ess o f i t sel f o f

-
,

its esse n ce ? S u rely the tho u gh t which s o m a n y of th e pro

fo u n dest thi n kers o f all ages regarded as a n ecessary tho u ght ,

ca n n ot be an abs u rd o n e Th e divi n e co n scio u s n ess will be

.

differe n t from the ear thly te m poral co n scio u s n ess O f m an an d

-
,

we ca n n ot co n ceive it i m agi n e it o r describe i t Bu t who

, , .

dares to assert tha t n othi n g can exist excep t what he c an

i m agi n e ? A n d wh o wil l clai m tha t the i n divid u al bei n gs ,

wh o here h ave a te m poral c o n scio us n ess co u ld n ot also ,

possess an eter n al co n scious n ess ? Why sho u ld n ot a bei n g

which is co n scious of i t s i n n er life as a process exte n ded i n
ti m e also be able t o beco m e aware o f i t su b sp e ci e re ter n i
,

t a ti s ? Do we k n o w h ow t e m poral co n sci ous n ess arises an d ,

h ow it can exist ?
A n d we m ight poi n t o u t how co n sci ous n ess is m odied with
 T H E REL TI A ON OF MO RA LITY T O RE LI GI ON 4 43

adva n ci n g age Y o u th lives i n t he f u t u re Bu t the pas t

. .

gradually expa n ds an d Old age n ds rest i n the co n t e m

,

l t i on of the past as the tr u e reality as so m ethi n g n o l o n ge r

p a ,

s u bjec t t o chan ge Whe n we look back upo n the past wh a t

.
,

is i t th a t deter m i n es ou r j u dg m e n t of th e val u e o f li fe Th e
pleas u re which i t yielded or the fact that it was a worthy
,

an d a righ te ou s li fe ? C h risti an m oralists c o n sta n tly exhor t

us t o re m e mber de ath an d to be m i n dfu l of eter n ity an d ,

t o act an d to live as t ho u gh we were i n th e prese n ce o f

death In deed t hi s advice is as sou n d as it i s e ff ec t ive ;
.
,

death is really as it has bee n called a good p r of e ssor mor a li u m

, , .

Th e ti m e will co m e for yo u whoever yo u m ay be an d wh a t,

ever yo u m ay thi n k an d believe eve n tho u gh n ot u n t il y ou r

,

life is d rawi n g to a close whe n i t will be absol u t ely i m

,

m aterial to yo u wh at pleasures you have e n j oye d i n t his

world h o w m u c h ho n or an d wealth you h ave w o n h ow far
, ,

o u h ave s u cceede d i n asser t i n g yo u r cl ai m s ; th e ti m e will

y
co m e eve n though n ot u n til y ou ar e o n yo u r d eath bed whe n
,
-
,

o n e thi n g al o n e will n ot be i m m aterial to y o u : whether

y ou
have ho n estly d o n e yo u r work i n this world h owever grea t ,

o r s m all i t m ay have bee n as a ri gh t eous m an whether you

, ,

h ave fo u gh t the battle o f li fe as a brave an d fait h fu l soldier .

Y es ask yoursel f an d h o n estly an s we r the questio n What is

, , ,

it that really pai n s you n o w whe n you l ook back upo n yo u r

past ? Is i t the sorrows you h ave s u ffered i s it the evils , ,

the i n j u stice the losses which you h ave bor n e

,
O r i s it the
si n s you h ave co m m itted the wro n gs y ou h ave i n icted upo n
,

others the i n j u ry yo u h ave d o n e y o u rsel f co n t rary to yo u r

, ,

bette r n at u re ? A n d what is it that m akes yo u h appy what ,

adds val u e t o yo u r life i n yo u r eyes ? Th e ple as u res an d

good m eals ? These are go n e an d will n ever m ore delight
! B u t the n oble an d ho n est deed s o u have wro u gh t the
y o u y ,

good yo u have do n e t o o thers at the sacrice o f yo u r o w n

i n cli n atio n s thes e are the thi n gs which you still cherish an d
,

hold dear Does this n ot express an i m m ediate co n victio n o n

.
4 44 C O NC EP TS A ND PRIN C IPLES
your par t th a t the pas t is n ot absolu t ely vai n an d u n re al ,

but per m an e n t an d re al ? fo r wha t d o we care for the

n on exis t e n t ? Why
-
y o u say it exists i n m e m ory
, ,
Well .
,

suppose bei n g i n m e m ory were t he real bei n g suppose all ,

reco llec tio n for m ed a par t o f t h e absol u te m e m ory or ra the r ,

o f the a bsolute co n scious n ess o f G o d ? The n life clearly ,

seei n g itsel f i n the light of the e t er n al sel f co n scious n ess of -

G o d would b e e n grave n upo n the backgrou n d of e t er n a l reality

,

fo r all eter n i t y l
.

If we were t o seek for t e r m s t o express the f a i th of C h r i s

t i a n i ty i n ph i l osophical la n guage we sho u ld i t see m s t o m e, , ,

be forced t o adop t a similar form ul a Th e S criptures tell us .

tha t the etern al li fe is n ot a se n suous t e m poral life but a -

,

suprase n suous eter n al life ; that it does n o t co n sist of eati n g

-

an d d ri n ki n g bu t o f a n u n speakable gl ory an d blessed n ess

, ,

o r i t s O pposite ; tha t t he e n d of t his e a r thly life des t roy s the

possibility of a chan ge o f its esse n ce an d he n ce o f i ts s t a t e ,

which m ean s tha t n o li fe i n ti m e will follo w for a li fe i n t i m e ,

without ch a n ge i s so m e thi n g that ca n n o t possibly be con

ce i v e d . To be su re fai th does n o t rest h ere i n these abstrac t
, ,

an d n egative expressio n s which s t rip o ff t he se n suo u s an d th e

,

te m poral ; i t soo n clo thes the thought Of a n on se n s u ous ti m e - -

less li fe i n t he for m s an d col ors O f the se n suo u s t e m poral -

li fe ; it speaks O f a city of G o d m easures i t s le n gth an d i ts ,

breadth b u ilds t he s t ree t s o f gol d an d the gat es of pearls

, ,

makes t he sai n t s cl othe d i n white rai m e n t an d carryi n g p al m s

,

i n t hei r ha n ds si n g so n gs o f praise t o G o d an d th e L am b ;
,

whil e hell is lled by the i m agi n atio n with repulsiv e an d

1 Th e m i n d w hi ch i s im m o r t al m ak e s i t se l f
Re q u i t al for i ts g oo d o r e v il th ou g ht s
Is i t s o w n o r i g i n Of i ll a n d e n d
A nd its o wn place an d t i m e : i t s i nn at e sense,
W h en
s t r ipp d Of t hi s m o r t ali t , d e r i v es
y
No co l o r fr o m t h e e e t i n g t h i n gs w i th ou t ,
Bu t i s

a b so r b d in su e ran ce o r in j oy ,

Born fro m t h e k nowle dg e of i ts o wn d e se rt .

BY R O NsM

a n re d .
f
446 C ON C E P TS A ND P RIN C IPLE S

6 . foregoi n g co n ceptio n O f t he relatio n betwee n

Th e
m orali ty an d religio n h as bee n criticised by G i zy cki i n a
rev i ew Of this work which I m e n tio ed aboven
1
It see m s to .

h i m t hat I u n derrate a val u able i n deed the m ost val u able , ,

q u ality of a m an of scie n ce i n tellec t u al ho n esty , There

.

really are he says so m e i n tellectually hon est m e n wh o
, ,

s trive after the tru th wi th thei r wh ole so u ls who desire to ,

possess a f a i thf u l pi cture Of the world an d there fore d o n ot ,

allow th e m selves to believe anythi n g th at is n ot i m m ediately

sel f evide n t or ca n n o t be deduced with l ogical n ecessity fro m
-
,

s u ch absol u t ely cer t ai n pri n ciples Th e above view h e .
,

believes does n ot do these m e n justice He m e n tio n s a

,
.

n u m ber O f s u ch u n believers a n d co m pares the m wi t h others

,

who co m bi n e grea t m oral defects wi t h m u ch religio n Lom .

broso h as S how n i n his work o n the cri m i n al t hat fe w

cri m i n als are u n believers G i zycki co n siders the facts ad
.
~

d u ce d by Lo m broso as very s u ggestive I co n fess t hat I do .

n o t n d the m so to an
y grea t exte nt That cri m i n als are .

s u perstitiou s i s n ot surprisi n g ; for there is a close co nn ec

tio n betwee n cri m e i n t ellec t u al decay an d i n sa n i ty It is
, , .

m u ch more s u rprisi n g tha t Lo m broso an d followi n g h i m ,

G i zyck i S ho u ld s o n aively co n fu se s u perstiti o n w ith religio n

,
.

-
Bu t as for those si n cere an d ho n es t m e n who have n o reli
gio n I have of co u rse n ever drea m ed of de n y i n g either their
,

existe n ce o r th ei r i n tegrity I h ave eve n at te m pted to explai n

.

their lack Of religio n by t hei r h o n es t y Beca u se religion i s .

S O O fte n co n fu sed an d adultera t ed with s u perstitio n religiosity ,

wi t h hypocrisy si n cere n atu res are repelled an d s o rep u diate

, ,

all faith all at t e m p t s to tra n sce n d th e facts add u ced by

,

scie n tic research I did n ot reproach the m for this b u t

.
, ,

o n the other ha n d I ca n n o t follo w G i z ck i an d regard thei r

, y ,

attitu de as deservi n g especial praise N ay I can n o t help .

,

regardi n g it as a ki n d of n arrow n ess partic u larly whe n i t ,

clai m s to be the o n ly proper a n d legiti m ate attitude .

1
S e e p 2 83. .
 THE R E L TI A ON OF MO RA LITY TO RE LIG I ON 44 7

N ow is it really t ru e are there really people wh o s t rictly

, ,

adhere to the pri n ciple n o t to belie v e a nythi n g th at i s n o t

,

i m m ediately sel f evide n t o r ca nn ot be ded u ced with logical

-
,

n ecessity fro m s u ch absol u tely certai n pri n ciples ? DO n ot
these perso n s also for m n otio n s of the fu t u re eithe r o f thei r ,

o w n o r Of th e fu t ure i n ge n eral which partake o f th e n at u re ,

o f faith Do n ot t hey too m ak e u se Of u n veried ele m e n ts

, ,

to co n s t r u c t their c o n cep t io n s of reality ? Gi zycki q u otes a

passage fro m an A m erica a t hor i n his M r a l P hi losop hy
n u o
4

Whe n a m an believes thi n gs si m ply beca u se C hrist o r th e

Bible says so withou t k n owi n g other reaso n s the n eve n
, , ,

tho u gh his belief be tr u e t he t ruth itsel f which he possesses, , ,

beco m es his heresy ; i t is wro n g to accept the Bible with

o u t i n vestigatio n eve n i f every se n te n ce were literally t r u e
,
.

Does this rigi d r u l e apply o n ly to the Bible o r also t o other

books for exa m ple t o the collected works of Lo m broso ? I
, ,

believe tha t i t co u ld do n o har m to r e exam i n e t he ge n eraliza -

t io n tha t m ost cri m i n als are very religious .

Bu t t ha t is m os t likely n ot ou r a u thor s m ea n i n g Th e
.

r u le does n ot really apply to th e world O f e m pirical facts i n ,

which we are obvio u sly co n sta n tly co m pell ed to m ake ass u m p

ti on s witho u t o u rselves veri fyi n g the m b u t to th e world o f ,

religio u s faith to th e faith i n t ra n sce n de n t thi n gs A t the
,

.

begi n n i n g of this chap t er I de n ed religio n provisi o n ally as

faith i n the tra n sce n de n t G i zyck i says that h e does n ot .

k n ow wh at I m ean by the tra n sce n de n t a n d tha t he h as n ot ,

bee n able to for m a clear n otio n of it fro m m y re ma rks It .

see m s to m e that I am n ot altogethe r to bla m e fo r this To .

be s u re I d i d n o t give a descriptio n O f the tra n sce n de n t an d

, ,

I do n ot i n te n d to give o n e n o w ; I believe th at Ka n t s Or i ti

u e h as u t a n e n d to such atte m pt s : o n ly th e e m pirical w orld

q p -

is an O bject of descriptio n an d of k n owledge Bu t I am also .

c o n vi n ced with Kan t an d I m ight add with Pla t o an d Spi n oza

, ,

1
[P 4 5 7 Th e au t h o r i s S t an t o n C o i t , I n tellect u a l H onesty i n the P u lp i t , Ne w
T
. .

Y o rk, 1 888 . R
448 C ON C E P TS AND P RIN C IP LES
an d S chope n haue r a th ousan d others tha t the world of
an d ,

o u r ex perie n ce o r n a t ure is n ot the worl d i n an d for i t self

, , ,

a n d t hat o u r scie n ce d oes n ot exh a u st reali ty Bu t wha t .

is reality i n itsel f ? I d o n ot k n ow ; b u t it does n o t seem

abs u rd t o m e to thi n k that it bears a closer relatio n t o m y
o wn i n n er expe rie n ces tha n may at rs t sight appea r t o o n e

looki n g at i t fro m th e o u tsi de with the eyes o f the physicis t , .

A ll philosophers t he m aterialists alo n e excep t ed a re agreed

, ,

upo n t his poi n t ; i n additio n t o physical bei n g they attribut e

t o reality a m etap hy si ca l esse n ce t hey m erely di ff er i n their
i n t erpre t a t io n o f the latt er This t hough t of an absol u t e .

bei n g becom es faith whe n i t is a t t he s a m e t ime co n ceived as

absolute good n ess as a worl d o f ideas as a divi n e esse n ce as
, , ,

a ki n gdo m o f grace a s a m oral world order o r what ever we

,
-
,

m ay choose t o call i t .

A n d for such a belief G i zy ck i de m a n ds a t heore t ically

satisfac t ory proof ; o th erwise i t m u s t be rejec t ed as super
s t i ti o n. G i zycki say s t h at m y t heological r eec t io n s sur
prise h i m Well I co n fess tha t his de m a n ds co m i n g as
.
, , ,

they d o o n e hu n dred years aft e r t he e s t ablish m e n t of the

,

Ka n tia n philosophy i n Ger m an y surprise m e O r has Kan t ,

.

beco m e a n tiq u ated h as his philosophy bee n over throw n an d

,

replaced say by th e adva n ce of the n atural scie n ces or

,
7 1
by the sys t e m of th e philosophy of reality If t ha t i s

G i zycki s opi n io n w e are u n q u es t io n ably pret ty far apar t t oo

, ,

far apar t to be able t o settle ou r di ff ere n ces here .

Bu t I sh oul d al so like to add : G i zycki see m s t o be afraid

that I m ay after all atte m pt to base m y e thics u po n theol ogy
, ,

o r m e t aphysics an d t ha t is perhaps t he ulti m a t e grou n d o f

,

his O ppositio n S u ch a thi n g is really far fro m m y thoughts

. .

I a m as co n vi n ced as h e i s that m orality can a n d m u st be

explai n e d purely i m m an e n tly Bu t it may perhaps serve .
, ,

as a starti n g poi n t an d s u pport for me t aphysics A n d this

-
.

[Wi rkli chke itsp h ilosop lzze n am e w hi ch Ge r m an Po si t i vis m is

1 the u n de r

T
,

kn o wn . S e e We b er Th i lly p -
,
. 5 83 , no te l . E .
]
 THE RE L TI A ON OF MO RA LITY TO RE LI G I ON 449

is preci s ely what I believe If we w ish to for m a n al c on

.

ce p ti on of the n ature o f thi n gs i n ge n eral we shall have to ,

take i n t o co n s ideratio n n ot o n ly the facts of physics an d

astro n o m y b u t als o the facts of ou r i n n er life an d especially
, ,

those with which moral philosophy is co n cer n ed I have .

repea t edly e m ph asized the truth th at the m oral laws are

likewise laws of n at u re i n the se n se that a healthy an d
,

happy li fe is possibl e o n ly where they dete r m i n e the will .

G i zy ck i calls t his fact which he recog n izes as s u ch a 1

, ,

s i m ple an d sel f evide n t fact

-
al m os t a tautologo u s t r u th I
,
.

regard it as a very s u ggestive t r u t h : if the m oral law is a

biological law t he n ,
u n feeli n g i n vol u n tary n at u re is
,

brought i n to a very re m arkable rela t io n with m e n tal h i sto r -

ical li fe .

It has al w ays see m ed s t ra n ge t o m e t h a t t he t hi n kers wh o

so sole m n ly declare that h u m a n life is merely a piece of
u n iversal n ature do n ot s ee the n ecessary co n seque n ce of
,

their vie w : n a m ely tha t the historical li fe of h u m a n ity m ay

,

i n t u r n be used i n i n terpreti n g the n ature which prod u ces it .

Fo r o n thei r h ypothesis the lo gical an d moral laws also for m

, ,

a part of the u n iversal o rder o f n ature an d the m aterialist , ,

t o o will have t o regard the m as such

, He explai n s tho u ght .

an d co n scie n ce by the mecha n ics o f t h e brai n that is he , ,

ass u m es th e possibility o f s u ch an expla n atio n ; he n ce th e

m ech a n is m fu n ctio n s at least i n part as a l ogical a n d m oral
, ,

m achi n e Is n t that s u rprisi n g ?

.

Ho w wo u ld the n at u re o f thi n gs h ave to be co n sti t u ted i n

order to i m press the philosoph ers o f reality as re m arkable

If i mm ediately a fter each h a d deed the si n n e r were to receive ,

fro m an i n visible power a series o f pai n fu l electrical shocks ,

correspo n di n g to th e degree o f his g u ilt ; an d i f eve ry good

deed were i n the sa m e way i m m ediately followed by its r e
, ,
~

ward the n wo u ld they regard the phe n o m e n o n as stra n ge a n d

,

sig n ica n t ? Well s u ch a n arra n ge m e n t might seem su ffi

,

f ora l P hi lo sop hy, ll f .

29
4 50 C ONC E P TS A ND P RIN C IP LE S
ci e n tly obvious t o a chil di sh i n tellect ; the pri m itive m i n d has
a l ways i m agi n ed tha t every m isdeed i s followed by a m i sfo r
t u n e as a p u n ish m e n t n ot o f n ature b u t of the s u per n atu ral
, , ,

power o f the fetiches or the gods Th e thi n ki n g m an o n the

.
,

other han d wo u ld n d i t di fc u lt to beco m e reco n ciled to s u ch

,

a de m o n iacal spec t ral arran ge m e n t ; he will regard a n at u ral

,

an d u n i for m relatio n be t wee n reality an d t he good as m ore

appropriate Well s u ch a rel atio n act u ally exists i n the

.
,

worl d ; tha t which the m oral i n sti n c t of m an has fro m ti m e

i m m e m orial desig n ated as the good o r the bad is fo u n d to be ,

u n i for m ly co n d u cive to preservatio n an d happi n ess o r co n , ,

ve r s e ly t o ca u se destr u c t io n
,
pai n an d discord Besides it
, , .
,

has n ot escaped healthy co m m o n se n se tha t God s j u stice -

does n o t ass u m e th e form of de m o n iacal i n terve n ti o n : Th e

m ills of the gods gri n d sl owly b u t they gri n d exceedi n g n e
, .

Is th e rel a t i o n here spoke n of sel f evide n t ? Is the pro -

posi tio n tha t vir t ue preserves life tha t vice destroys it a , ,

t a u t ologous p roposi t io n equ ivale n t t o the s t ate m e n t tha t

,

preservative q u alities preserve life an d destr u ctive q u alities ,

destroy i t ? We can n ot co m pel an y o n e to m edita t e upo n

these m atters Bu t I believe there will always be m e n who
.

will po n der over thi n gs m ore tha n the philosophy of reality

m ay be pleased to regard as good N ay I a m i n cli n ed to b e
.
,

lieve that philosophy will i n t he co u rse of i ts develop m e n t

, ,

co m e to view this co n n ectio n betwee n m orality an d li fe as the

m os t re m arkable an d sig n ica n t fact o f all fro m which all ,

atte m pts to e xplai n th e esse n ce of reali ty m u st take their b e

gi n n i n g Of co u rse it will n ever be possible to give a co m
.
,

p e t e theoretical ex pl a n atio n o f th e world with this as o u r

l
starti n g poi n t We ar e si m ply a fforded a gli m pse i n to the
-
.

ulti m ate co n n ectio n s of thi n gs A n d so the u lti m ate relatio n

.

to reality will al w ays re m ai n for u s a belie f n o t an i n t u iti o n , .

I ce rtai n ly prize i n tellect u al h o n esty very highly ; b u t I

ca n n ot co n vi n ce m yself that it co m pel s m e to say that faith
an d religio n are al w ays a m istake i n m an ei t her o f t he head
,
 C H APTE R IX

THE F RE E DOM OF THE WILL l

1 WE n o w e n t e r upo n t he discussio n of a proble m which

.

likewise borders o n e t hics an d me t aphysics : t h e problem of

free will .

Let m e discri m i n a t e a t th e ou t se t be t wee n t w o se n ses of , ,

the word : we m ay speak o f freedom of th e will i n a p sy cho

log i ca l o r i n a m e ta p hy si ca l se n se Th e for m er m ea n s th e .

abili t y t o cau se decisio n s an d a c t s by o n e s o wn will

f r e e d om of choi ce the latte r mea n s that the will o r t he

( ) ;
particular decisio n s the m selves have n o cause .

In popular speech t h e t er m fre e will i s e m ployed solely i n t h e

,

rs t s e n se A n ac t is c alled f r e e whe n t h e will of t he age n t

.

1
[For t h e psych o lo gy o f w illi n g P hysi olog ische P sycholog ie, ch ap s
, see : Wu n dt , .

X V XX,
.
,
XX I . XX
II HOffd i n g , P sy chology , V I I
. Bal dw i n , F e e li ng a n d Wi ll, .

Pa r t IV ; M e nta l De velop men t , ch ap

. III ; Jam e s P sychology, c h ap I ; . X .
, . XX V .

S u lly , H u ma n M i nd, vol II , P ar t L ad d , Descr ip ti ve P sy chology, ch ap s X L,

. . V . .

XX VI .
; Jo dl , Le hrbu ch, c h ap s . V II .
, X II ; K i i lp e , D i e Le hre vo m Wi lle n i n d e r
.

ne u er n P sycholog ie , P hi l S t ud i e n
. , V . R ie hl, Der p hi losop h i sche K r i tici s mu s , v o l II , .

Part I I , pp 2 1 6
2 8.0 ; S i d w i ck
g M ethods V ; Ba u m an n , Wun d t s
, , Bk I . .
, ch ap . .

Lehre vo , m Wi llen P h l M ona tshe e v o l

i , II , pp 5 58 - 6 0 2 ; X I X , 3 5 4 - 3 7 4
. . XV . . .

Ja m e s , The D i le m ma of De te r min is m, Un i ta r i a n Re vi ew, S e pt e m b e r, 1 8 84 , als o i n

h is The l/V ell to Be li e ve M ar t i n e au , S tu d y of Re lig i on , v ol II , Bo ok III , p p 1 9 6 . . . .

324 ; G re e n , P r ole gome na , Bk . I

III ; Bk IL, ch ap I ; S t e p h e n , The ch ap . . . . .

S ci e nce of E thi cs, p p 2 6 4 2 9 4 ; M u nst e r be rg , Die Willensha ndlu ng ; F o u i lle , La

.

li be rte e t d e te r mi ni s me ; Le senti ment d e l e ort, Re vu e P hi l , 1 8 9 0 ; S i g w art , De r

'

Begr i de s
'
Woll e ns a nd sei n V er ha ltn i s s z um Begr z
'
a er

C a usa li tci t ; S t e i n t h al ,

A llge me i ne E thi k p p 3 1 2 3 82 ; W u n dt , E th ik , Par t I II , ch ap I , I , 2 , 3 ; F r an k

. . . . .

Th i lly, F re e d o m of the Wi ll, P hi l Re vi e w, v ol III , p p 3 8 5 - 4 1 1 ; F o w l er and

. . . .

W i lso n , P r i nc ip les , Part II , ch ap IX ; Hy slo p , E le ments , ch ap s I V , V ; . . . . .

Mack e n zi e M a nua l ch ap . VIII ; S e th , E thical P r i nc ip le s, Par t III , chap.

TR ]
, , . .

I.
.
 THE F REE D M OF TH E O WILL 4 53

is i t s i m media t e cau se ; de t erm i n ed whe n i t i s cau sed by an ,

ex t er n al force tha t is eithe r direc t ly by physical com pu l

, , ,

sio n o r i n direc tly by t hre at s m i s re p re s en t ati on s e tc In the

, , , , .

latter case t he will is really n ot the cause of the decisio n ;

,

but here there is a wide ran ge be t wee n ge n t le persuasio n an d

i rresis tible co m pulsio n an d t herefore a correspo n di n g grad
,

ual tra n sitio n fro m co m ple t e freedo m t o co m plete deter

m i ni sm A perso n re m ai n s i n a roo m because his busi n ess
.

keeps h i m t here o r because he feels n o i n cli n atio n t o le ave

, ,

o r beca u se he has bee n pro m ised so m e thi n g to s t ay o r becaus e ,

h e will be pu n ished i f he leaves or because a se n try is pos t ed ,

at t he door wh o will shoo t h i m if he goes o u t or bec a use t h e ,

d oor is barred an d he hi m sel f is boun d h a n d an d foo t Her e .

we h ave a gradua t ed scale fro m perfec t freedo m t o absolu te

co m p u lsio n .

That there is psychological freedom has n ever bee n doub t ed .

Bu t whe the r t he will can be free i n t he o t her se n se is a

s u bjec t o f e n dle ss deb at e It is con t e n ded by t he defe n ders of
.

m etaphysical freedo m tha t t he will itself is n ot deter m i n ed by

causes bu t is t h e n al u n c aused caus e of i t s decisio n s th a t
, ,

i t is absol u t ely i n depe n de n t of t he world process which is ,

subjec t t o the causal law Here ag a i n t here are t wo p os si bi l .

i t ies We m ay rs t assu m e th at t he will o f a m an is an

.
, ,

a e n s ; which t hough i t self u n c aused an d s t a n di n g outside o f

y
th e causal n exus n ever theless a c t s accordi n g t o i m m an e n t
,

law i n the se n se tha t i t s e ff ec t s follow fro m i t s n a t ure S o

,
'
.

S chope n hauer : op er ar i se q u i tu r e sse ; bu t the e ase the will

l
,

itsel f has n o cause o r i s so t o say i t s o wn cause ( ca u sa

, , , ,

su i ) Or seco n dly we m ay assu m e tha t t he partic u lar acts

.
, ,

o f will are u n caused as s u ch th at e ach e n ters the world as an ,

absol u t ely n e w ele m e n t i n n o wise de t er m i n ed by the previo u s

,

c ourse of o u t e r an d i n n er eve nt s On t he l atter hypothesis .

,

1
[Die F re ihei t des Wi llens
S e e R P e n zig A r thur S chop e nha ue r u n d (l i e
. .
,

me nschliche Wi lle n sfr ei he it, w h ich con t ai n s al so a b r i e f h i st o ri cal r evi e w o f t h e fr ee

wi ll q ue s ti on TR ] . .
4 54 C ONC E P TS A ND P RIN C IPLE S
the will would be if we could s t ill speak of a will here an
, ,

absol u tely lawless ag en s 1

.

Th e proble m o f the m e t aphysical freedo m o f the will is

still regarded by so m e as o n e of the greatest an d m ost di fcult
proble m s of philosophy I d o n ot regard it as s u ch It is a . .

proble m that owes its origi n to cer t ai n co n diti o n s an d will ,

disappear with these co n ditio n s : it belo n gs to philosophizi n g

theology o r scholasticis m
,
.

Th e proble m did n o t really exis t for Greek philosophy ;

o n ly occasio n ally was i t t o u ched upo n ; m an was i m partially
co n ceive d as a part of t he whole of n ature fro m which he ,

spran g an d to whose u n iversal law so far as Greek phil

,

O sophy was fa m iliar with this n otio n he re m ai n ed s u bj ec t 2

.

Th e philosophy o f the church o n the o ther ha n d which , ,

grew ou t of t h e dog m as co n sidered i t a problem o f gre at ,

3
d i f cu lty .

Two t hi n gs are se tt led G od cre at ed m an by an a c t of his

will h e n ce m an m u st have bee n good origi n ally On the
, .

other han d it i s n o less certai n tha t m an as we k n o w h i m

, , ,

is by n at u re bad This sec on d fac t is the pres u ppositi o n of

.

the fu n da m e n tal d og m a o f sal vat io n which agai n ass u m es , , ,

the n ecessityof the ch u rch Bu t h o w did evil co m e i n t o the .

worl d ? Throu gh God the C reator ? That is i m possible G od ,

.

is good an d al m ighty an d he n ce his works as s u ch are n e ce s

,

s ar i ly good Evil the n m u s t h ave co m e i n to the worl d after

.

h e creat ed i t N o t fro m the ou t side for outside of God an d

.
,

t he world th ere i s n othi n g ; he n ce thro u gh the creat u res

th e m selves Bu t h o w can a creatu re beco m e o ther than it
.

is other t han the C reator m ade it ? Here the metaphysical

,

freedo m of the will prese n ts i t self as a solutio n God has .

give n m an a free will i n order that he m ay of his own accord

decide i n favor of the good with o u t free choice there can be
1
[S Mee t i ar p D W d
n ea u , s uD bli raR i w J l yr 1 8
. 74 T ]ar ,
u n ev e ,
u , . R .

2
[S Aeei t t l N
r s oi m h Ee,hi B k
co I I I T
a c ea n t cs , oo . R

3
[Cf A t i d t h P lneg ian t y
e Th m A q i
e a D an co n rov e rs o as u n as, uns

T
.
g u us ,

S cot u s, Lu t h e r, C alvi n . B .
]
456 C ON C E P TS A ND P RIN C IPLE S
of t he will is as i m possible as t he creatio n of m o t io n or
m at t er o u t of n othi n g On the othe r ha n d freedo m i n the
.
,

psychol ogic al se n se is a self evide n t fact He s u m s up his

-
.

view i n an epigra m m at ic for m u la which m ay i n deed be t erm ed ,

the last word i n this co n troversy : Li ber ta s n on e st c alen d i ,

s ed
g u a e volu m a s f a c i e n d i ; we have the will to act an d this ,

we call freedo m b u t n ot the will to will S pi n oza whose

, .
,

syste m leaves absol u tely n o roo m fo r isolated o r exe m p t ele

m e n ts o f reality speaks o f t he soul as a spi rit u al auto m a to n
,

( a u t om a ton s i r i tu a l e
p ) Leib n iz an d Wolff vai n ly e n deavo r
.

to purge the m selves of the cha rge of deter m i n is m by disti n

g u i s h i n
g bet w ee n physical a n d m athe m atical n ecessity Ka n t .

an d S ch ope n haue r to be sure spea k o f an

,
i n t elligible free
,

d o m ; but i n t h e e m pirical world which all h u m a n bei n gs c al l,

the real world t he law of cau sality r u les Th e occurre n ce s

,
.

o f the psychical world t ake place a ccordi n g t o t he n atur a l

laws gover n i n g i t with the sa m e n ecessi ty as th ose i n t h e

,

physical world .
1
It is m erely accide n tal t ha t is owi n g t o , ,

their gre a t co m plexi ty th a t t hey can n o t be calculated or

,

fore t ol d whi ch howeve r like wise h olds t rue o f m a n y p r o

, , ,

cesses i n the physical world ; for exa m ple of m eteorological ,

an d physiological o ccurre n ces Theoretically n othi n g s t a n ds

.
,

i n t he way ; a pe rfec t i n tellec t capable of taki n g i n to acco u n t

,

all the n ecessary fac t s wo u l d u n dersta n d t he acts of a m an as

,

perfectly as th e m ove m e n ts Of th e pl an ets Th e physiologists .

o f o u r ti m es are still further i n fl u e n ced i n thei r accepta n ce o f

the cau sal depe n de n ce of all m e n t al processes by the prevail ,

i n g view t hat the psychical processes m u st be co n ceived as

co n co m itan t phe n o m e n a o f physiological processes i n th e brai n
an d n ervo u s system If n o w the law o f causality is absol u t ely
.

valid for the latte r as physical processes it m u st also be as ,

s u m ed to a pply t o the co n co m ita n t m e n t al processes If th e .

proposi tio n is t r u e that orga n ic bodies which are absolutely

ide n tical will respo n d t o the sa m e sti m u l i i n exactly t h e sa m e
1
[S e e al so G re e n , s up r a . TR ]
.
 THE F REE D OM OF THE WILL 4 57

man n er the n the propositio n also h olds that so u ls exactly

,

alike i n n at u re an d ch aracter i n cli n atio n s an d moods e x p e , ,

r i e n ces an d ideas will respo n d to the sam e sti m uli i n the

,

s a m e w av A n d si m ilarly : If th e law o f causality applies to

.

t r ans m i ss w n o f bodily charac t eristics it will apply n o less t o ,

the psychical predisposi t io n s which depe n d upo n the for m er .

.2 Wha t ever v iew we m ay t ake o f t hese ulti m ate spec u la

t io n s the facts will hardly allow us t o d o u b t th e causal
,

determ i n atio n o f t he n ature an d d evel op m e n t of th e will an d ,

he n ce o f actio n In deed n o on e really do u bts i t n o o n e

.
, ,

believes tha t the hu m a n will is an e n s a se or that a cer t ai n , ,

n ature a n d cer t ai n co n ditio n s bei n g give n a c er t ai n s t i m ulus ,

will so m eti m es prod u ce on e act an d so m e t i m es an othe r , .

Le t m e i n dicat e t he fac t s which force t hemselves u po n ou r ,

att e n tio n .

How does a m an a hu m an will come i n t o t he world

, So ,

far as we k n ow his life begi n s i n t i m e Is t he begi n n i n g

,
.

witho u t ca u se or i s it the res u l t of his o wn ch oice ? Hardly ;

,

m an like t he a n i m al i s co n ceived a n d produced by pare n t s ;

, ,

he rese m bles the m i n body an d i n soul he i n herits their t e m per ,

a m e n t their desires t hei r se n s u ous i n t ellectual po w ers as well

, ,
-
,

as thei r bodily characteristics He receives all the physical .

spi ritu al q u alities of the peopl e fro m w ho m he desce n ds as ,

his n atu ral e n dow m e n t His sex too which exercises s u ch

.
, ,

a pote n t i n u e n ce upo n his e n tire life is deter m i n ed by w hat , ,

causes we do n ot k n ow ye t n o o n e will clai m that it is th e

,

result of hi s o w n choice He n ce n othi n g i n the origi n of m an

.

i n dicates that h e co n stit u t es an exe m pt t erritory an e n clave ,

i n t h e ki n gdo m o f n at u re which is n ot subj ect to h er laws

, .

These predispositio n s or t e n de n cies ar e the n d eveloped

u n der th e deter m i n i n g i n u e n ces o f e n viro n m e n t of n atural ,

a n d above all
,
h u m a n e n vi ro n me n t Th e child is ed u cated
, .

by th e fa m ily i n the for m o f life pec u li ar to his people He .

acq u ires thei r la n g u age an d with the la n g u age a m ore or less

,

co m ple t e syste m o f co n cepts an d j u dg m e n t s He is educ at ed .

458 C ON C E P TS A ND P RIN C IP LES
i n to the custo m s an d habits of his n at io n by which th e actio n s ,

a n d j u dg m e n ts o f m ost perso n s are gover n ed d u ri n g their

e ntire lives He is se n t to school an d here obtai n s the g e n
.
,

eral c u lt u re Of the age ; h e is take n i n to the ch u r ch where ,

he receives f u rthe r trai n i n g which positively or n egatively , , ,

e xerci ses a per m a n e n t i n u e n ce u po n hi s i n n er li fe He is .

n ally dis m issed fro m the h o m e an d the school b u t o n ly to ,

be s u bj ected to the i n u e n ce of a n e w ed u cative force ,

society Th e i n divid u al is als o b or n i n to socie ty ; there is

. ,

a s a r u le little roo m for choice ; he belo n gs to a certai n class

,

b v desce n t an d as a rule for li fe. S ociety i n cessa n tly works

,
.

u po n h i m ; it tells h i m i n words an d i n deeds what is righ t

a n d what is wro n g wh a t i s proper an d i m proper what is a t

, ,

tractive an d rep u lsive It assig n s to h i m his tasks accordi n g

.

to the l a w of s u pply an d de m a n d Each m an receives his .

i n str u cti o n s fro m his ti m es Th e b u il der does n ot build as

.

he ch ooses b u t as the age chooses : i n the fo u rtee n th ce n

,

t u ry i n the G o thic style ; i n th e sixtee n th Re n aissa n ce ; in

, ,

the eightee n th Rococo N or does th e scholar ch oose his

,
.

sci e n tic task his age sel ects it for h i m : i n the fo u rte e n t h
,

ce n t u r y a logical disq u isitio n o n s u bsta n ce an d accide n t ; i n

,

the six t ee n th Lati n verses m odelle d a fter V irgil ; i n t he

, ,

eightee n th a m athe m atical physical i n vestigatio n or a trea t

,
-
,

i se on the har m fu l n ess of s u persti t io n In o u r days h e m akes .

a n historical exa m i n atio n o f a lost Greek writer or digs up

prehistoric r u i n s .

There see m s to be n o break i n t h e chai n : n atio n an d age ,

pare n ts an d teachers e n vi ro n m e n t an d society deter m i n e

, ,

the predispositio n an d develop m e n t ra n k an d li fe p roble m s of ,

-
,

each i n divid u al h u m an bei n g He is the prod u ct of the col .

l e ct i v e body fro m which h e spri n gs J u st as th e twig on a .

tree does n ot owe its for m an d fu n ctio n to its will but t o the ,

wh ole body on whi ch i t gro w s so a m an does n ot exis t prior ,

to hi m self as it were an d deter m i n e his for m an d l o t i n life

, ,

by th e decisio n of his will He co m es i n to th e worl d an d .

460 C ON CE P TS A ND P RIN C IPLE S
w ha t s elf c o n scio u s n ess says ; n ever h owever does i t tell u s
-
, ,

t hat the particular processes arise wi thout ca u se t hat at an y ,

m o m e n t of li fe an y occurre n ce wha t ever can take place u tt erly ,

regardless of all precedi n g o n es ; this wo u ld if it really hap ,

pe n ed be eq u ivale n t t o the co m plete resolutio n of li fe In to a

,

series of disco n n ected an d irratio n al accide n ts No r does it .

say that t his i n n er pri n ciple t he ch arac t er the ego o r wha t , , ,

ever we m ay choose to c all i t is itsel f absol u tely u n caused , ,

that i t e n ters the world as an absol u tely isolated ele m e n t In .

n o se n se doe s i t co n tr a dic t t he view t hat t h e e g o like the ,

orga n ized body is t he produc t o f evolutio n ; th a t i t an d its

,

e n tire n a t u re ori gi n ally spra n g fro m so m ethi n g else ; tha t i t

i s exceedi n gly plas t ic d u ri n g the earlier period o f its develop
m e n t b u t grad u ally beco m es m ore capable of resis ta n ce an d
, ,

acquires th e ability t o cha n ge its relat io n s t o its surrou n d

i n gs an d t hus i n direc t ly i t s o wn for m t hrough i t s o wn
, ,

decisio n s 1
.

3 Bu t i n t ha t c a se wha t beco m es of r e sp on si bi li ty ? The n

.

each m an is ul timat ely wha t God or N at u re m ade h i m an d ,

God or N at u re is t o bla m e if he does n ot tur n ou t well He .

hi m self ca n n o t help it ; if he did n o t choose his origi n al e n

d ow m e n ts n o r his charac t er n o r his pare n ts n o r his socie ty
, , , ,

h e could n ot bei n g wh at he w a s u n der those particular con

,

1 On e of th e r e asons wh y i t i s so h a r d t o b r i ng ab o u t a r e co nci li at io n b e twe e n

d e t e r m i n i sm an d in d e t er m i n i sm i s ab o ve all a fal se co n ce p t i o n of the n a tu r e o
f
c a u sa li ty . It i s c u st o m ary to co n ce i ve t he r e l at i o n b e t wee n cau s e an d e e ct

acco r d i n
g t o t he n ot io n o f m e ch an i cal i m p act , an d h e n ce t o r e g ar d neces s i ty o r

c om
p u ls i on as a n e s se n t i al e le m e n t i n i t , a v i e w w h i c h m a k e s i t i m po ss i ble t o
ap p ly t h e cau s al n o t i o n t o t h e p r o ce sse s o f p sy ch i cal l i fe m ore p e n e t r at i n g . A
a n a ly s i s of t h e r e l at i o n , as w e n d i t i n t h i n k e r s l i k e L e i bn i z , Hu m e , an d L o t ze ,

sh o w s t h at b oth co m p u l si o n an d n e ce ss i t y ar e o u t of t h e q u e s t io n : t h e cau sal

la w says t h at t h e re i s a s on t an e o u s co n co m i t an ce o f a ll e le m e n t s,
p L ei bn i z s
con

c om i ta nce u n i ve rs e lle , n ot t h at e a ch e le m e n t is coe r ce d o r co m p e ll e d by e very

o t h e r e le m en t . F r o m t h i s st an d p o i n t , cau sal i ty is co mp a t i bl e w i t h t e le o lo gy ; t h e
u n i v e rsal
p o i n t s t o an o r ig i n al u n i ty o f p lu r al ity , at r st i n a su b
c o n co m i t a n c e

st an ce , an d u lt i m at e ly i n a u n i e d re aso n
I can m e re ly s u g g e s t t h e s e t h o u g h t s
.

he re . T h e re ad er w i ll n d a m or e e la bo r at e t r e at m en t o f t h e m i n m y I n t r od u c
ti o n to P hi losop hy , p p 2 1 2 ff . .
(E n g t ran slat i o n , p p 2 1 8 ff
. . .
-
TR .
]
 THE F RE E D M OF T HE O WILL 461

d i t ion s , have helped beco m i n g wha t he n o w is How can we .

blam e hi m h o w can we p u n ish hi m for so m e thi n g whic h he

,

really di d n o t do bu t su ffered
,

We reply : There i s so m e gro u n d fo r t he rs t p a r t of thi s

co n clusio n b u t n o n e for t he seco n d It is t ru e G od or
,
.
,

N ature ca n n ot shir k the respo n sibility for t heir crea t io n s ,

if they ca n n o t de n y th eir a u thorship We sho u ld despise .

a fa m ily as bad an d worthless that had prod u ced n othi n g

bu t dege n erat e i n divid u als fo r a n u m ber of ge n eratio n s ; we
sho u ld h ate an d de t est a n atio n t hat bro u ght forth n othi n g
b u t repulsive an d base charac t ers If t he world prod u ced
.

n othi n g bu t ugly an d defor m ed crea t ures we sho u ld u n ,

do u btedly say i t was wor th n othi n g an d if we ass u m ed the ,

exis t e n ce of a C ause we should feel as little ad m ira t i o n

,

for Him as for His work If a good an d bea u t i ful h u m a n

.

life is a credi t t o God a wor thless an d disgraceful li fe i s

,

do u b tless t o His discredi t It is u tt erly i n co m prehe n sible

.

h o w on e co n clusio n c an be dr a w n withou t the other We .

c a n n ot jus t ify God fo r the evil i n t he w orld by sayi n g tha t

the hu m a n will is i t s absol u t e an d u lti m at e cause b u t o n ly ,

i n t he m a n n er i n dica t ed a bove t h at is by showi n g that

,
1
,

e vil, e ve n t hough i t r e m ai n s evil is i n a cer t ai n m eas u re

,

n ecessary to the good beca u se the latte r ca n n o t exis t an d

,

m a n i fest i t self wi t hou t the for m e r .

He n ce to refer evil t o causes m ea n s to shi ft the re sp on

,

s i b ili ty upo n t hese ca u ses But i t m ust be added this does

.
, ,

n ot a l t e r ou r feeli n gs o u r j u dg m e n t a n d o u r attitude towards

, ,

the wor thless an d evil i n divid u al To be s u re we sho u ld .

,

say n othi n g good can co m e fro m s u ch a so u rce ; b u t this

,

wo u ld n ot m ea n that the prod u ct base tho u gh i t m ay be , ,

was pure a n d guiltless an d that we sh o ul d treat it as s u ch

, .

O ur j u dg m e n t o f the worth o f a perso n depe n ds upo n what

he is n o t u po n h o w he beca m e so an d ou r atti tu de towards
, ,

h i m depe n ds o n t he same thi n g E v ery tree which bri n geth

.

1 P p 3 2 5 ff
. .
4 62 C ON C E P TS A ND PRIN C IPLES
n ot for t h good fr u it is hew n d ow n an d cas t i n t o t he re , .

W e k n o w very wel l that it ca n n o t help its bad n ess t hat it has ,

n o t chose n its o wn existe n ce a n d n ature but that does n o t pre ,

ve n t u s from sayi n g : C u t it d ow n why c u m bereth i t the

,

grou n d ? S o t oo we kill a ferocio u s an d dan gero u s d o m es
, ,
'

tic a n i m al wi th o u t s u pp osin g t ha t it has vol u n tarily ch ose n

its evil n at u re ; its n at u re is e vil an d tha t settles it On e , .

thi n g alo n e co u ld i n d u ce us t o modi fy ou r behavior Sh o u l d .

we become co n vi n ced that the displeasi n g q u ality was d u e n ot

so m u ch t o an origi n al e n dow m e n t as t o u n favorable co n di
tio n s o f develop m e n t sho u ld we n d fo r exa m ple tha t the
, , ,

tree was pla n ted i n poor soil that the a n i m al was i n the ,

h a n ds of br u tal m e n the n we should delibe rate an d perhaps

,

atte m pt t o re m ove the u n favorable i n u e n ces an d re m edy the ,

de fect by cha n gi n g the exter n al co n di t io n s of life I n case .

,

however the origi n al e n dowm e n t i t self is bad o u r repudia

, ,

t io n of t he for m is n al .

We assu m e prac t ically t he sa m e at t i t u de t owards huma n

bei n gs It i s n o exc u se for a worthless an d dege n erate fello w
.

to appeal to th e fact that he co m es fro m a fa m ily tha t has

bee n pr o i gate for ge n era t io n s N ay this will h ardly j u s t ify
.
,

h i m i n his o wn eyes If a m a n sho u ld say to hi m self : I am

.

by n a t u re by desce n t a wicked k n ave e n dowed wi t h al l

, , ,

ki n ds of perverse i n sti n cts an d m oral de fects i t wo u ld n ot ,

alter th e fact t ha t he possesses th e feeli n gs which go with

wicked n ess an d dege n eracy It would h owever e xc u se him
,
.
, ,

i n hi s o w n eyes an d before o t hers if he co u ld say : I am ,

n o t n at u rally a bad m an I re ally do n o t belo n g t o t he set i n

,

which yo u n d m e I o we m y d o w n fall to certai n ci rcu m

.

sta n ces of co u rse I am n ot altogethe r free fro m bla m e

,

b u t I am a hu m a n bei n g m y will is n o t absol u tely proof

,

agai n st t e m ptatio n ; I was overtake n by wa n t with o u t an y ,

fa u lt o f m y o w n ; I have bee n treated o u t rageo u sly by m e n ;

I fell i n to bad co m pa n y witho u t k n owi n g it In case we .

believe h i m o u r feeli n gs cha n ge a n ger gives way to pity

, , ,
464 C ON C E P TS A ND PRIN C IPLE S
e n ta n gled i n all ki n ds o f c u rio u s perplexities an d doubts : as
to whether society has th e right to pu n ish o r whether it ,

is n ot itself t he g u ilty an d respo n sible par ty Th e sa m e .

relative n u m be r of cri m es i t is held r ecu r a n n ually with

, ,

th e reg u lari ty of n a tu ral eve n t s perj u ry murder an d , , ,

cri m es agai n s t m orals ; a ki n d of n ecessity see m s t o prevail ,

par t ic u lar cri m i n als bei n g s e l ec t ed as t he victi m s t o co m ple t e

the cri m i n al b u dge t o socie ty
f 1
.

We m ay reply to t his : It is qui t e t rue ; socie ty is guil ty

an d there fore liable t o pu n ish m e n t i t produces i n divid u als ,

with cri m i n al te n de n cies i t also crea t es te m ptatio n an d

,

opportu n ities for cri m e Bu t is society n ot p u n ished ?

.

Is n o t i n the rs t place the cri m e itsel f a pu n ish m e n t which

, ,

i t s u ffers ? Th e perso n agai n st who m the offe n ce is com

m i tte d is as m u ch a par t of socie ty as the cri m i n al A n d the .

feeli n g of fear an d i n sec u ri t y ca u sed by t he cri m e is a f u r t he r

p u n ish m e n t A n d the pu n ish m e n t itself which is i n icted
.
,

upo n t he cri m i n al is an additio n al pu n ish m e n t : whe n he

,

suffers a m e m ber of society su ffers the m e m be r n a m ely

, , ,

thro u gh who m it has si n n ed A n d n ally society as a whole .

,

s u e r s the p u n ish m e n t which i t i n ic t s ; for is i t n ot a pu n

i sh m e n t fo r a n a tio n to wa t ch t o s u ppor t t o clo t he an d t o , , ,

e m ploy m a n y t h ousa n ds i n pe n ite n tiaries an d priso n s a t

e n or m ou s expe n se ? O u ght society to be pu n ishe d i n othe r
ways ? Shall all the others wit h t he sol e excep t io n of t he ,

cri m i n al as t he o n ly i n n oce n t par ty be pu n ished ? O r wha t ,

do t hese wo n derfu l people m ea n ?

We sho u ld fu r the r have t o a dd that from t h e s t a n dpoi n t
o f collective life pu n ish m e n t is t o be co n sidere d as a re m edy

agai n st cert ai n ills of socie t y a pai nfu l re m edy which society ,

prescribes i n order to rid itsel f of these ills tha t is the cri m es , , .

Th e re m edy is n a t urally applied t o th e sea t o f the disease

, , ,

th a t is to the cri m i n al ; an d here we expect t o prod u ce the

,

1
[Se e Drobi sch, Di e mora lische S tat istilc an d d i e menschli che Willens eiheit,
'

1 86 7 .

T R .
]
 THE F RE E D OM OF TH E WILL 4 65

i mm edia t e e ffec t s Th e cri m i n al le t u s say i s i m priso n ed

.
, ,
.

This teaches h i m that his co n d u ct is n o t appropriate eve n ,

for h i m . He ca n n ot wish t o reli n q u ish his privilege to live

i n an d with society ; the pu n ish m e n t re m i n ds h i m that this
is possible o n ly u n der certai n co n ditio n s an d th at i n case , ,

h e does n o t full t hese co n ditio n s he is hopelessly a t th e

,

mercy of th e stro n ger At t he sa m e ti m e labor sh ows h i m

.

t he way t o a peacef u l an d protable li fe S o the pe n ite n tiary .

is i n a se n se a hospital fo r the m orally i n sa n e i n which as

, , , ,

i n other h ospi t al s there are both c u rabl es an d i n c u rables

,
.

S ocie t y likewise protects i t self agai n s t i n fectio n by isolati n g

an d deterri n g its o ffe n ders o r a t leas t a t te m pts i t fo r it is
, ,

n ot wholly successf u l C apital pu n ish m e n t is to be regarded

.

i n t he sa m e light : i t is the las t m ea n s of c u ri n g the cri m i n al

o f his wicked will ; wha t g ood woul d it do h i m to prolo n g his

life an d e n able h im t o i n crease his g u il t ? A n d a t the sa m e

t i m e socie ty pro t ec t s itself agai n s t f u rt he r disturba n ces which ,

ar e bou n d t o spread fro m a hopelessly i n curabl e m e m ber .

This fac t has as we said before n ever bee n do u bted i n the

, ,

prac t ical world . A cco u n t ability an d legal respo n sibility

merely presuppose freedo m i n the psychological se n se .

Whe n t he will of a m an is expressed i n his act i t i s his act , ,

an d he i s respo n sible for i t Th e questio n whethe r t his w ill

.

i tself w a s fashio n ed i n to wh at i t is by ca u ses o u tside of it is ,

n ever broached by t he j udge Whe n h oweve r an act does

.
, ,

n o t express the re a l will of the age n t t here is n o respo n sibility .

In sa n i ty m akes volitio n i n t he real hu m a n se n se choice as a ,

resul t of ra tio n al delibera t io n i m possibl e V iole n t passio n

,
.

m ay u n der certai n circu m s t a n ces a n d i n a certai n m eas u re

, , ,

h a ve the sa m e e ffec t i n which case t h e real will o f the e n tire

,

m an does n ot express i t self Therefore d eeds do n e i n the

.
,

hea t of passio n an d w ithou t reectio n are exc u sed be fore th e

l a w ; n o t e n tirely it is true fo r the i n ability to co n trol o n e s

, ,

te m pe r is a de fect of the will fo r which p u n ish m e n t i s i m

,

posed as an e ff ec t ive re m edy Whe n o n t he other h a n d the

.
, ,

30
 66 C ON C E P TS A ND P RINC IP LE S

act is accide n tal or u n avoidable t he age n t is wholly exo n er ,

ated ; there is n o n eed of a re m edy whe n t he will h as ab s o

l u t e ly n othi n g to do with the deed .

S o m e o n e however dist u rbed by such psycho physical spec

, ,
-

u l at i o n s m ight arg u e as follo ws :

, Well a fter all the sam e , ,

re m arks apply to i n san ity If we regard an d trea t this as a

.

brai n disease why n ot d o the sa m e with other ab n or m al

-
,

states ? Th e cri m i n al i m p u lse o f the thie f or i n ce n diary m u s t

be explai n ed scie n tically as an i n herited o r acqu ired predis
,

positio n of the brai n a n d he n ce the perso n th u s a th let cd m u s t

,
-

be treated as diseased O ur an swer wo u ld be : We can cer

.

t ai n ly loo k at the m a tt e r i n this way ; the i m p u lse to co m m i t

arso n is an ab n or m al te n de n cy Of the brai n like wise the i m ,

p u lse to stea l ; an d of c o u rse the i m p u lse of the boy who,

wa n to n ly destroys his playthi n gs o r of t he little girl wh o ,

a n n oys her pa re n ts a n d teachers by her careless n ess an d

ck le n e ss all these too are to be rega r ded as ab n or m al or
, , ,

diseased predispositio n s of the brai n Bu t n o w draw t he con .

,

e lu sio n s We a t te m pt t o cure diseases with the re m edies

.

which e xperie n ce has fou n d to be efcacious If the physician .

can hea l the i n sa n e by dietaries an d sh ower baths an d m edi -

ci n es very well ; an d if he can also c u re those a ficted with the

,

i m p u lse to co m m it arso n w ith the sa m e o r si m ilar re m edies ,

very well ; we shall be gl ad to place s u ch perso n s u n der his

care as well as t he bad b oy whose pra n ks a n n oy us Bu t i n
,
.

case his re m edies prove u n success fu l here le t h i m n o t hi n der ,

us fro m tryi n g o t her cures especially s u ch as have stood the

,

test o f exp e rie n ce ; for exa m ple for b a d boys a n at u ral re m edy
,

that grows on the hedges A n d i n case he ca n n ot reach the

.

i m p ulse t o steal o r the i m p u lse to destroy by the re m edies of ,

the apothecary le t h i m allo w us i n the m ea n ti m e to co n ti n ue

,

the u se of an old re m edy which tho u gh n ot abs ol u tely s u re , ,

h as n evertheless m e t wi th a certai n degree of s u ccess as an

a n tidote agai n st s u ch i m p u lses ; that is the priso n a n d the ,

pe n ite n tiary S o s oo n as he discovers a m ore certa i n sim

.
,
46 8 C ON C EP TS A ND P RIN C IP LE S

No w such processes a re ch arac t eris t ic of m an He de t er .

m i n es his c o n d u c t by resolu t io n s Resolu t io n s are the res u l t

.

o f deliberatio n ; i n delibera t io n several possible co u rses o f

a ctio n o r modes of behavi o r are co m pared with th e ulti m at e

ai m s of i n divid u al an d social life an d ch ose n accordi n gly , .

Man therefore i s n o t de t er m i n ed by his i mpu lse s bu t h e

, , ,

de t er m i n es hi m self by i d ea s of en d s In his purposes m an .

,

co m prehe n ds his whole activity his wh ole life i n to a u n ity , , ,

as it were an d ch ooses t he par t icular acts accordi n g t o

,

t h ei r relatio n to this pri n ciple A n i m al life i s d i vided i n t o

.

a plurality of isol at ed disco n n ec t ed fu n c t io n s ; h u m a n life

,

is e m braced i n to the u n i ty of an idea an d t he la t ter evolve s ,

t he par t icular mo m e n t s de m a n ded by the purpose o f t he

w hole . Th e u n ity of practical self co n scio u s n ess o r con -
,

scie n ce exercises a co n s t an t co n t rol ove r the p a r t icular

,

processes of i n n er life feeli n gs s t rivi n gs ac t s t ho u gh ts

, , , , .

Well this facul ty of regulati n g an d deter m i n i n g t he parti e n

,

lar fu n c t io n s of life by an idea of o n e s life is precisely what

,

w e m ea n by free will He n ce we m ay also say t ha t a perso n s

.

ac t s are free wh e n h e is deter m i n ed n o t by prese n t sti m uli

,

a n d the m o m e n t ary desires aroused by th e m but by ideas ,

o f e n ds an d ideals by d u ty an d co n scie n ce ; i n the form e r

,

case he is drive n ( ag i tu r ) i n the latter alo n e h e ac t s ( ag i t)

, .

We m ay accordi n gly add t hat i n a certai n se n se the , ,

vie w th a t t he h u ma n will is exe m pt o r for m s a ki n d of e n ,

clave i n n ature is correct Th e a n i m al is a poi n t of t ra n siti o n

.

for n a t ural processes ; i t is itself a par t of n at u re de t er ,

mi n ed fro m witho u t by c on st an tly a p p ro ach i n g sti m u li an d

i n u e n ces M an on the o ther h a n d i n a ce rt ai n ma n n er
.
, , ,

e m a n cipat es hi m self fro m the course of n a t ure ; h e rises

above n ature an d opposes it as a sel f he deter m i n es it an d ,

e m ploys i t is n ot deter m i n ed by i t : m an beco m es a p e r son

,

a li t
y. A s s u ch he is able to pu t his whole sel f his e go i n to , ,

e very phase o f his life an d t herefor e he is r e s on si ble for

,
p
e very par t ic u lar act .
 THE F R EE D OM OF THE WILL 469

It is appare n t tha t freedo m i n this se n se is n ot an origi n al

e n dow m e n t o f h u m a n n atu re b u t an acq u ired characteristic
,

it has bee n acqui red by the e n tire race i n the co u rse of his
t ory an d must be acqui red an e w by each i n divid u al Th e
,
.

n e w bor n child does n ot bri n g with i t a ready

-
m ade freedom
n ay,
i t is drive n like an a n i m al by m o m e n t ary cravi n gs .

But gradually th e ra t io n al will s u ppor t ed by educat io n , ,

rises above the a n i m al i m p u lses This occurs i n a di ffere n t

.

degree i n di ffere n t i n divid u als ; s o m e are wholly co n t rolled

by these i m pulses d u ri n g thei r e n tire lives others acq u ire ,

such a re m arkable co n trol over n ature i n t he m selves tha t

they see m to regulate eve n t he s m alles t de t ails of their lives
by rati o n al deliberatio n an d n ever do an y t hi n g o r leave
,

a n ythi n g u n do n e e xcept by choice It i s t o be observed i n

, .
,

t h is co n n ectio n t hat though i t is v u lgar an d base to give

,

t he i m p u lses co m ple t e m astery over o n e s self

y e t the co m plete suppressio n of t he m lls us with fear an d

awe : n o o n e as h as bee n said i s lovable withou t his weak
, ,

n esses . Man see m s t o be i n te n ded as a m ea n be t wee n an

a n i m al an d a p u rely ra t io n al bei n g .

He n ce c an m an d e t er m i n e hi m self by his o wn will ? C an

,

he fashio n his will by m ea n s of his will Y es an d n o Y es .

,

fo r he u n doubtedly has the fac u lty o f educati n g hi m self ; he

c an fashio n his outer a n d i n n er m an with co n scious p u rpose , ,

accordi n g t o his ideal ; he can discipli n e his n atural i m p u lses ,

n ay,
eve n suppress t he m so that they w ill n o lo n ger m ove
h im. To be sure he ca n n o t d o this si m ply by wishi n g or
,

resolvi n g it ; h e can do i t o n ly by co n sta n t practice an d by

e m ployi n g apprOp ri ate m ea n s i n the sa m e way tha t he s e
,

q u ires bodily skill We c a n n ot whe n awake i m m ediately force

.

oursel ves to sleep by an act of the will ; b u t we can by

, ,

proper die t an d work exercise such an i n u e n ce u po n the

,

body tha t sleep will co m e i n ti m e of its o wn accord It is .

said th at De m osthe n es s pro n u n ciatio n w as n aturally i n dis

ti n c t an d de fective ; t he will to be an orator was n ot able '

,
4 70 C ONC E P TS AN D PRINC IP LE S

per to
se , coerce the orga n s o f speech b u t it was abl e to
,

prescribe to n at u re lo n g an d ard u o u s tasks an d to m ake these

serve the desired e n d In n er n at u re is s u scepti ble of bei n g
.

in u e n ced i n the sa m e way A m an k n ows tha t he h as a

.

dan gero u s te n de n cy to an ger He decides to overco m e it

. .

His prude n ce an d his good resol u tio n s alo n e ca n n ot of course , ,

by their m ere prese n ce repress the viole n t t of te m per th e

,

very rst ti m e i t breaks ou t agai n Bu t they can t ake th e .

p rope r preca u tio n s n ecessary t o s u bd u e it grad u ally They .

determ i n e h i m t o avoid t e m p t at io n ; every orga n however , ,

that is n ot exercised decays His m i n d is lled with exa m ple s

.

of t he i njurious e ffects o f a n ger as well as wit h exa m ples o f

sel f co n t rol ; he eve n m akes u se of t rivial aids : we acc u s t o m
-

o u rselves t o say a prayer o r t o recite a fe w verses whe n we

are seized with a n ger He n ce a m an can u n questio n ably
.
,

t ran sform his n at u re by his will He m av by i n hibiti n g cer

.

tai n i m pulses des t roy t he m an d develop an d stre n gthe n

,

weak i m pulses by habi t Habit says t he proverb is seco n d

.
, ,

n at u re .

On t he o ther ha n d we shall h ave to say that t his form ative

,

pri n ciple i t sel f m ust be n ative t o h i m ; t his he can n ot give h i m

self by his will fo r i t is the i n n er m os t will itself Man does
,
.

n ot exi s t before hi m self choosi n g o r deter m i n i n g his will by

,

his will t ha t would be equ ivale n t t o Mii n chh au se n s atte m pt

t o p u ll hi m self o u t of t he m ire by his o wn o ne On ly .

a pre exis t i n g fu n da m e n tal will can deter m i n e the develo p

-

m e n t of the e m pirical charac t er i n the co u rse o f life In so .

far b u t o n ly i n so far S ch ope n ha u er is righ t : the character

, ,

does n ot cha n ge U n less a m an sees the har m ful n ess o f a n ger

.
,

the disgrace fu ln ess of cowardice an d falsehood u n less he ,

al ready has the will to oppose these he will of course , , ,

n o t be able to trai n hi m sel f to ge n tle n ess o r co u rage Bu t .

S chope n ha u er i s wro n g whe n he m isi n t erprets th e propositio n

to m ea n th at a chan ge o f the n atu re an d o f the m odes o f
actio n o f the will is i m possible Tha t is n ot o n ly a false
.
,
4 72 C ON C E P TS A ND P RIN C IP LE S
usage o f all m e n th e se m etaphysicia n s excepted t he fac u lty
f

t o deter m i n e o n e s li fe i n depe n de n tly o f se n s u ous i m p u lses

,

an d i n cli n atio n s by reaso n an d co n scie n ce accordi n g to

, , pu r
poses an d laws ; an d that m an has s u ch a fac u lty tha t this ,

really co n stit u tes the very esse n ce o f m an n o o n e has eve r

,

doub t ed .
 BOOK III

DOC TRIN E OF V IRTU E S DU TIE S

 I p ossess thr ee tr ea su res , th es e I gu a r d a n d p ri z e h i gh ly Th e .

rst i s th e lo ve of h u m a n i ty th e seco n d , fr u ga li ty th e thi r d , th a t 1

do n ot p resu m e to be better th a n a n y o n e e lse .

L ov e f
o h u m a n i ty w i th th i s I ca n be f ea r less ; f r u ga li ty
th e refor e I ca ngiv e to r
oth e s f r eed om fr om a m bi t i on h en ce I
h a ve n o on e a bo v e m e .

N owa d a y s w e d esp i se love of h u m a n i ty a n d a r e i n so len t, w e

d e sp i s e e co n o my a n d a r e w a stef u l , w e d esp i se m o d es ty a n d str i ve to
s u rp a ss e ver
y o n e e se . l Th ese p a ths le a d to d ea th .

LA OTS E E , TA OTE K I N G 6 7 .

(After the tran slatio n of N OA C K .

)
4 76 DO C TRIN E OF VIRTU E S A N D DU TIE S

of reve n ge for m the n atural basis of th e se n se of justice .

M oreover i m p u lses for m the per m a n e n t basis of the virt u es

, .

They ca n n ot as m a n y m oralists are pro n e to ass u m e be s u p

, ,

pla n ted by ratio n al reectio n A bei n g like S pi n oza s sage .

,

who is de t er m i n ed to actio n n ot by imp u lse b u t by reaso n , ,

alo n e does n ot exist an d ca n n ot exi s t an y m ore than Ka n t s

,

d u tifu l m an whose will is gover n e d solely by respect fo r the

,

m oral law withou t i m pulse a n d i n cli n atio n

,
S u ch a bei n g .

woul d n ot be a hu m an bei n g b u t a pha n to m ,

.

Im pulses are f a shio n ed i n to virt u es o r mor al excelle n ces by

the r e as on We a re ed u c at e d rs t by the reaso n o f
.
, ,

o thers the n by ou r o wn reason H u m a n li fe begi n s as a

, .

p u rely i m pulsive life ; t he reaso n is developed slowly an d

a t a late stage Duri n g the lo n g period of youth the col
.
,

l e ct i ve reaso n of the r ace as represe n ted by pare n t s edu , ,

ca t o r s, an d t eachers t akes the place of i n divid u al reaso n

, .

Fixed h abits a re t he res u l t of this ed u ca t io n ; i n the m th e

c u sto m s ( S i tten) of the co mm u n i ty beco m e i n dividualized
.
.

A cqui red habits co n sti t u t e an ex t re m ely i m porta n t part of

m oral cul t u re they ob t ai n co n t rol ove r life an d guid e it with ,

a u to m ati c cer t ai n ty Th e i m por t a n t ele m e n tary fu n ctio n s

.

o f li fe , especially are gover n e d by the m C lean li n ess for

, .
,

exa m ple agai n st which t he child at rst rebels beco m es a

, ,

habit which ac t s wi th the regularity of a n at u ral f u n ctio n

, .

Mos t closely related to i t is sh a m e which is i m pla n t ed an d , ,

established by educatio n an d soo n acq u ires t he force an d ,

certai n ty of an i n sti n ct S o t oo aversio n t o fal sehood or

.
, , ,

polite n ess t o others beco m es a seco n d n at u re Th e for m atio n

, .

o f s u ch auto m atic for m s o f reactio n co n stitutes a pri m ary a n d

i m porta n t phase of m oral ed u catio n Th e seco n d stage is the .

grad u al develop m e n t of th e i n divid u al s appreci atio n of the

val u e o f m oral goods t his is the fu n ctio n o f m oral i n structio n .

Th e latter will al w ays have to co n sist at rst i n the prese n , ,

t at i o n o f co n crete exa m ples of the good an d provided the ,

p roper care is exercised of ex a m ples of the evil also A ft e r .

 V IR TU E S A N D V IC E S IN G E NE R AL 4 77

m an y co n crete facts h ave bee n h a n dled the abstract or philo ,

sophical treat m e n t of m oral co n cepts will grad u ally be take n

up Perhaps ou r p u blic i n str u ctio n is too ca u tio u s i n this r e
.

spect Ou r s ch o ols t h e higher as well as the l ower are afraid

.
, ,

o f the evil e ffects o f pre m at u re abstract i n str u ctio n i n m orals ,

a n d there fore decide to o m it it altogether I fear that the .

o m issio n is disas t ro u s Th e ti m e i s bo u n d to co m e i n the

.

li fe of every y o u n g m an whe n h e will begi n to i n q u ire i n to

the pri n ciples of m oral co n d u ct an d j u dg m e n t ; an d there is
da n ge r that bei n g wholly withou t g u idan ce he will beco m e
, ,

th e helpless victi m of his o wn cr u de th o u ght s or of the sophis t ry

of e n lighte n ed co m pan io n s Pri n ciples an d m oral i n
.

str u ctio n are n o t i n the m selves n ecessary t o sec u re correct

j u dg m e n t an d actio n b u t they are n ecessary to pro t ect t he
,

i n dividual agai n st i n adequ ate an d m isl eadi n g pri n ciples .

But n ot o n ly is the i n divid u al ed u cated by others h e ,

grad u ally lear n s to e du ca t e hi m se lf Th e i m porta n t thi n g is

.

to lear n the great ar t o f gover n i n g the i n cli n atio n s by m ea n s o f

a ratio n al will on e th at is deter m i n ed by pri n ciples to fashion
, ,

an d ed u cate th e i m p u lses accordi n g to an idea o f per fectio n ,

which grad u ally ass u m es sh ape Whe n the child leaves

.

sch ool an d the pare n tal ho m e his e ducatio n by others p r act i

,

cally co m es to an e n d Th e m ost eve n t fu l period of his li fe

.

n o w begi n s th e period o f i n cipie n t m oral i n depe n de n ce

,
His .

previo u s t rai n i n g i s n o w p u t t o the t est ; it m u st show

whethe r it has succeeded i n establishi n g the power of self
gover n m e n t N o t m a n y discover the righ t path at o n ce ; the
.

art of sel f gover n m e n t like everythi n g el s e h as to be lear n ed

-

, ,
.

It can be acq u i red o n ly by co n sta n t i n te rco u rse with the

world ; he n ce the re is an i n sti n ctive desire at this pe riod of
li fe to co m e i n to freq u e n t co n tact with m e n an d thi n gs ; these
are the years of travel ( Wan d e rj a hr e ) which follo w th e years
,

o f appre n ticeship
( L e h rj a h r e ) A t
. the e n d o f the IV an d cr

a h r e bet w ee n th e ages o f twe n ty a n d thi rty or n so m e cases

j ,
i ,

n o t u n til the close o f this period t h e i n n er m an has ass u m ed

,
 DO C TRIN E OF VI RTUE S A ND DUTIE S

de n ite an d per m a n e n t shape Th e followi n g y ears do n ot

.

possess the dra m atic i n terest of their predecessors the t i m e ,

o f grea t crises an d decisio n s is past ; the exercise of the

physical m e n tal an d m oral powers an d capacities which have

, ,

bee n acq u i red for m s t he c o n te n t of the age o f m a n hood the ,

M e i sterj a hr e In old age the powers di m i n i sh life grad u ally

.
,

loses itsel f i n r e m i n i s ce n s es an d so dri fts i n to the pas t

, .

Di e r e n ce s i n m oral types correspo n d t o these fou r ages of

li fe Plia n t m odesty co n stitu t es the i n n er h abi t of the well
.

trai n ed boy h opeful opti m is t ic idealis m that of the vou th

, ,

persiste n t an d e n erge t ic ac t io n that of t he m an ; t he t ra n q u il

,

peace o f co n te m platio n that of ol d age

,
.

This would a n swer the ol d ques t io n th e di scussio n of which

m arked the begi n n i n g of G reek m ora l philosophy C a n vi r tu e
be t a ug ht ? We a n swer wi th A ristotle : It cer t ai n ly can ; b u t ,

like all ex celle n ces i t m us t be prac t ised fi rst of all heari n g

,

others t alk ab ou t i t will n ot a vail We d o n ot learn t o walk

.

an d t o ride to t each an d t o gover n by heari n g t hese t hi n gs

, ,

talked of ; so it i s wi t h virtue O f course practice can an d

.
,

m u s t afterwards be suppleme n t ed by theoretical i n s t r u ctio n ;

thi s applies t o m or al e fficie n cy as well a s t o physical dexter
ity an d skill Th e co u n sels an d t eachi n gs of pare n ts an d
.

teachers o f spiri tu al advisers an d preachers m ay assis t the

, ,

m oral develop m e n t i n a m os t e ffective way hV e sh all there .

fore by n o m e a n s agree with S ch ope n hauer th a t m oral i n s t r u o

tio n an d m oral preachi n g are u t t erly u seless ; e m ployed at
th e righ t t i m e an d i n t he proper place th e v co n stit u te an
i m por t a n t par t of th e great art of govern i n g so u ls O f co u rse .
,

m ere babble will n ot avail S u ch i n s t ructio n will prove e ffe c

.

tive o n ly i n case it co m es fro m t he proper so u rce an d rests ,

u po n a profo u n d k n owledge o f li fe its order a n d its laws

, , .

V irtues are n or m al p owers of the will te n di n g to preserve ,

an d u n fol d h u m a n m e n t al li fe Vi ce s on the other ha n d

.
, ,

are ab n or m ally developed powers o f the will which te n d to

-
,

destroy i n divid u al li fe an d th at o f the s u rro u n di n gs ; o r ,

4 80 DO C TRIN E OF V I R T UE S A ND DUTIE S

defec t ive educatio n evil a ssocia t ion s u n favorable eco n o m ic

, ,

co n ditio n s u n happy do m estic relatio n s w ill u tterly d es t roy

, ,

a n a t ure tha t wo u ld have bee n preserved an d m igh t h a v e

a dapted i t self t o its surro u n di n gs u n de r m ore favorable con
di t i on s. By proper treat m e n t tt i n g sel f de n ial an d e x e r
,
-
,

cise an i m p u lse i n cli n i n g t o excess m ay be held i n check

, ,

while Weak i m p u lses m ay be developed an d stre n gthe n ed by

t i m ely ca re This sh ows the i m me n se i m porta n ce of educ a
.

t i o n e n vi ro n m e n t established cus t o m an d p u blic O pi n io n ;

, , ,

u po n these rests th e respo n sibility o f s ociety towards the

i n divid u al Had i t cared for hi m an d ed u ca t ed h i m he would
.
,

n ot have perished .

C an an d m u st we say th at h owever u n favor a bl e the n at ural

,

predispositio n of an i n dividual m ay be he can u n der t he , ,

proper co n di t io n s of life an d devel op m e n t beco m e an ho n es t ,

an d virtuo u s m an ? Is Rousseau r igh t i n holdi n g t h at all

wills are by n a t ure good t ha t every child m ay beco m e a ,

righ t eo u s m an t ha t if h e does n ot educa t io n an d un f a vorabl e

, ,

co n ditio n s are to bla e m 2 1

Th e age of pedagogical reform

accepted Ro u sseau s view an d was s t i m ula t ed by his exa m ple

,

to th e perfor m an ce of grea t an d fruitful deed s Eve n .

at presen t we base o u r prac t ice on the hypothesis that this

theory is correc t an d m us t d o so Ed u ca t io n u n iversally pre
,
.

s u pposes that every h u m a n bei n g may with the prope r ,

atte n tio n love an d c a re be come an ho n orable an d e fcie n t

, , , ,

virt u ou s an d h appy m an .

S o fa r h owever as t he the ory itself is co n cer n ed ou r age

, , ,

has beco m e so m ewha t u n cer t ai n an d sceptical Rousseau s .

opti m i stic vie w of hu m an n a tu re will n ot easily n d s u ppor t ers

i n o u r d ay We n o l o n ger believe th at ed u catio n can m ake
.

a n ythi n g ou t of an y o n e To o m an y facts co n tradict the old

.

dog m a of e m pi ris t ic psychology that th e so u l is a t birth a

white piece of paper capabl e of receivi n g an y i m pressio n s
,

what soever He n ce we are i n cli n ed to agree with a re alisti c

.

1
[S ee B u n ze , 13 , 1 8 . TR .
]
 V I RTUE S A ND VI C E S IN GE N E RAL 48

or pessi m istic co n ceptio n of h u m an ity th at there are childre 1

o f s i n fo r wh o m n othi n g whatever c an be do n e i n divid u als ,

e n dowed with s u ch perverse i m p u lses e xhibiti n g s u ch a total ,

l ack of sha m e an d re ve re n ce an d sy m pathetic feeli n g as to ,

be utterly i m pervio u s to the i n ue n ces o f ed u catio n 1 Th e .

co n cept m oral i n sa n ity has bee n form ed to apply to such

cases .

Facts u n doubtedly exis t for which t his co n cep t h as bee n

form ed No t o n ly are there perso n s wh o show a lack o f i h
.

t e l le ct u al po w er whi ch a m ou n ts to an al m os t total abse n ce of

i n tellige n ce i n i diocy b u t there are some wh o are c o m pletely
,

devoid o f m oral e n do wm e n ts withou t bei n g totally decie n t

,

i n i n tellige n ce although the latter is freque n tly d w arfed an d

,

perverted i n s u ch cases N ever theless we m ay u phold th e

.
,

clai m that there is n o absolute lack of m oral e n dowme n t ,

n o absolu t e perverse n ess ; eve n i n such dwarfed n at u res there

is so m e te n de n cy t o the good If o n ly they had received the.

prope r sy m pathy an d t r a i n i n g fro m the very begi n n i n g th ey ,

m igh t h ave bee n save d Perhaps there is n o lo n ge r an y h ope

.

for the m l ater on ; whe n s u ch a defec t ive soul is s u bj ected to

u n favorable i n ue n ces at t he outset i t m ay s oo n beco m e i h ,

c u rable A n d this is ap t t o be the case ; for hereditary

.

de fects an d i m perfec t early trai n i n g go together C o n cl u sive .

arg u m e n ts are i n the very n ature of thi n gs i m possible he re ;

, ,

faith h owever which govern s ou r practical li fe m u s t cli n g

, , ,

t o t he assu m p t io n expressed i n Rii ck e rt s li n es

m i t d e r VVu n sch e lru t

Schlage n ur

A n d i e F e lse n d e r Hr e z e n an

E i n S ch at z i n j ed em Bu se n r uh t

De n ein V e r st an d i ge r h e b e n k an n .

It is cus t o m a ry to ki n ds of du t i es
disti n g u ish betwee n t wo
d u ti e s t ow a r d s s elf an d du ti e s t owa r d s othe r s Th e n otio n of .

d u ty to wards self h as bee n rej ected by so m e ; there can be

d u ties it is h eld o n ly where there are legal rights It seems
, ,
.

1
[Se e L o m b roso ,
The C r i m i na l ; S t r u m p e ll, P e dag og i s c he P a tholog i e .
T R .
]
31
 DO C TRIN E OF VIRTUE S A N D DU TIE S

to me tha t this is an u n n ecessary co n t ractio n of the co n cept .

If the i n divid u al li fe h a s its m oral prob l e m s to sol ve it likewise ,

has its d uties If the i n divid u al as s u ch has absol u tely n o

.

m oral proble m s t o solve I c an n o t see h o w t here can be an y

,

d u ties to others either to i n divid u als or collective bodies ex

, ,

cept the p u rely n egative d u ty of n o n i n terfere n ce We ca n n o t -

.

obtai n a positive q u an tity by m u ltiplyi n g zeros He n ce I .

shall retai n the ol d classicatio n re m i n di n g t he reader how , ,

ever that i t is n ot a l egiti m ate divisi o n : there are as was

, ,

show n above n o acts which affect o n ly th e i n divid u al o r

1
,

society he n ce also n o d u ties towards self whi ch are n o t

,

at th e sa m e ti m e d u t ies towards others an d co n versely , .

C orr espo n di n g to this classicatio n of d u ties we m ay also ,

divide the virtu es i n to t wo gro u ps ; we m ay call the m i n

d i vi d u a li sti c an d s oci a l vi r t u e s Th e f u n da m e n t al for m o f th e
.

for m er is se lf con tr ol the fu n da m e n tal for m of the l at t er

-
, ,

ben evole n ce .They are rooted i n the t wo f u n da m e n tal form s

of i m p u lsive life : t he i m pulse of self preservatio n an d th e -

sex u al i m p u lse .

We shall rs t t rea t of th e d u t ies t owards self an d th e i n

d i vi du al i s t ic virtues w hich are based u po n the self preserva
,
-

t ive i m p u lse of t he i n divid u al We shall take up the separate

.

spheres of ac t io n an d rs t deal w ith the e d u ca ti on of the

,

wi ll an d the d i e te ti cs of t he a e cti ve s t a te s ; the n we shall

co n sider t he bodi ly e con om i c an d sp i r i tu a l li fe an d every
, , ,

where at te m p t t o de n e th e proble m s an d duties as well as ,

the capacities an d vi rtues per t ai n i n g t o the m In co n cl usio n .

,

we shall discuss th e proble m s which ari se fro m our r e la ti on s

t o oth er s an d ex a m i n e the du t ies an d v irt u es peculiar t o t his
,

S pher e .

1 I , 3 8 3 f
.
4 84 DO C TRIN E OF VIRTUE S A N D DU TIE S

co t rol assu m es di ffere n t phases correspo n di n g t o

S el f -
n
1
,

the di ffere n t for m s o f i m p u lsive li fe A s its t wo fu n dam e n .

tal aspects we m ay with th e Greek m oralists des i gn at e tem , ,

p er a n ce an d c ou r ag e Te m pe r a n ce may be .

de n ed as th e m oral power t o resist desires a tt rac t ed by

of the G r ee k n ati on al c h ar act e r . Pe rh ap s L e ssi ng s
ce l e b r at e d r e m ar k al so

a pp li e s to n at i o n s : w e t alk m os t of t he vi r t ue s
w hi c h w e l e as t p ossess, a n d w h o se
va uel w e h av e l e arn e d t o a pp r e ci at e b e caus e w e h a v e fe l t t h e i r l ack Th e .

G r e e k s w e r e g i ft e d w i t h n e se n si b i l i t i e s an d h i g h i n t e ll i g e n ce , w h i ch e sp eci ally
tt e d t h e m fo r a n d m a de t h e m k e e n ly ali v e t o all ki n d s o f p lay a n d a rt , d i al

e ct ics an d p hiloso p h y ; b u t t h e y w e r e s o m e w h at lacki n g i n e n e rg y an d per

s e v e r an ce . Th at i s t h e w ay t h e Ro m an s r e g ar de d t h e m ; i n c o m p ar i s o n w it h
t h ei r o w n n a t u r al se r i o u sn e s s an dg rav i ty (gr a vi t a s ) t h e G r e e k s se e m e d san gu i n e
an d m o b il e , cu n n i n g a n d
ckl e : t h e F r e n c h m e n o f an t i q u i ty Th ey h a d a p o o r .

o i n i o n o f t h e i r t a l e n t s fo r
p p ol i t i cs a n d w a r H o w e v e r , i t i s t his v e ry t h i n g .

t h at m ade t h e G re e k s t h e g r e at t e ach e rs of th e i
v r tu e of se lf-co n t ro l . Th e
S t o i cs b e ca m e t h e m oral p r each e r s o f t h e w o rld , d i r e ct ly o r i n d i re ctly Th e i r .

e n t i r e sy st e m o f m o ra li ty , h o w e v e r , i s a g u i d e t o t h e d i sc i p l i n e o f t h e e m o t i on s .

A m o n g m o d ern m ay b e m e n t i o n e d t h e p h y s i ci an F e u ch t e r sl e b e n ,
au t h o r s

w h o h as w r i tt e n a w i d e ly r ead D ie tet i cs of the S o u l (Di e tati lc d e r S e e le )

'

An .

x
e ce ll e n t li t t l e b o o k i s H a rr i e t B e e ch e r St o w e s ( t h e a u t h o r e s s o f Un cle To m s

C a bi n ) L i ttle F ox es Tw o g o o d b o o k s o f t h e la s t ce n t u ry a r e B F r an kli n s

. .

A u tobiog rap hy an d C am p e s Th eop hron E v e ry b o dy i s fam il i ar w i t h G oe t h e s m a g

.

S p r u che i n P ro s a d V er s e n Lag ar d e w r i t i n gs (3 d e di t
'

n i ce n t an . s .
, 1 89 1 ) h av e t h e
fo r m p u bli c m o ral s e r m on s , add re ss e d t o t h e G e r m an p e o p le
of Th e y . r e m ind u s

o f F i ch t e s Re d e n T h e b o o k o f t h e S w i ss Hil ty , Glu ck (4 t h e dit , is

.

m ak i n g m an y fri e n ds . Th e A dd re s ses of t he Am e r i can W . S al te r al s o co n

t a i n m o r al s e r m o n s . Th e s e a d d r e sses w e r e d e l i ve r e d b e fo re S o c i e t i e s fo r E t h i cal
C u lt u r e ,

w hi ch e xi st in s e ve r al Am e r i c an c i t i e s . Th e i de a o f y, o f a su ch a s o ci e t

u n i t e d e t h i cal o f n at i o n ali ty an d cre e d , h ad alr e ad y a tt r act e d t h e

p art y r e g a rd l e s s

a t te n t i o n of E F r an kli n (s e e
. h i s A u tobi ogra p hy ) E t h i c al S o c i e t ie s
. h av e o f
l at e b e en t ran s p lan t e d t o G e r m an y ; w h e th e r t h e y w i ll t ak e r oot h e re , r e m ai n s t o
b e se e n Th e u n i v e rs al lo v e o f m o rali t y i s n o t a st r on g b o n d o f u n i o n b e t w e e n
.

men a p ar t i cu l ar p ur
p o se , e ven acci d e n t al h at r e d p e r st i t io n , h as g reat er
or su

b i n d i n g fo r c e . Th e s e e t hi cal so ci e t i es a re , rs t o f al l , o pp o se d t o c h u r ch m orali ty

m o r al serm ons b a se d u on d o g m at i c s t h e y re g ar d as i n e ffe ct u al Th e r e i s ce r

p .

t a i nl y ro o m fo r m u ch i m p r o v e m e n t h e re : an d if t h e e t h i cal so ci e t i es su cce e d , in
t h e sl i g h t e s t d e g r e e , i n b r i n g i n g e t h i cal cul t u r e t o t h o se w h o h av e t u r n e d th e ir

b ac ks u p on the c h u r ch , t h ey d e s e r ve n ot h at r e d a n d c on t e m p t , b u t g r at i t u d e an d
r e co
g i ti on
n . T h e y m ay , p e r h a p s , e v e n h e l p C h r i s t i a n i t y i n g ai n i n g a fo o t h o ld i n
t h e s e ci r cl e s . F o r i t i s c e rt ai n ly t r u e t h at n o m o r e i m p o r t an t m o r al e ve n t s e v e r

o ccu rr e d u p o n t h i s e ar t h t h an ar e r e p or t e di n t h e Ne w Te s t am e n t ; a n d w e sh a ll
s ear ch in vain fo r m o r e e ffe ct i v e m o r al s e r m o n s t h an t h os e i n t h e G osp e ls a n d

[Black i e s S e lf C ult ur e d ese rve s pl ace i n t h e li st of b o o ks m e n t i on e d

E p i s tle s . a

h e r e TE ]
. .

1
[S e e also B u n ze 9 f TE ] ,
. .
 SELF C -
ON TRO L 4 85

t e m p t i n g e n j oy m e n t whe n the graticatio n o f s u ch desires

,

t e n ds to e n da n ger an esse n tial good C o u rage is th e m oral .

power t o resis t the n atural fear of pai n an d da n ge r ,

whe n the preservat io n of an esse n tial good de m a n ds such

resis t a n ce .

2 Te m pera n ce or m odera t io n
.
1
t he abili ty t o resis t t e m p
,

t at i e n t o se n s u o u s pleas u re is the preco n ditio n o f huma n iza

,

t io n Th e a n i m al is esse n tially bli n d i m pulse i n t he satis

.
,

fac t io n of which i t s li fe co n sists Man too is e n dowed with .

, ,

a n a n i m al n ature b u t i t s p u rpose is t o serve as the soil for

,

a higher spiri t ual li fe ; this soil is prepared by the discipli n e

,

o f the n a t ural i m pulses Th e latter are n ot to be eradicated

.
,

t hat wou ld m ean i n se n sibil i ty an d n ally deat h b u t thei r satis ,

factio n is to be so reg u lated t ha t t hey will n o t o n ly n ot distu rb

t he develop m e n t o f higher li fe b u t rather assis t i t Th e rela
,
.

tio n is reversed i n the opposite habit i n te mp e r a n ce (d k a m a ) ,

co

i n te m pera n ce is n o t m erely a relapse i n t o an a n i m al state n ay ,

t he higher po wers an d gifts of m an are h ere subordi n at ed t o

se n s u o u s desire S o i n glu tto n y an d the worship of t he belly
.

all the ar t s of civiliza t io n are here e m ployed t o excite an d

sat isfy se n suous desires S o pleasure seeki n g an d also sexual
.
-

dissipatio n have d raw n i n t o their service an e n t ire i n d u s t ry

o f exquisite e n joy m e n ts .

Eve n the m ost supercial exa m i n at io n of t he fac t s ca n n ot

leave u s i n do u bt as to the value an d e ffec t s of th ese t wo con
t r ary m odes o f a ctio n In t e m pera n ce dissipatio n i n ordi n ate
.
, ,

love of pleasure rs t o f all des t roy ou r se n se an d capacity

,

for higher thi n gs ; the will an d t he i n t ellec t are exh a u sted by

excesses ; n ally t he se n si bili ty is bl u n ted u n til at last eve n
the fac u lty for e n joy m e n t is l ost A ll passive e n j oy m e n ts .

deade n the se n sibilities s t ro n ger an d m ore re n ed excitatio n s

a re co n sta n tly n eeded to proc u re feeli n gs o f pl eas u re th ro u gh

the exha u sted orga n u n til at last the ch ro n ic state o f d ul n ess

,

which i s ch aracteristic o f the r ou c is reached ; the powe r s o f

1
[S p e n c e r I n d u cti ons, X II ; S te p h e n ,
, ch . V .
,
3 S e t h , Pa rt II , c h I
. . .
TE J .
4 86 DO C TRIN E OF VIRTUES A N D DU TIE S

the orga n is m an d i t s irri t abili ty a re exhaus t ed ; n othi n g i s

le ft bu t the rep u lsive dregs of life Te m pera n ce has the
O pposite e ffect ; i t m akes t he e n t ire m an healthy an d vigoro u s ,

capable o f actio n an d e n j oyme n t .

This virt u e like all habi t s is acquired by ex perie n ce

, , Th e .

fo u n datio n is laid by a good e d u ca t i on The bes t way t o pre .

ve n t the growth Of excessive desires is t o s at isfy t he n at u ral

n eeds i n a n appropiate an d orderly m a n n er Thi s can easily .

be do n e i n a well reg u lated ho u sehold b u t is extre m ely di ffi

-
,

c u lt u n de r co n ditio n s of l u xury as well as o f poverty Pe r .

haps we can still agree with Joh n Locke tha t an ho n es t

far m ho u se is the bes t place fo r reari n g a child Grad u ally .

th e child m ay be e n couraged to give u p little thi n gs O f i t s

o wn accord ; we ca n n ot begi n t o o soo n i n teachi n g th e child

the grea t art of life : to sacrice t o day for to m orro w Th e - -

.

chil d t he n ed u ca t es itsel f Th e se n se O f h o n or m ay be ap
.

pealed to as an ally agai n s t desire Th e abili ty t o bear priva

.

tio n with equan i m i ty is so cl osely rel at ed to c o u rage that t h e

boy t o o sees th e co nn ec t io n : i t is weak an d cowardly t o yield
t o desire . G reek e t hics is f u ll of excelle n t m oral advice on
t his very subjec t Ho w disgracef u l i t says to be co m pelled
.
, ,

t o obey the a n i m al o r child i n us which is full O f n eeds an d

,

desires how beautifu l an d praisewor thy an d i n keepi n g with

ma n s dig n ity on the o ther ha n d is t he freedo m an d i n de

, ,

p e n de n c e which i s n o t dis t u rbed by priva t io n an d wa n t !

Whoever succu m bs t o his desires is a slave t o O bjec t s ; t hey

draw h i m n o w hither n ow thithe r t hro u gh pleas u re an d fear
, ,
.

Th e gods are witho u t n eeds an d th erefore witho u t fear an d

,

desire ; the fewer ou r n eeds the n earer we are t o the gods

,
.

These are se n ti m e n ts which t he you t h Of all ages can u n der

sta n d Whe n t he se n se Of ho n or works i n the opposi t e d i r e c
.

t io n as happe n s t o a l arge exte n t i n ou r ti m es the relatio n

, , , ,

i s an u n n at u ral o n e There are perhaps two esse n tial reaso n s

.

fo r s u ch perverse n ess Th e rst is the wish of the yo u th to

.

sho w that he has the m ea n s t he seco n d tha t he has th e

, ,
4 88 DO C TRIN E OF V I R TU E S A N D DUTIE S

possessed a powerf u l a n tido t e agai n s t t he love O f pleasu re

a m o n g the y outh i n thei r gy m n astics an d m ilitary exercises
an d ga m es S i n ce it was i m possible to a ttai n to procie n cy
.

i n the m a n d be dissipated an d e ffe m i n a t e th e se n se Of h o n or ,

O perated i n th e right directio n We too have o u r m ilitary .

, ,

exercises b u t apart fro m other u n favorable co n ditio n s u n de r

, ,

which they take place th ey co m e a little t oo late Bet wee n ,

.

th e school d ays an d the ti m e Of m ili t ary service a lo n g period

o f freedo m i n terve n es whic h is b u t t oo O fte n spe n t i n dissipa

t io n For this reaso n too it wo u l d evide n tly be desirable

.
, ,

gradually t o advan ce a part of the ge n e ral m ilitary t rai n i n g to

an earlier age To be s u re this cha n ge sh o u ld n ot be bro u ght
.
,

abo u t by a police reg u latio n which m ight si m ply m ake m at ,

t ers worse bu t by a chan ge i n pop u lar c u sto m Perhaps the

, .

ol d Ger m a n ic l ove o f a t hle t ic S port s will be revived a m o n g

us as i n dica t io n s see m t o S ho w
,
.

A word co n cer n i n g a sce ti ci sm m ay n ot be ou t O f place here

1
.

A n asce t ic life is charac t erized by the habi t u al re n u n ci atio n

eve n Of m ode r ate an d l egiti m ate pleasures Modern moral .

i sts a s a r u le rej ec t i t as an aberratio n ; an d i n deed t he

, , , ,

pri n ciple on which i t rests see m s to be t h e ex a c t O pposi t e

O f the pri n ciple O f welfare Th e three vows O f mo n achis m .

sig n ify the re n u n ciatio n O f wealth o r m aterial culture ; of ,

fa m e an d powe r or ideal c u l tu re ; an d n ally of fa m ily life

, , ,

t hat is th e preserv a tio n Of the species o r th e precon ditio n

, ,

of all hu m a n culture N evertheless i t is u n doub t edly t rue

.
,

tha t ge n ui n e asce t icis m arouses n ot co n t e m p t an d aversio n ,

bu t respect an d ad m ir a tio n eve n a m o n g pro n ou n ced chil ,

d re n O f t he world t h at is whe n they have n o pri n ciple to
, ,

de fe n d Th e phe n o m e n o n m ay perhaps be explai n ed as fol

.

lows Th e te n de n cy t o go to the other extreme O f excess

.

is n at ural an d u n iversal ; i n co n ti n e n ce causes the r u i n O f

in an y Excessiv e te m pera n ce therefore does n ot seem to be
.
, ,

[L e ck y H i story of M ora ls I
1
, E u r op ea n , .
,
1 1 3 , 1 3 0 ; II , 1 0 1 ff
. Har n ack, Das
M d nchthu m B u n ze , 11 . TE .
J
 SELF C ON TRO L 4 89

da n gero u s ,
but m eri t orio u s ;
for t wo reaso n s : Th e i n con
t i n e n ce Of so m e is i n a certai n se n se directly co m pe n sated
, , ,

by the extre m e co n ti n e n ce Of others Th e doctri n e of the .

good works of the sai n t s n ds a n a t ural support i n this vie w

t he people for m s a whole the good an d evil acts O f its m e m
,

bers are placed to its acco u n t A n d absol u te co n ti n e n ce is .

i n directly m eritorious i n S O far as i t shows by grea t an d ,

striki n g exa m ples that the i m p u lses which Ofte n lead t o rui n
,

o u s excess c an be m astered Grati t u de for t hi s educ at ive

.

c e ct assu m es the for m Of ad m iratio n .

Th is at the sa m e t i m e explai n s why asce t icis m an d a love

of the world go ha n d i n han d We may n d occasio n al
- -
.

ex a m ples o f i n te m pera n ce a m o n g a poor an d u n civilized

people bu t n o t radical co n ti n e n ce Philosophical asceticis m
,
.

rs t appeared i n the Helle n ic world whe n the ar t of good

l ivi n g reached a high s t at e Of perfecti o n Th e Ro m a n .

E m pire was t he soil on which C hristi a n ity fo u n d f a vorabl e

co n ditio n s of develop m e n t Th e m ore se n suous a n a t io n the
.
,

greater i t s ad m iratio n for th e ascetic li fe It is surely n ot .

accide n tal that the exci t able Ro m a n ce n atio n s cli n g t o C ath

o l i ci s m an d cel ibacy an d m o n achis m whereas te m pe ra n ce ,

societies are co m m o n a m o n g the Ger m a n ic peoples wh o are ,

addic t ed to dri n k Moreover eve n i n par t ic u l ar i n divid u als

.
, ,

a n i n t e n sely se n suo u s n a t ure is apt to seek refuge i n asceti

ci sm. Th e m an wh o is n ot expose d t o te m pta t i o n n ee ds n o

heroic a n t ido t es .

Fro m this i t also follows tha t asce ticis m ca n n o t beco m e

a u n iversal ethical rule It w ould defea t itself with both
.

physical an d psychological msth e ti cal n ecessity : witho u t

-

its O pposite there would be n ei th er se n se n o r m erit i n it .

Th e val u e o f absol u te co n t i n e n ce an d t he ad m iratio n sh ow n

fo r it are co n ditio n ed by the fact th a t there are othe rs who
have n ot received the d on u m con ti n en ti oe eve n i n a modera t e ,

degree Th e asceti c hi m sel f m u s t recog n ize this ; he ca nn ot

.

expec t everybody to i m itate h i m n ay he ca n n ot eve n say or , ,

4 90 DO C TRIN E OF VI RT UE S A ND DUTIE S

i n ti m ate t hat his m ode of li fe is better tha n tha t O f o thers .

He m ay at m os t dee m hi m self fort u n ate fo r havi n g escaped

, ,

s u ch task m asters as m ost perso n s co n sta n tly h ave n ear the m

-

i n their i m p u lses A s t ern an d hau ghty purita n is m is n o t

.

edi fyi n g ; it aro u ses a n t ago n is m s A m an however who i s .

, ,

ge n tle an d hu m ble i n S piri t who asks n othi n g fo r hi m self

,

b u t desires others t o h ave everythi n g th a t is good eve n that ,

which he de n ies hi m self will gai n the respec t an d co n de n ce

,

O f all especially O f childre n of t he world S i n ce he does n ot

, .

e n ter i n to co m peti t io n with the world he m ay beco m e t h e ,

repository o f very worldly secre t s like Fria r L ore n zo i n ,

R o m e o a n d J u li e t In his n ovel I P r om e ssi S p osi Man

.
, ,

zo n i has drawn fo r u s i n the perso n O f C ardi n al Borro m e o a

, ,

won der fu l pict u re of a m an wh o re n ou n ces e verythi n g ,

an d thereby ob t ai n s the grea t es t i n ue n ce over o thers .

Mo r al preachers S piritual as well as secul ar are i n the

, ,

habi t Of co m plai n i n g t hat n o on e will liste n to the m an d

give hee d to their cou n sels Ma n s hard n ess of hear t has .

bee n t he subjec t O f their la m e n tatio n s fro m th e days O f the

ol d prophe t s dow n t o the prese n t Perhaps t he fault does n ot .

lie e n tirely with t he hearers If these preachers w o u ld o n ly

.

exam i n e the m selves as closely as others t hey wo u ld perhaps ,

occasio n ally n d that it i s n o t o n ly thei r zeal for savi n g sou ls

tha t act u ates the m ; the thi n gs wh ich they ca n n o t o r dare n ot
o r do n ot wish t o e n joy t hey begr u dge others an d so reve n ge
, ,

the m selves u pon the m for their o wn privatio n s He alo n e .

has a right to preach m orality wh o i s i n t he safe possessio n

of a good that absorbs his wh ole so u l an d is e n tirely with ou t ,

e n vy ; he tha t ca n n o t witho u t bitter n ess bear the sigh t of

others e n j oyi n g what he d esires t o co n vi n ce the m is wor thless ,

S ho u ld rs t preach t o hi m sel f
1
.

1
Th e I mita ti o C hr is ti admi r ab ly
de scri b es t h e t r u e m o ral p reach e r an d hi s
Op p o s i t e , th e h ab i t u al m o r al gr u m b le r , i n t h e ch ap t e r Of a G oo d a n d P e ace able

M an . F i r st k e e p t h y se l f i n p e ace , an d t h e n sh al t t h e n b e able t o m ak e p e ace
a m on g o t h e r s . A
p e ace fu l m an d o t h m o r e g o o d t h an h e t h at i s w e ll le arn e d .

A r
p ass i o n at e m an d aw e t h ev e n g oo d i n t o e v il, an d e as ily b e li e v e t h t h e w o rs t .
4 92 DO C TRIN E OF VIRTUE S A N D DUTIE S

h ave disappeared i n the a n o n y m ous n ess of m etro politan

li fe Th e equ ality of the m asses m a n i fested i n the si m ilarity

.
,

o f dress a n d appeara n ce gives all the sa m e rights

,
He n ce .
,

S i n ce every o n e co n sta n tly sees be fore h i m the thi n gs whic h

others possess an d which he m u st do witho u t for n o good ,

reaso n whatever h orses serva n ts d r awi n g r o o m s villas

, ,
s

, ,

cl othes j ewels articles of food why S h ould n ot everybody b e

, ,

disco n te n ted ? In additio n t o this the d am which religio n ,

for m erly erected agai n s t coveto u s n ess has bee n as good as ,

washed away i n o u r ti m es Th e tho u gh t o f the tra n sitori n ess

.

o f everythi n g earthly an d the pro m is e O f e t er n ity have lost thei r

hold u po n m an ki n d This is as tr u e of the c u ltured clas ses

.

as of the m asses For m erly t he h ope O f a f u t u re li fe tho u gh

.
, ,

it was n ot very i n viti n g t o the rich an d the pleas u re seekers -

,

co n soled m an ki n d i n ge n eral for the hardships Of this l i fe .

Bu t wha t can con sole m en n ow who have n o hope of a

fu ture reward whe n for t u n e f a ils t o give the m what i t
,

bes t ows upo n o t hers ?

Is t here n o c u re for t his disease ? We are referre d t o the
church an d the restorat ion Of its power If by th is we m ean .
,

n ot ex t er n al powe r bu t a n i n n e r fra m e of m i n d h u m ility a n d

, ,

piety the n there can be n o do u bt that the re m edy wo u ld prove

,

e ffec ti ve Perhaps n othi n g b u t t r u e i n n e r religio u s n ess can

.

give us perfect p eace i n regard t o earthly thi n gs A n d I am .

fully co n vi n ced t hat t he ch u rch h as had an d still co n ti n ues

t o h ave a s al u tar v i n u e n ce I k n ow O f n othi n g that h as
.

greater power t o raise the hear t above the vai n an d tra n sitory
thi n gs of li fe th a n the Gospels with t hei r S i m pl e an d gra n d
facts teachi n gs an d sy m bols A prope r i n terpretatio n Of
, , .

t he m will n ot fail to m ove t he hear t s e ve n Of o u r age ; an d it

certai n ly is a m is fort u n e th at a co n s t a n tly i n creasi n g portio n
o f o u r pop u latio n is beco m i n g farther an d farthe r re m oved

fro m the i n ue n ces of these teachi n gs .

Th e Greek philosoph ers too s u ggested a re m edy to thei r

, ,

t i m es which s u ffered fro m th e sa m e disease : A ban do n your

,
 SELFC ON TR O L 4 95
:

false co n cep t io n s above all the false view t ha t happi n es s de

, ,

pe n ds u po n prosperity What is tro u bli n g you i s n o t th e l ack

.

of certai n thi n gs b u t the belie f th at y o u ca n n ot be h appy

,

without the m A re you really s u re th at their possessio n

.

wo u ld m ake you happy ? Bu t certai n it i s th at it m akes

o u u n happy t o desi re the m a n d n ot t o ge t the m N ow
y .
,

S i n ce it i s i n yo u r power n o t t o desire the m b u t n o t i n yo u r ,

power to O btai n the m h o w foolish y ou are fo r resolvi n g to ge t

,

the m i n stead o f resolvi n g n ot t o d esire the m Y es yo u say .

, ,

but it i s n ot i n m y powe r n ot to desi re the m Have y ou .

-

eve r r e allv an d ear n es tly m ade the t rial ? Have yo u who ,

have devoted so m uch at t e n t io n an d e n ergy to so ma n y

thi n gs eve r devoted your atte n tio n an d e n ergy to this art ?
,

Have yo u reected upo n i t an d prac t ised it ? Have yo u e m

ployed the aids a t yo u r disposal ? Have yo u ever t u r n ed
y our gaze a way fro m th e thi n gs which exci t e desire ? Have
yo u studied others wh o do without th e sa m e thi n gs an d
,

others b e si de s an d still are of good cheer ? Look at S ocrates :

,

he passes through the m arke t place an d e n j oys the S ight of -

all the beautifu l thi n gs because h e does n ot n eed the m Have .

y ou eve r appealed to yo u r pride to h elp yo u agai n s t va n i ty ?

S o m e o n e has bee n pro m o t ed an d you have bee n p assed by ;
,

yo u have n o t bee n i n vite d t o a di n n er ; have you Epictetus ,

a sks paid the price ? O f course the price is atte ry an d sub

, ,

s e rvi e n cy Well the n pay the price a t which these thi n gs

.
, ,

a re s old if yo u d ee m i t wise ; bu t i f yo u are u n willi n g to

,

pay well the n is it n ot sha m eless i n you still to wish t o

, , ,

have the m ? A n d if th eories al o n e will n o t hel p you try ,

practice try asceticis m : i n orde r t o break your o wn va n ity

,

an d cupidity vol u n tarily give u p s u ch thi n gs as yo u have

,
.

S tre n gth grows with exe rcise yo u m u st m erely give the will
an opport u n ity to feel its power agai n s t d esire You are .

ghti n g fo r the best seat i n the theatre o r o n the trai n an d , ,

o u beco m e extre m ely a n gry beca u se so m e o n e h as beate n

y
o u ; n o w try t o le t the othe r m a n have i t of yo u r o w n free
y
4 94 DO C TRIN E OF VIRTU ES A N D DU TIE S

will an d n ote whether you h ave fared worse tha n usual an d

, ,

t he n m ake the appl icatio n to greater thi n gs A n d above all .

, ,

have you torn e n vy fro m y o u r heart t he u gly weed w hich , ,

poiso n s an d tortu res both body an d so u l ? If n ot do it at ,

o n ce ; an d do n ot believe th a t y ou have do n e a n ythi n g for

yo u r h appi n ess S O lo n g as you have failed i n this It is pai n .

fu l to desire an d n ot to O btai n ; b u t m u ch m ore pai n fu l is

it t o desi re t o have m ore tha n others an d to be u n able t o
bear the tho u ght of others h avi n g a n ythi n g .

A gai n ; i f you h ave childre n help the m There are t wo , .

ways of looki n g at life on e of which will certai n ly m ake it

,

happy t he other u n happy Th e rst is t he habit of regardi n g

,
.

eve rythi n g good th at life yiel ds as s u r p ass i n g y ou r expecta

tio n s an d every m is fort u n e as falli n g bel o w the m ; the sec
,

on d is t h e reverse of t his You h ave it i n y o u r power to

.

give your child either m ood Gran t all his wishes give hi m.
,

every t hi n g h e sees le t h i m ch oose wh at he ought t o eat an d

,

dri n k what he o u gh t t o do an d t o leave u n do n e re m ove all

, ,

obs t acles fro m his path bear his burde n s for h i m p raise his
, ,

ability an d good n ess ; i n shor t be all t e n der n ess an d devo

,

ti o n ; an d you m ay be sure tha t h e will u po n e n teri n g the ,

world n d it h ard an d n iggardly ; that h e will be disco n

,

t e n t ed an d u n happy If you are u n willi n g that this S ho u ld

.

happe n s t eel yo u r o wn heart an d d o n ot be afraid of bei n g

, ,

called an u n n a t u ral m other by all ed u cated m others .

N ot lo n g ago I wi t n essed th e followi n g little i n cide n t : O n ce

there we re two little girls perfectly heal thy an d ch eer fu l an d
, ,

blessed with the best of appetites They we n t to visit an au n t .

,

w h o loved the m ve ry m u ch an d did everythi n g sh e co u ld to

,

please the m Sh e u sed to ask the m be fore each m eal wh at

.

they liked t o eat an d whe n the meal was served wh at they

, ,

preferred t o h ave Before t wo weeks had passed these two

.
,

little girls n o lo n ger e n j oyed their food ; on e o f the m co u l d n t

eat this the other co u ld n t eat tha t ; their plates were always
,

hal f fu ll an d at the e n d O f every m eal they were disco n te n ted

,
4 96 DO C TRI N E OF V I RT U E S A ND DU TIE S

itsel f i t m u st co n stan tly be o n its guard extern ally an d i n te r ,

n ally agai n st s u rprises a n d attacks ; its preserva t io n depe n ds

,

u po n the s u ccess with which it sol ves this problem .

Bo th m o d es Of co n d u c t are al so fo u n d a m o n g m en There .

are m e n who r u n away like sheep a t th e rst S ign of dan ger .

There are o thers o n th e co n trary wh o like beas t s o f prey

, , , ,

are straightway i m pelled to bli n d an d ferocio u s attacks whe n ,

threate n ed o r i n j u red Both m odes of co n duc t are co n de m n ed

.

by m e n the for m e r as cowardice the latt er as bli n d rage

, ,

o r foolh ardi n ess A di ffere n t ki n d O f beh avior is req u ired O f

.

m an an d that is courage
,
Tha t m an is brave w h o whe n
.
,

attacked an d i n peril n either bli n dly ru n s away n or r u shes

,

i n to da n ge r bu t retai n i n g his c o m posure caref u lly an d

, ,

cal m ly st u dies the S itu atio n q u ietly deliberates an d decides, ,

an d the n carries o u t his resol u tio n r m ly an d e n ergetically ,

whe t her i t be resistan ce an d attack o r defe n ce an d retreat , .

Prude n ce there fore co n stit u tes an esse n tial par t Of val or

, , .

A sig n ica n t c u s t o m is s aid t o have prevailed amo n g the

S parta n s Before th e battle th e ki n g rs t O ffered sacrices
.

to the Muses pres u m ably says L S ch m idt
,
1
to i m plore
,
.
,

th e m that his ar m y m ight eve n d u ri n g th e ba t tle retai n the

, ,

p u re A p olli n i c freedo m fro m wild passio n Th e origi n of .

this virt u e m ight be e x pl ai n e d b i ol ogi cally as follows Th e .

, .

most da n gero u s e n e m y of m an is m an In battle with this ad .

v e rs a ry co u rage h as bee n acquired ; it i s t h e m ea n s of de

fe n ce agai n s t the m os t fearf u l weapo n o f at tack t he i n tellec t , .

A gai n st this n either bli n d ight n or bli n d aggressio n will

,

avail as is see n i n the battle of m an with a n i m als Fear

,
.

carries the eei n g o n es i n to his n e t whil e rage bri n gs the ,

ferocio u s o n es withi n ran ge of his sword o r gu n S u ch an .

e n e m y can be resisted o n ly by m ea n s of the sa m e weapo n ,

t he i n tellect that i s by courage by prese n ce of m i n d i n

, , ,

battle Th e n a t ure of cou rage i s so m ewhat obscured i n

.

popular S peech A ccordi n g to the above expl an ation co u rage

.
,

1 E thi k d er Gr i e chen , II , 3 7 . .
 S ELF C -
ON TRO L 4 97

may be exhibited i n retrea t as w el l as i n resista n ce or attack .

P op u lar u sage is i n cli n ed to regard retreat u n de r all circ u m

sta n ces as i n co m patible with bravery Perhaps the cause of .

this on e S ide d co n ceptio n m ay be so u ght i n the followi n g

- .

Th e battle Of man with m an is u n i fo rm ly n o t a battle o f th e

i n divid u al with the i n divid u al b u t a bat t le of o n e collective
,

body agai n st a n other It is evide n tly an esse n tial co n ditio n

.

o f the stre n gth o f a co m pa n y o f ghters that the i n divid u al

p e rsevere i n th e str u ggle at all hazards

,
an d rather fall tha n ,

y the powe r of the collective body depe n ds o n the con

d e n ce which each i n dividual has i n the trus t wor t hi n ess O f
th e other .C o u rage is a social vir t ue .

M a r ti a l co u rage is the rst for m i n which this q u ality

receives recogn itio n perhaps the very rst virtu e which wi n s
,

ad m iratio n C ourage is origi n ally t he virtue cowardice the

.
,

vice as the Greek an d Ro m a n usage of la n guage attests

,
.

A n d yo u t h has n o S i n cerer regard for an y virtue t ha n fo r

stern an d shrewd an d especially m agn a n i m o u s co u rage
,
.

A S civiliza t io n adva n ces its i m porta n ce di m i n ishes

,
C ivi .

l i zati o n m akes for pe a ce Th e i n dividual does n ot h a ve t o

.

protec t hi m sel f by his o wn stre n gth an d co u rage he e n j oys ,

the protectio n o f the l aws an d the police Th e In dia n con .

s t an tly carries his li fe i n his ha n ds Eve n d u ri n g t he Middle

.

A ges everybody bore ar m s at least o u tside O f the city w a lls

,
.

W e h a ve laid dow n ou r ar m s because w e n o l o n ger n eed

t he m It is n ot i m probable t hat we have thereby lost o u r
.

i n n er readi n ess t o de fe n d ou r lives with the weapo n i n ou r

ha n ds Th e average E u ropea n could h ardly dare to co m pete
.
,

i n dividually with the i n dividu a l In dian o r Bedo u i n i n perso n al

,

brave ry He i s also i nferior to the m i n beari n g hardships

. .

Bu t wh at gives h i m his s u periority i s besides th e i n stru m e n ts ,

o f war organ izatio n an d discipli n e These are th e thi n gs

,
.

which turn the scale i n the great battles o f civilized n atio n s

Th e perso n al bravery of the i n d i vi d u al soldie r does n o t co u n t

for very m u ch Ou r e n tire civil an d m ilitary ed u catio n is
.

32
4 98 DO C TRIN E OF V IRTU ES A N D DUTIE S

li t tle adapted t o prod u ce i t ; its m ai n O bject i s to devel op

discipli n e : obedie n ce h owever is t o a certai n ex t e n t the
, , , ,

opposite of courage .

5 A S civilizatio n a dva n ces o t her for m s of resista n ce co m e

. ,

to s u rpass m artial cou rage i n i m porta n ce C hief a m o n g these I.

m e n tio n what m ight be called ci vi l c o u rage i n d ep e n d en ce of ,

t hou g ht c ha r a cterf u l s e lf a sse r ti on agai n s t the great pressure

,
-

exer t ed by s u perior an d i n ferior forces C ivilizatio n has the .

te n de n cy to create rel atio n s of depe n de n ce depe n de n ce u po n

m e n takes th e place o f depe n de n ce u po n n at u re depe n de n ce
upo n s u periors an d patro n s frie n ds an d fello w partisan s
,
-
,

custo m ers an d voters society a n d p u blic opi n io n Depe n

, .

de n ce has the t e n de n cy to pervert the will : it i n cli n es the

i n dividual to acco m m odate hi m self to let thi n gs take their
,

co u rse to O bseq u io u s n ess to cowardly sel f de n ial to falsehood

, ,
-
,

i n every for m S O the m oral duty arises to develop the i n n er

.

power O f resis ta n ce which cal m ly an d r m ly opposes every

a t te m pt to sub j ec t the i n divid u al t o established c u sto m s
an d a u thori ty whi ch serves a n d re m ai n s l o y al to tr u th a n d
,

justice regardless of whe ther such co n d u ct bri n gs favor an d

,

popularity o r dis favor an d co n te m pt To re m ai n true to .

o n esel f that is the ai m of s u ch ideal co u rage NO o n e can

,
.

have it the ce n tre of whose li fe does n ot lie withi n hi m s elf

,

whoever m akes exter n al thi n gs his u lti m ate goal ca n n ot

attai n to i n n er freedo m S pi n oza was i n his li fe an d t each
.
,

i n g a great preacher o f this doctri n e o f freedo m

,
.

A n other form of co u rage is p e r se ver a n ce o r p er s i sten ce ,

the power Of the will t o a ccep t a n d co n ti n u o u sly t o e n d u re a ll

ki n ds of hardships an d ex ertio n s which are n ecessary to ,

realize o n e s e n ds It is the virt u e of t he w or ki ng m an

. .

Martial co u rage was the virt u e o f the heroic age persever ,

a n ce is the courage of the i n d u strial age It is i n this virt u e .

that the civilized m an S O i mm eas u rably surpasses th e s av age .

Th e savage is capable of great m o m e n tary exertio n s b u t n ot ,

o f m aki n g a co n ti n u ed e ffor t to overco m e th e s m all obstacles

 500 DO C TR IN E o r VIRTUE S A N D DU TIE S

n a t ure Ma n s s t re n g t h is more u n be n di n g an d b ri ttle A

.

.

wo m an is also better able t o ba t tle wi t h lo n g co n ti n u ed tro u bles -

an d O bstacles whe n th e m an i m patie n tly S i n ks be n eath the

load she retai n s her equa n i m i ty an d eve n h er cheer fu l n ess
,
.

For that reaso n wo m a n is th e born guardia n O f you th the ,

n u rse of the sick an d the co u n sellor of o d age

1
,
l .

Grea t patie n ce i n su ff eri n g is th e i n variable m ark of a n obl e

character ; co u rage an d perseveran ce m ay belo n g eve n t o a
selsh an d m alicious will Patie n t resig n at io n i n suff eri n g
.

is a S ig n that the viole n t n at u ral i m pulse to life which rebels ,

a gai n s t su fferi n g h as bee n broke n an d S ile n ced by a higher

,

will This is why su fferi n gs which are accepted by the hear t

.

a n d patie n tly bor n e are expia t ory : t hi n k of t he thief o n th e

cross .

6 A t hi rd form o f self co n t rol is c a lm n e ss th e ability t o

.
-
,

co n trol by the ratio n al will s u ch e m otio n s as res u lt fro m

, ,

disturba n ces i n o u r rel at io n s wi th ou r fellow m e n : e g a n ger -

. .
, ,

vexatio n ill h u m or To th e lack of this vir t u e an d to e n vy

,
-
.
,

an d pride are due m ost of the disag reeable a n n oya n ces which
,

w ear o u t the lives o f so m an v m e n Witho u t th e abili ty to

.

Overco m e t he i n evitable pet ty collisio n s i n tercourse with ,

hu m an bei n gs beco m es a co n s t an t tortu re A m an m ove s .

i n to an apart m e n t house On th e oor above hi m lives a

.

fa m ily with half a doze n child re n who are m aki n g dilige n t

- -
,

use of the rst right of m an to use his ha n ds a n d fee t Th e .

n oise a n n oys h i m he l oses his t e m per an d i n his a n ger se n d s

,

up a serva n t t o say th a t the n oise is i n tol erable an d th a t ,

the ge n tle m a n dow n stai rs i n sists u po n greater quiet Wha t .

is the e ff ec t ? Th e f am ily th u s addressed rese n ts such i n t er

fere n ce an d h e n cefor t h le t s the childre n make m ore n oise
,

1 In a ce rt ai n s e n se the
g r eat e r cap aci ty of w o m e n fo r b e ar i n g su ffe r i n g s an d
mi sfo r t u n e i s s t at i st i cally s h o w n b y t h e s m a lle r n u m be r o f s u i ci d e s a m o n wo m e n
g .

A c co r d i n g t o s t at i s t i cs , fo u r t i m e s as m an
y m e n co m m i t su i ci d e as w o m e n .

He n ce , i f su ici de i s d u e t o t h e p e r so n s i nab i li ty t o e n d u r e li fe an y l o n g e r , w e can

say t h at t h e p o w e r o f t h e w o m an t o b e ar s u ffe r i n
g i s fo u r t im es as g r e at as t h at
 S ELFC ON TRO L 5 01

t ha n before A n d n o w t he ba ttle i s on : ou r frie n d begi n s t o

.

stor m aro u n d hi m self S la m s th e doors sta m ps with his

, ,

feet se n ds fo r the la n dlord an d t he police an d beco m es an

, ,

grie r an d m ore displeased every d ay In t his way his house

beco m es a perfect hell Hi s mi n d i s lled with ve n o m ou s

.

disco n te n t an d like a vessel fu ll t o t he bri m overo w s with

, ,

bitter n ess an d poiso n o u s malice a t the slightes t co n t ac t .

A n d i n the m ean while h e is deplori n g th e base n ess o f m an

i n ge n eral .

A n d yet n o on e evide n tly i s t o blam e bu t hi m self he

, , , ,

i s a n n oyi n g an d t orme n t i n g hi m self He is reapi n g wha t .

he sowed ; wi e d er G ru ss so d er Da nk Had he i n stead of

,
.
,

se n di n g his serv an t pu t on h is bes t coa t an d called upo n the

,

m o th e r O f those childre n whose fee t are rui n i n g his brai n

, ,

had h e co n fessed t o her that h e h ad an u n fort u n at e faili n g ,

that h e was extre m ely se n sitive to so u n ds an d had h e begged ,

o f her t o h ave a little regard fo r hi s feeli n gs if sh e could ;

,

h ad he likewise n o t forgo t te n upo n leavi n g t o praise the , ,

beauty an d good beh avi or o f her child re n an d to ad m ire

her taste i n furn ishi n g her ho m e : everythi n g would have
bee n so di ffere n t In at leas t n i n e cases o u t O f te n an d
.

s u ch a probability m akes i t worth a t rial h e wo u ld h ave

bee n ki n dly recei v ed an d on e half o r th ree fo u rths of the
,
- -

dis t urba n ce wo u ld h ave bee n re m oved He m igh t t he n h ave .

prescribed for hi m self a little S toic philosophy to e n able ,

h i m t o e n d u re the re m ai n i n g f r actio n If you are goi n g t o .

bathe Epictet u s ad m o n ishes u s place be fore yo u rself wha t
, ,

happe n s i n th e bath so m e S plashi n g t he water others p u sh ,

i n g agai n st on e a n other o th ers ab u si n g o n e a n other an d

, ,

so m e steali n g : an d thus with m ore safety yo u will u n de r

take the m atter if you say to yo u rsel f I n ow i n te n d to bathe
, , ,

a n d t o mai n t ai n my w ill i n a m a n n e r co n for m able to n at u re .

S o it is h ere : w he n you move i n to an apart m e n t ho u se ,

thi n k o f what will happe n the re ; the n eighbor s dog will

bark his boys will ro m p aro u n d h i s d aughters will play

, ,
5 02 DO C TRIN E OF VI RTUE S A ND DU TIES

on t he pian o ; if y o u can n o t e n d u re these thi n gs do n ot m ove ,

i n b u t b u ild yo u rself a ho u se o u tsid e o f the city be i t ever

, ,

S O m odes t Bu t i f you m u st m ove i n tell yo u rself be fore

.
,

han d that you m u st a n d yield to the i n evitable ,

.

To d o all thi s yo u n eed n ot eve n have an y love for hu m an

ity that of cou rse wo u ld m ake it easier for yo u ; i t is
, ,

S i m ply a m atter o f prude n ce However righteous your a n ger.

m ay be s u ppress i t ; a n ger w ill des t roy yo u r life an d

,

happi n ess Whe n peopl e t ry to m ake y o u a n gry say : I

.
,

S hall n o t all ow m ysel f t o be m a de a n gry for I shall be th e ,

o n e to s u ffer fo r it .

In deed i t is very s t ra n ge : we k n ow tha t we m u s t always

,

adapt ourselves to th e n at u re of the thi n gs which we desire

to s u bject to o u r purposes ; o n ly whe n it co m es t o h u ma n
bei n gs d o we see m to forge t it A sto n e is i n m y way I .
,

do n ot S cold it b u t walk arou n d it or p u sh i t aside A

, .

watch or a m achi n e i s ou t of order ; we d o n ot bea t i t but ,

i n qu ire i n to the cau se o r han d it over t o an expert t o m e n d

,

the de fect Bu t whe n a h u m a n bei n g fails to d o ou r biddi n g

.
,

whe n a n eighbor displeases u s or a frie n d acts i n a m a n n e r ,

'

which w e do n ot co n sider right wh e n a pupil does n ot k n ow ,

his lesso n or t he so u p does n ot taste right we ge t a n gry an d

, ,

scold A S tho u g h ab u se an d a n ger were the pa n acea for

.

gover n i n g h u m an so u l s ! A hu m a n soul is of all thi n gs i n

th e world the m ost co m plicated an d m ost di fc u l t to ha n dle ;
a n d h e n ce the art of gover n i n g so u ls is th e hardes t of all

arts A n d S i n ce it i s the m ost i m porta n t art for ou r happi

.

n ess it s u rely deserves to be s t u died with greater care

,
Th e .

m ost i m por t an t thi n g i n this art however is the ability to , ,

retai n o n e s c o m posure ; o n ly cal m an d pr u de n t i n vestigatio n

will s u cceed i n discoveri n g the ca u ses Of th e tro u ble an d n ot ,

u n til these have bee n fou n d c an t h e proper atte m pts be m ade

to re m edy it Howe ver this m ay be bro u ght abo u t whether

.
,

by i n str u ctio n ex a m ple co u n sel e n co u rage m e n t assista n ce

, , , , ,

ad m o n iti o n e n treaty th reats p u n ish m e n t u n de r all cir

, , , ,
5 04 DO C TRIN E OF VIRTUES A ND DUTIE S

to be co m pared u n to her Le n gth of days is i n h e r righ t

.

ha n d ; an d i n h e r le ft ha n d riches an d h o n or Her ways

.

are ways of pleasa n t n ess an d all her paths are peace Sh e

, .

is a tree o f li fe to the m tha t lay hold u po n her : an d happy

is every o n e that retai n eth h er Th e Lord by wisdom has
.

fo u n ded the earth ; by u n dersta n di n g hath he establishe d the

1
heave n s
.

1
[P roverbs, III , . 13
 C H A PTE R II I
THE B OD IL Y LIF E 1

1 . f u n ctio n of t he body is t o serv e as th e org an an d

TH E
s m bo l o f the so u l T here is n o differe n ce of o pi n io n co n c e r n
y .

i n g this practical esti m a t e o f the t wo phases o f m a n s n atu re

.

Eve n the m a t erialis t wh o regards t he soul as a passi n g fu n c ,

tio n o f m atter will accep t ou r propositio n ; fo r hi m to o th e

,

body is the servan t of th e s ou l Every o n e i s like wis e agree d .

as t o wha t co n s t i t utes a good serva n t To acco m plish an d .

e n d u re m u ch an d t o de m a n d li t tle t hese are the q u ali t ie s ,

which we all co n side r val u able i n a serva n t These a ls o .

deter m i n e what i s desi rable i n a body ; the healthy s t ro n g , ,

an d harde n ed body e n d u res m uch an d wa n ts li t tle : th e

sickly weak an d pa m pered body d oes little an d m akes grea t
, ,

de m an ds He n ce follows t he r u le of d u ty Do what is S u i t ed
.

t o preserve an d i n crease the he a lth an d s tr ength of the body

a void wha t i m pairs an d weake n s i t Th e other fu n c t io n of .

the body is t o express o r sy m bolize psychical life B e a u ty .

an d g r a c e are t h e v isible corporeal m a n ifestatio n s o f a good

a n d be autif u l so u l Grace is acquired bea u ty ; the q u ie t se

.

cu r i ty o f the soul which is m as t er o f itself i s reected i n ,

q u iet s t eady an d appropriate move m e n ts He n ce follows

, ,
.

th e r u le o f duty Ed u cate the body so t hat i t m ay appe ar i n ,

thi s visibl e worl d as a ple a si n g e xpressio n of the i n visible

beauty of t he sou l .

1
[Ro u sse au E mi le , Po rt er , P a rt II , . ch . 1 11 . Ho ffd i n g X I , . W u n dt , E thi lc,
Pa r t I ch . I II , 2 , 3 ; F o w le r
. an d Wi ls o n Part II .
, ch . I
. R u nze, 9 f Do rn e r

.
, , .
,

pp 3 3 6 3 5 6
. . TR .
]
 DO C TRIN E OF VI RTUE S A N D DUTI E S

It m u st be le ft to dietetics an d gy m n astics t o develop these

ge n eral fo r m u l m i n to a syste m of r u les H u fe lan d s M a cr o .

bi ot i c a S i m ple book fu ll of co m m o n se n se m ay be m e n tio n ed

, ,
-
,

as givi n g a brie f prese n tatio n o f the s u b j ect I S hall m erely .

touch u po n a fe w phases of t he proble m .

2 Let u s rst co n sider the q u es t io n of n u tr i ti on

.
1
It is .

ch aracteristic of h u m a n bei n gs t o prepare their food ar t icially ;

an d they do it u n i versally with the aid o f re Th e use o f .

re fo r this p u rpose plays an i m porta n t part i n the e m a n cipa

ti o n o f m an fro m n atu re Whereas the an i m al i s li m ited to
.

the territory prod u ci n g th e pl a n ts o r a n i m als u po n which it

feeds an d is itsel f a prod u ct t hereo f m an h a s m ade hi m self
, ,

l ord Of the earth ; everywhe re he n ds what m ay with the ,

help of re be co n ver t ed i n to food In other respec t s also

,
.
,

t he u s e of re i n the preparati o n of food has exercised an

i m porta n t i n u e n ce u po n t he develop m e n t of hu m a n li fe .

Wu n dt calls atte n tio n to the fact that by n ecessitati n g the

co m m o n preparatio n of cer t ai n foods it a t the sa m e ti m e led to ,

their co m m o n co n su m ptio n to it we o we the origi n of the com

m on m eal at th e h earth With t he m eal i s co n n ected the sac
.

r i ci al worship growi n g ou t of th e fu n eral feasts ; the hearth

,

beco m es the altar Th e m eal co m i n g a t regu lar i n tervals

.

an d dividi n g the day also leads to the rst divisio n of t i m e

, .

Th e chil d still receives its rst lesso n s i n the discipli n e o f the

an i m al desires by gover n i n g its a ppe t i t e accordi n g to t he
m eals .

Let m e ad d a word o r t wo c on cer n i n g dege n eracy i n n o u rish

m en t .In e m a n cipati n g hi m self fro m the n atural g u ida n ce o f
i n sti n c t which co n trols an d likewise preser v es the a n i m al
, ,

m an exposes hi m sel f to aberratio n s Th e palate is sti m u lated .

by articially prepared food an d the receptio n Of food excite s , I

pleas u re eve n whe n it is n ot n e e d e d Glu ttony an d hogg i sh

'

n e ss are u n iversally ch aracterized by the pervers i o n o f th e

1
[S p e n ce r ,
E thi cs f
o I n d i vi d ua l Lif e, ch . IV ; Br illat-Sav ari n , P hy si olog ic
.

d n go dt TR ].
 5 08 DO C TRIN E OF VIRTUE S A N D DU TIES

the u n lawfu l res t ric t io n of perso n al liberty I do n ot k n ow .

whethe r the obj ectio n had a n ythi n g t o do wi t h t he defe at of

the propositio n but i t see m s t o m e tha t it m u s t be r egarded
,

a s thoro u ghly u n sou n d Dru n ke n n ess i n capacit at es a m an

.

fo r ratio n al delibera t io n bu t it d oes n o t hi n der him from ,

a c t i n g i rratio n ally He n ce i t l eads h i m to treat others i r ra

.

t i o n ally an d possibly to a buse the m ; i n deed t he causal

co n n ectio n be t wee n dru n ke n n ess an d cri m e especially cri m e ,

agai n s t perso n s is a well k n ow n fac t Therefore i t is n u

, .
,

do u btedly an a tt ack a gai n s t t he securi ty of o thers to pu t on e

sel f i n to such a co n ditio n ; e ve n t he th re at s an d the fears
t o which fo r exa m ple t he wi fe an d child re n of the dru n kard
, ,

are subj ec t ed co n s t itute a serious wro n g ag ai n s t whic h the

,

l aw has an absolu t e righ t t o proceed A n d i t is n o less .

beyo n d cavil that society h as the righ t t o proceed agai n s t

habi tu al dr u nke n n ess by con n i n g i n divid u al s i n asylu m s .

We have as m uch righ t to isol at e an d to cure th e alcoholist

wh o has l os t his will po we r i n order to pro t ec t hi m an d his ,

surrou n di n gs agai n st t he co n sequ e n ces of his dise a se as we ,

have to i n carcerat e t he ma n i a c ag a i n s t his w ill th at he m ay ,

n o t i n j u re hi m self an d o t hers Of course i t goes withou t say .

,

i n g tha t grea t care would h ave t o be exercised t o hi n de r t he

a rbitrary an d u n jus t execu t io n of the l aw .
1

He n ce it see m s u tt erly u n w a rra n t ed t o O ppose such a law

,

o n the score of perso n al liber t y Th e freedo m t e m porarily t o .

pu t o n eself i n a s t at e Of m oral an d i n t ellectu al i n sa n i ty can

n ot be regarded as o n e oi th e u n iversal righ t s o f m an .

1 I h i t x t b ok
n s e P y hi t y K ff t E b i g d
-
o on i t xi t i
s c l m
a r ,
ra -
n e n es n o ca o n as a vo u

t ar ily p r o d u ce d , t e m p o r a ry
-
s t at e of i n san i t y . He Sh o w s i n d e t ail i ts
S i m il a r i ty t o form s of m e n ta l di se ase It s b e gi nn i n g i s m ar k e d b y a sli gh t m an i a
.

cal e x ci t at i o n , w it h e x al t e d s e lf-co nsci ou sn e ss , an d ap p are n t i n t e n s icat i o n o f v i t al

fu n ct i ons . Th e co n t i n u e d u se o f al co h o l i s fo ll o w e d b y a g r ad u al d ecli n e , as i n
the c a se of the v i ol e n t m an i ac : at rst t h e ae st h e t i c a n d m o r al p r e se n t at i o n s ,

w hi ch i n h e alt h h av e a co n t rolli n g and i n h i bit in g i n u e n ce , d i sap p ear ; t h e

d ru n k a r d le t s him se lf g o , i g nores t h e ru l e s o f d e ce n cy a n d m o r al ity , b e com es

cy n i cal a n d b r u t al A x
s t at e o f co m p l e t e e h au st i on foll o w s , co ns ci o u s n e ss i s
.

d e r a n g e d , i llu si o n s an d h allu ci n at i o n s app e ar, h is Sp ee c h b e co m e s t h i ck an d u n

c e rt ai n , h i s w al k t o tt e r i n g , j u s t as in the case o f t h e p ar al yt i c ; t h e end is a deep

an d i d i o t i c s tup or .
[S e e Z ol a s

p o w e rfu l n ove l

L A s so mmo i r . TR .
]
 THE B DIL O Y LIFE 5 09

N evertheless I do u b t whether the d efeat of the m eas u re at

, ,

least of the part relati n g to the p u n ish m e n t o f p u blic dr u n ke n

n ess,
is to be depl ored In additio n t o the i n j u stice o r t h e
.

h arm f u l n ess of a law a n other decid ed obj ectio n m ay be u rged

,

agai n s t it an d tha t is its i n e fcacy It is to be feared that a

,
.

pe n al law agai n s t drun ke n n e ss wo u ld as m atters n o w sta n d

, ,

have very little e ffect ; i t would n ot co n tribute m uch to the

i m prove m e n t of mor als an d tha t after all i s the e n d to be
,

desired .

Th e e fficacy o f such a law would esse n t ially depe n d upo n

i t s ability to re n der dr u n ke n n ess disgrace fu l i n the eyes of the
public which it is n ot at prese n t Bu t I do u bt very m u ch
,
.

whether tha t can be do n e so lo n g as p u blic O pi n io n n o t o n ly ,

of the lower classes b u t also o f s e called good society j u dges

,
-
,

this vice so le n ie n tly S everal years ago a riot occ u rred i n a

.

G er m a n u n i versity t ow n whic h fo r several days kept th e

,

e n tire city i n a state of grea t excite m e n t Th e reaso n which .

i n duced a par t of t he s tu den t b ody t o revol t w as a police

reg u lati o n o rderi n g the saloo n s to be cl osed a t twelve O clock

m id n ight : a highly be n ecial m easure o n e wo u ld i m agi n e , ,

for al l the parties co n cer n ed for the beer dri n kers as well as
,
-

for the other i n habita n t s o f t he city It was however r e .

, ,

garded by the liberty lovi n g youth as an i n tolerable restrictio n

-

of thei r perso n al freedo m o r perhaps a l so o f their acade m ic

,

freedo m about which so m e rather curious ideas exist

,
No w .

i m agi n e these same de fe n ders of liberty ve o r te n years la t er

pro n o u n ci n g j u dg m e n t upo n d ru n ke n n ess i n co u rt ! I can
n ot m ake m ysel f believe tha t the l aw ad m i n istered by s u ch

represe n tatives would exercise an educative i n u e n ce u po n

p u blic m orality O r will they have cha n ged by that ti m e ?
.

Perhaps ; b u t eve n the n wo u ld n o t thei r o wn pas t rise up

agai n st the m ? A n d d o they act u ally cha n ge as a ge n eral ,

thi n g ? Th e hilarity which o n e o f the advocates o f perso n al

li berty s u cceeded i n aro u si n g a m o n g the represe n tati ves o f the
people whe n the m eas u re m e n tio n ed above was disc u sse d i n
,
51 0 DO C TRIN E OF V IRTUE S A N D DU TI ES

the Reichstag was n ot calculated to re m ove all do u bts c on

,

cer n i n g the hig h gatheri n g s respec t fo r sobriety Whe n this

.

speaker re m arked that the d r u n ke n m e n who m he m e t on the

streets we re fo r the m os t part elderly ge n tle m e n with white
cravats an d that the sight of the m did n o t aro u se i n h i m feel
,

i n gs o f a n ger b u t sy m pathe t ic cheerful n ess his state m e n t did

, ,

n o t aro u se a n ger i n the m eeti n g either at least there was n o ,

perceptible sign of it while th e sy m pa thetic cheerfu l n ess

,

m e n tio n ed by h i m which goes by t he n a m e o f ge n eral hilarity

,

i n th e reports of parlia m e n t ary proceedi n gs beca m e plai n ly ,

a u dible A n d t he lo n g an d se n ti m e n tal acco u n ts o f the

.

dri n k i n g bo u ts (K om me r se ) of old ge n tle m e n followed by the ,

K a te rf r hsmck which so freq u e n tly appear i n all o u r n ews

,

papers are evide n tly writ t e n wi t h the i n te n tio n of exciti n g

,

good h u m ored la u gh t er i n their readers

- 1
.

S o l o n g as good socie ty t reats i t self so le n ie n tly i n these

m atters it will have every reaso n t o doubt its ability to c u r e

,

bad society of dr u n ke n n ess , by m ean s o f pe n al ties Th e .

l aw ca n n ot crea t e cus t oms i t can m erely protect existi n g ,

o n es .

May we ex pec t an i m prove m e n t of custo m i n th e f u ture ?

Perhaps t he case is n ot hopeless A st u de n t of history m ight .

reach this co n cl u sio n At the begi n n i n g of the m oder n era

.

the habit o f bestial dr u n ke n n ess prevailed at the co u rts o f

pri n ces an d a m o n g th e n obility C all to m i n d the chro n icles .

o f Ha n s von S ch w e i n i ch e n Th e vice was grad u ally s u p .

pressed i n these circles d u ri n g the seve n tee n th an d eigh

t e e n th ce n t u ries thro u gh the i n u e n ce o f the Fre n ch co u rts
,
.

Fro m th e co u rts howeve r it had S pread to the m iddle classes

, ,

o f society ; it see m s to have reache d i ts cli m ax i n the aca

.

d e m ic world d u ri n g the seco n d h alf of the seve n tee n th ce n ~

1 W M artiu s (Der
. K a mpf geq en d en A lkoholmi ss bra u ch, 1 8 8 4 , pp 4 0 ff ) g i ves . .

u s a n i d e a o f t h e fe e l i n
g of th e
p u bli c i n r e fe r e n ce t o d i n k i n g a n d dr u n k e n r
n e ss . He als o p u b li sh es t h e b ill m e n t i o n e d ab o v e , a n d t h e c o ns t it u t i o n o f t h e
S o c i e t y a gai ns t t h e A
b u se o f S p i r i t u o u s L i q u o rs a n d m any o t h e r i t e ms o f
,

i n t e re st in t h e h i st ory of t he cru sad e ag ai n s t d ru n k enn e ss .

 12 DO C TRIN E OF VI RTUE S A ND DUTIE S

an d ho u rs sits i n the beer shops e n vel oped by t obacco

,
-
,

s m oke an d liste n s t o the sel fsa m e st u pi d talk o r plays th e

,

sa m e O l d ti reso m e ga m e of S ka t an d wh o a t l as t ca r rie s
,

h o m e with hi m an e m pty an d s tu p e e d head d o an y seri ous ,

an d ear n es t work ? C an an y o n e who d ay after day revels i n , ,

the ple asures o f the t able a t di n n ers an d suppers th r e w hi s ,

so u l i n t o an ythi n g ? Will n ot a feeli n g of lazy sa t iety t ak e

possessio n o f h i m an d ex t i n gu ish all higher aspiratio n s ?
No w wha t remedies shall we e m ploy agai n s t d ru n ke n n es s
a m o n g the m asses ? All e ffec t ive meas u res will pe rhaps ai m , ,

chiey at t wo thi n gs : t he re m oval of te m ptatio n an d the

discovery of a suitable s u bs t i t ute fo r w hiskey an d the d ram
sh op Th e so called public co ffee h ouses which were origi n ally
.
- -
,

e s t ablished i n E n gl a n d an d a f t erward s on t he C o n t i n e n t at ,

rs t by socie t ies an d s u bseq u e n tly as private e n terprises ,

h a ve m a de a good begi n n i n g i n t he l att er respec t Moreover .

,

every i m prove m e n t tha t i s m a de i n the co n di t io n s of li fe

w ill t e n d to cou n t erac t a lcoholi s m a m o n g th e lowe r classes .

Wre t ched n ess an d w an t i n sufcie n t food poor h abi t atio n s

, , ,

i n jurious labor over ex e r t io n i n deed an u n co m for t able m ode

,
-
,

o f exis t e n ce co n s t i t u t e i t s favori t e soil ; the e ffect desi red

,

is the t e m porary stu pefactio n the blu n ti n g of t he se n sibility

, ,

cau sed by t he use o f a lcoh ol Th e s o called Gothe n b u rg sys

.
-

t e m has happily s u cceeded i n di m i n i shi n g the te m p t a t io n i n

S wede n .In 1 8 6 5 a s t ock co m pa n y was for m ed i n Go the n
b u rg which ob t ai n ed possessio n o f all th e d ra m sh op lice n ces -

o f the city an d co n siderably decreased t he n u m be r o f d ri n k

,

i n g places It th e n placed these saloo n s i n ch arge o f i t s o wn

.

e m ployees an d li m ited t h e sale of liq u ors to a very sh or t

period of the day Th e n e t pro t s m i n u s the u sual ra t e of
.
,

i n t erest are t u r n ed i n t o th e ci ty treasury Th e syste m which

, .
,

has bee n adopted i n m a n y cities th ro u gho u t th e N orth n o t ,

on ly directly di m i n ishes the oppor t u n ity fo r dri n k i n g bu t also ,

re m o v es so m e of t he co n di t io n s e n co u ragi n g dr u n ke n n ess ,

fo r exa m ple t he saloo n a t m ospher e an d t he la n dlord s love

-
,

o f gai n .
 THE B DIL O Y LIF E 51 3

Here m oreover the S tat e t oo may i n terfere without hesi

, , ,

tati on by e m pl oyi n g the proper sa feg u ards

,
Th e legislat u re .

h as n ally resolved to li m it the ga m bler s freedo m t o rui n

hi m sel f by closi n g the ga m bli n g ho u ses it has passed laws

,
-

co mm a n di n g the u t m os t care i n the sale of poiso n s an d m ay ,

co n seque n tly take precau tio n ary m eas u res agai n st an d li m it ,

the sal e o f the poison whic h clai m s a thousa n d ti m es m ore

,

v icti m s tha n al l t he others p u t together A Du tch law of .

the year 1 88 1 co n t ai n s so m e very stri n ge n t regulatio n s ; it

li m its the n u m ber of dram shops i n proportio n to the p c pu
l atio n an d gra n ts lice n ses o n ly for o n e year at a ti m e it a lso
,

p u n ishes dr u n ke n n ess Th e reg u l atio n s which call the la n d

.

lord to acco u n t fo r e n couragi n g exce ss are also wise A n d .

t he de m an d of the t e m peran ce socie ties that n o o n e be legally

bo u n d to pay deb t s i n c u rred by t he purchase o f alcoholic
liq u ors surely deserves approv a l Fi n ally it i s also feasible t o
.
,

i n crease the t ax on whiskey an d thereby to li m i t its con su m p

,

tio n or at leas t t o hi n der its i n crease To b e s u re these

,
.
,

res trictio n s are opposed i n Ger m a ny by q u i t e i n ue n tial

circles which h ave a selsh i n terest i n i n creasi n g t he sale of
,

w hiskey Bu t is it n ot perhaps co n ceivabl e that th e m asses

.
, ,

will so m e day see th at t he whiskey dri n ker is m aki n g a v olu n

-

tary t ax payer O f hi m self an d is at th e sa m e t i m e payi n g trib

-

u t e t o th e whiskey distilli n g la n dow n er ? Will n ot the Ger m a n

-

social de m ocracy so m e day perhaps adop t absti n e n ce fro m

, ,

spirit u ous liquors as o n e of its weapo n s agai n st the existi n g

order o f society ? It woul d n ot i n m y O pi n io n be the wors t ,

n or t he least e ffec t i v e we a po n Th e E n glish trades u n io n s

.
-

h ave m ade the begi n n i n g i n th e ght agai n st alcohol Th e .

leaders of t he l abor m ove m e n t i n tha t cou n t ry are all ad vo

c a t es o f total abs t i n e n ce .

Le t m e say a fe w word s regardi n g a n other s t i m ul a n t ,

toba cco which e n tered u po n its tri u m pha n t m arch thro u gh

,

civilized E u rope si m u lta n eo u sly with bra n dy It i s as is well .

,

k n ow n o n e of th e guest gi fts o f the n e w world t o the Old If

,
- .

33
51 4 DO C TRIN E OF VIRTUE S A N D DU TIE S

ever the Middle A ges co u ld be s u pposed to pass j u dg m e n t

upo n m oder n ti m es they wo u ld m ost likely say i n reve n ge
, ,

for the m an y evil thi n gs said o f the m : Three thi n gs ch arac

t e r i ze the m oder n era : whiskey tobacco an d the Fre n ch dis , ,

ease ( d i e F r a n zos en ) as a cert ai n ai i e ti on was called which

m ade its appeara n ce i n Ger m a n y a t abou t t he sa m e ti m e .

Th e moder n ti m es t hey m ight proceed a re fo n d of boasti n g

, ,

that their civiliza t io n is s u perior t o t hat Of the Middle

A ges N ow i f civilizat io n co n sis t s of these three thi n gs
.

a view which the savages o u t side of E u rope to wh o m th e

E u ropean s have bro u ght civilizati o n m ight easily be led
to t ake the n the Middle A ges m ight say o u r ow n lack of
, ,

civilizatio n n eed n ot t rouble us very m uch In deed i t i s a .

,

very re m arkable fact that a barbarous In dian c u s t o m t he ,

c u s t o m n a m ely of drawi n g t he s m oke of th e d ry leaves of

, ,

a n arco t ic plan t i n t o the m outh by m ea n s of a t u be o r a

twisted roll an d the n p u i n g i t o u t agai n o r of s t u f n g the
, ,

sa m e leaves i n p u lverized for m i n t o the n ose sh o u ld h ave ,

bee n t ra n s m itted by the redski n s to whi t e yellow an d , ,

1
black m e n all over the world an d sho u ld h ave take n root ,
.

Tolstoi too has po n dered over this stra n ge fac t In a lit tle

.
, ,

pa m phle t Why Do Me n S tup ef y Them se lve s he gives his

,

an swer : In order to stupe fy their co n scie n ces ; fo r which

t ob a cco an d alcohol are especially tt ed There is a great .

deal of rhe t orical e xaggera t io n i n the reply ; b u t it likewise

con t ai n s a germ of t r u th Why does the stude n t s m oke an d
.

dri n k ? Beca u se he likes it ; or because he does n ot k n ow

wha t t o d o with hi m self an d s o del u des hi m self abou t hi s
,

e m p t y an d b u rde n so m e li fe ?
It is esti m ated t hat the Ger m a n n a t i o n spe n ds abo u t th ree
hu n d red millio n m arks for t obacco a n n u ally I certai n ly do .

n ot desire t o begr u dge an y on e his pleas u res ; b u t co u l d we

n o t buy so m ethi n g better fo r three h u n dred m illio n m arks

1 V . He h n , K u lturp a nzen u nd H a us tkie re i n i hr e m Uberga ng a us A s zen n a ch

E u r op a , p 4 4 9 . .
51 6 DO C TR IN E OF VI RTUE S A N D DU TIE S

as well as agai n st hostil e a tt acks has grad u all y far o u tgrow n

,

its origi n al p u rpose : the cav e the te n t the h u t the ho u se th e

, , , ,

b u rg the city m ark the stages of its evol u ti o n Its m issio n

, ,
.

h as bee n e n larged so as to e m brace the whol e o f ci v ilized li fe .

What clothi n g is to the i n dividual t he do m icile is to th e,

fa m ily Withi n the walls of the ho u se the fa m ily n ds pro

.

t e ct i on agai n st all ki n ds of a n n oya n ces a n d seeks re fu ge fro m

,

i n qu isitive c u riosi ty an d i n sat iat e greed In the ho m e i t .

reve als its ch aracter ; the occu p atio n the m ode of li fe an d ,

thou ght o f the fa m ily are expressed i n th e for m f u r n iture

, , ,

a n d d ecoratio n o f th e house Th e m e m ori es o f the past both

.
,

joy fu l an d sorrowfu l cli n g t o it an d so th e dwelli n g beco m es

, ,

t he n ecessary fra m ework of the fa m ily history It is n o less .

appare n t tha t the develop m e n t of grea t his t ori ca l i n sti tu

t io n s is closely co n n ected with th e evol u tio n of the ho m e
witho u t th e dividi n g walls of t h e i n divid u al s o wn hut we
,

can n ot i m agi n e th e separatio n o f the partic u lar fa m ilies from

t he origin al herdlike u n ity O f t he horde Th e evol u tio n of .

property rights is d oubtless also closely rel ated to the sam e

-

dividi n g walls Moreover by th e S ide of the h u m an d w ell

.
,

i n g erec t ed by the i n divid u al rises the ho u se o f t h e gods the ,

t e m ple which h as proved so sti m u lati n g to religio n a n d t he

,

arts Th e t e m ple h as also h ad a great i n u e n ce as W u n dt

.
,

re m arks upo n t he evol u tio n Of t he se n se of j u stice Th e

, .

peace o f God m ade th e te m pl e the ref u ge for fu gitives Th e .

t e m ple peace reacted upo n the develop m e n t of the house

-

p e ae e : the gods ave n ged its bre ach whether the o ff e n ce were
,

co mm itted agai n st th e host o r agai n s t the g u est A gai n the .

,

rst n otio n s of i n ter n atio n al law owe d thei r origi n to the

revere n ce which the tribe fel t for th e t e m ples of ki n dred
gods .

On e of th e m os t deplorabl e res u lts o f the rece n t devel op

m e n t of social li fe is the forced a ba n do n m e n t by larger an d
larger portio n s o f the pop u latio n of the dwelli n g as a per m a
n e n t h o m e fo r the partic u lar fa m il y an d th e crowdi n g together
,
 T HE B O DILY LIF E 51 7

of grea t masses of people wh o are u n k n ow n to e ach other , ,

i n to the te n e m e n t an d apartm e n t ho u ses of o u r l arge cities .

Eve n th e wealthy fa m ily s u ffers serio u s loss i n this respect ,

bei n g deprived of i t s peace an d co m fort its freedo m of m ove ,

m e n t its pleas u re O f po ssessio n its feeli n g o f n eighborli n ess

, , ,

a n d t he love o f ho m e A n d a m o n g t h e lower classes these are .

n o t t h e o n ly disadva n tages Th e overcrowded co n ditio n of .

the houses t e n ds t o e n da n ge r the l ife an d health happi n ess , ,

m orality an d do m estic feeli n g o f t he occ u pa n ts

,
Whe n o n e .

fa m ily possesses b u t a si n gl e roo m which i t shares with s ub ,

te n a n ts an d lodgers real h u m an l i e is n o lo n ger possible

f 1
,
.

It wo u ld be a great blessi n g if the m odern m ea n s of tra n spor

t ati on coul d be S O perfected as agai n to disperse the crowds
o f people wh o m t hey h ave po u red i n to t h e l arge cities Ma n y .

fa m ilies who are a t prese n t livi n g i n cro w de d te n e m e n t

,

ho u ses t o thei r grea t i n jury cou ld eve n n o w if they so

, , , ,

desired an d ceased regardi n g a b ad habit as a n atural n e ces

s i ty occ u py their o w n ho m es i n th e s u b u rbs Here agai n
, .
, ,

th e wealthier classes m u s t i n aug u rate t he re for m by for m i n g

better habits the m selves 2
.

Th e origi n al purpose o f clo thi ng 3

was partly to protec t ,

partly t o decorate th e body an d t o reveal th e i m porta n ce of

the wearer Its n egative objec t was t o co n ceal the a n i m al
.

portio n s of th e body leavi n g o n ly the face the sy m bol o f th e , ,

spiri t u al powers u n covered Dress has retai n ed this d u al

,
.

n at u re i n the vi cissit u des o f historical li fe Th e costu m e .

s vm b ol i ze s ra n k an d of ce age an d sex joy an d sorrow t e m , , ,

p e r am e n t an d m ode o f tho u gh t ti m e an d people By m e an s ,

.

of clothi n g the historical a n d social positio n o f the i n divid u al

is con stan tly i m pressed u po n h i m an d his s u rro u n di n gs In .

[1
S ee R u pp r e ch t ,
l l e n s ch a n d Wohn u n
g i n W l

e c hse/be z i e h u n r
] La s p e j r e s ,
Uber d en E m us s d e r l Vohn u ngs ve rhaltn i ss e a uf d i e Jl o za lctu t de r a l b i te n d i u

e

C la ss e n .
T R .
]
2 Di e Wohm mg s n ot de r a: me re n K la sse n , S ch r ift e n d e s V e re i ns fu r S o z i al p o l i t i k ,
vo l I XXX X X X II -
1 886
T
. . . . .
, ,

3
[See al s o J h e r in g , vo l . II , 3 1 1 - 3 2 9
. n .
]
 51 8 DO C TRIN E OF VIR TUE S A N D DU TIE S

deed we m ay say tha t dress is so esse n tial tha t his t orical li fe

,

a n d social order ca n n ot be i m agi n ed with o u t it ; n aked m e n

are u n historical m e n S a m e n ess of exterior m arks bru t es a s

.

u n historical bei n gs dissi m ilarity i n dress is the o u tward

,

m a n ifes t atio n of historical a n d social bei n gs He n ce b istori

.
,

cal cha n ges i n the life o f n atio n s reveal the m selves i n cha n ges
o f cost u m e t ry t o i m agi n e L u ther i n a swallow t ail coat an d a -

white cravat o r Goethe with a m o u s t ache an d a c u t away an d

,
-
,

y o u will see t ha t dress is as charac t eristic o f m an as a n his

t o r i cal bei n g as its ski n is of the a n i m al Th e abolitio n o f the
.

O ld cl ass disti n ctio n s an d the l evelli n g te n de n cy of the n i n e

t e e n th ce n t u ry clearly m a ni fes t the m selves i n the disappea r

a n ce of class cost u m es On the other h a n d the dress o f the

.
,

state t he u n ifor m has beco m e more pro m i n e n t ; disti n ctio n s

, ,

spo n tan eous ly create d by soci ety are givi n g way to dis ti n c
tio n s m ade by the state Further m ore t he u n i for m is an ex
.
,

ce ll e n t m ea n s o f u n ifor m i n g an d co n trolli n g th e i n n er m an .

I t co m pels t h e wearer to represe n t the o ffice an d to obey

orders ; he ca n n o t retrea t he m us t see m t o be what the u n i
,

for m procl ai m s h i m t o b e an d s o beco m es i t Wha t wo u l d

, .

a n ar m y be wi t ho u t u n i for m s ?

Th e di ffere n ce betwee n cos t u m e an d f a shi on co nsists i n

this : the latter is an arbitrary i n ve n t io n o f partic u lar i n divid
u al s an d lasts o n ly for a S hor t ti m e It s cli m ax i s m arked by
.

the co m plete decli n e of cost u m e Fashio n able attire di ffer

.

e n t i at es its wearer m akes a
,
disti n gu ished perso n of h i m ,

n o t so m u ch beca u se it is a S ign O f t aste wealth o r costli n ess , , ,

b u t becau se i t creates the i m pressio n that h e i s a leader i n

society or tha t h e sta n ds close e n o u gh t o the leaders t o n otice
the cha n ges i m m ediately an d t o keep pace wi th the m ; he n ce ,

also the n eed o f rapid cha n ges Fashi o n i s t he fe m i n i n e

,
.

for m Of S port or S pec u latio n an d is like all sport capricio u s

, , ,

a n d tyran n ical ,
sti m u lati n g its followers t o do their best :
Th e health an d wel fare of m a n y a wo m a n the peace an d ,

h appi n ess Of m a n y a ho m e are sacri ced to this tyran t witho u t

,
52 0 DO C TRI N E OF VIRTUE S A ND DUTIE S

this i s tr u e m ay be see n fro m the fact that civilized

m e n i n d u lge i n h u n ti n g an d shi n g as a ki n d o f pl ay an d
sport A gric u ltural p u rs u its too are q u ite free an d fu ll O f
.
, ,

chan ge ; each seaso n yields n e w form s of actio n Th e peasa n t .

practises a h u n d re d arts h e ha n dles n u m berless t ools an d

, ,

co m es i n daily co n tac t with a tho u sa n d livi n g an d lifeless

thi n gs Th e work o f the m echa n ic is n ot so free h e is t ied
.

to his workshop ; the ci rcle of his activities is n arrow ; his

work con sists rather i n the co n sta n t repetitio n of the sa m e
per for m a n ce which co n seq u e n tly beco m es m ore m echa n ical
,
.

He is n ot so depe n de n t o n n at u re upo n t he weathe r an d th e

,

seaso n s b u t m ore depe n de n t u po n h u m a n bei n gs A ll these

,
.

features are greatly e m ph asized i n the great m etropolitan i n

d u st r i e s Labor beco m es m ore S pecialize d an d m o n o t o n o u s
.
,

th e worki n g m an is less depe n de n t u po n n ature b u t more ,

depe n de n t u po n m en ; the n atu ral laws which gover n the

li fe O f the peasa n t are replaced by t he laws of the factory
an d i n m ore m oder n ti m es
,
by th e laws o f the state w hich
, ,

is i n terferi n g with these m atters m ore an d m ore Th e .

m etropolis rese m bles a great priso n i n which m e n are ,

co n n ed withi n a n arro w space an d co m pelled t o perform

mo n oto n o u s t asks ; the factory an d the workshop the store ,

an d the cou n ti n g roo m the stree t an d the ho m e

-
, everythi n g ,

i s so s m all an d co n tracted ! How grea t is the se n se of Opp re s

sio n felt by th e m asses m ay be see n fro m the eager n ess with
which t hey seek the ope n whe n they are dis m issed fro m thei r
work ho u ses for a few hours on a Su n day Eve n corporeal
-
.

labor is apt t o be so m ewha t m echan ical a n d disappoi n ti n g i n

these places It is n ot accide n tal th a t art sh u n s the tow n s
. .

Th e pai n ter does n o t pai n t the people aro u n d h i m the privy ,

co u n sell o r i n h is O fce th e teache r i n his class the book

, ,

keeper a t his desk the work m a n i n the factory ; o r whe n he

,

does it there is al m ost al ways so m ethi n g co m ical o r sati rical

, , ,

o r se n ti m e n tal i n the pict u re He pre fers to seek the sh e r

.

m an Ou the se a the h u n ts m a n i n th e forest the S hepherd on th e

, ,
 T HE B O DILY LI FE 52 1

mo u n tai n s th e peasa n t i n the eld s t he carrier on t he high

, ,

w ays Why . Most likely beca u se the latter li v e a n d ac t as

free m en o u t i n t he ope n air while the for m er the priso n ers
, ,

o f labor see m l u dicro u s o r pitiable

,
.

Th e greates t s u fferers are t h e yo u n g an d those o f th e ,

higher classes perhaps s u ffer m ost becau se they a re s u b

e d t o such co n d i tio n s for a grea t er le n gth o f ti m e
j e ct Th e .

t r u th th a t life is m ove m e n t is especially applicable to the

you n g Their i m pulses ar e directed t oward s the exercise o f
.

bodily powers ; they desire to r u n an d t o cli m b to j u m p an d ,

t o da n ce to b u il d an d t o destroy There i s n either roo m n o r

,
.

O pport u n ity for s u ch actio n i n th e flat Free an d u n i m .

p e d e d pl ay i s utterly i m possibl e ; childre n livi ng in l arge

cities as any o n e raised i n t h e cou n try ca n n ot b u t n ote
w ith s u rprise k n ow n o ga m es ; t hey have n o play gro u n ds -
,

n o co m pa n io n s an d withou t these ga m es ca n n ot thrive a n d

, ,

gro w In polite socie ty t he child i n stead O f playi n g is t ake n

.
, ,

o u t fo r a stroll by t he gover n ess o r goes t o th e doll bazaar , ,

o r a t te n ds a childre n s par t y Bu t all these articial thi n gs

.

do n o t s atis fy ou r childre n an d i n as m u ch as their l ove of

,

move m e n t an d exercise ca n n o t be suppressed they are i n th e ,

way i n the m e t ropoli t a n househol d Un der these ci rcu m .

sta n ces the school proves t o be a verit able ref u ge : there t hey
are take n care o f an d kept b usy for a n u m be r o f ho u rs each
day an d the n a few more h o u rs ar e co n su m ed at h o m e i n
,

prepari n g lesso n s A m o n g the u ppe r cl asses a fe w m ore

.

lesso n s i n m u sic an d d rawi n g are dee m ed i n dispe n sable an d ,

afterwards a few m ore h ours are devoted to n o vel readi n g an d -

card playi n g A n d so it happe n s t h at yo u n g people fro m f

-
.
,

tee n t o twe n ty years of age a t a t i m e whe n the body n eeds

,

mos t exercise S pe n d te n twelve o r fo u rtee n ho u rs o f the

, , ,

day sitti n g dow n u n til th e body grad u ally beco m es accus

,

t o m e d to it a n d the desire for exercise gives way to a ge n

,

e ral feeli n g o f torpor In this w ay th e fo u n datio n is laid

.
,

d u ri n g the period o f yo u th for th e a il m e n ts by which the

,
52 2 DO C TRIN E OF V I RT U E S A ND DU TIE S

m e m b ers good society m igh t easily recog n ize each othe r

of

i n case all the othe r characteristics sho u l d eve r d isappear :

i n digestio n n ervo u s n ess an d n ear S ighted n ess A n d all th e

, ,
-
.

ph sicia n s an d wateri n g places i n the world ca n n o t restore

y -

w hat n at u re grat u ito u sly bestows u po n h i m who keeps her

co m m an d m e n ts : n am ely a s t ate o f h ealthy exh au stio n an d a
s ou n d S leep a good appetite an d good digestio n
,
.

Matters are still worse a m o n g the fe m al e por t io n o f the

pop u l atio n tha n a m o n g the m e n We m ay j u sti fy o r at .

least exc u se the me n o n the grou n d that socie t y as it is ,

co n stitu ted de m a n ds m e n tal lab or i n additio n to m an u al

,

labor an d that this is so di f c u lt an d co m plicated as to m ake

,

it i m possibl e to trai n the m i n d properly wi tho u t i n so m e

m eas u re i n j u ri n g the physical powers a n d th a t therefore the ,

hypertrophic develop m e n t of the brai n at th e expe n se O f th e

other orga n s m u st be regarded as a sacrice t o society S u ch .

a n apol ogy c an be o ffe red alth o u gh the q u estio n m ay still be

,

asked : Is n ot the c u ltivatio n of t he m e n tal facu lties co m pa t

ible with an har m o n ious develop m e n t of the physical powers ,

an d is n o t bodily health the p reco n ditio n o f all health fu l

ac t ivity ? With wo m e n on th e other ha n d the case is d if

, ,

S pe n cer q u otes a re m ark of E m erso n s : Th e rst

fe r e n t .

re qu isite Of a ge n tle m an i s t o be a g ood an i m a l Th e tho u ght .

expressed i n this s ayi n g is especi ally applicable to wo m e n .

In deed there i s absol u tely n o exc u se w h y the h ealt h o f gi rls

,

sh o u ld b e s acriced to cult u re
Their d u ties i n a fter l i fe
.

w i l l n o t as a r u le de m a n d th a t they be able to speak three o r

, ,

fo u r la n g u ages b u t that they be able to m an age th eir ho u se

,

h ol d affairs an d ed u cat e their childre n thi n gs with which ,

good health stro n g n erves an d good eyes h ave a great deal to

, ,

do a n d learn i n g an d la n g u ages desperately little N or can we

, .

accept the exc u se th at there is n either roo m n or O pport u n ity

for work i n th e city ho m e yo u n g girl s will al ways n d ple n ty
O f opportu n ity for work a n d service i n every ho u sehold .

This of course bri n g s u s to th e very root of the evil

, , .
52 4 DO C TRIN E OF VIRTUES A ND DU TIES

a sked after bei n g t ake n from his bath an d pl aced upo n a

,

chai r : A m I sitti n g do wn already ? A h u n dred years later

L u cia n reports to his s u rprise a n d disgust that it was cus
, ,

t o m ary fo r ar i s to crati c Ro m a n s t o be preceded by sl aves

whose busi n ess it was t o i n for m the m of au v ro u gh n ess o r

obstr u ctio n i n th e stree t (N o o n e was allowed to drive
.

th ro u gh the n arrow stree t s O f Ro m e d u ri n g the day ) We .

see the agi n g Ro m a n s were o n t he very poi n t o f falli n g i n to

,

th e h abits of the an ts m e n tio n ed ab ove .

Friedl an d er co m pares the S lave l u x u ry of i m perial Ro m e

'

with the serva n t l u x u ry o f m oder n R u ssi a ; he n ce a de scr i p

-
,

tio n o f th e co n ditio n s i n th a t co u n t ry m ay n o t b e o u t of place

here Leo Tolstoi th u s por t rays t he wre t ched sta t e which
.

aristocratic Ru ssian society regards as esse n tial t o its hap

p i n e ss : T hey l ack ve esse n tial co n ditio n s o f h u m a n hap

p i n e ss : co n tac t with n at u re m a n ual labor fa m ily life , , .

i n t e rco u rse with h u m a n bei n gs health an d a pai n less d eath ,

.

On e o f th e chief requ isites of happi n ess is a life i n the ope n ,

i n the s un light with p le n t y of fresh air co m m u n io n with t h e

, ,

earth with pl a n t s an d a n i m als Man has always regarded

,
.

the wa n t of such t hi n gs as a grea t m isfortu n e These people .

,

however see n o t hi n g bu t woofs s t o n es an d wood fashio n ed

, , ,

by hu m a n h an ds ; they hear o n ly th e so u n ds o f m achi n es ,

equip ages ca n n o n s an d m usical i n str u m e n t s ; th ey s m ell

, ,

o n ly spiri t uo u s liquors an d t obacco s m oke No r do their .

co n stan t travel s bri n g t he m an y relief They are carrie d .

i n closed boxes ; wh erever they go they n d the sa m e sto n es ,

an d the sa m e wood u n der their fee t the sa m e c u r t ai n s sh u t ,

t i n g ou t the ligh t o f th e s u n t he sa m e lackeys coach m e n , , ,

'

an d ho u se boys wh o will n ot all o w t he m to co m e i n co n tac t

,

w ith the e arth pla n ts an d a n i m als

, ,
Where ve r they m ay .

happe n t o be they are everywhere like priso n ers deprived of

, , ,

th e c o n diti o n s o f happi n ess A n other co n ditio n o f happi
.

n ess is l abor free m a n u al labor which sti m u lates the appetite

, ,

an d i n vites sleep Here t oo i t m ay be said that the m or e

.
, ,
 THE B DIL O Y LI F E 52 5

happi n ess an y o n e has acqu ired accordi n g to the opi n io n of ,

the world the m ore he lacks this seco n d co n ditio n of happi

,

n ess. A ll t hose who m the world dee m s fortu n at e high ,

dign itaries an d m illio n aires either have absol u tely n othi n g ,

to d o like priso n ers an d str u ggle i n vai n agai n st diseases

,

res u lti n g fro m wan t Of p h ysical exercise an d battl e with

,

still less s u ccess agai n st the e n n u i which co n s u m es th e m ;

o r they d o work which they despise like th e ba n kers the pro , ,

c u r o r s the gover n ors a n d m i n isters an d their wives wh o b u y

, , ,

1
gorgeo u s fu r n ishi n gs for the m selves an d thei r childre n .

C o u n t Tolsto i who was desti n e d by birth a n d ra n k t o

,

beco m e a m e m ber o f this society had t he rare co u rage whe n , ,

h e ca m e to recog n ize the tr u e m ean i n g o f li fe to re n o u n ce ,

s u ch a lot an d to s trive a fter tr u e happi n ess

, .

Ma n y e fforts are n ow bei n g m ad e i n Ger m a n y let m e say ,

i n co n cl u sio n to co u n terac t th ese evils

,
Especial m e n tio n .

m u st be m ade of g ym n a sti c ex e r ci se s ( Tu r n en ) which o f , ,

course as prescribed school exercises are a poor s u bstitu te

, ,

fo r free play They ca m e i n to vog u e at the begi n n i n g of the

.

ce n tu ry with the rise o f the m ilitary spi rit a m o n g the Pr u s

,

sian peopl e an d were origi n ally ai m ed agai n s t every for m

,

o f e ffe m i n acy Jah n an d his disciples d e si re d t o rid the m

.

selves of th e e ff e m i n at e habits which res u lted fro m Fre n ch

hyper c u lt u re by m ean s o f bodily exercise h ardships an d
-
, , ,

privatio n s an d to regai n th e vigor of the Ger m a n peasa n t

,
.

It was regarded as disgrace fu l to give way to a n y for m of

pa m pered se n s u o u s n ess Gy m n astics h ave grad u ally co m e to
.

be recogn ized as a par t o f the educatio n of the yo u n g an d

likewise of m ilitary trai n i n g Perhaps th e h ope is n o t .

gro u n dless th at they will m ake eve n g reate r progress i n the

f u tu re Sho u l d thei r hygie n ic n ecessity fail to gai n fo r the m
.

the recog n itio n whic h t hey deserve thei r m ilitary u tility m ay ,

perhaps aid the m It is n ot likely that th e E u ropea n n atio n s

.

will be able per m a n e n tly to bear th e e n or m o u s b u rde n s n o w

1 111 g Relig i o n , p 2 1 0 . .
52 6 DO C TRI N E OF VIRTU E S A ND DU TIE S

i m posed upo n t he co m m u n ity an d th e i n divi d u al by t h e

i n crease of m i li tar v ar m a m e n ts an d it m ay u lti m at ely beco m e
,

n ecessary to i m prove the i n str u ctio n i n gy m n astics as well as

the exercises co n n ected with the m an d to begi n the ge n eral ,

preparatio n fo r m ilitary service at a n earlier age than a t

prese n t This pla n would n ot o n ly release t he citize n fro m
.

service d u ri n g th e l ater years o f his li fe wh e n the l o n g i n ter

r u t i o n s occasio n ed by m ilitary service are bo u n d to ca u se
p
h i m serio u s i n j u ry b u t w ou ld h ave m a n y other wh oleso m e
,

e ffects Th e bodily exercises co u ld be carried o n d u ri n g th e

.
,

earlier years i n direct co n n ectio n w ith the ga m es of boy

,

h ood ; t hey m ight be co n ti n ued with zeal d u ri n g th e years

i n terve n i n g be t wee n th e school days an d the ti m e o f service ,

an d th u s serve t o co u n t erac t d isorderli n ess an d dissipatio n ;

a n d n ally they m ight e n cour age an d lead to the revival o f

p u blic ga m es for the yo u n g A n d sh o u l d these ga m es which

.
,

for m erly occ u pied an i m por t an t pl ace i n ou r n atio n al life be ,

revived an d give rise to m ore bea u t i ful popul ar festivals the

, ,

Ger m a n people would derive fro m its gy m n astic exercises th e

sa m e be n ets which the Greeks derived fro m theirs 1
.

A thle ti c sp or ts ar e also co m i n g i n to vog u e O f l ate years

races boati n g m o u n tai n cli m bi n g bicycli n g an d so forth
, ,
-
, , .

Th o u gh a grea t m a n y evils are co n n ected with these exercises ,

t hey h ave this good th a t they pro m ote th e physical vigor O f

,

the u pper classes of socie ty Th e E n glish the l eaders i n

.
,

these thi n gs o w e n o s m all par t o f thei r s u ccess i n i n ter

,

n atio n al a ai r s to the robus t stre n gth which th e ge n try

acq u ire thro u gh physical exerci ses an d gam es .

S till more rece n tly e o r ts h ave bee n m ade to i m prove th e

ma nu a l ski ll of the you n g by givi n g t he m an O pportu n ity to
trai n the m selves i n the u se of t ools It i s t o be h oped that these
.

atte m pts will s u cceed Practical skill i s a desi rable thi n g

. .

I a m co n vi n ced th a t at least n i n ety o u t o f every h u n dred yo u n g

people who atte n d ou r higher sch ools wo u l d n d m ore pleas u re ,

1
[Ru n ze , 46, 4 7 .
T R .
]
52 8 DO C TRIN E OF VIRTUE S A ND DUTIE S

i tsel f . How w as it possible fo r th e Greeks an d Ro m a n s to

live without their S u n day ? Fi n ally d u ri n g m ore rece n t ,

years i t h as beco m e c u sto m ar y for those e n gaged i n the

,

higher pu rs u its to l ay dow n their work for lo n ger i n t ervals ;

vacatio n s which were origi n ally co n n ed to schools have
, ,

g rad u ally e xte n ded to o th e n ci rcle s Th e n eed for the m evi

.

d e n tly grows as the work beco m es m ore ard u ous sys t e m atic , ,

a n d m o n oto n o u s He n ce i t is to be assu m ed tha t greate r

.

portio n s o f the populatio n will be a ffected by t he custo m .

P eriods of res t h ave a doubl e purpose : rs t the r e stora ,

t io n of co n sum ed e n e rgy ; seco n dly t he exercise of fu n ctio n s

,

n ot e m ployed i n the regular calli n g Th e l a tt er t o o i s

.
, ,

recreatio n Th os e wh ose call i n g m akes especi al de m an ds

.

upo n thei r m e n tal powers will n d recrea t io n i n the prope r

exercise of t heir bodily powers i n play i n t ravel i n m echa n
, , ,

ical activity ; those on t he other h a n d whose work chie fly

, ,

calls i n to pl ay physical forces will n d relief i n m e n t al

a c t ivity i n readi n g S ocial pleas u res m u si c gam es of all
,
.
, ,

ki n ds are excelle n t m ean s of recreat io n fo r all alike

,
.

A proper bala n ce be t wee n work an d recre atio n is an esse n

t ial co n ditio n of health e fcie n cy an d happi n ess A n excess
, ,
.

o n either side is equally da n gero u s It is n o w u n iversally

.

a d m it t ed th at t he develop m e n t of i n dus t rial prod u ctio n has

led t o an i n t olerable excess of m echan ical work Th e e fforts .

of th e labor par t y t o sh orte n the w orki n g ti m e m erit o u r

e n tire approval Work m u s t n ot m ake a slave of m an bu t

.
,

shoul d e n able h i m n ot o n ly to a cq u ire co m m oditi es b u t t o ,

develop his powers He shou ld n ot be a m ere tool b u t a

.
,

perso n al e n d i n hi m self Whe n this beco m es i m possible whe n

.
,

daily labor leaves o n ly t i m e e n o u gh for th e n ecessary a n imal

fu n c t io n s o f n u t ri t io n an d Sl eep m a n s life ceases t o be a
,

hu m a n life .
 C H A PTER I V

THE E C ONOM IC LIFE 1

1 eco n o m ic l ife has its origi n i n the n atural n eeds

. THE ,

which m an shares with t he brute Whe n the fu n ctio n s e u .

gaged i n the satisfactio n of t hese n eeds are syste m atized by

reaso n two i n stitutio n s arise which for m the basis of
,

e co n o m ic li fe : labor an d property Th e accu m ul atio n o f .

com m odities which is th e origi n al for m o f property e n ables

, ,

m an to free hi m sel f fro m t he sl avery o f m o m e n tary n eeds to ,

which the a n i m al is s u bj ected This freedo m is the p re con di .

t io n of all real h u m a n li fe witho u t it there can be n o syste

matic p u rposive activity n o m e n t al historical li fe Th ro u gh
, ,
-
.

i t wha t re m ai n s a n atur al process i n the an i m al worl d is raised

,

t o the m oral sph ere .

We shall n d occasio n lat er o n to m ake a m ore thoro u gh

exam i n atio n of the i n sti tu tio n Of property an d the historical
for m s which h ave bee n evolved fro m i t 2
Here I S i m ply .

desire t o ou tli n e the m oral d u t ies which the a cq u i si ti on a n d

con su m ti on of co mm od i ti e s i m pos e upo n t he i n divid u al
p .

C o m m odities are acqui red t hro u gh la bor In th e m ore .

highly d eveloped stages of civilizatio n this ass u m es the for m ,

o f a c alli n g o r pro fessio n P r of essi on a l ei ci e n cg a n d d e li ty

.

t o ca lli ng are the vi r t u es peculiar t o this eld .

1
[Pal ey , Bk . III , P a r t 1
. S p en ce r , I nd u cti ons , ch . XL ; P o rt e r , Pa r t II ,
. ch .

V I ; Jh e r i n g , v o l I ,
. . . ch V II ; W u n d t , P a rt I c h I I I 2 (d ), 3 (a ) ch I V 2
. . . .
,
.

(b ) (c ), (d ) R u n ze ,
, 52 6 4 ; F o w le r a n d W ils o n , Pa r t II c h 1 Do rn e r , pp .
, . .

3 4 7 3 53 , 4 1 8 - 4 2 9 ; Ho ffdi n g p p , . 2 6 5- 3 1 2 ; Oe t t i n g e n , Ilf or a ls ta t zs telc, Pa r t II , .

ch . 1 . TR .
]
2 In Bk IV 3 ,. . ch . 1 .
53 0 DO C TRIN E OF VIRTUE S A ND DU TIE S

U n der healthy co n ditio n s the d u ties of th e calli n g for m th e

,

ce n tre of o n e s e n tire li fe Th e boy practises his fu t u re

.

p rofessio n i n pl ay ; the yo u th leave s the pare n tal ho m e t o

lear n it an d the m an devotes his whole e n ergy t o it Th e
,
.

avocatio n deter m i n es o u r esse n tial relatio n s to the exter

n al world it bri n gs u s i n to co n tac t with ou r colleag u es d u ri n g
the periods of work an d res t an d u po n i t depe n ds the m a n n e r
i n which we exercise o u r fac u lties i n pl ay He n ce the calli n g is .

the g u idi n g pri n ciple i n li fe i t gives it steadi n ess an d purpose .

Th e te le o log i ca l n e ce ssi ty o f the c all i n g beco m es appare n t

whe n we co n side r the co n seq u e n ces o f its lack Both rich .

a n d poo r m a be witho u t a calli n g T h e i n divid u als witho u t

y .

a calli n g who for m the lower fri n ge of society co n stit u te t he

p r ol e t a r i a t . T his gro u p is co m posed o f those wh o have n o

steady work b u t wan der fro m place t o place an d beg o r steal o r

, ,

otherwise gai n their livel ihood A versio n t o work dissipa t io n

.
, ,

dr u n ke n n ess reckless n ess va n ity are t he vices which d raw

, , ,

i n divid u als i n to this gro u p Moreover this m ode of life i s

.
,

tran s m itted by heredity ; dege n erate fam ilies raise dege n erate
o s p ri n
g . Th e m e t ropolis i s the m ost favorable soil for the

proletaria t Th e coveto u s n ess which n ds n o u rish m en t the re

.
,

t he te m p t at io n s which l u rk abou t i n th o u sa n ds of guises th e ,

isolatio n an d a n o n ymous n ess i n which the i n divid u al lives

a m o n g the m asses the occasio n al scarcity o f work an d th e
,

lo n eli n ess which co n fro n t h i m all these are co n ditio n s

,
.

favorable t o the develop m e n t o f a p roletariat S u ch a life .

reaches its co m ple t io n i n th e i n fa m y and sha m el ess n ess ac

q u ired in workhou ses an d priso n s .

A n other gro u p of perso n s who h ave n o calli n g is form ed a t

the u pper fri n ge of society I m ea n the p r of e ssi on a l i d le r s
.

who live on thei r i n t e rest an d absolve the m selve s Of the d u ty

of havi n g a calli n g Looked a t fro m th e outside thei r
.
,

m an n er o f li fe di ffe rs fro m tha t o f the other class ; see n

fro m withi n h oweve r i t shows m a n y poi n ts o f rese m bl a n ce
, ,
.

Besides these two classes co m e i n to perso n al co n tact with

,
53 2 DO C TR IN E OF VI RTUE S A N D DUTIE S

h o n orable calli n g I am afraid this j u dg m e n t expresses the

.

O pi n io n o f an older ge n eratio n rather tha n o f o u rs A t a ny .

rate the view is beco m i n g very pop u lar o f late that the
,

calli n g O f the capitalist (Ren ti e r ) is the m ost ge n teel of all ,

an d everybody see m s to agree that his li fe is t o speak with ,

Plato j oy ful an d free an d happy

,
.

Of co u rse this i s a m istake For m an was n ot design ed

,
.

by n at u re m erely t o e n j oy b u t t o w ork an d acq u ire Ho w , .

ever pl au sible i t m ay at rst sigh t appear the atte m pt to ,

live a li fe of e n j oy m e n t m erely has i n variably fail ed Toil , .

a n d pleas u re th at is an ol d law of n ature ; witho u t the

,

for m er we can n o t obtai n the latter Whoever possesses the .

freedo m which goes with wealth of choosi n g an y calli n g , ,

a n d chooses n o n e at all b u t releases hi m self fro m all O bl i ,

gati on s u n doubtedly ch ooses the very worst : n othi n g ca u ses

,

m ore a n xiety i n the lo n g r u n th a n the th o u ght of how to

S pe n d the lo n g weary d ays If ever t h e proverb which c on .

n e ets the words c h oi ce a n d t or tu r e was tr u e it is tr u e here 1

, .

We O bserve this i n spoilt chil dre n : they pick up everythi n g ,

they try everythi n g an d throw everythi n g away o n ly to , ,

desi re so m ethi n g else ; an d whe n they get th at they throw ,

i t away agai n an d agai n wish fo r so m ethi n g n e w ; an d so

, ,

co n stan tly desiri n g t he o ther thi n g they are the u n happiest , ,

mos t disco n te n ted an d co n trary creatu res i n th e world

,
.

Those wh o m ake idle n ess the busi n ess o f thei r lives e x p e r i

e n ce t he sa m e thi n g ; they t ake u p o n e thi n g a fter a n other ,

an d t he n aba n do n i t agai n an d t h u s beco m e th e vi cti m s o f ,

the pro fessio n al disease of the idler te d i u m Lang e u e i le , ,

'
,

ennu i Restlessly t hey t oss abo u t an d m ake all ki n ds of

.

desperate atte m pts t o get rid o f the t rouble : they try a m u se

me n t s ga m es love affairs an d S ports th ey take to dri n k
, ,
-
, , ,

for m soci eties travel e n ter politics spec u la t e o n th e stock

, , ,

exchan ge u n til at las t t hey are exh au sted an d sick of li fe

, .

1
[W e r d i e Wah l h at ,
h at d i e Q u al (L i t e r ally
. : He t h at h as t h e ch o i ce h as t h e
t or t u re , i . e .
, C h o os i n g i s d i f cu lt ) . TR ] .
 THE E C ONOM IC LIF E 53 3

2 N o t o n ly do we o w e i t t o o u rselves to p u rs u e a seri ous

.

calli n g bu t likewise to soci e ty a t la rg e Th e m an wh o re fu ses

.

t o work i n so m e way o r other lives at others ex pe n se

.

This is n o less tr u e of o n e who idly spe n ds his i n herita n ce

tha n of the professio n al beggar o r thie f Fro m the legal .

poi n t of vi ew the for m er co n s u m es wh at bel o n gs to h i m an d

does n o wro n g ; fro m the m oral s t a n dpoi n t h oweve r that , ,

is i n reality he accepts the prod u cts o f others labor with

, ,

o u t m aki n g an y ret u r n ; he lives as a parasite a t th e t able of

th e people with o u t helpi n g to defray t he costs

,
.

It was for m erly c u sto m ary for philosophers t o apply t he

pri n ciple Of th e t acit co n tract i n t he social scie n ces Joh n .

Locke e n deavors to base upo n it t he i n co m e which the lan d

lord derives fro m hi s re n t s A fter ded u ci n g the right o f
.

property in a t hi n g from the labor by which it is acquired

o r produced he asks : How does i t happen tha t an y o n e
,

possesses m ore la n d than he can cultivate hi m sel f ? He

n ds that the thi n g can b e justied o n ly by th e co n se n t of
t he peopl e ; that t his was give n t acitl y O f co u rse by the
, , ,

i n trod u ctio n of an i n ve n tio n which e n able d a n i n divid u al t o

obtai n the reve n u e of m ore lan d th a n he co u l d c u ltivate ,

that is by th e i n trod u ctio n of m o n ey A n i n direct accu m u

,
.

l at io n an d hoardi n g of prod u c t s beyo n d the a m o u n t n eeded

for sel f co n s u m ptio n is m ade possible by co n ve rt i n g the m
-

i n to m o n ey Bu t i n as m u ch as m o n ey possesses a c o n ve n
.

t i o n al val u e o n ly society has by adopti n g the i n ve n tio n

, , ,

tacitly give n its co n se n t to th e co n seq u e n ces thereo f .

Bu t to t his (so m ewhat i m agi n ary ) c o n tract we m ight c o n ,

t i n u e society has likewise t acitly added a cla u s e : it S hall

, , ,

be valid o n ly o n co n ditio n th at the perso n who th u s beco m es

possessed o f wealth S hall m ake so m e ret u r n fo r t h e s u rpl u s
which h e acq u ires with the tacit co n se n t of society A c o n .

tract ass u m es that so m e ret u r n be m ade otherwise it is a ,

d o n atio n ; a n d there is n o reaso n to s u ppose that society

i n te n ded to do n ate a n ythi n g to an y o n e n o r has society an y ,
53 4 DO C TRI N E OF VIRTUE S A ND DU TIE S

right to d o so a t least i f f u t ure ge n eratio n s are t o bea r the

,

b u rde n Th e i n divid u al m ay m ake s u ch a return by ass u m

.

i n g p u blic respo n sibilities : say by le adi n g an d represe n ti n g

his peopl e i n peace an d i n war by servi n g as a j u dge o r ,

legislator by perfor m i n g th e d u ties of the priestly calli n g

, ,

o r by a d m i n i steri n g the S pirit u al possessio n s o f a n a t i o n i n

scie n ce an d i n art A n d i t m ay still be regarded as such a

.

ret u rn t o syste m atize an d g u ide eco n o m ic prod u ctio n n ay ,

eve n to i n ue n ce co n s u m ptio n i n a m a n n er c o n d u civ e t o

wel fare by exa m ple an d e n cour age m e n t by p u blic ge n er
, ,

o si ty an d private b e n e ce n ce Du ri n g th e ti m e whe n the

.

n obility a n d clergy still were an active power i n the body

poli t ic they s o co n ceived an d perfor m ed thei r fun ctio n s

, .

Th e m an who does n othi n g ign ores t h e obliga t io n s t acitly

a ssu m ed by accepti n g property an d therefore has n o righ t
, , ,

t o it fro m t he m oral poi n t of view

,
Th e p u re capitalis t .

( u n less he be an e m er i tu s) i s a thie f Th e people fully ap .

r e ci ate this fact ; an d evide n tly t he law agai n s t u sury es t ab

p ,

li sh e d by th e ol d church was based u po n so m e s u ch feeli n g

,

w hoever lives without worki n g an d co n s u m es i n heri t ed wealth ,

lives u po n the produc t s of o th e r s for mo n ey a s A risto tle s ays , , ,

bears n o frui t .

Th e la w does n ot e xec ut e t he judg m e n t of m or als i t doe s ,

n o t repudia t e ow n ershi p i n proper t y whe n n o ret u r n i s made ,

or i n case O f m is u se an d i t is probably well that it d oes

,

n ot. For i t wo u ld n ot o n ly be i m possible t o for m u l ate th e

n ecessary r u l es an d to e n force t he m b u t t here wo u ld arise a ,

feeli n g of i n sec u rity i n refere n ce t o property which would

carry great er evils i n its t rai n tha n t he m os t agra n t abuse of
property rights i n partic u l ar i n stan ces co u ld effec t In a
-
.

certai n se n se h owever his t ory reali zes the judg m e n t of m o r

, ,

ality Whe n ever the n obili ty an d clerg y re n o u n ced thei r

.

O bligatio n s an d m erely re t ai n ed th e correspo n di n g privileges

as a n i n alie n abl e right thi n gs we n t a lo n g i n thi s way for a
,

while b u t the day of recko n i n g ca m e a t last an d they were

, ,
53 6 DO C T RIN E OF V I RT U E S A N D DU TIE S

j ud g m e n t day of history always see m s to steal u po n u s u n a

-

wares like th e thie f i n the n ight On e thi n g howe ver is

,
.
, ,

plai n : whoever co n s u m es re n ts with o u t m aki n g so m e ret u r n

o r other is haste n i n g the co m i n g of the j u dg m e n t Th e
,
.

eighth co m m an d m e n t is n ever broke n with i m p u n ity Th e .

law h owever Tho u sh alt n ot steal is m erely the n egati ve

, , ,

for m u l a Of th e positive co m m a n d : By t he sweat of thy face

shalt t h e n eat bread .

3 Let u s cast a glan ce a t t he other S ide o f eco n o m ic li fe

.
,

a t the qu estio n of con su mp ti on Th e virt u e pec u liar t o t his

.
1

el d is the virtue of f r u ga li ty o r econ om y t he capaci ty t o , ,

m a n age o n e s a ai r s accordi n g t o o n e s i n co m e as well as

accordi n g t o t he n eeds an d obligatio n s which gro w ou t of

i n divid u al co n ditio n s an d social ran k Thi s vi rtue t o o we .
, ,

m ay de n e foll owi n g t he A ris t otelia n pri n ci ple as a m ea n

, ,

betwee n t wo faults or vices gr ee d an d p r od ig a li ty Th e m iser

,
.

s aves where h e ought t o spe n d th e spe n d thrift spe n ds l avishly

,

wh ere he ought t o save Th e good m a n ager i s disti n g u ished

.

fro m the prodigal by the virtue of frugality fro m the m ise r ,

by th e vir tu e which Ka n t calls li be r a li ta s m or a li s (i n opposi

tio n t o li ber a li ta s su mp tu osa ) : h e li ves dece n tly hi m sel f an d ,

is ge n erous to oth ers who n eed his help .

Of t h e t wo vices ava r i ce is the m ore disgrace fu l e x t r av a

, ,

gan ce the m ore d a n gero u s Greed ch aracterizes a base n atu re

. .

Th e so u l i n whi ch it has take n root withers an d dies all higher

aspiratio n s disappear Th e m ise r at last begr u dges hi m self
.

a n d o t hers all th at is good Extrav aga n ce o n the other h a n d

.
, ,

m ay exi s t i n co n n ecti o n w i th gra n d aspi ratio n s It is cl osely .

allied t o a m u ch ad m i red virt u e ge n e rosity Th e spe n dthri ft ,

.

always regards hi m self as a liberal m an an d i s like wise ,

praised as s u ch by th ose who pro t by his extravaga n ce .

A varice on the other ha n d h as n o o n e to S i n g its prai ses n ay

, , ,

eve n the vi rtu e of whi c h i t is a dege n erate for m fr u gality , ,

n ds fe w ad m irers especially whe n practised by pri n ces an d

,

[A i t tl E th i B k IV
1 r s oT ]e, cs , . . R .
 THE E C ONO M IC LIF E 53 7

grea t lords A ll lackeys big an d li ttle whose expec t atio n s are

.
, ,

n o t realized S how thei r gratit u de by revili n g the fr u gal giver

, .

Ge n erosity h owever eve n whe n practised at others expe n se

, ,

,

m akes a good i m pressio n u po n all eve n u po n th ose who h e ar ,

t he loss For this reaso n prodigality is a te m pti n g vice

.
,

an d i n avarice t here i s n othi n g sed u ctive ; i n deed it is stra n ge

t hat avarice sho u l d exist a t all A n d this also explai n s the .

well k n ow n fact t hat greed is co n n ed al m ost e n tirely to old

-

age O ld m e n beco m e i n di ffere n t to O pi n io n s an d appear

.

an ces ; experie n ce S hows that th e i m po v erished spe n dthri ft

beco m es an obj ect of ridic u le to his for m er frie n ds an d a d

m i r e rs ; he n ce it is n ot the m an who has was t ed his s u bsta n ce ,

b u t th e m an wh o still h as his m o n ey i n his pocket that is well

tho u gh t of i n t he lo n g r u n Besides all desires di m i n ish as .
,

th e capacity fo r e n j oy m e n t beco m es weake r i n ol d age while ,

t he abstract desire fo r possessio n co n t i n ues stro n g t o th e e n d .

He n ce we m igh t perhaps regard this process as a strategy

, , ,

o f n at u re to tra n s m it t he produc t s of the pare n t ge n era t io n

t o i t s successors .

A varice t herefore debasi n g t ho u gh it be i s n ot altogether

, , ,

i n j u rio u s i n its e ffects Th e co n seq u e n ces of extravaga n ce

.
,

on the other ha n d are absol u tely destru ctive t o i n divid u al

,

as well as to social life Th e rs t co n seq u e n ce o f e x t rava

.

ga n ce is a l ack o f m ean s for th e n ecessaries Of li fe an d the ,

resul t i n g n eed o f exercisi n g s t rict e co n o m y i n th e w ro n g

place What the wi fe was t es o n dress an d S how m u st b e
.

m ade u p i n the ho m e an d o n th e table What is S pe n t o n .

receptio n s a n d sport s on horses an d dogs i s ded u cted fro m

, ,

the h ousehol d allowa n ce S till m ore O fte n there is n o t

.

m o n ey e n ough t o m eet legi t i m ate expe n ses : the se rva n ts

are n ot properly fe d n iggardly wages are paid p u blic e n
, ,

t e r p r i se s m ake vai n appeals fo r aid co n trib u tio n s to c o m ,

m u n i ty an d s t ate are m ade as s m all as possibl e an d give n

rel u c t a n tly ; we i n variably thi n k Of th e n oble sse oblig e at
the wro n g ti m e A n d j u s t as ex t ravag an ce leads t o false
.
53 8 DO C TRIN E OF V I R TU E S A ND DU TIE S

e co n o m y i t leads t o i m proper m ethods o f acq u isi t io n Th e

,
.

lan dow n er eeces his te n a n ts an d day laborers th e pri n ce ,

his subjects the physician his pa tie n ts the lawye r his clie n t s
, , ,

t he ge n tle m an o f leisure t akes t o ga m bli n g the m e rchan t ,

spec u lates o n the excha n ge the trades m a n ad u lter at es his

,

goods the O fcial accepts bribes or faw n s upo n his s u periors

,

fo r pro m o t io n o r an i n crease i n salary the cour t ier begs for ,

pe n sio n s an d prese n t s the au thor an d the schol ar cat er t o the

,

popu lar tastes the artist t ickles the palate of the m o n ey bag
,
-

m o n ey m u st be m ade m o n ey a t an y price eve n at the price of

, ,

freedo m an d h o n o r body an d soul ! There is n o j oki n g whe n

,

i t co m es to m o n ey m atters said a well k n ow n n a n ci er ; i n

,
-

m o n ey m a tt ers m os t peopl e also lose t hei r pride Whe n i t .

co m es to fees th e process d escribed by t he proverb i n re fer

,

e n ce to t hieves is reversed ; here the big o n es are accep t ed

a n d the lit t le o n es rej ec t ed wi t h scor n Mo n ey has n o .

s m ell Th e m axi m reaches far ther than o n e would i m agi n e ;

.

eve n the m ost respectabl e classes act upo n i t How ready

.

man y rich peopl e are to shift t he public b u rde n s u po n the

poor m an t he n e w a ssess m e n t list s for t he i n co m e t ax have
,
- -

r ece n tly show n i n m orti fyi n g gure s .

B u t it is co n te n ded whe n a m a n has m ean s he surely o u gh t

, ,

n ot t o be bla m ed for spe n di n g the m ; he ca u ses m o n ey to

circ u la t e a m o n g the pe ople How m a n y b u sy ha n ds receive

.

e m ploy m e n t a n d earn m o n ey th rough a ball or a m asq u erade

This i s th e pop u lar view but it is supercial
, Wo u ld these .

ha n ds re m ai n idle if there were n o de m a n d fo r costu m es ?

Of co u rse n o w th at t hese costu m ers an d thei r trai n are
,

here s u ch e n t ertai n m e n ts m u st be give n t o keep the m

,

alive Bu t would t hey be here if t here were n o s u ch de

.

m a n d ? A ppare n tly n ot ; the de m a n d creates the s u pply .

C o n seq u e n tly wo u ld th e i n divid u als wh o n o w depe n d u po n

,

s u ch orders h ave had n othi n g a t all to d o ? A ppare n tly n o t ;

for i n stead of ball d resses for the baro n esses of n an ce they
would n o w be m aki n g co t to n clo thes Th e effect t herefore .
, ,
54 0 D O C TRIN E OF VIRTU E S A ND DU TIE S

t i n g eve n the poorest S i m ilarly we are n o t t o bla m e a

.
,

great lord fo r b u ildi n g gra n d an d bea u ti fu l ho u ses an d fu r ,

n i sh i n g the m sple n didly ; by layi n g o u t a park he m ay be

p u tti n g his lan d to the best possible use eve n fro m the ,

sta n dpoi n t o f the co m m u n ity A n d who wou ld be n arro w

.

hearted e n o u gh to object to t he care an d m on ey expe n ded

u po n beau ti fu l an d e n j oyable social e n tertai n m e n ts of a
gran d ch aracter ? There are diversities of gi fts : this t ruth
will hold eve n agai n st a m orose Puritan is m 1 .

4 Th e m os t favorabl e co n di t io n fo r the developme n t o f

.

the eco n o m ic virtues is as t h e ol d Greek sages al ready

, ,

declared the possessio n of m oderate m e an s ; w e a lth ( Wahl

,

s ta n d la n g u age sig n ica n t ly calls it Pleas u re i

) ou r n .

acqu isi t i o n an d possessio n e fcie n t work an d m oderatio n i n

, ,

the use of co m m odities are m os t c o m m on i n the m iddle

,

classes Th e t oo m uch an d the too little are equ ally
.

da n gerous R i ches are d an gero u s i n tha t t hey te n d to e n

.

co u rage idle n ess arrogan ce oste n t atio n an d extrav agan ce

, , ,
.

Excess h owever begets sorrow an d r u i n Especially d an

, ,
.

ge r o u s i s sudde n wealth n o t acqui red thro u gh l abor Th e .

m o n ey w o n i n lotteries an d stock S pec u lati o n s u s u ally se e n

goes the way i t ca m e ; n o t ho w eve r witho u t rst ru i n i n g
, ,

the li fe of th e l u cky wi n n er In herited possessio n s are n ot

.

so da n gero u s A fa m ily that has bee n l o n g acc u sto m ed to

.

certai n co n ditio n s of li fe develops the power to resist the

te m ptatio n s of riches ; th e m an who i n herits th e wealth o f
his an cestors i n a certai n m easu re i n herits thei r se n se of
d u t y an d ho n or Th e feeli n g t h at he is desti n ed to d o
.

great thi n gs serves t o co u n terac t th e e m pty feeli n g of power

which easily t u rn s the head of t he n ou veau r i che .

P over ty is eq u ally u n favorable t o th e develop m e n t o f eco

n o m ic virt u es In herited pover t y deade n s the se n se of ow n er
.

s h i p C hildre n reared i n utterly destit u t e fa m ilies i n fa m ilies

.
,

livi n g fro m ha n d t o mou th fail to experie n ce the pleasures of

,

1
[Bu n z e , 59 .
TR ]
.
 T HE E C ONOM I C LIFE 541
'

acq u isitio n an d o w n e rsh i p Th e desi re to have m ore tha n is .

req u ired to satis fy daily n eeds does n ot m a n i fest itsel f o r at ,

least re m ai n s an idle wish an d n ever grows i n to a stro n g voli ,

t io n Whe n this state beco m es a habit the i n divid u al b e

.
,

co m es i m provide n t an d reckless givi n g n o heed to the m orro w , .

Poverty te n ds to bl u n t the se n se of own ership i n a n o ther se n se

it weake n s the perso n s ability to discri m i n ate bet wee n m i n e

an d thi n e Whe n a m an possesses property hi m sel f he app re

.
,

ciates the sacred n ess of property Whe n h e looks u po n the i n .

s t i t u t i o n o f property m erely a s a barrier a s a protectio n a gai n s t ,

h i m an d n ot also fo r h i m b e n at u rally feels less hesita n cy i n ,

overleapi n g it th an whe n h e has bee n accu sto m ed fro m ch ild

h ood to regard it as a m ea n s o f sel f de fe n ce S o poverty easily -
.

beco m es a school fo r the ft fo r which th e p u pil i s prepared by ,

m e n dica n cy an d th e tippi n g syste m ( Tr i n kg e loler ) Beggary -

.

robs a m an of hi s eco n o m ic h o n or which depe n ds upo n his ,

eco n o m ic i n depe n de n ce hi s ability t o help hi m sel f by his ow n

,

e ff orts Th e c u sto m of accepti n g t ips or fees i s the rst ap

.
,

p ar e n tly q u ite i n n oce n t for m Of beggary That it t o o lesse n s

,
.
, ,

a m a n s eco n o m ic ho n or m ay be see n fro m the fact that the

o ffer Of a tip m ay u n der certai n ci rc u m sta n ces be a gross

in su lt 1
.

Th e possessio n of m oderate m ea n s secu res th e i n divid u al

agai n st te m ptatio n s i n either directio n It saves h i m fro m .

1 On th e e ffe ct s o f t h e h ab i t u al acce p t a n ce Of t i p s se e t h e i n t e re s t i n g e ssay

of R . v . Jh e r i n g Ube r d u s Tri nkg eld . Th e re l at i o n b e t w e e n t h e ft an d
p o v e r ty
is sh o w n by c r i m i n al s t at i s t i cs . H . v . V al e n t i n i (Das V e r br e cher thu m i m P re u ss .

S ta a t, 1 8 6 9 ) co n s t an t ly r e fe rs to it . He g ive s a t ab l e (p . i n w h i ch t h e
Pr u ss i a n p ro v i n ce s a re a r ra n g e d a cc o r d i n g t o t h e fre q u e n cy o f g r a n d la rc e n y
x
(d u r in g t h e s i t ie s ) as fo llo w s : F o r e v e r y i n h ab i t a n t s t h e r e w e r e s e n
t e n ce d t o t h e p e n i t e n t i ary fo r g ra n d la rc e n y i n t h e Rh i ne lan d , in \V e st

p h al i a , i n Sa x on
y ,
18 3 3 ; i n P o m e ra n i a , 2 0 5 7 ; i n P r u ss i a , in
Br a n d e n b u r g ,
in P o se n , 3 2 8 9 ; i n S i le sia , On p ag e 5 6 w e n d a
t abl e sh ow in g the d i s tri b u t i o n
l an d e d p r o p e r ty : a of s m all p i e ce o f l an d (as

m u c h as 3 0 a c r e s ) i s o w n e d by 4 i n h a bi t a n t s i n t h e R h i n e la n d ; b y 8 i n W e s t
p h ali a ; 1 1 i n Sa o ny ; 1 4 i x
n S il e s i a ; 2 2 i n B r a n d e n b u r g a n d P o m e r an i a ; 2 5

i n P o s e n ; 3 0 i n P r u ss i a Th e ft as w e s e e , fo llo w s l arg e l an d o w n e r sh i p l ik e i t s
.
,

sh a d o w . It i s u n fo r t u n at e th a t t he G e r m an ca p i t al h as re c e i ve d a n d s t ill re ce i ve s

m o st of i t s i n c re a s e t o t h e lo w e r class e s o f p o p u la t i o n fr o m t h e E as t e r n p ro v i n ce s .
54 2 DO C TRIN E OF VIRTUE S A ND DUTIES

th e slavery which i s t he compan io n of pov e r ty ; i t gives him

th e free choice o f a professio n wi t hou t te m p t i n g h i m n ot to
,

foll ow an y calli n g wh at eve r . It develops i n h i m a d esi re fo r

pos sessio n as o pposed t o the prole ta rian supi n e n ess of poverty ;
,

it aro u ses a pleasure i n ow n ership as opposed to the arrogan c e

,

o f sa t ie t y,
which foll ows upon superab u n dan ce It is plai n .
,

th e co n ditio n s i n this reg a rd are n ot favorable i n ou r age .

Th e m a rvellous grow t h of i n dus t ry an d co m m erce d u ri n g th e

n i n e tee n th ce n t u ry t h e co n co m ita n t develop m e n t o f S pec u la
,

tio n an d the stock exch an ge sys t e m have e n abled partic u lar

,

i n d i vidual s t o accu m ula t e e n orm ous weal th n ot i n freq u e n tly

,

with o u t any meri t of t heir own which n ow seeks i n vai n fo r

,

ratio n al e m ploy m e n t Th e co n seque n ce is se n seless e x t rav

.
.

agan ce a grea t greed for gai n an d an i n sa n e ma n i a fo r gamb

, ,

li n g U n iversal pover t y an d prole t arian m isery form the

.

obverse of the pic t ure .

54 2 DO C TRIN E OF VIRTUE S A ND DUTIE S

the slavery which i s t he compan ion of pov e rty ; i t gives h i m

th e free choice o f a professio n wi thou t t e m p t i n g h i m n ot to
,

follo w an y calli n g whateve r It develops i n h i m a d esi re fo r

.

possessio n as O pposed t o the prole t arian supi n e n ess o f poverty ;

,

it arouses a pleasure i n ow n ership as O pposed to the arrogan c e

,

o f s at ie t y,
which foll ows upo n s u perab u n da n ce It i s plai n .
,

the c o n di tio n s i n this reg a rd are n ot favorabl e i n o u r age .

Th e m arvellous growth of i n dus t ry a n d co m m erce d u ri n g the

n i n e tee n th ce n tury th e co n co m ita n t develop m e n t o f spec u la
,

tio n an d the s t ock exch an ge sys t e m have e n abled particular

,

i n d i viduals to accu m ulat e e n or m ous wealth n ot i n freq u e n tly

,

with o u t an y m erit o f their ow n which n ow seeks i n vai n fo r

,

r atio n al e m ploy m e n t Th e con seque n ce is se n seless e xt rav

.

agan ce a gre at greed for gai n an d an i n sa n e m a n i a for ga m b

, ,

li n g U n iversal pove rty an d prole ta rian misery form the

.

obverse of t he pic t ur e .
 C H A PTER V
THE SPIRITU AL LIF E A ND C ULTURE 1

1 By culture we m e an t he perfec t develop m e n t of spiri t u al

.

li fe It con sists i n the capacity acq u ired by i n stru ctio n a n d

.
,

practice to take an active p a r t i n the spiri t ual life rs t Of

, ,

a people an d ulti m ately o f hu m a n ity

,
.

We n ote a s the t wo esse n tial phases i n t he spiri t u a l life

o f a people kn owle dge an d the cr ea ti ve f a n cy p hi losop hy
, ,

a n d sci en ce ar t a n d
p oe tr y
,
C ul t ure t herefore mea n s fo r .
, ,

th e i n dividual th e develop m e n t Of th e i n t ellect t o the e n d

that h e may k n ow the t ru th an d of th e se n ses an d th e ,

i m agi n atio n t ha t h e may co m prehe n d an d e n j oy the be a u t i

,

fu l . Th e de t ailed t rea t m e n t of this subj ect belo n gs to ped a

g o gy I shall merely gi v e t he ou t li n es an d co n sider k n owledge

.
,

rst .

K n owledg e ha s a double fu n ctio n Th e i n t ellec t is rs t .

, ,

the org a n of t he wi ll ; its fu n c t io n is t o adj u st the latter t o

its e n viro n m e n t A s was i n dicat ed before the feeli n g of
.
,

pleasu re an d pai n m ay be regarded a s th e most pri m itive

for m o f k n owledge Th e se n ses which are devel oped fro m
.
,

the ge n eral a n i m al se n sibility e n abl e the a n i m al t o u n de r ,

stan d its m ore re m o t e surrou n di n gs an d t o adapt itself

to what is use fu l o r harm fu l S e n sibili ty develops i n t o i n tel .

l i ge n ce which m ay be de n ed i n a ge n eral way as the

, , ,

fac u lty to k n ow fro m what is give n that which is n ot give n .

1
[Po rt e r P ar t I L ch I V ; HOffd i n g pp 3 1 3 3 5 4 ; also X X L ; S pe n ce r
, , . .
,
.
-
,

E thi cs of l n d i w d ua l Life ch V I ; Ru n ze , 44 f S m y t h Pa r t IL c h IL pp
. .
,
.
, ,
.
, .

3 56 3 7 1 ; W u n d t Part I V ch 1 4 ; S e t h Pa rt I L ch I ( IL) ; Oe t t i n g e n

. . .
, , , , ,
.
,

M ora lsta ti sti/c Par t IL ch II, TR ] ,

. . .
54 4 DO C TRIN E OF V I RTUE S A N D DU TIE S

It e m pl oys the da ta of se n se percep t io n as sig n s an d i n fers -

,

fro m these that which i s n ot yet perceived especially the ,

fu t u re the re m ote i n ti m e
,
.

Th e i n tellect which already plays a n i m por t a n t role i n

,

the highe r a n i m als re aches i t s highes t per fectio n i n m an

,

i n con cep tu a l k n owle d ge Th e la tt e r di ffers fro m se n suous

.

k n owledge i n that it is based upo n the a n alysis of percep t s .

Th e a n i m al co m bi n es percepts by associatio n an d so m akes ,

a ki n d o f i n fere n ce fro m cer t ai n perceptio n co m plexes t o -

fu tu re occ u rre n ces Bu t t he a n i m al does n o t s o far as we

.
,

may co n jecture succeed i n resolvi n g the percep t s i n t o t heir

,

particular ele m e n ts ; it does n ot dis t i n gu ish i n re be t wee n , ,

t he wood an d the process of co m bus t io n i n a m ovi n g obj ec t ,

be t wee n the persiste n t body an d the t e m porary m ove m e n t .

Man however d oes this an d so on the basis of a n alysis

, , , , ,

for m s th e sy n thetic j u dg m e n t s : the body m oves the wood ,

burn s Th e a n i m al d oes n ot dis t i n gu ish the direc t io n an d

.

t he velocity of the m ove m e n t n or the S ize an d the weigh t ,

o f t he body By m aki n g s u ch an an alysis m an succeeds

.
_ ,

i n discoveri n g t he u lti m a t e an d co n s ta n t relatio n s be t wee n

the si m pl e co m po n e n t s ; t hese are expres sed i n the for
m u l ae which we call l aws of n ature Th e k n owledge of t he m .

gives h i m theoretical an d pr a ctical co n t rol o f th e n at u re of

thi n gs : he i s able n ot o n ly t o foresee th e co m plex processes ,

which t he a n i m al too m ay i n a cer t ai n m eas u re foresee bu t

, , , ,

also t o explai n the m tha t is t o ded u ce the m fro m thei r , ,

ca u ses an d i n so far as the causes are i n his power to

, , ,

prod u ce the m Thus t he i n tellect has beco m e t h e powerf u l

.
,

i n str u m e n t by which m an has m ade the earth his serva n t .

He h as ta m ed the an i m als or exter m i n ated the m he has ,

selected an d for m ed th e pla n t s which cove r the earth he has ,

co m pelled the forces of n ature t o do his biddi n g K n owledge .

is power 1
.

Rea soni ng (P sg clv logy

1
[C o m p are w i th t h i s Jam e s s ad m i ra bl e ch ap t e r on

V ol IL) . . TR .
]
54 4 DO C TRIN E OF V IRTUE S A N D DU TIE S

It e m pl oys the data O f se n se perceptio n as sig n s an d i n fers -

,

fro m these that which i s n o t ye t perceived especially the ,

fu t u re the re m ote i n ti m e
,
.

Th e i n tellect which already pl ays an i m por t a n t role i n

,

the higher a n i m als reaches its highes t per fectio n i n m an

,

i n con cep tu a l k n owledge Th e lat t er di ffers fro m se n suous

.

k n owledge i n that it is b ased u po n t he a n alysis of percep t s .

Th e a n i m al co m bi n es percep t s by a ssocia t io n an d so m akes ,

a ki n d o f i n fere n ce fro m cer t ai n perceptio n co m plexes t o -

f u t u re occ u rre n ces Bu t the a n i m al does n ot s o far as we

.
,

m ay co n ject u re s u cceed i n resolvi n g the percep t s i n to t heir

,

partic u lar ele m e n ts ; it does n ot disti n g u ish i n re betwee n , ,

the wood an d the process of co m b u s t io n i n a movi n g obj ect ,

be t wee n the persiste n t body an d the t e m porary m ove m e n t .

Man howeve r d oes t his an d so o n the basis of a n alysis

, , , , ,

for m s th e sy n the t ic j u dg m e n t s : the body moves th e wood ,

b u rn s Th e a n i m al does n ot disti n guish t he direc t ion an d

.

the velocity of the m ove m e n t n or the size an d the weight ,

of the body By m aki n g s u ch an an alysis m an s u cceeds

.
,

i n discoveri n g th e ulti m ate an d co n s t a n t relatio n s be t wee n

the si m ple co m po n e n t s ; t hese are expres sed i n the fo r
m u l ae which we call laws O f n ature Th e k n owledge of t hem .

gives hi m th eoretical an d prac t ical co n t rol O f th e n at u re of

thi n gs : he i s able n ot o n ly to fo resee the co m plex processes ,

which t he a n i m al t oo m ay i n a cer t ai n m easure foresee bu t

, , , ,

also t o explai n the m th a t is t o ded u ce the m fro m thei r , ,

ca u ses an d i n so far a s the ca u se s are i n h i s power to

, , ,

prod u ce the m Th u s t h e i n tellect has beco m e the powerf u l

.
,

i n str u m e n t by which m an h as m ade t he earth his serv an t .

He h as t a m ed the an i m als o r exter m i n ated the m he has ,

selected an d for m ed th e pla n t s which cove r the earth he has ,

co m pelled the forces of n ature t o do his biddi n g K n owledge .

is power 1
.

a dm i r abl e ch ap t e r on Rea soni ng (P sgclv logg

[C o m p are w i t h
1 t h is Jam es s

V ol IL) TE ]
. . .
 P
S IRIT U AL LIF E A ND C ULTU RE 5 45

k n owledge also has a n othe r an i m m edia t e value In

Bu t ,
.

the a n i m al it is absolutely s u bservie n t to practical n eeds i n ,

m an i t beco m es free ; he takes a d i si n ter e ste d i n te r e st i n con

te mp la ti on so to spe ak
,
This h olds eve n o f se n se perceptio n
.
-
.

Th e eye n ds pleas u re i n for m s an d colors th e ear i n n otes , ,

a n d their rhyth m ical m usical s u ccessio n ; he n ce arise m usic

an d pai n ti n g Fro m the sa m e pleasure i n th e co n te m platio n

.

of thi n gs S pri n gs philosophy Philosophy is p u rely co n te m.

l at i ve k n owledge T h is is th e origi n al m ea n i n g o f the w ord

p .

a m o n g the Gree k s the S ocratic school i n which it was rs t ,

u sed as a tech n ical t er m disti n guishes philosophy as p u rely

, ,

t heoretical k n owledge fro m t ech n ical k n owledge t o which

, ,

also S ophistic dialectics a n d rhe t oric bel o n g In this m ost ge n .

eral se n se philosophy is a u n iversal h u m an f u n ctio n m ythology

is its most pri m itive for m ; it u n iversally arises as an at t e m p t
to co m prehe n d the whole of th in gs i n to on e co n ceptio n an d t o
i n t erpre t the mea n i n g o f th e u n iverse an d especially of li fe 1
.

This esti m a t e o f k n owledge will fu r n ish u s with a sta n

dard by which to m easure the val u e of p a r ti cu la r for m s o f
cogn itio n We Sh all say th at a par t ic u lar tru th h as val u e
.

i n s o far as it te n ds t o i n crease o u r prac t ical power an d ou r ,

theoretical i n sight i n t o the n a tu re o f thi n gs i n ge n eral .

K n owle dge which has n o val u e i n either se n se which aeco m ,

plis h e s n o thi n g fo r ou r t ech n ics or fo r o u r philosophy h as ,

n o val u e w hatever Th e p r e p o si ti o n : A ll k n owledge h as

.

absol u t e val u e as s u ch o r : Everythi n g th at i s i s worthy of

, ,

bei n g k n ow n is n ot i n freq u e n tly proclai m ed i n ou r age as

,

the highest pri n ciple of scie n tic research I ca n n ot hel p .

regardi n g this as a m ean i n gless assertio n o n e h oweve r , ,

that is accepted by m a n y as a co n ve n ie n t m ea n s of sile n ci n g

the q u estio n co n cer n i n g the val u e o f partic u l a r i n vestigati o n s .

A ppare n tly h owever the true scie n tist does n ot adhere t o

, ,

this pri n ciple In S pi t e o f the assertio n tha t everythi n g tha t

.

1
Th e re a d e r w ill n d a n e l ab o r at e acco u n t o f t h e se t o p i cs i n m y I n tr od u c ti o n
P hi los op hy, 5 t h [Th illy s ]

to ed . 1 89 8 . tr .
54 6 DO C TRIN E OF VIRTUE S A ND DUTIES

e xists d eserves t o be k n ow n n o his t orian has ever u n dertake n

,

to ascertai n wh a t such an d such a celebrity o r O bsc u rity
has had fo r bre akfas t o r di n n er every d ay of his li fe an d n o ,

on e has yet vol u n t eered to attack the proble m o n ce s u ggested

by Jea n Pa u l the his t ory an d sys t e m of typographical

e rrors si n ce th e i n ve n t io n of pri n ti n g No r h as any scie n tist
.

ever atte m pted to co u n t t he grai n s O f sa n d o n th e seash ore ,

an d t o describe the for m s of t he separa t e grai n s Why n ot ? .

S urely beca u se healthy co m m o n se n se if n ot scie n ti c i n sigh t

-
, ,

i n sti n ctively recogn izes the useless n ess o f such a t a sk It .

m u st be added however t hat we ca n n o t always tell i n

, ,

adv an ce whether an i n ves t igati o n will yield res u lts which

m ay have so m e beari n g o n k n owledge i n either for m o r n o t .

In n o case perhaps has h eal t hy co m m o n se n se betraye d

, ,
-

s u ch shortsigh t ed n ess as i n its repu diatio n of scie n tic

research as useless trii n g o r curiosity Baco n ridiculed a .

co n te m por a ry fo r thi n ki n g i t worth while t o experi m e n t

with m agn etic phe n om e n a S ocra t es rej ec t ed all physi cal
.

i n ves t igatio n s a s idle speculatio n : t o k n ow o n eself h e con

s i d e r e d the m os t esse n t ial wor thy an d possible t ask
, ,
N0 on e .

an y lo n ge r h olds these views i n physics ; everybody k n ow s

t ha t physics has achi eved th e greates t results fo r o u r ph i l oso

p hi c al co n ceptio n s o f th e u n iverse as well as fo r practice i n ,

co n sequ e n ce of its m axi m that regards n othi n g as to o t rivial .

Healthy co m m o n se n se may perh aps feel m ore i n cli n ed at

-

p rese n t t o n d faul t with philological his t orical an d psych o

, ,

logic al i n ves tiga t io n s ; an d i n deed who c an help thi n ki n g

, ,

t hat beside the grai n a grea t deal O f ch a is bei n g gath

, ,

ered i n these elds as a precious harvest ? Still we m ust ,

n o t forget tha t a frag m e n t of k n owle d ge which see m ed rather

i n sig n ican t a t rs t h as o fte n gai n e d l ate r o n an i m por

, ,

tan ce n ot dreamed of Th e rs t atte m pts i n co m para t ive l an

.

guage m ay perhaps h a ve se e m ed more like useless t r i es th a n

serious work ; an d ye t wh a t an e x t raordi n ary i n u e n ce they
h a ve h ad u po n o u r m oder n historical world view ! He n ce it i s -
,
54 8 DO C TRI N E OF V IRTUE S A N D DU TI E S

plies us with th e u lti m ate an d u n iversal co n te n t by which t o

i n terpret th e m ea n i n g of reality But the ways an d m ea n s by .

which i n divid u als obtai n these a n d the for m i n which they

pos sess the m di ffer accordi n g to th e capacities an d i n cli n a
,

tio n s of the i n divid u als t he m selves as well as accordi n g to

their exter n al co n ditio n s an d O pportu n ities i n li fe .

These di ff ere n ces m ake n ecessary d ie r e n t s chools an d

f

co u r s e s of s tu d y Three fu n da m e n tal for m s appear : t he

.

p r i m a r y s choo l ( V o lks s chu le , t he

) se con d a ry s c ho ol ( Mi tte lschu le ) ,

an d t he u n i ve r si ty
( H obj ec t o f the p r i m ary
o ch schu le
) . Th e
s ch oo l is to ed u cate the g r e at m asses o f th e pop u latio n i n a

m a n n er s u itabl e t o their n eeds Th e c u rric u l u m m u st keep

.

i n view the fac t that o wi n g to the eco n o m ic co n ditio n s of

,

thei r pare n ts the p u pils m u st co m plete the course at the age

,

of fo u r t ee n an d are desti n ed to e n ter calli n gs which chiey

,

require m a n u al labor Th e course of st u dy therefore sh ould

.

con sist m ai n ly i n the acquisi t io n of the ele m e n tary bran ches ,

readi n g writi n g drawi n g an d arith m etic an d also i n attai n

, , , ,

i n g a ge n er a l n otio n of the n at u ral a n d historical s u rro u n di n gs .

Th e pu rpose o f th e s e con d a ry o r i n te r m e d i a te school i s t o

ed u cate those p u pils the eco n o m ic co n ditio n of whose pare n t s
per m its a so m ewhat lo n ger atte n da n ce an d whose prospec t ive ,

positio n i n li fe will requ ire work of a highe r character pre ,

supposi n g greater k n owledge an d skill an d affordi n g m ore ,

l eis u re an d great e r opport u n ities for free actio n To the sub .

ta u gh t i n the pri m ary grades which are of course i n

j e c t s , , ,

t e n s i e d an d elaborated here are adde d especially foreig n ,

lan g u ages an d m athe m atics the latte r the i n stru m e n t of t he

,

n at u ral scie n ces an d tech n ics t he for m er the m edi u m o f i n t er

,

n atio n al i n terco u rse co m m ercial as well as S piri t u al an d o f

, ,

an i n te n sied h u m a n isti c historical c u lt u re -

Th e u n i v e r si ty .
,

n ally has as its a i m the exte n sio n of ge n eral scie n ti c an d

,

philosophical k n owledge an d also partic u larly the acq u isitio n

, , ,

Of scie n ti fi c tech n ical e d u ca t io n

-
which is the preco n ditio n of ,

professi o n al activity .
 S I RITUP AL LIFE A ND C ULT U RE 54 9

Tha t sch ool will be the bes t fo r the i n divid u al which on ,

the on e ha n d i s s u ited to his i n divid u al tale n ts an d tastes

, ,

an d o n the other to his fu t u re calli n g an d positio n i n li fe

, , .

By n o m ea n s can we ad m it th at th e m ore elaborate a n d ad

v an ce d i n str u ctio n is desirable fo r all an d that it is o n ly fro m
,

n ecessity that p u pils co n te n t the m selves with the ele m e n tary

for m The re are people who i n t heir zeal for equality are
.
, ,

i n cli n ed to de m a n d the sa m e schools an d the sam e e d u catio n

for everybody We m ay say t o s u ch : It is n ot wise to
.

give a m an adva n ced scie n tic i n str u ctio n whose fu t u re call

i n g will m ake it n ecessary for h i m to d o m a n u al labor eve n ,

tho u gh he possess i n tellectu al tale n ts pro v ided he ca n n o t a t ,

t he sa m e ti m e e n t er a learn ed pro fessio n No r i s it wise to .

whip the s on o f a ban ke r o r pri v y co u n cillor thro u gh the

gy m n asi u m an d the exa m i n atio n s regardless o f the protes t s
,

o f his n at u re which u n fort u n ately is a m uch m ore co m m o n

,

case t ha n th e other Th e pri n ciple holds absolutely

.

K n owledge which t he i n divid u al ca n n o t utilize either on ,

acco u n t of n at u ral i n capaci ty o r i n co n seque n ce of his ex t er

,

n al posi t io n i s o f absol u t ely n o val u e to h i m

,
.

Y es we m ay go f u rther an d say i t is an evil This h e

,
.

co m es self evide n t whe n the i n dividual i s lacki n g i n t ale n t

-
.

TO k n ow too m u ch for his capacity m akes a m a n n ot wise r ,

b u t more st u pid We m u st discri m i n ate be t wee n st u pidity

.

a n d ign ora n ce Ig n ora n ce is a lack o f k n owled e st u pidity

.
g
,

is a lack o f j u dgm e n t an d m ay go with great lear n i n g n ay i t

, , ,

m ay u n der certai n circ u m sta n ces be du e to this

, A good
,
.

a n ecdote is told o f th e Du ke of Welli n gto n A yo u n g m an o n ce .

applied to h i m for an offi ce A fter co n versi n g with h i m for

.

a while the Du ke ref u sed his applica t io n addi n g

, S i r yo u , ,

have received t oo m u ch ed u catio n fo r yo u r b rai n s I fear .

that i f the Du ke o f Well i n gto n co u l d atte n d ou r exa m i n atio n s ,

h e wo u l d n ot i n freq u e n tly m ake th e sa m e disco v e ry N owa .

days O fces depe n d upo n exa m i n atio n s an d st ate exa m i n a ,

t io n s n aturally take acco u n t o n ly of th e i n form atio n which

550 DO C TRIN E OF VIRT UE S A N D DU TIE S

an a pplica n t possesses K n owledge has t hus acq u ired a

.

p u rely accide n tal an d ex t er n al val u e fo r t he possessor as a

social bei n g a val u e which is e n tirely i n depe n de n t o f its rea l
val u e to h im as a rati o n al bei n g He n ce it happe n s that
.

m a n y lear n m a n y thi n gs which do n o t t i n with their n a t ural

capacities an d i n cli n atio n s Th e res u lt is n ot o n ly does t he
.
,

acquisitio n o f s u ch k n owledge beco m e a torture to bo th teach

ers an d p u pils b u t i n j ury is do n e to what n atural i n tellige n c e
,

the la t ter m ay possess Th e j u dg m e n t is co n fu sed and over

.

burde n ed by s u ch u n diges t ed k n owledge It very often h ap .

pe n s i n an exa m i n atio n t hat a q u estio n addressed t o the

i n tellec t is a n swered by the me m ory ; i n stead of a j u dgm e n t
we are O ffere d a m e m orized for m u la o r fact It is O fte n i m .

possible to i n d u ce the can didate t o use his i n tellect ; it has

beco m e r u di m e n tary i n co n seque n ce o f co n stan t s t u dy It i s .

t o be feared that such a perso n will ac t precisely i n t he

sa m e way whe n he e n ters the practical w orld ; the case de
m a n ds tha t he observe a n d u n dersta n d a fact that b e con ,

sider what is possible an d n ecessary ; i n s t ead of ope n i n g his

eyes an d usi n g his i n t ellec t o u r lear n ed frie n d soo n begi n s to
,

ra n sack his m e m ory for for m ul ae an d facts which he has fo r ,

merly lear n ed o ff by heart ; h e i n vol u n t arily falls i n to t he ex

am n i atio n habi t fo r which h e has bee n t rai n ed h e does n ot ,

k n ow wh at el se t o do with his i n tellec t Bl u n tschli expresse s

.

the O pi n io n so m ewhere i n his A u tobi og r ap hy th at this n o t

,
,

i n freq u e n tly h appe n s to ou r jurists : by co n sta n tly m e m or i z

i n g an d reciti n g for m u l ae they e n tirely lose t h eir abili ty t o
look at thi n gs i n a n at u ral way Th a t is most likely what
.

the Ger m a n proverb m ea n s which calls the lear n ed the per

ve rted ( d i e G e le hr te n d i e V e r ke hr ten ) A n d H u xley m ea n s
.

1
the sa m e t hi n g whe n he says i n on e of his A dd r e ss e s In

belief s t upidity i i e cases t f t e n t n on n a sci tu r

my , , n n n o u o , ,

is developed by a lo g process f pare n t al a n d pedagogic

an d n o

repressio n of the n at u ral i n tellectu al appetites acco m pan ie d ,

1
[S ci ence a nd E d ucati on , p .
5 52 DO C TRIN E OF VI RTU E S A N D DUTIE S

de m an ds O f t he m be n eat h th ei r dign ity a n d there fore s u e r

,

fro m habit u al ill te m per -

In o u r higher schools a certai n n u m
.

ber of sch olarships are re gu larly awarded an d i n the larger ,

cities they are o fte n give n to poo r a n d tale n ted boys fro m t h e
Volkss chu len Th e object is d o u btless a co m m e n dable o n e ;
.

bu t i t is n ot so certai n that th e res u lts are be n ecial to t he

boys Eve n i n t h e sch ool itself t hey o fte n feel o u t Of place ;
.

t hey d o n ot n d the n ecessary q u iet an d sy m pathy a t ho m e ,

they d o n ot receive the assista n ce which they occasio n

ally n eed they m u s t do witho u t school books an d m an y
, ,

o f the m are soo n co m pelled perhaps afte r h avi n g obtai n ed

,

the E i nj ct hr ig en sche i n t o l eave school for good I fea r

,
.

the ed u catio n th u s acqui re d an d th e E i nj ct hr ig e n sche i n o fte n

prove to be possessio n s o f n egative val u e O thers e n deavo r

.

to ght their w ay thro u gh to grad u a t e fro m the sch ool

,

an d u n iversity u n u s u al b odily an d m e n tal powers o f resis t

a n ce are n owadays req u ired to overco m e th e co u n tless pri

v at i on s an d O bstacles a n d after all the exa m i n atio n s have
-

bee n passed an d the ship see m s to be safe i n the harbor i t ,

freq u e n tly ha ppe n s that th e stru ggler is shipwrecked a fter all .

Would it n o t have bee n wiser to reli n q u ish the pro ffered place
i n the gy m n asi u m ? To be sure it pai n s a m an of u n u s u al
,

t ale n t to n d hi m self h an dicapped i n his atte m pt to get an e d u

cat io n an d forced to d o m echa n ical labor fo r li fe A n d it is a .

l oss to the n atio n as well i n several respects : t ale n ts are

,

was t ed which n atu re d oes n ot t oo freely bestow an d e n tire

, ,

S pheres Of society are cu t o ff fro m the spirit u al c u lt u re o f the

people n ay beco m e h ostile to i t whe n it beco m es u tterly u n at

,

t ai n ab l e I t wo u ld be to th e i n terest o f the i n divid u al as

.

well as of socie ty t o retur n to th e o l d practice of the six

t ee n th ce n tury an d t o ed u cate m e n of pro n o u n ced ability a t
,

public expe n se an d for the public service .

These tho u ghts are s u m m e d u p i n a re m ark o f Goethe s

Man i s bor n fo r li m ited s u rro u n di n gs ; he is capable of

graspi n g S i m ple n ear an d de n ite e n ds an d he acc u sto m s
, , ,
 P A
S I RITU L LIF E A ND C ULTURE 553

hi m self t o e m ploy th e m ea n s close a t ha n d S O s e e n h ow .

,

ever as it co m es to m ore re m ote e n ds he n either k n ows wha t

, ,

h e wa n ts n o r wh at he ought t o do I t i s a lway s a m i sf or tu n e .

f or h i m w he n he i s i n d u ce d to s t r i ve a f ter som e t hi ng wi t h w hi ch

he ca n n o t com e i n to th e words of Fau st
a ct ve r e la ti on s
i . A nd ,

w h o groa n s be n eath the load of sch olastic lear n i n g o u gh t t o ,

be i n scribed above th e doors of o u r schoolh o u ses t o serve as ,

a war n i n g to o u r p are n ts whe n t hey bri n g their childre n t o

school : Was m an n icht n u tz t i s t ci n e sch were Last

.

For there has hardly bee n an age i n t he history of ou r

people whe n t he evil of over e d u ca ti on prevailed t o s u ch an -

exte n t as at prese n t Th e reaso n s are plai n e n ou gh ; there

.

n eve r was a ti m e whe n ed u catio n was held i n such high

estee m as n o w For m erly m e n were divide d i n to clergy an d
.

lay m e n belie vers an d u n believers n obl es an d citize n s ; n ow

, ,

w e cl assify the m as ed u ca t ed an d u n ed u cated Whe n we .

desire to reco m m e n d a you n g m an w e say he has a n e an d ,

man y S ided ed u catio n ; whe n we wish t o express o u r low

-

opi n io n Of a wo m a n we s u m it all up i n the s t ate m e n t t ha t she

,

is a thoro u ghly u n c u ltu re d perso n where u po n everybody k n ows ,

what to thi n k of he r N o wo n der therefore tha t the whol e

.
, ,

worl d is r u n n i n g a fter c u lt u re that o u r fathers an d m others ,

desire n othi n g m ore earn estly tha n t o e n able t heir so n s a n d

da u ghte rs to get an ed u catio n : with an ed u catio n they ca n
beco m e everythi n g with o u t an ed u catio n they are n othi n g
, .

Th e de m a n d for ed u catio n creates the supply o f the m ea n s

a n d i n stit u tio n s o f ed u catio n whi ch is so characteristic Of o u r
,

age Ill u strated an d n on ill u strated text book s of ed u catio n

.
- -
,

o f scie n tic a n d historical ed u catio n large a n d s m all ed u ca ,

t i o n al dictio n aries a n d l exico n s i n stit u tes of all ki n ds fo r ,

t he higher ed u catio n o f da u ghters an d so n s i n ter m ediate ,

schools an d gy m n asia h u m a n istic an d realistic all these

, ,

e n terprises h ave fo r the las t fty years i n crease d with re m ark

able rapidity an d still have bee n u n able to satis fy the grow
,

i n g de m a n d : i n deed the i n stit u tio n s i n which c u lture m ale

, ,
 55 4 DO C TRIN E OF VIR TU E S A ND DU TIE S

an d fe m ale , is m a n u fac tu red ,

are u s u ally s o overcrowded that
applicatio n s for ad m issio n m u s t be m ade years i n advan ce .

N o wo n der t he n tha t i n this m ad race n ot a few O btai n an

, , ,

ed u ca t io n which is n ot adapted t o their perso n al an d social

co n ditio n s an d m akes the m u n h appy Th e educa t ed femal e
,
.

h as lo n g bee n the do m estic a f ictio n of th e n i n etee n th cen

t u ry O f rece n t years we h ave also h ad t hr u s t upo n us the
. ,

m an with a high school a n d u n iversity ed u catio n who ca n n o t ,

ear n his bread an d b u t ter becau se of this very educa ti o n, .

In acquiri n g it he has n eglected t o lear n so m e h o n es t t rade ,

an d eve n if he still had the power a n d the desire t o m ake u p

fo r los t t i m e his ed u ca t io n wo u ld n o t per m i t i t fo r by usi n g

, ,

his ha n ds t o w ork he woul d n ecessarily forfei t his h o n or as an

ed u cated m an .

Will there be a n at ural reac t io n for the cure of t his disease ?

We m ight suppose so Ma n y sig n s see m to i n dicate that e du
.

catio n is abou t to fall i n value It strikes m e t ha t the wor d .

is begi n n i n g to t ake on a s u spici o us avor si m ilar t o t ha t of ,

the word en l ig hten m e n t ( A uf lclar u ng ) a t th e O pe n i n g of th e'

ce n tu ry This i n variably h appe n s whe n a thi n g beco m e s

.

too co m m o n W e are re m i n ded O f the barber s app r e n

.

tice wh o did n ot believe i n God eve n if he w as o n ly a ,

barber s appre n t ice

C u lt u re ( B i l.d un
g) has as it wer e , ,

come t o take the place of e n lighten m e n t

Th e word rs t .

ca m e i n to vogue toward t he close of the las t ce n t u ry i n th e ,

n e e hu m a n istic
-
circles t ha t gathered aro u n d Herde r an d
Goethe Th e fu ll t er m was : B i ldu ng zu r Hu m an i tii t ; it S i g
.

n i e d the fashio n i n g o f t h e i n n er m an aft er t he Helle n ic

pattern as disti n g u ished fro m the m odel of the Fre n ch cour
,

tier on the on e ha n d an d that of orthod oxy an d pie t is m on

,

the o ther co m pared with these the Helle n ic ideal of c u ltu re ,

see m ed t o represe n t th e free an d n atural ed u catio n of the hu m an

bei n g Ho w the word has dege n erated si n ce those d ays !
.

What is m ea n t at prese n t whe n t he word c u ltu re ( B ild u ng) is

m e n t io n e d i n a co n versa t io n ? If I c an tr u st m y philological
55 6 DO C TRIN E OF VIRTUE S A ND DUTIE S

also h appe n : a pl ai n m an wh o has n eve r go n e further than

the V o lksschu le m ay h ave a co m plete an d thoro u gh ed u catio n ;
i f his i n n er li fe is co n siste n tly a n d har m o n io u sly developed i f ,

he has digested an d as it were co n verted i n to organ ic s u b

, ,

sta n ce an d livi n g force whatever opi n io n s an d experie n ces

he has acquired at school an d i n the world he is a well ,

educated m an N ot the m ass of m a t erial b u t the i n n er form

.
,

i s wh a t m akes educatio n Mat te r without for m prod u ces.

se m i ed u catio n over educat io n pseudo ed u catio n or whateve r

-
,
-
,
-
,

we m ay call this dege n erat io n of t he so u l .

.3 A r t like philosophy i s also based par tially at leas t on

, , , ,

p u r e con te m la ti on
p If pl ay is i n disti n ctio n fro m work the
.
, ,

free exercise of powers an d n ot a mea n s t o an exter n al e n d

, ,

while i n work an extern al c e ct or prod u c t is desired ar t as , , , ,

well as ph ilosophy belo n gs i n the cat egory o f p lay A ll oce n

, .

pa t io u with th e n e ar t s i s playf u l o r purposeless exercise of

s e n suous spiri t u al powers
-
Whe n we co n te m plate a stat u e or
.

a pai n ti n g i t is n ot ou r pu rpose t o lear n a n ythi n g as is th e

, ,

c a se whe n we s tudy a drawi n g i n a physical or t ech n ological

t ex t book We desi re n othi n g b u t t o exercise ou r perceptive
-
.

an d prese n t ative fac u l t ies witho u t h avi n g an e n d i n view .

Whe n we liste n to a so n g or hear so m e o n e play an i n stru

me n t , we si m ply desire to follow th e m ove m e n t of the n otes

whe n we are readi n g a poe m o r seei n g a pl ay we aban do n ,

oursel ves t o t he pl ay of the i m agi n a t io n which the poet

se t s a goi n g
-
.

Th e produc t io n of works O f ar t is n owadays i t i s t rue , ,

n ot regarded as play b u t as work an d i t is apt to be so i n the ,

se n se that the ai m is to m ak e an eco n o m i c u se of the prod u ct .

In their origi n h owever ar t an d play are closely co n n ected

, ,

A ll pe e pl es eve n th e m ost savage decorate thei r u te n sils

, ,
.

pots weapo n s an d cl othes are covered with all ki n ds of or n a

, ,

me n tal li n es m arks an d drawi n gs ; it is th e sa m e pl ay i n

, ,

s t i n ct th at i m pels the chil d to cover its slate an d th e walls with

gures S o n g an d m u sic were origi n ally c o n n ected with the

.
 P A
S I RITU L LIFE A ND C ULTURE 55 7

da n ce a n d fes t ival plays Th e sa m e i m p u lse to play created

.

the rst poe m s the epic n arratives : a m otley c rowd O f charac

,

t ers an d e v e n ts passi n g be fore the i n n er eye Of the si n ger an d

hearer . Th e origi n al epic was act u ally s u n g A n epic has .

beco m e k n ow n i n o u r ce n t u ry which was tra n s m itted by

word of m o u th the Fi n n ish epic In the lo n g n ight of th e
,
.

polar zo n e th e Fi n n s passed the ti m e by reciti n g rhyth m ical

,

stories Of the gods a n d heroes i n dialogue for m ; each i n

di vid u al co u ld repea t the m o r i n ve n t n e w On es hi m self .

He n ce the peculiar v a riatio n s i n t he t ra n s m issio n of th e epic .

A m o n g u s th e fairy t ale ( Md r chen ) has bee n ha n ded do wn i n

-

the sa m e way ; th e i n fa n t m i n d which i s i tsel f full of pl ay,

a n d poetry preserves this fragm e n t of l iv in g poetry eve n

,

fo r adults ; o r did preserve i t fo r n o w tha t these stories are,

pri n ted an d a doze n n e w artifi cially m ade books of fai ry,

-

tale s are prod u ced every C hrist m as this las t s u rvival of ,

livi n g poetry wh ose obscuri ty was its s al va t io n is dyi n g o u t

, , .

Whe n the pri n ted fairy tales reach the last m o u n tai n h u t
- -
,

the po etical n arrative as a livi n g fu n c t io n of t he people wil l

be a thi n g of t he pas t .

A rt is also partially roo t ed i n f e eli ng a n d wi lling Every .

stro n g e m otio n is acco m pa n ied by t he desire to express an d

co m m u n icate itsel f Th e j oys an d pa n gs of love m artial co u r
.
,

age an d sad n ess ye a r n i n g an d revere n ce seek an d n d relie f

, ,

i n poe t ry an d so n g By the rhyth m ical m el odio u s arra n ge

.
-

me n t o f words an d n otes the feeli n gs the m selves are aro u sed

, .

A n d so th e w ill an d the m ood of a peopl e an d a n age are

expressed an d Obj ecti e d i n the great creatio n s Of epic an d
d ra m atic poetry as well as i n the creatio n s o f th e plastic arts
an d architec t u re Gothic art m a n i fests the m ood Of towe r
.

i n g s u pern a t uralis m which co n tem n s an d repels the ear thly

,

se n suo u s world corporeali ty with its pleas u re an d b eavi

,

n ess. In the Re n aissa n ce the opposite m o O d asserts itsel f ;

its architect u re an d n e arts its cost u m es a n d h o u se fu r,
-

n i sh in s
g ,its poetry an d m u sic all o f the m ex press the ,
 55 8 DO C TRIN E OF VIRTUE S A ND DUTIES

de t er m i n a t i o n o f the age t o aba n do n itself wit h th e e n th u ,

s i as m a n d ex u bera n ce o f youth t o t he co n te m pl atio n an d ,

e n j oy m e n t o f eve rythi n g ch ar m i n g an d agreeable ti ll it see m s ,

as though the age fel t t he n eed of m aki n g up for los t

ti m e .

It is t he h i ghes t f u n c t io n of a r t t o S hape an d express th e

ideals which t he spi ri t u al life of a n a t io n creates Th e ide a l .

world reaches its highes t ex pressio n i n a s u pra m u n d a n e

s u perh u m an w orld i n which perfectio n h as a bsol u t e re ali t y
,

fo r faith Thus ar t beco m es th e orga n o f religi on

. Its high .

est fu n ctio n is t o r ealize th e i n n ermos t cravi n gs of a people ,

to co n te m pla t e i t s i deas of perfec t ion i n co n crete for m s S o .

the pl astic a r t s prod u ced co n cre t e represe n tatio n s of t he

Greek gods glorious g u res i n which t he Greek s ide als
,

o f h u m a n culture were m ade visible t o h i m S i m il a rly Greek .

poe t ry g a ve t o t he people In i t s epics an d its d ra m as livi n g pi e o'

t ures of divi n e an d h u m a n e xcelle n ces s u ch as courage l oyalty , , ,

devotio n mag n a n i m ity prude n ce wisdo m pie ty

, ,
C h ris t ia n , ,
.

a r t t oo h as perfor m ed th e sa m e n ecessary fu n ctio n of co n vert

, ,

i n g t he real m of faith i n t o a world o f co n crete i n t u iti o n s Th e .

e n tire m edi ae va l ar t architecture sc u lpture pai n ti n g m u sic

, , , , ,

a n d poe t ry had fo r its sole obj ect t he presen tat io n o f t h e

,

world of C hris t ia n faith i n the form which this had assu m ed ,

i n t he Ger m a n ic m i n d t o t he se n ses an d th e e n ti re m an 1
,
.

We m ay t herefore describe t he e ect of a r t u po n the so u l as

'

1 A . D u re r so co n ce i ve s t h e fu n ct i o n o f ar t : Th e ar t o f p ai n t in g i s e m pl o ye d
i n th e se r vi ce o f t h e ch u r ch , an d so m a n i fes t s t h e p as si o n o f C h r i st a n d m an y o t h e r

x
g o o d e a m pl e s , al s o p r e se r v e s t h e fo r m s o f m e n a ft e r t h e i r d e a t h (S e e T h an s
i n g , A Du r e r )
. . M i l to n h as t h e sam e conce p t i o n o f t h e ar t of p o e t ry : P oe t i cal

p o w e rs a r e t h e i n s p i re d g ift o f G o d r ar ely b e st o w e d in e v e ry n at i o n , an d a r e

of
p o w e r , b e s i d e t h e Of ce o f a p u l p i t t o i m b r e e d an d ,
ch e r i s h in g r eat p e o pl e
a

o f t h e m i n d , an d
th e s e e d s o f v i r t u e an d
p u b l i c ci v i li ty, t o allay t h e p e r t u rb at i o n
s et the affe c t i o n s i n r i g ht t u n e ; t o ce l e b r at e i n g l o r i ous an d l o fty h y m n s t h e

t h ro n e a n d e q u i p ag e Of G o d s al m i g h t i n e ss , a n d w h at h e w o r k s an d w h a t h e

s u ffe rs t o b e w ro u g h t w i th h i g h p r o v i d e n c e i n h is ch u r ch ; to Si n g v ict o ri ou s

ag o n i e s o f m artyr s a n d s ai n t s th e d e e ds and triu m ph s of j u s t an d p io u s n a ti o ns,

d oi n g v al i a n t l
y t h r o u g h fai t h a g ai n s t the e n e m i es o f C h r ist ; t o d e p lo r e t h e ge n
e ral re l ap s e s o f ki n g d o m s a n d s t at e s fr o m j us t i ce a n d G o d s t ru e w o r s hi p

.
56 0 DO C TRIN E OF V I R T UE S A N D DU TIE S

e q u at e ly t o express its real fu n c t io n i n t he life of a people with ,

its prese n t positio n i n o u r n atio n al li fe we readily O bserve a ,

discrepa n cy betwee n the de n itio n an d the facts Whe n w e .

speak of art i n o u r d ays w e are n ot ap t t o mea n by i t some

,

thi n g that is i n te n ded fo r all o r t ha t has an esse n tial beari n g

,

o n o n e s life

A rt is m ostly regarded as a ki n d o f l u xury
.
,

which o nly th e fe w can e n j oy wh o m fortu n e h as give n m ore

freedo m an d leisure ; th e m asses the u n educated m u s t work
, ,

a n d co n te n t t he m selves with an occasio n al solid pleasure .

That is the taci tly assu m ed an d ofte n also ope n ly expressed

opi n i o n o f m a n y ed u cated perso n s .

This view it m u s t be c onfes se d i s n o t very far from ex

, ,

pressi n g the ac t u al s t atu s Of ar t i n ou r civil izatio n Th e .

sc u lp t ures an d pai n ti n gs which we exhi bi t i n o u r galleries an d

m u se u m s i n o u r ar t exhibi t io n s an d salo n s a re o f co u rse n ot
, , , ,

i n te n de d fo r the m asses ; i n deed the people do n o t visi t the m

, ,

a n d whe n they ch a n ce to do s o t hey feel o u t o f place as th ei r

, ,

e m barrassed m ove m e n ts an d looks i n dicate N ay i t n ot i n .

,

freque n t ly h appe n s th at a perso n re a red i n si m ple surrou n d

i n gs an d re m oved fro m th e i n u e n ces of c u l t u re s u ffers from ,

a n othe r ki n d of e m barrass m e n t i n the prese n ce of s u ch works

O f art th e e m barr ass m e n t of sh a m e He sees all ki n d s
,
.

o f n aked for m s aro u n d h i m classical n aked n ess R e n aissa n ce

, ,

n aked n ess an d m oder n n aked n ess s o that the u n accusto m ed

, ,

eye wan ders abo u t seeki n g fo r a place u po n which t o rest .

S o too the great m asses Of people have o n ly a m odest sh ar e

, ,

i n what we call o u r n atio n al li t era t u re S o n g an d m u si c .

are m ost e n j oyed by t h e m u ltitude by which I d o n o t o f , ,

course m ea n arias an d sy m pho n ies Moreover a close r i n

,
.
,

v e s t i at i o n wo u ld I believe S h ow tha t art does n o t eve n c on

g , ,

s t i t u te a very esse n tial ele m e n t i n the li ves o f m a n y O f o u r

ed u cated m e n It is largely m erely a m atter o f S ho w ; a fe w

.

p ai n ti n gs a n d e n gravi n gs the u sual gilt edged editio n s i n the

,
-

glass case an d the i n evitable pian o belo n g to the fur n it u re

,

of a

re n ed ho m e ; S i m ilarly a s m a t teri n g of the history
 P
S I RIT U AL LIF E A ND C U LT URE 56 1

of li t era t u re an d ar t for m s a par t of the fur n i t ure of a

c u ltivated m i n d .

How S hall we accou n t for this discrepan cy betwee n the

reality an d th e ideal ? S o m e m ay perhaps feel i n cli n ed to , ,

say : Well this is the i n evitable obverse o f higher civiliza

,

ti o n ; the n u m be r o f perso n s capable of keepi n g pace with

progress will n atu rally di m i n ish the greater the de m a n ds,

that are m ade A ll progress depe n ds upo n the divisio n o f

.

labor a n d di ff ere n tiatio n ; an d t he splitti n g up of the people

i n to the ed u ca t ed cl a sses an d th e m asses is a n ecessa ry
co n seque n ce .

I ca n n ot co n vi n ce myself o f the t r u th o f this assertio n It .

is i n a m easure true of k n owledge that the m ore it grows ,

th e fu rther it beco m es re m oved fro m the m asses ; the p ro

d u cts of scie n ce are by their ve ry n at u re accessible o n ly to
the few perso n s wh o have th e t i m e an d stre n gth for di fc u l t
a n d pro t racted preparatio n It see m s to be di ffere n t h o w
.
,

ever i n the case of ar t S cie n ce S peaks t o th e i n tellect i n

, .

co n cepts art appeals to t he se n sibility th rough percep t s ; th e

,

capacity t o be i m presse d by its products see m s t o be m ore a

m atter o f n at u ral aptit u de th a n a specic acco m pl ish m e n t t o
be acq u i red by practice altho u gh this ap t itu de m ay be de
,

v e l o e d an d i n te n sied by exercise
p If ar t expresses the
. su m

total of the e m otio n s o f a people i t m u st s u rely h ave so m e

,

thi n g to say to every child of the people N ot eve rybody can .

be a creative art ist n or an exper t art critic b u t all we sho u l d , ,

i m agi n e o u ght t o be capable of e n j oyi n g art althoug h i n

, ,

di ffere n t degrees .

Historical f a c t s also seem t o be a r ou t t his vie w G reek art .

,

at its cli m ax was as everybody k n ows by n o m ea n s i n fe rio r

, , ,

to the ar t of th e prese n t ei ther i n co n te n t or i n for m N eve r

,
.

t h e l e ss it was n ot i n te n ded for a s m all ci rcle o f ed u cated

,

pe rso n s : E schyl u s an d S oph ocles did n ot co m pose thei r

d ra m as a n d De m osthe n es did n ot w rite h is o ratio n s fo r
, ,

college grad u a t es b u t fo r the e n tire c o m m u n ity So too

,
.
, ,

36
56 2 DO C TRIN E OF VIRTUES A ND DU TIES

the A the n ia n citize n s m ust have u n derstood an d appreci ate d th e

value of the works of architect u re an d sculpt u re which ador n ed
the city i n the ft h ce n t u ry ; i n deed these coul d n ot have arise n
,

h ad n ot th e citize n s rst con vi n ced the m selves o f their val u e .

A n d i f re fere n ce be m ad e to the slav es wh o e n abled the

citize n s to e n j oy leis u r e an d c u lture I call atte n t i o n t o ,

m edi aeval art It t oo possessed a large deg re e o f crea t ive

.
, ,

power an d se n se of for m wealth an d depth o f co n t e n t It

, .
,

too did n ot work for a s m all ci rcle of ed u cated perso n s b u t

, ,

fo r the e n tire people Medi aeval art served th e church ; i t

.

was th e esse n tial obj ect of architect u re an d sc u lp t ure pai n t ,

i n g an d m u sic to m ake the service sol e m n an d dig n ied

, .

Th e ch u rch an d the divi n e worship the sacra m e n t s an d t he ser

,

m o n we re i n te n ded fo r all like wise th e arts which labored fo r

,

the m Who wo u ld have b u ilt the co u n tless h o u ses o f w orship

.

which lled the m edi aeval cities had n o t their val u e bee n ,

u n iversally recog n ized ? They we re n ot b u ilt by the state

with the m o n ey o f the tax p ayers as th e res u lt of an ,

abstrac t c o n sideratio n th at so m ethi n g o u ght to be do n e for the

ch u rch o r for art b u t by corporatio n s an d citize n s fo r t he
, ,

glory o f God for thei r o w n pleas u re an d e di cat i on an d as

, ,

a m o n u m e n t t o t hei r ar t istic an d self s ac ri ci n g piety -

.

Where sho u ld we n d the c ourage an d the m ea n s to con

struct s u ch b u ildi n gs to d ay Why for decades a n d decades
-
,

we h ave bee n t aki n g up collectio n after collectio n t hro u gho u t

the le n gt h an d breadth o f the la n d an d h ave bee n appeali n g ,

t o the ga m bli n g i n sti n c t which has bee n deprive d of o ther

,

form s of sa t isfactio n an d y et we h ardly succeed i n raki n g

,

together th e su m s n ecessary to co m ple t e the str u c t u res which

a si n gl e city o r corpor ati o n u n dertook t o b u ild i n th ose days .

S o t o o the co u n tless pai n ti n gs an d sc u lp t ures whi ch ador n ed

, ,

the i n t erio r of th e ch u rches appeal ed t O all Each o n e s aw .

before h i m ar t istic represe n tatio n s of the sacred s t ories a n d

perso n ages that lived i n every heart an d was i n spired by ,

the m to j oyful ve n era t io n .

56 4 DO C TRIN E OF VIRTUE S A N D DU TIES

cha n ges its clo thes Religi o n is the so u l the i n n e r life o f a

.
,

people it per m eates everythi n g its la n gu age its poetry its

, , , ,

c u sto m s its i n stitutio n s i t s i deals It is well k n ow n with

, ,
.

what j ealo u s zeal the n e w religio n persecu t ed an d exter m i n ated

the O ld belie fs the ol d sacred custo m s t he old poe t ry t he
, , ,

o l d ideals .

Th e n e w religio n t ook r oo t a m o n g the people ; i t was

grafted upo n the o ld t r u n k an d prod u ced vigoro u s o ffshoots
the k n ighthood with its c u rio u s m ixt u re of m artial co u rage
,

a n d C hristia n m ercy t he m o n as t ic orders with t heir eq u ally

,

re m ark able u n io n of cul ture an d asceticis m t he scholas tic ,

philosophy with its co m bi n a t io n o f childlike fai t h a n d mase n ~

li n e thought m edi aeval ar t with its u n io n of super n atural

,

co n t e n t an d se n s u ous for m Bu t the n ca m e the seco n d gre at

.

i n terr u p t io n which we are i n th e habi t o f calli n g the Re n ais

,

sa n ce Here a gai n we n otice th e sa m e sudde n b reak with

.
, ,

the pas t as before A fter ou r co n versio n t o C hristian ity th e

.
,

past was repudiated as pagan is m an d regarded with abhor ,

re n ce the n th e Middle A ges were co n de m n ed as lthy G othi c

barbaris m Th e H u m a n ists could n ot n d t er m s e n ou gh t o
.

express thei r co nte m p t for the Middle A ges : thei r la n guage ,

their worship their ar t was n othi n g bu t detes t abl e barbarism

, , .

N ay eve n thei r religio n w a s n ot C h r i s ti an i ty b u t an i dolat rous

, ,

scan dal ; so j udged the Refor m atio n an d j oi n ed forces with ,

Hu m a n is m t o destroy the ol d for m s of church li fe Th e fea r .

o f idolat ry le d t o th e destructio n of the e n t ire se n s u ous ele m e n t

i n religio n both o n t h e m e n t al side an d i n its ou t ward m an

,

i fe s t at i o n ; a n d with t he decli n e of th e worship of t he s ai n t s ,

a rt lost its true O bjec t .

Tho u gh fou r ce n turie s h ave passed si n ce this seco n d i n t er

r uptio n O f o u r his t orical life i t s e ff ects h av e n o t bee n o verco m e
,

as were those of th e rst d u ri n g the Mi ddle A ges Ou r n a , .

t i on al life has n ot assi m ila t ed classical a n tiq u i ty as i t fo r ,

m erly assi m ilated C hristia n a n tiq u ity ; we have n o t received

i t i n to o u r esh an d blood ; all o u r people do n ot share i n it .
 P A
S I RITU L LIF E A N D C ULTURE 56 5

In deed i t i s doubtful whether t his can e ve r happe n an d ,

whether i t wo u ld be desirable Th e civilizatio n o f the Re

.

n aissa n ce has take n h old o f o n ly a s m all fractio n o f o u r pop

u l at i on o f tha t par t n a m ely which r eceives a classical e d u

, , ,

cat io n i n ou r h u m an is t ic gym n asia ; an i m porta n t frac t io n ,

i t is t rue the desti n ed l eaders an d t each e rs of ou r peopl e

,

i n all t he spheres o f life Bu t t his group does n ot w h olly

.

sta n d withi n the pale of o u r popular life i t co n sti t u t es a ,

special stratu m by t he S ide o f it o r if we ch oose above it

, , ,

the lear n ed class which is S harply separate d fro m the peopl e

by its S O called classical e ducatio n This chas m be t wee n the
-
.

learn ed an d u n lear n ed did n ot exis t u n til the Re n aissa n ce .

Du ri n g the M iddle A ges a dis t i n ctio n was m ade be t wee n t he

clergy an d l ay m e n ; this was a d i e r e n ce i n ed u ca t io n b u t i t ,

was not grea t ; t he clergy k n e w Lati n the la n guage of t he ,

church b u t t hei r c o n cep t io n of life an d the world did n ot

,

di ffer fro m t ha t of t he k n igh t an d the peasa n t Besides ow .

,

i n g t o celibacy these d iffere n ces i n educat io n did n o t beco m e

,

hereditary Not u n t il t he six t ee n th ce n tury was t he li n e

.

sharply dr a w n be t wee n t he people an d the cul t ured classes .

N ot o nly d o t he la t ter di ffe r fro m the for m er i n scie n tic or

t ech n ical k n owledge bu t t heir e n tire co n ceptio n s of life di ffe r
,

fro m those o f o u r people an d they are proud of i t They

, .

tur n t o classical a n tiq u ity for wha t t hey ca n n o t n d a t ho m e :

the pe rfec t develop m e n t of m an an ideal which i s realized
,

o n ly i n a m ore or less crippled form outside of t he an cie n t

world Th e worship of a n tiquity has beco m e so m e t hi n g of a
.

seco n d reli gio n with scholars a m ore aristocra t ic religio n

,

i n which the masses d o n ot of course participa t e ,

This , .

w orship reached its cli m ax i n the seco n d Re n aissa n ce t he ,

co n ti n uatio n i n the eigh t ee n th ce n tury o f the rst Re n ais

sa n ce which had bee n i n t errup t ed by the great religio u s
,

m ove m e n t o f the six t ee n th ce n t u ry Ou r gy m n asia were r e

.

established at th e begi n n i n g o f this ce n t u ry as te m ples o f this

religio n of the e d u cated Ho m er bei n g their sacred book
, .
 56 6 DO C T RIN E OF V IR I UE S A N D DUTIE S
'

What we c all o u r n a t io n al lite rature an d art is largely the

possessio n Of this gro u p o f the classically ed u cated It is n o t .

rooted i n o u r pop u lar life bu t i n the classical schools he n ce

,

i t s ge n eral classical character Ou r S O

. called classical litera
ture it is tr u e n o lo n ger e m pl oys th e a n cie n t la n gu ages like
, , ,

the n e e Lati n an d n e o Greek poetry of the S ixtee n th ce n tury ;

- -

still i t loves t o follo w th e old cl assical m odels i n for m an d

co n te n t In deed eve ry day we hear the assertio n cal m ly
.
,

m ade tha t t o u n ders t a n d o u r classic a u thors the classical educa

tio n whic h the gy m n asiu m gives is a n ecessary prerequisite .

Th e state m e n t is perhaps some wh at ex aggerated o wi n g t o a ,

desire of its defe n ders to j u sti fy the gy m n asi u m b u t w h o will

,

de n y th a t there is a ger m o f truth i n it ?

Th e o ther ar t s also betray classical t raits . Take architec t
u r e n ot t o m e n tio n sc u lp t ure which i s a purely exotic growth
, , ,

excep t i n s o far as it prod u ces portrait statu es A rchitec t u re

.

is n ot a prod u ct of the ha n dicraft bu t i s lear n ed i n acade m ies ;

,

i t is n o t rooted i n ou r n eeds a n d i n o u r li fe co n ditio n s but i n

-
,

lear n ed t raditio n s We arbi t rarily choose a certai n style an d

.
,

the n do the bes t we c an t o adapt the for m to the co n dition s .

Th u s arise those curio u s for m atio n s which m ay be see n i n our

stree t s , pillars of brick topped with t i n to give the m the ap
p e ar an ce o f C ori n thia n col u mn s ; plaster-
o f
-
paris con soles
gl u ed t o woode n cor n ices ap pare n tly to s u ppor t the m u n til
,

they drop off ; b u ildi n gs which wan t to look like Grecia n

t e m ples an d to that e n d s u rrou n d the m selves with col u m n s ,

b u t re m e m beri n g that they are i n te n ded for pic t u re galleries ,

i n sert walls an d wi n dows betwee n thei r col u m n s so t hat o n e hal f

o f the colu m n proj ects fro m the m aso n ry a m iserabl e S igh t .

Pai n ti n g is m ore i n dige n o u s to the soil ; m u sic m os t o f all ;

,

is i t beca u se m u sic h ad to develop i n depe n de n tly owi n g to ,

the fac t that Greek m u sic on e is te m pted to sav fo r ,

t u n ate ly w as n ot preserved ?
I d o n ot wish to be fa u lt n di n g o r to criticise history ; far
-

fro m it This wo u ld be a presu m ptuous an d f u til e u n de r tak

.
56 8 DO C TRI N E OF VI RTUE S A N D DUTIE S

On e thi n g however i s cer t a in : the n arrow n ess of i n t ellec t ual

, ,

li fe which is s o favorable to the develop m e n t of the creative

,

fa n cy is go n e ; m y t hology an d lege n d w h ose ideal g u res

, ,

fur n ished th e ar t of the past with its m at erial will n ot return

, .

N or will th e n e w ar t thrive upo n t he soil of luxury Goe th e

.

k n ew wha t h e was sayi n g whe n he m ade the re m ark which

I n d q u o t e d s om e wh e re :
I h at e l u xu ry i t d es t roys th e
,

fa n cy .
 C H APTER V I

HONOR A ND L O E V OF HO OR N 1

1 . love of ho n or m ay be r egarded as a peculiar m odi

Th e
ca ti o n O f the i m p u lse O f sel f preserva t io n ; i t ai m s at the pres -

e r v a t i o n o f the self i n co n scio u s n ess i n o u r o w n co n scious n es s ,

as well as i n tha t O f others We may call it the i mp u lse of .

i d ea l se lf p r eser va ti on
-
.

By ho n or i n the O bj ec t ive se n se we m ea n the O pi n io n which

ou r surrou n di n gs h ave of us By his character an d hi s .

ac t s every m an arouses se n t i m e n t s i n h i s fellows which

,

represe n t judg m e n t s of value : respec t an d disrespect ad m i r ,

atio n an d co n te m p t revere n ce an d a v ersio n These feeli n gs

,
.

e xpress the m selves i n judg m e n t s an d are i n u e n ced i n te n si ,

e d an d har m o n ized by other feeli n gs an d t h u s arises so m e

, ,

thi n g like a ge n eral es t i m at e o f th e value o f the par t icular

i n d i vid u al i n socie ty : t hi s is hi s objective h o n or Th e .

phe n o m e n o n is l acki n g i n a n i m als ; o n ly i n m an does i n t el

l ec tual an d social life reach such a state of perfectio n an d
stability as to m ake possible this per m a n e n t reectio n O f the
i n divid u al i n the co n scio u s n ess o f th e whole .

There are as m a n y di ff ere n t ki n ds o f ho n or as there are

gro u ps or se t s to which a m an bel o n gs A s t he m e m ber o f .

a political co m m u n ity he has a p oli ti ca l h o n or ; it m eas u res

his value as a citize n Th e di ffere n t es t ates or orders r e p re
.

1
[A r i s t ot l e , E thi cs , Bk I L,
.
,
ch V.II
V IL, Bk IV
X ; S ch o p en h a u e r,
. . ch s . . .

P a re rga , v ol I , V o n d o m was e in e r vorstellt Jh e r i n g , pp 4 8 0 ti ; P o r t e r , P art

. . . .

I , ch
. .
; He XV
ffd i n.
g, X I 0 ; W u n d t I c
. h III 3 c
( ) (e ) J am e s Psy cholog y,
. . .

, , , ,

ch X ; F o w le r a n d W i lson , Part IL, c h IV ; Do rne r, pp 3 8 4 3 9 5 ; Bu n ze ,

T
. . . . .

6 7 ff . R .
]
570 DO C TRIN E OF VI RTUE S A N D DU TIE S

se n t so m a n y atte m p t s a t a systematic grad u atio n of t his

for m o f h o n o r It is to be n o t iced however that the l owest
.
, ,

class that o f the citize n as such ( S ta a tsbu rg e r ) is n ot r e

, ,

garded as a real class Bu t that it exists tha t it t o o has its

.
,

political ho n or is S how n by the fact that pe n alties are i n

,

i ct e d fo r breach es Of it which deprive a m an o f his civil

ho n orary rights ( bi trg er li che E hr e n r e chte) : he forfeits all
O fces positi o n s of t rust titles de coratio n s an d t he righ t t o
, , , ,

serve as a soldier voter j u ror wi tn ess a n d guardia n Th e

, , , , .

p o litical u n w orthi n ess o f the i n divid u al i s thereby procl ai m ed .

Besides the political ho n or there is a S pecial s oci a l ho n or , .

Everybody is a m e m be r o f soci ety ; his value as s u ch is

measured b y his social h o n or S ocial ra n k i s esse n tially .

deter m i n ed by birth wealth eco n o m ic an d m e n tal achieve

, ,

m e n ts . S ocial ho n or i n variably seeks to c o n vert itsel f i n to

political ho n or o r rathe r to O b t ai n t he s a n ctio n of the s t ate
, , , .

Th e state sa t ises this d esire by the bes t owal o f titles an d

decoratio n s It m akes the rich m ercha n t a Komm er zi en r a t
.
,

the s u ccessf u l physicia n a S a n i td tsr a t the celebrated scholar ,

an d pro fessor a G e h e i m er R eg i e r u ng sr a t N 0 o f ce goes with .

these t itles t hey carry n o d u ties with the m ; t he pro fessor

,

h as n o govern i n g to d o n or is his advice ever so u ght eithe r

, ,

i n p u blic o r priva t e m a tt ers I n th e title t he state S i m ply

.

recog n i zes an d bri n gs t o p u blic n o t ice th e social sig n ica n ce

o r social ra n k of th e recipie n t Decoratio n s se rve esse n tially
.

th e sa m e p u rpose that is t hey proclai m the social an d p ol

, ,

i ti cal ra n k o f th e possessor Th e title syste m is a p rod u ct

.

Of th e m oder n s t a t e while the n obi li ty i s an olde r develop

,

m en t . Th e latter t o o i s based upo n soci al disti n cti o n whi ch ,

i n t u r n depe n ds upo n wealth birth an d perso n al achi eve , ,

m e n ts . Th e state recog n izes t hi s by the bestowal of political

pri ileges
v .

Withi n these co m prehe n sive group s there are n arrower

ci rcles each h avi n g its par t ic u l ar for m O f h o n or : we speak
,

of the ho n or o f a m e rch a n t th e h o n or o f an artist t he ho n o r

, ,
5 72 DO C TRIN E OF VIRTUE S A ND DUTIE S

A chilles s t a n ds fo r stre n g th an d cou rage ; A ga m e m n on fo r

ra n k an d wealth ; Ulysses an d N estor fo r pr u de n ce an d e lo
q u e n ce Fi n ally the m or a l excelle n ce s al so belo n g i n a cer
.
, ,

t ai n se n se to the qualitie s which bri n g h o n o r an d which th e

,

love of ho n or i m pel s u s t o acq u ire In te m pe ra n ce dissipa .

,

t io n an d e x t r avagan ce bri n g disgrace at least after they h ave

, ,

r u i n ed th e perso n addicted t o the m fo r t he n t he frie n ds wh o

,

o n ce applauded h i m forsake h i m Th e opposi t e m odes of be

.

havior on t he other h a n d preserve wealth an d stre n gth an d

, , ,

s o u lti m ately at least lead t o ho n or

, ,
Falseh ood o n acco u n t of
.
,

its ki n ship wit h cowardice i f for n o o the r reaso n bri n gs dis

, ,

grace likewise d eceit an d disho n es ty V eracity t ru stw or th i .

,

n ess an d u pright n ess o n the co n trary give on e a good n a m e

, ,
.
,

Th u s ho n or beco m es t he guardia n o f m orality ; the l ove o f

ho n or te n ds to deter m i n e the w ill to develop rs t o f all the , ,

self regardi n g virtu es an d the n also t o acquire the social

-
,

vir tues o r at leas t to avoid i n j u stice fals e hood an d cri m e

, , ,
.

No detailed acco u n t i s n eeded t o S h ow t he i m porta n ce o f this

i m pulse for the m oral educatio n of th e race Th e develop m e n t .

o f the hu m a n vi rtues i n the species co u rage m ag n a n i m ity , ,

j u stice ver a ci ty
, t he develop m e n t of higher capacities ,

econ o m ic as wel l a s m e n tal is h ardly co n ceivable without

,

this co n s t a n tly ac t ive i m puls e Th e r egard for h o n or an d the

.

fear of disgrace produce a few good resul t s eve n i n the most

u n pro m isi n g cases : t he sluggish n a t u re is goaded t o actio n
by the fea r of the disgrace of pover ty ; th e t i m id te m per
am e n t is urged t o m ak e a s t a n d fo r fear o f bei n g accused o f

cowardice ; the dea n t an d stubbor n dispositio n is bro u gh t t o

term s by the fear of pu n ish m e n t an d disho n or No r can we .

i m agi n e the perfor m a n c e of grea t deeds witho u t a stro n g love

o f ho n or

Fa m e ho n or i n its highest d egree was the m os t

.
, ,

po werfu l m otive i n mos t o f the m e n who bro u ght abo u t the

great tur n i n g poi n ts i n history
-
i n A lexa n der,
C ae sar , ,

Frederick N apoleo n A n d great m e n tal an d artistic achieve

,
.

m e n ts t oo would be i n co n ceivable i f there were n o prospect o f

 H ONO R AND L OV E OF H ONO R 57 3

disti n ctio n fam e an d i m m ortality i n the m e m ory o f m an

, , .

Th e love o f fa m e it is tr u e doe s n o t create th e prod u ct i ve

, ,

i m p u lse b u t witho u t it the latter wo u ld n ot be apt to de v el op

, .

Eve n a m o n g the great sai n ts th e prospect o f fa m e was n o t

withou t i t s i n u e n ce thou gh they despised th e fa m e o f m e n ,

i t was because th ey hoped to achieve a higher fam e with G o d .

Th e co u n ter proo f is f u r n ished by cases where absol u tely

n o regard is had fo r ho n or a n d disgrace Perso n s wh o n o .

lo n ger have an y fear o f disho n or because they have n o h o n or

to lose h ave reached the lowest d epths o f d egradatio n Su ch
,
.

a gro u p of o u tcasts exists i n every m etropolis ; pro fessio n al

Cri m i n als a n d prostitu tes for m its co m ple m e n tary halves
they are perso n s who have n o m ore ho n or to l ose a n d n o hope
to red ee m it In the work o f A v Lalle m an t o n the Germ a n
.
-

cri m i n al class 1 we n d a detailed descriptio n o f a ki n d o f

co u n te r society for m ed by these di sh o n o rabl e s which h as
, ,

its o w n la n g u age its o wn c u sto m s an d usages n ay Its o w n

, ,

ho n or the h o n or of thieves ; so i m possible i s it fo r m e n to do

,

u tterly witho u t disti n ctio n a n d ho n o r Its la n g u age is a m i x .

t u re of the dregs o f all la n gu ages ; the la n g u age of on e people

partic u larly havi n g co n tributed to it a people which has los t ,

its h o n or a m o n g the n atio n s th e Jews Its m orali ty is a ,

.

disg u sti n g i m m orality ; the cri m i n al ho n or the degree of dis ,

grace which each on e bri n gs as h is pledge so to speak ; the ,

m ore disgrace d his n a m e is i n ho n orable society the m ore ,

disti n g u ished he is i n the co u n te r socie ty .

3 Th e proper attit u d e o f the i n divid u al towards ho n or

.
,

the virtu e i n to w hich the i m p u lse o f ho n or is fashio n ed we call ,

the love of hon or We m ay de n e it as th at habit of the will

.

an d m ode o f co n d u c t which seeks to gai n the r e cog n i t i on of

t he vi r tu ou s a n d
g oo d by me a n s f hon e st
o a n d vi r tu ou s a cti on s .

Perh aps we m ay characterize it s u itably fro m two poi n ts of ,

vie w as p r op e r p r i d e an d p r op er h u m i li ty
, .

P r i d e (which is n o t to be co n fu sed with h a u ghti n ess ) is the

1 4 vo ls ,
1 8 5 8 ff
.
574 DO C TRIN E OF VIRTUE S A ND DU TIE S

a n tithesis of dege n erat e for m

t wo s of the i m p u lse o f ho n or
va n i t
y an d a m bi ti o n W e c all a m an vai n w h o is greatly
.

pleased with hi m self an d his achieve m e n ts an d displays the m ,

whereve r he can for t h e sake of receivi n g ad m iratio n an d

,

praise o r a t leas t at t ery Th e vai n glorio u s m an is n o t

.

very par t ic u lar i n the choice of his ad m irers o r i n th e ch oice ,

o f the thi n gs for whi ch he i s disti n g u ished His co n sta n t .

a i m i s t o be co n spic u o u s an d to m ak e a S h o w ; h e is n o t

satised u n less he c an attrac t a t te n tio n t o hi m sel f A m an is .

a m bitio u s who m akes h o n o r the u n co n ditio n al goal o f hi s

strivi n g that is craves fo r ho n or an d fa m e at the pri ce o f all
, ,

other goods eve n a t t he price of h appi n ess an d li fe self

, ,

respect an d a good co n scie n ce A m bitio n especially strives .

fo r political rep u tatio n ; i t craves fo r powe r ra n k a n d posi , ,

t io n V a n ity seeks to arouse ad m i ratio n by perso n al q u alities

.
,

by beau t y an d el ega n ce by brillia n cy an d wit by lo n g n ails

, ,

an d stylish clo t hes On the whole we m ay call va n i ty the

.
,

fe m i n i n e a m bitio n t he m asc u li n e for m of t he d ege n era t e

, ,

i m p u lse of h o n or Wo m e n strive to please by all ki n ds o f

.

o u t w ard S h ow pre tt y g u re s an d d ai n ty faces s u per u o u s

, ,

n ery an d ti n sel c u lture To please a m an is as yet al m ost

.

thei r o n ly way Of achievi n g o u t ward disti n ctio n Th e m an s .

i m p u lse O f ho n or i s u s u ally deter m i n e d by his birth an d

calli n g ; i t ai m s at obj e ctive rep u tatio n : the ho n or o f the m e r
ch an t is wealth ; that of the pri n ce powe r ; tha t of the ,

peasa n t the size an d prod u ctivity o f his elds A m bitio n

,
.

based u po n ran k an d fa m ily t raditio n s i s m ore q u iet co n stan t , , ,

a n d m asc u li n e i n ch aracter wh ile tha t which ai m s at perso n al

,

disti n ctio n thro u gh literary ar t istic an d scie n tic achieve

, , ,

m e n ts approaches the fe m i n i n e for m o f a m bitio n va n ity

,
It , .

is m ore sel f Co n ceited an d excitable self co n sci o u s n ess is

-
,
-

m ore vacilla t i n g evide n t ly beca u se we a r e h ere co n cer n ed

,

with pe rso n al acco m plish m e n ts an d ac h ieve m e n ts an d b e ,

ca u se an ob j ective s ta n d ard o f the val u e o f s u ch pe rfor m a n ces

is n o t possible We can m eas u re the ra n k o f a ge n eral o r
.
,
5 76 DO C TRI N E OF VIRTUE S A N D DUTIE S

voti n g his stre n gth the co n scio u s n ess of doi n g ho n es t an d

,

e fcie n t work an d the h ope t h a t the fu t u re will ho n or his

,

si n cere e n deavors At all eve n t s h e ref u ses to h ave recourse

.

to attery an d ca m a r a de r i e i n order to be ad m ired i n return .

He d oes n ot allow th e fea r O f displeasi n g perso n s i n powe r

t o ha m per h i m i n his tho u ghts o r actio n s Kepler thus con .

e l u des th e preface o f his W e ltha r m on ih: Y our forgive n ess

will please m e you r a n ger I will e n dure here I cast the die
, ,

an d write a book t o be read whe t her by co n te m poraries o r by

,

posterity I care n o t : i t can wait for readers tho u s an ds of

,

years seei n g t hat God hi m self wai t ed si x tho u sa n d years fo r

,
1
so m e on e t o co n t e m pla t e his work These are proud words ,

a n d a pro u d m an i t was t hat uttered t he m C o m pare with .

Kepler s pro u d de m ea n or t he beh avior of o u r m odern sch olars

who u n blushi n gly per m i t t heir p u pils an d colleagu es t o si n g

their praises to their ve r y f a ces a t all ki n ds of j u bilees .

Would n ot a little pride be more beco m i n g ? It wo u ld a t ,

least m ake the professi o n more respected th e people h ave a

,

kee n se n se of proprie ty i n such t hi n gs ; fty y ears ago th e

Ger m a n sch olar was held i n higher es t eem by the public
tha n at prese n t perhaps t o so m e exte n t becau se th e u se O f
, , ,

i n ce n se a m o n g the livi n g w as m uch m ore li m ite d t h an n ow .

No r is it t o b e regretted that titles an d decora t io n s wer e

rarer an d t ha t he was m ore o fte n ce n s u red an d ig n ored by
,

his s u periors th an a t prese n t S i n ce the n the calli n g has .

beco m e co n siderably m ore aristocratic o u twardly b u t its i n n e r ,

w orth an d real fa m e have hardly i n creased i n proportio n .

4 Th e other a n t ithesis o f the love o f ho n or i s p r op e r

.

hu m i li ty Pride m a n ifes t s i t self i n t he proper accepta n ce of

.

ho n or h u m ility i n t he proper bes t owal of h on or

, .

H u m ility i s the opposite o f ha ug hti n e ss Th e ha u gh ty m an .

despises others h e t rea t s the m co n desce n di n gly By ref u s

, .

i n g to show the m proper respect he e n deavors to keep it for ,

hi m sel f as i t were an d so t o h ave an adva n t age over the m

, , .

1 Re u s chl e , K ep ler , p 1 2 7
. .
 H ONO R OVE
A ND L OF H ON O R 577

He does n ot seek co n verse with m e n i n deed he ac tu ally ,

sh u n s it becau se h e n ds that his expectatio n s with respect to

,

ho n or are n ot realized an d becau se he is n ot willi n g to satisfy

,

the clai m s of others It is evide n tly for this reaso n tha t

.

haugh t i n ess an d prid e are so easily co n fu sed Hau ghti n ess .

is m oreover very co m m o n ly co n n ected with ser vi li ty Th e

, , .

m an wh o trea t s those who m he regards as his i n feriors with

brutal ha u ghti n ess crouches before t he m ighty He uses
,
.

all the ar t s of s u bservie n t attery t owards th ose who are

u n questio n ably richer m ore a ristocratic power fu l an d i n u
, , ,

e n t i al tha n he i n orde r thus t o rise o n the ladder o f ra n k ;

,

h e reve n ges hi m self o n those belo w h i m an d it a ffords h i m ,

S peci al satisfactio n to kick his patro n as soo n as he has c u t

stripped h i m In t his way h e gets back his capital with

.

i n t eres t .

Hu mi li ty on t he o t her ha n d give s every o n e th e ho n or

, ,

which is his due It re j oices a t the m erit of others an d is

.
,

ever ready t o recog n ize ability to ad m ire excelle n ce an d t o

, ,

revere n ce good n ess Ge n u i n e h u m ility this is its true sig n

.

an d ge n ui n e f r ee m i n de d n e ss go together Th e hu m ble
-
.
,

free m i n ded m an bo w s be fore what is truly ho n orabl e eve n

-
,

whe n i t appears i n m e n ial fo r m an d re fu ses to m ere extern al

,

po we r wh at belo n gs t o the ve n erable alo n e It is with pride .

that he sides wi t h those wh o are o u traged for the sake of

t ruth an d j u stice an d h e co n siders it an h o n or to s u ff er dis
,

grace an d persec u t io n with the m Th e word o f the j u dge on .

t he j u dg m e n t day applies t o h i m : I was i n p riso n an d ye

ca m e u n to m e .

These are t wo well k n ow n types : the s e r vi le m i n d e d fu ll

- -
,

o f ha u ghti n ess an d base n ess an d the f r e e m i n d e d

,
fu ll o f -
,

n oble pride an d revere n ce an d deep h u m ility We Ger m a n s .

h ave an exam ple o f a m an o f the latte r type i n F reiherr v o n

S tei n . H u m ble be fore God high m i n ded m ag n a n i m o u s
, ,

towards m e n a fe e o f falsehood a n d i n j u stice so his epi
, ,

t aph characterizes h i m A n d L u the r o n ce said of hi m self i n

.

37
578 DO C TRIN E OF VI RTUE S A N D DU TIE S

co m m e n ti n g u po n the fty r st Psal m : Whe n I bow do wn

-

a n d h u m ble m y sel f be fore God I am scor n fu l o f t h e devil

,

a n d the world dea n t an d haughty i n the Lord an d I despise

, ,

all their da n gers strategy an d viole n ce
, ,
We o fte n n d u po n
.
,

th e ol d Ger m a n passio n pict u res th e two types pai n ted side

,

by side Th e rst type i s represe n ted by the soldiers an d their

.

vol u n tary assista n ts wh o revile an d m altreat Hi m who was

,

forsake n by God an d m an ; t hey have n o eye fo r His ador

able so u l Or i f they do obtai n a gli m pse of t he s u bli m e char
,

acter o f th e n oble su fferer t heir bitter hate beco m es all the

,

more i n te n se ; n o thi n g affords the base born S O m uch ge n u i n e

-

pleas u re as t o be allowed by those i n a u thority to spit at

, ,

a n d to tra m ple u po n t he p u re a n d i n n oce n t Th e other type .

is represe n ted by t he w o m e n u n der the cross With fearless .

loyalty their tears ack n owledge the ou t cast of m e n ; their

hearts do n ot cease reveri n g Hi m Th e m an who liste n s to .

his i n tellec t is sed u ced by it t o forsake an d to de n y Hi m : His

ca u se is lost ; can it be t he j us t cause whe n all i n a u thority
an d all co pete t j dges d ecide agai n s t it
m n u ? Th e sacre d
story sh ows its profo u n d an d eter n al sig n ica n ce eve n i n s u ch
features as these Th e si n s tha t wo m e n have co m m itted
.

thro u gh va n ity wo m e n have agai n ato n ed by their faith fu l

,

an d u n swervi n g devotio n an d a d oratio n N othi n g i n this .

w orld is stro n ger t ha n th e heart Of a h u m bl e an d free

m i n ded wo m a n There is n o higher praise for wo m e n tha n
.

t ha t which they fo u n d be n eath the cross .

5 With tr u e pride a n d tr u e h u m ility t r u e sel f estee m

.
,
-

n ally is j oi n ed Th e proper esti m ate o f o n esel f m ay be

.

de n ed as a m ea n betwee n p u si lla n i m i ty an d sup e r ci li ou s

n e ss P u silla n i m ity is h abit u al fai n t hearted n ess i n regard
.
-

t o the proble m s which li fe sets be fore u s ; it weake n s ou r

capacity to ac t an d t o su e r S u percilio u s n ess S pri n gs fro m
.

u n deresti m ati n g o u r task s a n d overesti m ati n g o u r powers it

regards exertio n as s u per u o u s an d so is n o less prod u c
,

t ive o f fail u re tha n fai n thearted n ess : s u percili ou s n ess goeth

58 0 DO C TRIN E OF V I R TU E S A N D DUTIE S

attit u de i n certai n positio n s an d toward s certai n perso n s b u t ,

will ch oose an d d o the proper thi n g with s u re tact There is .

n o othe r for m of sel f k n owledge tha n this i n sti n ctive k n owl

-

edge ; an abstract ps y ch ological sel f k n owledge based upo n -

a n alysis an d co m pariso n i s n o t possible This is S chope n .

h au er s view also ; h e calls atte n tio n t o th e fact tha t we

ca n n ot i n spite of all looki n g glasses eve n pict u re to o u r

,
-
,

selves ou r ow n bodily phys i ogn o m y like th a t of oth ers beca u se , ,

we c a n n ot cast u po n o u rselves the l ook O f estra n ge m e n t

which is t h e co n ditio n Of the obj ecti vity o f perceptio n 1 W e .

do n ot see o u rselves acti n g an y m ore th a n we see o u rselves

,

i n m otio n ; th e age n t ca n n ot obse rve hi m self while acti n g ,

fo r which r easo n t oo as Goe th e says he has n o co n scie n ce

, ,

as an agen t His a t t e n t io n i s xe d solely u po n the ex

.

t ern al goal .

Y es we may say th e i n cli n atio n t o re ec t u po n o n eself is a

, ,

sy m pto m o f a m orbid co n ditio n ; i t spri n gs fro m a lack of self

relia n ce A n d reecti o n i s by n o m ea n s able to re m ove the
.

de fec t ,
it m erely i n te n sies i t ; self re e ct i o n rese m bles th e -

co n d u c t of the garde n er wh o digs u p the roots Of his t rees

t o see whethe r they ar e sou n d This too is Goeth e s i dea .
, ,

.

In a co n versat io n with E cker m a n n h e rej ects the de m a n d ,

K n ow t hysel f as a c u riou s de m a n d which n o o n e h as

,

e ve r satised an d which n o o n e really o u gh t to satisfy

,
.

Man is bo u n d by all his tho u ghts an d strivi n gs t o the

e x t er n al to t he world aro u n d h i m an d he is kep t b u sy i n
, ,

u n derstan di n g this worl d an d i n m aki n g i t serviceable to h i m

self so far as his p u rposes requ ire Of his o w n sel f he beco m es
,
.

a ware o n ly whe n he e n j oys a n d s u ffe rs a n d s o too hi s so r rows ,

an d j oys alo n e t each h i m what to seek an d wh at to a v oid In .

other respec t s h owever m an i s an obsc u re bei n g ; he k n ows

, ,

n ot whe n ce h e c a m e n o r whither he goes ; he k n ows little

of th e world a n d less o f hi m sel f I d o n ot k n o w m yself .

,

an d m ay G o d preserve m e fro m it Here agai n S ch ope n .

, ,

1 P a re rga , IL, 3 43 .
 H ONO R A ND L OVE OF H ONO R 58 1

h a u er O ffers hi m self as an i n terpre t er of Goethe Th e .

obsc u re bei n g is th e will which o n ly grad u ally m a n ifests
,

itsel f as S chope n h au er S hows i n the i n stru ctive n i n etee n th

,

chapter of t he seco n d vol u m e O f the Wor ld a s Wi ll a n d

I dea .

6 . M od es ty m ay be de n ed as t he o u t ward for m
t h e l ove of

of h o n or Th e m odest m an sh ows by his e n tire behavi or

.

that h e does n ot despise the O pi n io n of others b u t that h e ,

desi res to m ake an e ff ort to gai n their estee m Th e opposite .

de m ean or i s th at of th e ove r be a r i ng m an ; hi s acts p roclai m

th a t he d oes n o t care wh at othe rs m ay thi n k o f h i m Whe n .

s u ch co n d u ct is displayed t oward especially ve n erable perso n s ,

we call i t i n s ole n ce an d i mp u de n ce the S ign o f a l ow an d

,

ser v ile dispositi o n .

Modesty is the n atural habit of youth Th e yo u n g have .

n o i n depe n de n t O pi n io n s of wha t is good an d proper bu t are ,

gover n ed by th e O pi n io n s of others He n ce it behooves the .

yo u n g m an t o respec t the opi n io n s of others modesty (p u d or )

is as it were the dow n of a youth fu l s o u l n o t yet to u ched by
, , ,

th e ha n ds of the world Forward n ess or eve n i n sole n ce o n

.
,

the other h an d is a S ign of u n co u th n ess It is easily pro

, .

du ce d by t he awkward ig n ora n ce of t eachers ; it is partic u larly

e n couraged by t rai n i n g the child to a t tery an d oste n t atio n .

Th e ope n i n g sce n e i n Ifi ng L e a r is a gra n d pict u re a l f r e sco

o f false ed u catio n Im agi n e th at which is here co n de n sed
.

i n to the few li n es of a sce n e as the o u tgrowth of a l o n g con -

ti n n ed ab u se of th e child so u l by pater n al va n ity an d you

-
,

h ave a faith f u l pict u re of an ed u catio n al m eth od which i s n o t

i n freq u e n t eith er i n ho m es or i n schools or w herever ed u cati o n
,

i s carried o n Ho w o fte n m ay n ot th e foolish ol d m an h ave

.

asked his da u ghters whether they loved h i m an d h ow m u ch ,

they lo v ed h i m ? His co n sta n t q u e st i o n i n s h a e al ready '

n v

destroyed all lo e an d revere n ce i n his O l d er da u ghters ; they

v

despise th e O ld fool an d atte r h i m C ordelia the yo u n gest

.
, ,

has j u s t left the care o f a faith fu l n u rse so we m ay ass u m e ; ,

5 82 DO C TRIN E OF VI RT UE S A N D DU TIE S

she does n o t ye t k n ow how to atter an d fort u n a t ely receives , , ,

n o m ore lesso n s i n the ar t .

Besides m odesty is beco m i n g to every age partic u l arly to

, ,

all those who appear be fore the p u blic It was u s u al for t he .

au thors of th e last ce n t u ry to appeal to the ge n tle re a der
,

a m ore co m m e n dable c u s t o m than th e on e which ca m e i n t o

vogu e d u ri n g the age o f Ro m a n ticis m an d Spec u l at ive Phil
osophy that n a m ely o f givi n g the reader to u n dersta n d rs t
, , , ,

i n the pre face a n d afterw a rds o n eve ry possible occasio n ,

betwee n the l i n es an d i n the li n es th at he was a very i n ferio r

,

creatu re wh o wo u ld n ot of co u rse s u cceed i n fatho m i n g all

, , ,

t he profo u n d thou ghts t here set forth I f however i n spite .

, ,

o f t his h e still i n sisted o n readi n g t he book he was told n o t

, ,

t o be disco u raged i n case the e xpected S ho u ld happe n tha t we ,

could n ot all be philosophers an d t o re m e m ber also tha t du e

,

war n i n g had bee n gi ve n h i m It is very re m arkable tha t the

.

Ger m an public actually allowed i t self to be b u llied i n this

fashio n an d for a l o n g t i m e was acc u sto m ed to ad m ire as
,

profo u n d wha t it did n ot u n dersta n d He n ce writers a re n ot .

wa n ti n g t o t his day wh o speak i n s u ch a s t rai n ; i n sole n ce

still co n ti n ues t o i m press the average Ger m a n Th e S pirit of .

E n glish sci e n tic i n t erco u rse for m s a highly pleasi n g co n trast

t o the Ger m a n habit Take s u ch writers as Mill an d Darwi n
.

t hey speak t o the reader as tho u gh he did the m a favor by

liste n i n g t o the m an d when ever they e n ter upo n co n t roversy
, ,

they do it i n a m an n er which expresses respect an d a desire

for m u t u al u n de rsta n di n g Th e Ger m a n schol ar believes th at
.

it will detract fro m th e respect d u e h i m if he does n ot

ass u m e a to n e o f co n desce n si o n or overbeari n g ce n s u re .

Exa m i n e the rst scie n tic j o u r n al y ou m ay h appe n to pick

up : e v e n th e s m allest a n o n y m o u s a n n o u n ce m e n t breathes
th e air o f i n n ite s u periority eve n the m ost frie n dly ,

recogn itio n i s acco m pan ied by th e tacit or explicit a ss u ran ce

th at the revie w er of co u rse u n dersta n ds th e s u b j ect b etter
, , ,

an d th a t it is there fore really a pity that it did n o t fall i n to

 C H A PTE R V I I
S U IC IDE 1

1 . is a phe n o m e n o n peculiar to m an It s possi

SUIC IDE .

b i li ty i n a certai n se n se depe n ds upo n the power o f th e will

, ,

to em an ci p ate itself fro m the n atural co n t rol o f th e i m pulses .

A n i m als do n o t reect u po n li fe as a whole he n ce they h av e ,

n o freedo m of choice Freedo m of choice an d co n seque n t ly

.

t he possibility of s u icide depe n d upo n the develop m e n t of

m a n s i n t ellige n ce ; upo n i t also depe n ds the possibili ty of

i n sa n ity a phe n o m e n o n which is likewise peculiar to hu m an

,

l ife an d which is closely co n n ec t e d wi th suicide Th e a n i m al

,
.

i n tellige n ce is s u bservie n t t o th e will an d t herefore proof

agai n st s u ch aberratio n s .

S u icide i s r e n dered possible by t he grow t h of the i n telli

ge n ce an d i t s freque n cy se e m s t o i n crease with the progress
,

o f civilizatio n Fro m the large collec t io n o f statis t ical facts

.

which the It alia n H Morselli h a s exa m i n ed i n his work on .

suicide it m ay be see n beyo n d a do u bt th a t there has bee n a

,

co n stan t an d u n iform i n crease i n the n u m ber of suicides dur

1
[Stat i sti cal : Oet t i n g e n , M ora ls ta ti s ti k ,
5 9 , p p 73 7 7 8 5 ;
.
Mo r selli S u i ci d e ,

( ab r i d g e d an d r e vi se d t r an s la t i on i n I n te r na t iona l S c i e n ce S eri es ) M as ary k Der ,

S elbs tmor d a ls s oz i a le M a ssene r sche i n ung d er m ode rn en C i vili sa tion . A n c i e n t an d

C h r i st i an i d e as of s u i ci d e : L e ck y ,
I .
, 2 12222, 33 1 ; IL 4 3
,
61 . P hi lo s op h i cal
v i e w s o f s u i ci d e : j u st i fyi n g it :Hu m e On S u icid e ; Har t m ann , P he nome n ologi e d es
,

li chen Be w usstsei ns , p p 8 6 0
s itt . ff M ai n l an d e r P h i l d e r E r losung pp 3 4 9 ff con
.
,
.
, . .

d e m n i n g i t : K an t, M etap hg s zlc d e r S i tten, (Hart e n st e i n s

vo l
V IL, pp 2 7 7 ff
. . .

e d it io n ); G r u n dle q u ng zur M e tap hysi lc d er S i tte n F i r st S e cti o n (

, Abb o tt p 1 3 ) ,
.

S c h o p e n h au e r , Welt a ls Wi lle v ol I ,
. .
, 6 9 ; P al e y , B k I V . 3 ; HOffd in g ,
XL ,

4 ; D uh ri n g De r Wer th d e s Le bens V I 6 , .
,
P o rt e r , 1 7 5 ; B u nze, 12 . S ee al so
TE ]
,

Sti u d li n , Geschi chte d er Vors te llunge n vo m S elbst mor d 1 8 2 4 ,

. .
 S UI C IDE 5 85

in g th e n i n e t ee n th ce n t ury i n m os t of the European cou n tries 1 .

In Fra n ce fo r exa m ple t he average n u m ber Of s u icides a year

, ,

has rise n fro m 54 to 1 5 4 per m illio n i n habita n ts d u ri n g ,

fty years fro m 1 8 2 6 to 1 8 75 i n Prussia fro m to ,

be t wee n 1 81 6 an d 1 87 7 Th e i n creas e is still grea t er i n Ger

.

m an A us t ria There are cou n t ries i t is t r u e where t he c o n

.
, ,

d i ti o n s are m ore favorable ; i n E n gl a n d fo r i n s t a n ce t he i n , ,

crease i n the las t fty years see m s to be scarcely n oticeable ,

th e average n u m bers oscilla t e arou n d 6 5 per m illio n i n h ab i

t a n ts In N orway the g u res have eve n falle n fro m 8 0 to 7 0
. .

Th e loca l distributio n likewise shows t he depe n de n ce o f

s u ici d e u po n t he i n te n sity o f civiliza t io n A s a r u le s u i cides .
,

are the m ore freque n t i n Europea n cou n t ries th e m ore civil

i ze d th e la tt er are Here t oo however the E n glish for m a
.
, , ,

co n spic u ous exceptio n Th e m axi m u m gures (2 003 00) ap

.

pear i n ce n t ral Europe a s we co m e n earer t o the bou n daries

they d i m i n ish great ly falli n g belo w 2 5 i n S outher n Italy
, ,

S pai n an d Irela n d belo w 5 0 i n N o rther n Italy S co t la n d

, , , ,

N orther n S wede n an d Ru ssia belo w 7 5 i n Hu n gary Pola n d

, , , ,

a n d S outher n S wede n Th e me t ropoli t a n an d i n d u strial local

.

ities give the larges t averages S ax o n y an d Th u ri n gia head .

the lis t with abo u t 3 00 i n Ger m a n y ; the n co m e Bra n de n burg ,

i n cl u di n g Berli n 2 04 S chleswig Holstei n i n cl u di n g Ham

, ,
-
,

burg 2 50 ; i n A us t ria Lower A u stri a with V ie n n a co m es

, ,

rst 2 54 followed by Bohe m ia 1 58 ; i n Fra n ce Pari s for m s

, , , ,

the ce n t re o f i rradiatio n fro m which the i n u e n ce exte n ds to

a n e n tire gro u p of adj oi n i n g provi n ces S ei n e Mar n e O ise , , , ,

about 4 00 the n co m es the i n d u s t rial N orth o f Fra n ce Th e .

sa m e l a w m ay be obse r ved i n the three capitals of the S ca n

d i n av i an co u n t ries A striki n g excep t io n is for m ed by Wes t

.

phalia an d the Rhi n el a n d Belgi u m an d Holla n d i n which , ,

the average gures fall below 7 5 t hus followi n g the En glis h ,

group .

C o m p ar e also Th Masaryk , De r S e lbstmord

1 . a ls s oz a ei l Ill a sse ners che i nung def
noderne n C i vi lis a ti on, 1 88 1 .
58 6 DO C TRIN E OF VIRTUES A ND DUTIE S

It is f u rther n oticeable tha t withi n the separate co u n tries ,

s u icide see m s to be m ore prevale n t a m o n g the ed u ca te d

cl asses M orselli gives the followi n g d ata for Italy : the
.
1

gro u p letters an d scie n ce heads the lis t with 6 1 4 per m illio n

, , ,

m ale i n d i vid u als belo n gi n g to t his gro u p ; the n co m e de

fe n ders of the co u n try 4 04 ; i n str u c t io n ed u catio n 3 55 ;
, , ,

p u blic ad m i n is t ratio n 3 2 4 ; co m m erce 2 7 7 ; jurispr u de n ce

, , ,

2 1 8 ; m edical p r o fessio n s 2 0 1 ; i n d u strial prod u ctio n s 80 ;

, ,

prod u ctio n of raw m aterials 2 7 F or Fra n ce t he followi n g

,
.

g u res are give n 2

Th e n u m ber of s u icides per m illio n i n
.

h abita n ts i s : do m estic service 8 3 ; c o m m erce an d t ra n spor t

, ,

9 8 ; prod u ctio n o f r a w m a t erials 1 1 1 ; i n d u stry 1 5 9 ; liberal

, ,

pro fessio n s 51 0 O ther sta t istician s re a ch di ffere n t results

,
.
,

b u t they do n ot co n tradic t the law that s u icide is leas t

co m m o n u n der th e si m plest co n ditio n s o f li fe an d that it ,

beco m es m ore freq u e n t as the co n dition s beco m e m ore co m

ple x N o o n e will seek the c a use fo r this i n higher ed u ca
.

tio n as s u ch ; it is d u e t o a n u m ber of co n co m i t an t phe n o m e n a .

S u ch are deviatio n s fro m the origi n al an d n at u r al co n ditio n s

o f life an d for m s of labor ; on e sided exercise o f the brai n -
,

especially whe n ca u sed by pre m at u re m e n tal labor ; ex

h au s t i v e an d s u btle for m s of e n j oy m e n t ; viole n t desires an d
breathless p u rs u it of fortu n e co n n ec t ed with great disappoi n t
,

m e n ts an d catastrophes A ll these cau ses co m e together i n

.

the great ce n tres of m oder n li fe an d here they are especially ,

pote n t a m o n g the higher strata of the populatio n .

2 . How is s u ici de to be j u dg e d mor a lly ?

Ou r n a t u r a l f ee li ng i n re fere n ce t o it is o n e o f dread Ou r .

horror of de ath i s i n t e n sied by i n te n tio n al ho m icide i n every

fo r m s u ch as m u rder an d exec u t io n
,
N othi n g see m s m ore u n
.

n atural an d terrible tha n whe n an i n d i vidual takes his o wn li fe .

Th e ch u rch obeyed the co m m o n i n sti n ct whe n i t regarded

t he suicide as an ou t cas t eve n re fusi n g to allow h i m to be
,
588 DO C TRIN E OF VIRTUE S A ND DU TIES

t ha t I can be u se ful t o socie ty by se t ti n g an ex a m ple o f h ow ,

e very o n e h as the power o f f reei n g hi m sel f from m isery
1
.

In deed I d o n o t believe that we m u st n ecessarily regard

,

sel f preservatio n as a d u ty a n d vol u n tary death as a violatio n

-
,

o f d u ty It is said tha t Frederi c k the Great carried a little

.

bottle of poiso n o n his perso n duri n g the S eve n Years War

,

an d that he i n te n ded to co m m i t s u icide i n case he was m ade

a priso n er so that his co u n try m ight n ot i n c u r the da n ger o f

,

sacrici n g its i n terests i n orde r to ra n so m its r u le r It is .

obvio u s that s u ch an ac t cou l d n o t h av e bee n j u dged other

wise than t h e act of a captai n who blows u p hi m self an d his
ship to save i t fro m falli n g i n to t he ha n ds of the e n e m y or ,

tha t o f a pio n eer wh o sacri ces his life i n o rd er to m ake a way

fo r his fa m ily O r take the case of The m istocles : ba n ished
.

by t he A the n ia n s p u rs u ed by the L aced ae m o n ia n s he n ally

, , ,

a fter man y wa n deri n gs n ds a re fuge with th e G rea t Ki n g, .

Whe n the Persian asks h i m t o sh o w his gratit u de by p r om ot

i n g h is pla n s agai n s t the Greeks he p u ts an e n d t o his life , .

Who will dare to reproach h i m fo r this or wh o can tell h i m ,

wha t else he o u ght t o have d o n e Bu t eve n whe n a m an

co m m its s u icide i n order to leave a li fe that has beco m e
i n tolerable I have n o t the co u rage absol u tely to co n de m n the
,

act Whe n a m an who has m e t with reverses or has bee n

.

disappoi n ted gives u p like a coward leavi n g his fa m ily i n ,

misery an d wa n t we have a right to j u dge h i m harshly

,
.

Bu t whe n a m an can n o l o n ge r e n d u re a hopeless an d p ai n

[S ee Hu m e

1
s E ssa ys , G r e e n G r os e s e d i t i o n , vol
IL, p p 4 0 5 ff ] It i s sai d . .

t h at w h e n an y o n e am o n g t h e M assili a n s d e s i r e d t o d r i n k t h e p o i so n h e m l ock , h e

co u l d o b t ai n t h e s a n c t i o n o f t h e C o u n c i l o f t h e S i x H u n d re d b
y g i v i n g h i s re a s o n s
fo r v o l u n t ar ily d e p a r t i n g fro m l i fe . Th e s e af i ct e d w i t h i n cu r ab l e an d p a i nf u l d i s
e as e s i n Th o m as M o re
s Utop i a xh
by p r i e s t s
ar e e ort e d an d m a i s t ra te s t o d o w h at
g
i s t h e b e st u n d e r t h e c i r c u m s t an ce s : n o lon g e r t o no u r i s h t h e t o r tu r in g p a i n , b u t t o
d ie co u r ag e ou sly S u ch a s ar e w r o u g h t o n by t h e s e p e rsu as i o n s st arv e t h e m s e l v e s
.

of t h e i r o w n acco r d, o r t ak e o p i u m , a n d by t h at m e an s d i e w i t h o u t p a i n . S u i ci d e
w i t h ou t au t h o r it y , on the oth er h a n d , i s r e gar d e d as r e p r e h e n s ib l e . C a rlyle ,
t oo , o n ce e xp re sse d t h e Op i n i o n t h at t h e r e w as no j i n d e p r i v i n g a m an o f
u st i ce

t h e fr e e do m t o e sc ap e fro m u n b e ara bl e t o rt u re s b y v o l u n t a r y d e a t h , as i s d on e i n
E n g l an d by law s an d t h e p re ssu r e o f p u blic o p i n io n .
 S UIC IDE 58 9

fu l m alady , whe n he feels that everybody is ti red of h i m

a n d wo u ld be m aterially be n e ted by his goi n g the i m par ,

t ial j u dge will vie w the case d i e r e n tly Tr u e we say : it .

,

i s gra n d an d e n n obli n g for a pe rso n to bear great s u ff er

i n gs i n patie n ce ; we ad m ire the hero i n his s u fferi n g as
m u ch as the hero i n battle .Bu t he rois m is n o t a d u ty ,

it is m eritorio u s to be a hero but it is h u m a n n ot t o be on e

, .

We ca n n ot withhold ou r sy m pathy fro m on e who si n ks b e

n eath his load o r forget t h e word o f ch arity : He that is
,

witho u t si n let h i m rs t cas t a sto n e If a m an says
.
,

S u ici d e is s u icide an d as s u ch reprehe n sible we ca n n ot

, ,

arg u e with h i m ; his o wn feeli n gs will co n t ra dic t h i m i n the

give n case .

It is u s u ally said th a t s u icide is the res u l t o f cow ar d i ce .

C ases u n d oubtedly occ u r i n which thi s i s so A m an witho u t .

the power t o act an d t o s u ffer m ee t s with a m isfort u n e ; he

l oses his head an d sees n o other escape b u t t h e rope while a ,

brave an d e n ergetic m an wou l d h ave overco m e the di f culty

with patie n ce an d wo u ld have beg un li fe a n e w A ban ker
,
.

sq u a n ders the m o n ey of his c u sto m ers an d the n shoots h i m

s el f i n the head cer t ai n ly this is cowardly an d b as e Bu t the .

co n ditio n s are n ot alwa y s like these A m an w h o like The m

.
,

i s tocl e s a fte r care fu l deliberatio n m akes u p h i s m i n d a n d

, , ,

the n does what h e thi n ks n ecessary that he m ay n ot s u ff er

,

or d o a n ythi n g u n wor thy o f hi m sel f will m ost likely regard

,

the charge o f cowardice as a rather peda n tic j es t A n d h e

will scarcely be a ffec t ed by state m e n ts s u ch as are fo u n d i n
S ch ope n ha u e r o r the N eo Plato n ists that ight fro m li fe is
-
,

ight fro m s u ffe ri n g ; that s u fferi n g h o we v e r i s the n ecessary

, ,

m ea n s o f delivera n ce fro m the will to l ive -

He will perh aps
-
.

a n swer : I a m so free fro m the will to live that I am abo u t to

-

l eave li fe witho u t feeli n g the slightest desire to re n ew it

,
.

Th e m etaphysi cia n m ay i f he chooses worry over the q u estio n

, ,

whether death will realize that p u rpose I a m n o t tro u bled .

abo u t th at a n d I have n o desi re to e n te r u po n these sophis

,
590 DO C TRIN E OF VIRTUE S A ND DU TIE S

t ical rath er tha n profou n d discussio n s i n whic h th e me t a

, , ,

physician tries t o prove that vol u n tary death p u ts an e n d t o

li fe as a phe n o m e n o n b u t n ot to th e will as a thi n g i n itself .

3 N evertheless I do n ot t hi n k tha t th e co n de m n atio n of

.
,

s u icide is u t terly gro u n dless If we co n sider n ot the e x ce p .

,

tio n s b u t the r u le we m u st regard s u icide as an ac t by which

,

the s u icide hi m sel f co n de m n s his e n tire life : i t i s as a r u le th e , ,

ign oble e n d of an ig n obl e life Th e wages of si n is deat h ; th e .

words o f th e apos tle are surely applicable to sel f des t ructio n -

.

There are exceptio n s perh aps n u m erous exceptio n s b u t they

, ,

d o n o t disprove th e rule Th e popular j u dg m e n t is the resul t

.

o f experie n ce : S uicide i s t he n a t ural co n clusio n of a si n f u l

life.

Here agai n we may refer t o s t atistics Difcult t hough

, ,
.

i t is to ob t ai n de n ite a n swers t o the questio n c o n cer n

i n g th e causes of suicide we m ay ascer t ai n certai n ge n eral
,

facts fro m th e m a t erial at ha n d In Mo r se lli s t able 1 i n

.

sa n ity appears as the m ost freque n t m otive e m braci n g ,

about o n e third of all the cases for which a m otive can

-

be give n The n co m e physical diseases weari n ess of life

.
, ,

vices ( d ru n ke n n ess an d dissipa t io n ) a fictio n s (especially ,

do m estic t ro u bles) m isery an d n an cial disorders r e

, ,

m orse sha m e fear of co n de m n atio n

, ,
Th e gu res are diff er .

e n t for di ffere n t co u n tries b u t they n early agree i n t ha t

,

each mo t ive e m braces on e te n th of all the cases Th e s m all

-
.

re m ai n der of abou t o n e t we n tieth i s divided a m o n g the pas

-

sio n s love jealousy an d a n ger We observe that s u icide as

, , , .
,

a r u le m arks the e n d o f a m e n tally bodily m orally e con o m

, , , ,

i c ally o r soci ally dera n ged li fe

,
O n ly i n a relatively s m all .

n u m ber of cases are vices give n as t he direc t ca u se If we .

were t o i n vestigat e the oth er m otives we sh ould withou t ,

do u bt very freq u e n tly discover as thei r pri m ary cau ses : per
verse desires an d bad h abits of life either i n the i n divid u als ,

the m selves o r i n their pare n ts an d a n ces t ors A lcohol e s .

,

1 P 2 78 . .
 C H A PTER V III
C OM PA SSION A ND BE NEV OLE NC E l

THE sy mp a t he ti c feeli n gs an d i m p u lses form th e n atural

1 .

basis of the social vi rt u es S u ch will i m pulses are c alled .

-

sy m pathetic i n disti n c t io n fro m idiopathic i p u l ses , which m

origi n ate di rectly i n the i n divid u al as are aro u sed i n u s by
tra n s fere n ce fro m others by a ki n d of co n t agio n A ll feel . .

i n gs have the te n de n cy thou gh i n differe n t degrees t o spread , ,

by sy m pathy as fo r ex am ple pl eas u re an d pai n fear an d

, , ,

hope l ove an d hate co n te m p t an d ad m irati o n cheerfu l ex

, , ,

u b e r an ce an d ear n es t so l e m n ity Th e passio n s aro u sed by a .

speech i n a large pop u lar gatheri n g are m u ch m ore i n te n se

than those which arise whe n the sa m e perso n s read or h ea r
th e sa m e speech separately ; it see m s a s th ough the feeli n gs
were reected fro m every feeli n g ce n tre i n the meeti n g t o -

every other o n e an d th e rays co n ce n t ra t ed i n each i n divi d u al

,

as i n a b u r n i n g gl ass -
.

No t o n ly is the h u m a n heart se n sitive to sy m pathetic ex

c i t e m e n t it likewise year n s deeply to h ave its feeli n gs co m
,

m u n i cat e d t o an d reected fro m other h earts Whe n we .

are happy or i n pai n we crave for h u m a n bei n gs to reec t ou r

,

j ov or sorro w ; whe n we lo v e or h ate ad m ire o r co n te m n we , ,

strive to di u s e ou r feeli n gs an d are pai n ed whe n o u r su r ,

rou n di n gs re m ai n i n di ffere n t to us Every stro n g e m otio n .

I
[Si dg w i ck Bk ,
III ,
I V ; S te p h e n , c h V I ; Po r t e r P ar t II , ch V II ;
. . ch . . . .
,
. . .

Wu n dt P a rt I , ch III 4 d, 5 ; F o w l e r an d W i ls on P ar t II ch I l ; S pen ce r ,
, . .
, .
, . .

I n d u cti on s c h s V I I ,
, V
I II ; E thi cs of S oc za l s e , P art V , ch I
. . S e t h , P ar t II , . . .

c h I I ; R u n ze ,
. . 64 S ee al so ch ap t er s on S y mp a thy i n t h e s tan d ar d p sy ch o
.

log i es . TE .
]
 C OM P A SSION A N D BE N E V OLE N C E 59 3

i m pels us t o u ttera n ce ; ou t of the ab u n da n ce o f t he hear t

the m o u th speaketh .

B lo od r e la ti on ship i s the n at u ral starti n g poi n t of t he

- -

sy m pathetic feeli n gs They m a n i fest the m selves m ost i n

.

te n sely an d directly i n the rel atio n betwee n m other an d ch ild .

O rigi n ally on e bei n g they i n a cert ai n se n se co n ti n u e to live

, , ,

o n e li fe t ho u gh with a s eparate physical eco n o m y Fro m

,
.

this poi n t sy m pathy e x t e n ds to the m e m bers o f the fa m ily ,

t ribe people h u m an ity

, ,
t o all livi n g creat u res S o u n ds an d
,
.

gestures at rs t s erve as a m ea n s o f co m m u n icatio n the m ore

co m plicated a n d characteristic feeli n gs an d m oods are t r a n s
m i t t e d by la n g u age an d the sy m bols o f art .

O f all feeli n gs pai n see m s m ost capable o f aro u si n g sym

pathy La n gu age S hows this : we have a ter m fo r s vm p a
.

thetic pai n o n ly i n comp a ssi on ( M tle i d ) N o ter m s h ave

,
.

bee n c oi n ed to d esig n ate sy m pathetic pl eas u re o r fear : ( Mi t

f r eu de M tfu r cht etc )
,
It is do u btless t r u e that j oy is n o t
, .
-

so easily tran s ferred by sy m pathy Thi s m ay perhaps be ex .

pl ai n ed as follows Pleas u re an d pai n have n o t o n ly the

.

t e n de n cy to aro u se sy m pathy b u t also a te n de n cy to aro u se ,

an t ipathy : happi n ess prod u ces i n th e s u rro u n di n gs that

pec u liar for m of pai n w hich is called e n vy ; u n happi n ess o n ,

the co n trary prod u ces m alici o u s pl eas u re ( S cha d enf r e u d e )

,
.

Everybody co m pares hi m sel f an d his co n ditio n with th at o f

others ; an d si n ce there is n o absol u te sta n dard we m eas u re ,

o u r powe rs rep u t atio n a n d possessio n s by those of o u r

, ,

fellows In case th e co m pariso n res u lts i n o u r favor we

.
,

experie n ce pleas u re o the rwise pai n Th e h appi n ess o f others

,
.
,

there fore h as a d epressi n g e ffect th ei r u n happi n ess an

, ,

elevati n g e ffect u po n o u r sel f estee m -

.

These are well k n ow n phe n o m e n a : t hey a r e n eve r e n ti rely

-

wa n ti n g i n m an Th e pessi m istic philosophe rs love to

.

d well u po n this tr u ly p a r ti e h on te u se o f h u m a n n at u re In .

the tro u bles o f o u r good frie n ds says La Roche fo u ca u ld there , ,

is always so m ethi n g that d o e s n o t displease u s A n d with .

38
594 DO C TRIN E OF VIRTUE S A ND DU TIE S

still greater j u stice m ay we assert that there is always so m e

thi n g i n the good fort u n e o f ou r frie n ds that does n ot e n tirely
please u s A m an wi n s the rst prize i n a l ottery ; his
.

frie n ds co n grat u late h i m w ith m i n gled feeli n gs o f pleasure an d

pai n especially those who have draw n the bl an ks A seco n d
,
.

on e passes a brillia n t ex a m i n atio n ; he sho u ld beware o f m e n

t i on i n g it especially to his less fort u n ate c o m petitors

,
On .

the othe r ha n d i f h e h as m et with a m isfor t u n e if he has

, ,

falle n fro m his horse o r h as bee n hooted as a speaker o r

, ,

h as S pec u lated an d lost on the excha n ge he n eed n ot le t the ,

fea r of pai n i n g his good frie n ds hi n der h i m f ro m telli n g it .

He will have n o di ffic u lty i n n di n g perso n s to pity h i m ,

b u t well everybody k n ows h o w little we care for the pity

,

o f o u r frie n d s o n s u ch occasio n s I d o n o t m ean t o say t ha t

.

i n te n se sorrow ca n n ot be aro u sed by su ch m isfor tu n es an d ,

that ge n u i n e sy m pathy is n ot felt as an ass u agi n g balsa m ,

b u t the balsa m i s t o o apt to be m i n gled with the corrodi n g

poiso n which is called m alicio u s j oy ( S cha d enf r e u d e) Th e .

o n ly satis factory m ode o f expressi n g sy m pathy wo u l d perhaps

be to give a lau ghi n g spectator a blo w i n the face We see .
,

sy m pathe t ic pleas u re an d e n vy c o m passio n an d m alicio u s

,

j oy are prod u ced by the sa m e causes C o m passio n is accom

, .
~

p an i e d i n co n scio u s n ess by an i n t e n sicatio n o f o u r self

estee m ; i t atter s ou r self love Sy m pathetic pleas u re arises
-
.

i n co n ju n ctio n with a di m i n utio n of the sel f feeli n g o r -

, ,

rather i t o u gh t so to arise : for e n vy exti n guishes the pleas u re

,
.

C o m passio n o n the other ha n d m ay exist together with an

, ,

i n te n sicatio n of th e feeli n g o f power o r sel f love Ge n u i n e

,
-
.

m alice o f co u rse also e xti n gu ishes pity b u t a feeli n g o f tr u e ,

pity m ay easily arise i n co n n ectio n with the feeli n g of per

so n al sec u rity an d s u periority He n ce real sy m pathetic pleas
.

M is rare while co passio M ) is n ot

'

u re
( i tfr e u de
) ,
m n
( tle zd

at all rare A n d fo r this very reaso n the ability to sy m

.

at h i ze with a n other s j oys is a m u ch s u rer S ig n o f a p u re

p
a n d u n selsh n at u re tha n an y other Goethe wh o was n ot i n
.
,
5 96 DO C TRIN E OF VI RTUE S A ND DUTIE S

evide n tly h ave the sa m e sign ican ce fo r co n d u c t tha t all

feeli n gs h ave : their ob j ec t i s to g u ide the will i n the b u si n ess
o f sel f prese rvatio n
-
J u st as idiopat hic pai n i m pels the i n di
.

vid u al to re m ove th e evil or th e dist u rba n ce w hich th reate n s

his o w n li fe so co m passi o n te n ds to deter m i n e the will t o
,

re m ove th e ca u ses of pai n fro m the lives o f othe rs In co m .

passio n th e s olidarity o f collec tive bodies m an i fests itsel f the

collective body feel s t he dist u rba n ce which rst attacks a
m e m ber as a m e n ace t o itsel f an d is thereby i m pelled t o
,

react i n a m a n n er co n ducive t o its ow n sel f preservatio n -

.

In h u m a n li fe however feeli n g i m p u lses are n ever adeq u ate

, ,
-

gu ides of actio n b u t requ ire th e reg u lative co n trol of reaso n

, .

We say of love a n d a n ger th a t they are bli n d This is also .

tr u e of pity Therefore this i m p u lse n o less tha n the selsh

.
,

i m p u lses m ust i n order t o pro m ote wel fare be ed u cated by

, , ,

reaso n gu ided by wisdo m Th e virt u e which th u s arises the

, .
,

ge n eral fu n dam e n tal for m o f th e social v i rt u es m ay be called ,

ben evolen c e an d de n ed as that h abi t o f the will an d m ode

o f co n d u ct which te n ds to pro m ote th e wel fare o f the s u r

ro u n di n gs by hi n deri n g disturba n ces an d prod u ci n g favorable

co n ditio n s of li fe .

In be n evole n ce comp a ssi on (M i t lei d e n ) i s oversh adowed

,
-

by we ll d oi ng be n ece n ce ( Wo hlt hn n ) Th e be n evole n t a n d

-
, .

b e n e ce n t m an preve n ts o r alleviates th e s u fferi n gs of others

witho u t always h avi n g to feel co m passio n hi m sel f N ay a .
,

cer t ai n power o f resista n ce i s as m u ch a part of be n evole n ce as

i t i s a part of co u rage to be able t o resist idiopathic pai n o r a ,

part of te m peran ce to be able t o resist th e te m ptatio n s o f se n se .

We do n ot expect a physician to s u ffer with the patie n t all

th e pai n s which h e witn esses o r perhaps cau ses hi m sel f On .

the co n trary a certai n obd u racy on his part is the co n ditio n

,

of b e n e ce n t acti o n his co m passio n wou ld obsc u re the clear

n ess o f his j u dg m e n t a n d i n ter fere with the steadi n ess o f

his m ove m e n ts It is well k n ow n th at physicia n s do n ot

.

like t o t reat th ei r n eares t relatives becau se thei r pity i n

 C OM P A SSIC N A ND BE N E VO LE N C E 59 7

ter fe r e s with their skill Bu t n ot o n ly is freedo m fro m

.

pity n eeded to give the ph ysicia n greater sec u rity i n the prae
tice of his art ; it also h as a directly be n ecial i n u e n ce .

Th e physicia n e n ters the S ick roo m a n d m akes his exa m i n a

-

tio n an d gives h i s orders with b u si n ess like sere n ity ; he d oes -

n o t pity n o r la m e n t His cal m n ess has the m ost wholeso m e

.

e ffect ; so m e o f it is co m m u n icated to the relatives an d the

patie n t ; we feel as i f we were i n the prese n ce of a power
agai n st which the evil is powerless On the other ha n d .

co n sider the i n u e n ce of visits fro m relatives an d frie n ds '

Frighte n ed by the appeara n ce o f t he patie n t an d overwhel m ed
with pity they break o u t i n to te ars an d co m plai n ts an d so
, ,

i n crease his s u fferi n gs by their co m passio n an d e xcite m e n t .

Th e sa m e thi n g happe n s i n other cases A te n der m othe r .

do u bly s u ffers the pai n s which her child feels If the child .

falls an d h u rts hi m sel f S h e i s overco m e with pity Th e

,
.

res u lt is that the child n ow really begin s to feel the pai n ; he

d oes n ot cry o u t u n til he has bee n p i t ied whe n he regards h i m ,

sel f as an o bj ect of pity A n d the per m a n e n t e ff ect of s u ch

.

treat m e n t is a sort o f whi n i ng n at u re ( We h lei d ig kei t) which ,

is n o t a pleasa n t e n dow m e n t for li fe A n other m other wh o

.
,

loves her child j u st as m u ch ba n dages the wo u n d i f meces

,

sary diverts the child s atte n tio n fro m t h e accide n t ; an d l o

,

the pai n act u ally disappears whe n it is resisted A s a .

per m a n e n t c o n seq u e n ce the chil d i n a m eas u re beco m es

, , ,

harde n ed to s u ch thi n gs an d so recei v e s the bes t possibl e

,

eq u ip m e n t fo r l i fe that ed u catio n can give To l ove o n e s .

childre n i s n at u ral an d n either a virt u e n o r a n art b u t to

, ,

ed u cate childre n is a great an d di fc u l t art which de m a n ds , ,

rst o f all th e abili ty t o co n trol o n e s n at u ral te n der i m

,

p u lses We m u st n ot let o u r childre n k n o w h o w m u ch we

.

love t he m says a n old w ise m axi m which ho weve r d oes n o t

, , , ,

s u it th e se n ti m e n talis m an d va n ity of m odern m othe rs .

In dee d t h e sa m e is tr u e o f every for m o f assista n ce tha t

,

h u m an bei n gs c an re n de r each other Th e s u re an d steady .

59 8 DO C TRIN E OF VIRTUE S A N D DU TIE S

ha n d t h at h elps an d g u ides always pres u pposes that the per

s o n behi n d it le n di n g aid is n o t overwhel m ed by the s u fferi n gs

o f o thers .In charity work fo r exa m ple bli n d co m passio n

, ,

res u lts i n evil : we spoil the recipie n ts o f our ch arity an d e u ,

co u rage the m to m ake de m a n ds an d whe n we c an n o lo n ger

, ,

o r are n o lo n ger willi n g to satis fy these clai m s we break o u t

, ,

i n t o co m plai n ts of i n gratit u de .

We m ay therefore say : C o m passio n is the n a tu ral basis of

the social virt u e of active be n evole n ce but i t is by n o m ea n s ,

a virt u e itsel f n o r eve n as S chope n ha u er asser t s the absolute

, , ,

s t an dard of the m oral worth o f a m an Like every phase o f .

i m p u lsive li fe i t m u s t be ed u cated an d discipli n ed by reaso n

,

i n the rati o n al will i t is b oth realized an d li m ited realized i n ,

so far as i t attai n s to its e n d t he furthera n ce of h u m an wel

,

fa re li m i t ed i n so far as it is pre ve n ted fro m doi n g har m

,
.

A n d he n ce we m ay accep t wha t S pi n oza agreei n g with the ,

S toics says t hat the wise m an will strive t o rid hi m self o f

, ,

co m passio n an d as far as hu m a n n ature perm its t o do well

, , ,

an d to rej oice ( ben e ag e r e e t la e t a r i )

1
.

Perhaps such wisdo m i s m ore co m m o n a m o n g wo m e n th a n

a m o n g m e n C o u rage i n s u fferi n g patie n ce a specically
.
, ,

fe m i n i n e vir tu e e n ables o n e cal m l y to bear rst o n e s o w n

,

an d the n t he s n e r i n gs of others Th e capable wo m a n is n o t

.

overwhel m ed by h e r o w n pai n s n o r will S h e perm it hersel f to

,

be overco m e by the pai n s of others C al m ly an d deliberately .

,

e n erge t ically an d help fu lly she attacks t he e vil an d co n q u ers it

,
.

1 E thi cs, I V . 50 .
,
 6 00 DO C TR IN E OF VI RTUE S A ND DU TIE S

t o i n terfere with the i n terests of others is i n j u stic e A ll i n , .

j u stice is u lti m ately directed agai n st the li fe o f the n eighbor

it is an O pe n avowal that the latter is n o t an e n d i n itsel f ,

h avi n g the sa m e val u e as the i n divid u al s o w n li fe Th e

.

ge n eral for m u la o f t he d u ty O f j u s t ice m ay there fore be

stated as follows : Do n o w r ong y ou r se lf a n d p er m i t n o ,

w r ong to be d on e s o f a r a s li es i n y ou r p ower ; o r expressed

, ,

positively : R e sp e ct a n d p r ote ct the r ig ht .

Let us n ow e xa m i n e the rs t par t of this d u al for m u la

Re frai n fro m doi n g wro n g an d the virt u e o f r e cti tu d e o r

p r o bi t
y to which i t gives rise an d which is O fte n regarded as

the whole o f j u st i ce N ot t o d o i n j u stice is u s u ally co n sidered

.

t h e least th at m orality de m a n ds Bu t j u stice i n this se n se is

.
, ,

by n o m ean s the easies t a m o n g t he virtu es n ay perhaps i t is , ,

o n e o f t he m ost di ffi c u lt beca u se it is the m ost h u m ble a n d

, ,

does n o t a t ter o u r va n ity by its gran de u r an d sple n dor like ,

m ag n a n i m ity liberality o r co u rage

, ,
J u stice e n j oi n s li m ita
.

t io n Of sel f by s u b m issio n t o a ge n eral r u le Man i s by n at u re .

,

like all a n i m als i n te n t upo n sel f preser vatio n an d sel f asser

,
- -

tio n Every creature n atu rally acts accordi n g to the m axi m

.

t hat h e is the ce n tre O f the u n iverse th at all thi n gs are mean s

,

for h i m an d his p u rposes This pri n ciple gover n s the attit u de

.

o f a n i m al s t owards each other it als o gover n s ou r att it u de

towards the m We draw th e n al co n seq u e n ce of t his pri n
.

c i p l e whe n we kill an d devo u r t he m thereby decl ari n g i n

,

u n m istakable ter m s that we are the e n d an d they th e m ea n s .

Th e n at u ral m a n s attitu d e towards his fellows does n o t d i f

fe r fro m this Th e child is at th e begi n n i n g o f its li fe n ai ve ly

.
, ,

i n co n siderate It has regard o n ly for itsel f it does what

.
,

pleases it witho u t bei n g serio u sly co n cern ed abo u t th e e ffect

,

o f its behavior u po n others O n ly grad u ally does it co m e to

.

u n dersta n d that i ts actio n has co n seq u e n ces n ot o n ly fo r

itsel f bu t fo r others Its atte n tio n is draw n to this fact by
.

the reactio n ca u sed by its acts i n others It d eprives a n othe r .

child of its playthi n g ; that child beco m es a n gry an d reacts

 J US TIC E 6 01

accordi n gly We m ay n o t e a look of surprise o n t he face of

.

th e rst child ; o n ly gradually a fter experie n ci n g si m i l ar

,

t reat m e n t fro m others does i t begi n to u n dersta n d the m ea n

,

i n g o f this s u rprise Its teachers too help it to i n terpret the

.
, ,

fac t s S o the i n divid u al grad u ally acqu ires the habi t of co n

.

si d e r i n g the i n u e n ce of his o w n co n d u ct u po n the i n terests Of

others Where the n ecessary experie n ce is wa n ti n g or i n

.

adequ at e we frequ e n tly n d a t race o f this pri m iti ve i n con

,

s i d e r at e n ess A n o n ly child is i n da n ger o f re m ai n i n g

.

i n co n sidera t e obsti n ate an d dogm atic fo r the rest o f its

, ,

li fe i t does n ot receive the e ffective trai n i n g i n j u s t ice which

brothers an d S isters i m part to each oth er Th e da n ger is still .

greater i n the case of perso n s who grow u p as privileged favor

i t es perso n s wh o are alway s right It i s m os t di f c u lt for
,
. .

the childre n of pri n ces an d great lords to lear n the lesso n of

j u stice Eve n a fter reachi n g th e period of m at u re m an hood

.
,

they oft e n S h ow th at they h ave n ot h ad the experie n ces i n

their yo u th n ecessary to teach the m j u s t ice i n th e ele m e n tary
for m : their e n croach m e n ts upo n th e rights of others an d
t heir ill hu m or ha ve n eve r bee n O pposed an d so t hey fail to
-
,

discove r the existe nce of other wills beside their o wn

Th e real test o f a j u s t dispositio n is a perso n s attitude

t owards e n e m ies an d oppo n e n ts pe rso n al o r collective We

, .

are n at u rally i n cli n ed to look u po n everythi n g as right t ha t

is do n e agai n s t an e n e m y ; e n e m ies m ay be despised dis ,

graced hated an d ab u sed A n d it is al m ost still m ore di tti

, , .

c u lt to be j u s t to collecti ve e n e m ies party O ppo n e n ts etc , , .

,

tha n to perso n al e n e m ies Inj u stice here ass u m es the for m

.

o f delity to pri n ciple loyal ty to colleag u es a n d frie n ds ; the

,

good cau se d e m a n ds tha t we s u bscribe to it u n co n ditionally ,

an d that we prove o u r si n cerity by i n icti n g all possible i h

j u ry u po n o u r oppo n e n ts Th e atte m pt to j u dge w itho u t

.

pre j u dice an d to recog n ize the good i n th e othe r side is cried

dow n by partisa n s as the begi n n i n g of apost asy He n ce .

partisa n shi p is the de adly fo e o f j u stice ; we n d this tr u th

6 02 DO C TRIN E OF V I R T UE S A N D D UTIE S

corroborated i n every eld i n political ecclesiastical an d

, , ,

social as well as i n literary an d scie n tic partisa n ship F o r

, .

this reaso n m e n of n er se n sibilities are n ot tt ed for parti

s an s h i p an d sh u n i t l i ke the plag u e
,
.

This is o n e side o f j u stice ; he i s a j u st m an who li m i t s hi s

acts s o tha t their co n seq u e n ces will n o t i n terfere with the
i n terests of others ; h e is u n j u s t wh o does n ot do so or ,

co n sci o u sly does the opposite .

Th e other active sid e o f j u s t ice is the n on su er an ce t h e

, ,
-
,

w a r d i ng of of i nj u st i ce rst o f the i n j u stice do n e to others

, , ,

the n also Of th at d o n e t o self La n gu age characterizes thi s .

phase o f j u stice as the s en se of j u sti ce In a certai n m eas u re .

,

it i s the easier d u ty To s u ff er w ro n g i n am e s us ; n ot o n ly
.

does the wro n g which I myself s u ff er call forth an ger an d th e

i m p u lse to reve n ge b u t t he wro n g which i s i n icted upo n a
,

third perso n als o aro u ses i n the disi n terested spectator a vio
len t e m otio n i n dig n a ti on which m ay be de n ed as disi n te r
, ,
~

e s t e d a n ger a t the i n j u stice s u ffered by a n other an d which ,

i m pels u s t o t ake the par t o f t he i n j u red perso n an d t o p u n ish ,

th e evil d e er for the wro n g In the i m p u lse o f retali ati o n we

-
.

have the i n sti nctive basis Of p u bli c p u n i shmen t In t he la t te r .

the sy m pathy o f the disi n tereste d party for the vi cti m as

agai n st the o e n de r i s syste m atized an d m ade e ffective In
,
.

p u n ish m e n t t he co m m u n ity reacts agai n s t t h e a tt ack m ade

u po n o n e of its m e m bers an d d e feats it
,
.

2 . The sig n ican c e o f j u stice fo r h u m an co n d u c t i s show n

by the e ffects of i n j u stice Th e i m m ediate e ffect o f i n j u sti ce
.

is th at it dist u rbs o r destroys t he welfare of the perso n a gai n s t

wh o m i t is don e There are also i n direc t an d seco n dary
.

e ffects In j u stice creates str if e Th e i n j u re d perso n seeks to

. .

r e establish his i n terests at th e expe n se o f his oppo n e n t an d

-
,

to reve n ge hi m self for the i n jury sn e r e d Th e aggressor i n .

tu rn defe n ds hi m sel f an d so a s t ate of war arises which has

, ,

t h e te n de n cy to spread t o all those who are related either to

the victi m o r to the aggressor by ties O f frie n dshi p o r co m m o n

6 04 DO C TRIN E OF V IRTUE S A N D D UTIES

placi n g itself u n der the protectio n o f m ight the right beco m es ,

a power i n the world In law the state for m u lates the right
.

as the expressio n o f its will an d i n vest S it with its power

,
-

t o overco m e the resista n ce of i n divid u als Th e positive right .

m ay be de n ed as a syste m o f r u l es by which th e i n terests

a n d fu n ctio n s of th e i n divid u al m e m bers o f the state a r e di ffer

e n t i at e d fro m each othe r a n d the spheres th u s li m ited are

,

pl aced u n der th e protectio n of the power o f the state Th e .

e n a l r i h t d e n es th e li m its Of t he spheres fro m th e n egati v e

p g
side i t deter m i n es which ac t s shall be reg arded as e n croach
m e n ts o r viol atio n s an d t herefore pu n ish ed Th e p r i va t e r ig ht
, .

deter m i n es the m fro m the positive side ; it de n es th e spheres

i n fa m ily righ t s an d property righ t s withi n which the
- -

i n divid u al may move an d s t ill e n j oy th e protectio n o f th e

state .

Th e objec t an d e ffec t of th e posi t ive righ t an d t he pro t ectio n

o f t he sa m e by co m p u lsio n an d p u n ish m e n t i s th e preve n tio n

o f wro n g he n ce t h e es t ablish m e n t o f a sta t e of peace an d

,

sec u rity for all th e me m bers o f th e co m m u n i ty It i s th e .

b u si n ess of th e syste m O f rights o n the o n e ha n d to assist

, ,

the i n divid u al i n reg u la t i n g his co n d u c t with respect to othe rs

spheres o f actio n ; it saves h i m the trou ble or at least facil ,

i t a te s th e process o f m aki n g di ffi c u lt a n d co m plicated c o m

,

p u t at i o n s as to what h e m a
y do witho u t i n j u ri n g the j u s t
rights of o thers It likewise checks his i n cli n atio n to d o
.

wro n g by th rea t e n i n g evil co n seq u e n ces an d s o gives a cer

, ,

t ai n stead fast n ess to his co n d u ct an d hi n ders h i m fro m i n

fri n gi n g u po n th e righ t s of others On th e other ha n d it
.
,

also protects h i m wi thi n his restricted sphere agai n st

, ,

e n croach m e n ts on t he part of others Th e syste m of rights.

,

there fore bri n gs a certai n degree o f O bjective j u s tice o r

,

legality i n to th e life an d con d u ct of the m e m bers of the

legal com m u n ity an d m ai n tai n s i t
,
.

Bu t w h y i s co m p u lsio n ex ercised here while so ma n y

O bj ectio n able an d per n icio u s m odes of co n d u ct like i n te m ,
 J USTI C E 6 05

p e r an ee , dissipatio n i n gratitu de m e n dacit y d o n o t occa

, , ,

sio n an y i n ter fere n ce o n th e part of the co m m u n it y with the

i n dividual ? This is d u e to the S pecic n at u re o f i n j u stice .

Th e per n icio u s e ff ects o f i n j u s t ice directly a e ct th e co m

m u n ity an d its co n ditio n s o f li fe In j u stice as has bee n
.
,

poi n ted ou t has th e t e n de n cy to p roduce a state o f war

,

a m o n g the m e m bers of society I n ter n al wa r h owever is

.
, ,

the specic disease which destroys co m m u n ities ; it has the

sa m e e ff ect to u s e an ol d ill u stratio n as th e revolt of th e
, ,

m e m bers o f an o rga n ic body agai n st each other would have .

A tribe or a peopl e t hat s u ff ers fro m this diseas e is t o tha t ,

exte n t less capable of li fe Ot her thi n gs bei n g eq u al a

,
.
,

seco n d tribe o r people is precisely so m u ch s u peri or to i t

i n th e str u ggle fo r exis t e n ce as i t is less exposed to i n ter n al
frictio n o r as its arra n ge m e n t s for preservi n g i n te r n al peace
,

are m ore perfec t an d e e cti ve This is the teleological n e

.

ce s s i ty which has i m pelle d every n atio n to develop a legal

orde r an d the tech n ical m ean s for ad m i n is t eri n g the sa m e ,

an d which e n courages it co n sta n tly to i m prove th e syste m .

A ll other offe n ces an d vices are dealt wi th by c u sto m ed u ca ,

tio n S piri t u al m i n istratio n an d t he perso n al i n sight of th e

, ,

i n divid u al By opposi n g i n j u s t ice a n atio n defeats att ack s

.

upo n the co n ditio n s o f its o w n existe n ce .

Th e history o f positive right u n iversally follows this pla n .

Every right i s a for m o f protectio n agai n st i n j u stice th e ,

des t royer o f peace an d social life an d as s u ch adapted t o th e

,

act u al state i n telli ge n ce an d good will of th e society pro

, ,

d u c i n g it Blood reve n ge was the pri m itive for m O f resisti n g

.

e n croach m e n ts ; the cla n reacted agai n st i n j u ry as a u n it ,

by holdi n g the cla n o f the aggressor as a u n it respo n sible , ,

fo r the acts o f every m e m ber thereof This for m o f righ t

.

grad u ally yielded to a highe r for m o f tri b al a n d n atio n al

right Th e fa m ily fe u d which grows o u t Of blood reve n ge
.
-
, ,

was agai n st the i n terests o f th e people it weake n ed the m ,

a gai n s t the exter n al fe e an d dist u rbed peace fu l i n terco u rse

withi n . He n ce i t was at rst reg u lated by li n es
6 06 D O C TRIN E OF VIRTUE S A ND DU TIE S

[ W e hrg e ld
] a syste m i n which -
a n o fcer of the l aw as
th e represe n tative of t he ki n g wh o is the g u ardia n of order , ,

c o operated
-
an d at las t sel f help an d perso n al reve n ge -

were e n tirely do n e away wi t h .

4 This also explai n s t he righ t o f t he co m m u n ity to co m

.

pel lawfu l behavior o n the par t of the i n divid u al by force

an d p u n ish m e n t It has a r ig ht t o co m pel an d p u n ish
.

because it has a righ t t o prese rve i t self A n d this right i s .

at th e sa m e t i m e a d u ty because sel f preservatio n is the ,

-

rs t an d al m os t o n ly d u ty O f t he co m m u n ity .

Th e expla n a t io n Of t he pe n al right for m s t h e s u bjec t o f

e n dless debate Here as everywhere i n practical philosophy
.
1

w e h a ve the two O pposi n g vie ws which w e have ter m ed t h e

t eleological an d i n t ui tio n al for m alis t ic Th e l at ter atte m pts -
.

to j u stify p u n ishme n t as the i m m ediat ely n ecessary ethical ,

l ogical co n seque n ce of t he cri m e ; th e forme r explai n s i t by

its e ffec t s upo n h u m a n welfare .

Here t oo Ka n t is respo n sible for the re a ctio n agai n s t the

, ,

t eleological co n ception Th e pe n al law he says is a ca t e .

, ,

g o r i c al i m perative Judicial pu n ish m e n t c an n ever be i n

i ct e d m erely as a m ea n s of pro m o t i n g a n o t her good for the

cri m i n al hi m self o r for civi l society bu t m u s t al ways be i m ,

pose d becau se he has b roke n a law an d he cries woe

upo n all such as go th ro u gh th e serpe n ti n e wi n di n gs o f the
eud ae m o n istic theory 2
A n d Hegel adopts t he sa m e vie w .
,

addi n g the us u al state m e n ts co n cern i n g t he su p e r ci ali ty

an d t rivial ity o f t hose who e m ploy their u n dersta n di n g

i n t hese m atters which i s i n adequate because th e ,

co n ,

ce pt i s wha t we are a fter He ded u ces pu n ish m e n t as .

the l ogical abrogatio n o f the violatio n of righ t : Th e

viola t i on of righ t as righ t i s i n deed a positive ex t ern al , , ,

1
[S ee in a dd i t i o n r
t o t h e w o rk s al e a dy m e n t i one d : Sp i n o za, P re face t o Part
IV ;
. Be nt h a m , ch s . X III XVII . .
; M ain e ,
A nci e n t La w, ch Il ; HOffdi n g,
. .

X XX IX .
; Bo w n e , ch . X ; W u n dt , P a rt III ch III , 5 ; i e t zsch e , Gene a log i e ,
. .
, . . N
7 0 ff ; Bu n ze ,
. 7 6 ff ; P r o al Le cri me cl la p e i ne ; C rimi n al Stat ist i cs i n
.
,

Oe tt i n g e n 3 7, 3 8 , , 3 9, 57 .
TE ]
2
Re c /i ts le hr e ,
49 .
6 08 DO C TRIN E OF V IRTUE S A ND DUTIES

the very n ature of thi n gs ? Woul d thieves be lodged i n j ails

an d pe n ite n tiaries if that did n o t preve n t the m fro m steali n g ,

e i th e r d u ri n g their i m priso n m e n t o r afterwards o r at leas t, ,

i f n o o n e else were thereby deterre d fro m th e ft ? That is

hardly probable ; society wo u ld scarcely u n dertake t o buil d
priso n s an d pe n ite n tiaries if the exis t e n ce of s u ch i n sti t u
tio n s h ad absol u tely n o i n u e n ce u po n the a n n u al n umber of
robbe ries an d b u rglaries Th e vic t i m of th e cri m i n al m igh t
.
,

pe rhaps still desi re p u n ish m e n t t o be i n icted provided h e

, ,

co n sidered co n n e m e n t i n the pe n ite n tiary as an evil other

wise he wo u l d h a ve n o i n teres t i n the m atte r ; th e mere
,

m a n i festatio n an d abrogatio n o f t h e wro n g would n ot
relieve his a n ger .

Th e retrospective theory o f p u n ish m e n t t h e n see m s t o

, ,

be i n adeq u a t e P u n ish m e n t is i n icted because a cri m e h as

.

bee n co m m itted (gu i a p e cca tu m e st) ; very t rue b u t this ,

be ca u se is n o t really th e g r ou n d bu t o n ly t he o cca si on O f th e
,

pu n ish m e n t Th e g ro u n d is t o be so u gh t i n the effec t an d

.
,

the e ffect is n ot i n the past bu t i n t h e fu t ure : p u n ish m e n t

i s an evil which is i n icted upo n the cr i m i n al by th e au th o ri
ties of t he state i n or d e r tha t cri m e m ay n ot be co m m itted
i n the f u ture (n e p e cce tu r ) People cover up a well be ca u se a
.

c hild has falle n i n to it an d i n or d e r t h a t i t m ay n ot happe n

,

agai n they b u ild da m s be ca u se the rive r i n u n da t es t h e elds ,

a n d i n or d e r t ha t it m ay n o t happe n agai n If it we re n o t fo r
.

the i n or d e r tha t t he be cau se w o u ld n ot d e t er m i ne the m to ac t

,

i n th e m a n n er i n dicated .If there were n o fu t u re there wo u ld,

be absol u tely n o e ffects an d n o acts alth o u gh it m ay be c on

ceded tha t a te n de n cy t o d o a fterwards what o u ght to h ave
bee n do n e be fore eve n tho u gh it can do n o m ore good occa
, ,

s i o n al ly expresses itself i n a t te m pts at actio n Wh e n the

.

m aid has broke n t he dish she p u ts the pieces toge t her a gai n
, ,

an d s ays ,
This i s th e way it was !
It is e n co u ragi n g to n ote that the scie n ce o f cri m i n al j u ris
pru d e n ce is begi n n i n g to aba n do n the p u rely for m alistic con
 JUS TIC E 6 09

ce pti on of S pecula t ive

Philosophy an d is tur n i n g t o the t ele o ,

logical vie w It see m s to m e that the i n u e n ce o f Hegel with

.

his co n te m pt for the i n telligible i e the cau sal teleological

, . .
,
-

view was par t ic u larly bad i n this eld It led to a total

,
.

n eglec t o f the q u estio n c o n cer n i n g t he e e ct o f p u n ish m e n t ;

scie n ce it was held h ad solely to deter m i n e the right Th e

, , .

m ai n t hi n g was to ascertai n th e n u m ber o f years an d days i n

j ail o r priso n which o u ght t o be i m posed fo r each particul ar
delict N 0 o n e ever i n q u ir e d whether these p u n ish m e n ts were
.

s u i table m ea n s fo r preve n ti n g cri m es Th e legislator xed .

certai n ge n eral pe n alties the j u dge applied the m to the

,

partic u lar cases an d t his settled the m a t ter j u stice was

, ,

satised the cri m e expiated Th e cri m i n al was the n t u rn ed

, .

ove r to the a u thorities whose b u si n ess it was to exec u te t he

se n te n ce A n d fro m this q u arter cam e the O ppos itio n to the
.

theory It co u ld n ot escape the n otice O f sh ar psi gh te d an d

.

co n scie n tio u s m e n th at espe cially the shor t ter m s of i m priso n

m en t tho u gh they m ight satis fy th e idea o f the righ t

an d serve to m ake m a n i fest

the wro n g were by n o
m ea n s partic u larly t ted t o h i n der cri m e n ay were wholly , ,

i n e ffective i n m a n y cases ; that they did the very opposite .

Short ter m s of i m priso n m e n t witho u t special physical priva,

tio n s or i n co n ve n ie n ces hardly deter the habitu al cri m i n al wh o

, ,

has n o social positio n to lose ; n ay he freque n tly seeks t e m ,

p o r ary re fu ge i n the pe n ite n tiary Fo r the accide n tal cri m i

.

n al o n the other ha n d wh o viol ates the l a w i n co n seq u e n ce o f

, ,

poverty opport u n ity tem p t atio n o r ig n ora n ce of the law the

, , , ,

priso n o fte n beco m es a school for cri m e Here i n the co m .

,

pa n y of Old an d experie n ced cri m i n als h e loses his revere n ce ,

for c u sto m an d law he fo rm s acq u ai n ta n ces who afterwards

,

cli n g to h i m an d i n itia t e h i m i n to all ki n ds o f cri m es ; he

loses his sel f respect his civil ho n or a n d his ability to m ake
-
, ,

an ho n est livi n g In this w ay his ability to resist cri m e i s

.

weake n ed o n all sides ; he be g i n s to d evelo p i n to an h abit u al

cri m i n al .
610 DO C TRIN E OF VIR TUES A ND DUTIE S

Th e t el eol ogi cal t heory whi ch was appl i ed to t h e e n ti re

,

el d o f j u rispr u de n ce by J h e r i n g i n hi s work De r Zw e ck i m ,
'

R e cht an d partic u larly to th e pe n al l aw by F v on L iszt i n

1
,
.

h i s L ehr bu ch d e s S tr af r echts calls atte n ti o n to th e causes

2
,

o f cri m e o n the o n e ha n d a n d to th e e ffi cacy o f p u n i sh m e n t

,

o n the othe r a n d w i ll ,
i t i s t o be h oped prove m ore success
, ,

fu l i n c e p i n g wi th c ri m e F o r we s u rely all agree that ou r

.

syste m o f cri m i n al j u ri spr u de n ce by n o mea n s sati ses all

j u st de m a n ds A sys t e m that e n abl es t ho u san ds o f pro i es
.

s i o u al cri m i n als to co m m i t the sa m e c ri m es over an d ove r

agai n whi ch w i th th e assi s ta n c e of an ar m y of pol ice Of
, ,

cers capt u re s th em each ti m e gra n ts the m l o n g an d tedi o u s

, ,

tri als co n vi cti n g the m a fter e n dless sess i o n s an d at great

,

expe n se an d n ally i m priso n s th e m for a few m o n ths or

,

years o n ly to releas e them agai n a t t he expi ra t i o n of the i r

,

ter m s fo r a few m o n ths pe r m i t t i n g them t o t ake up thei r

, ,

c alli n g where they le ft i t o ff an d t o propagate t he i r ki n d ,

s u ch a syste m I say can h ard ly be desi gn ated as a s at i s fac

, ,

tory i n stit u t i o n for the protecti o n of s oci ety agai n st cri m e 3

.

A n d i t i s eq u ally h ard t o u n dersta n d the cal m n ess with

wh i ch o u r cri m i n al au thori ti es co n te m pl ate th e fact th at fo u r
h u n d re d th o u san d perso n s are se n te n ced t o pri so n i n Pr u ssi a
a n n u ally ; that i s tha t o n e o u t o f e very s eve n ty has bee n i n
,

priso n ! Ho w ma n y of the p op u lati o n are n ot p u n ished ?

1 The Tele ology of La w .

2 H a n d book of C r i mi na l La w, 3d e d i t i on , 1 888 .

3 In t h e F eu zlleton of a Be rli n p ap e r I o n c e re a d t h e foll o wi n g : com i cal A

s ce n e m ay fr e q u e n t ly b e w i t ne sse d i n t h e st r ee t s d u r i n g t h e se C h r i s t m as h o b d ays .

Th e pi ck p ock e t i s n o w d i l ig e n t ly e n g ag e d i n s h a d o w i n g h i s v ict i m s w h o g a t h e r ,

a ro u n d t h e s h o w wi n do w s o f t h e s t o r es
-
B u t w e m ay r e g u l arly n o t i ce n o t far
.
,

fro m hi m , a m an of the law , w h o k e e ps a Sha r

p w a t ch u
p o n h i m , an d cat ch es h i m

by the co llar as s o o n h e p u t s h is h a n d s i n t o
as p e o p le s p o c k e t s Th e w r i t e r
.

e v id e n tl y i n t e n d e d t o re m i n d t h e ci t i ze n o f Be r l i n h o w w e l l h i s p o c k e t w as b e i n g

g u ar d e d : b e h i n d e v e ry p i c kp o ck e t st an d s t h e d e t e ct i v e , w h o i s s i m p ly w at ch i n g
h i s c h an ce ! Wo u l d t h e b u rg o m as t e r o r t h e al d e r m e n of a m e d i ae v al t o w n h a v e
r e g ar d e d th is sce n e a s s o c o m i cal ? Wou l d t h ey n o t r at h e r h av e d e cl ar e d w i t h
an a n g ry o ath : S u ch a syst e m of h av i n g on e t h ou s an d p o l i ce m e n w at ch o ne

t h o u s an d p ro fe ssi o n al t hi e ve s s ee m s t o b e t he m os t ag r a n t m a dn e ss, e ve n

t h o u g h t h e re i s m e t h o d i n i t !
612 DO C TRIN E OF VIRTUES A N D DU TIE S

ma n is m In deed we m igh t ask w ith J u s t u s Moeser wheth e r

.
1
,

th e sta t e has an y ri gh t to per m i t the pro fessi o n al m u rdere r

to l ive rst i n vi ew o f the rel atives of th e vi cti m wh o m th e
, , ,

s t a t e has d epri ved of the poss ibil ity of reve n ge ; seco n dly i n ,

vi ew o f t h ose wh o a re co m pell ed t o provi d e for t h e m ai n

t e n an c e Of t he pri so n e r ; thi rdly i n vi ew O f t h e futu re p o s
,

s ible vi c t i m s Of h i s cri m i n al i m p u lse Le t us S u ppos e tha t .

a m an m akes a reg u l ar b u si n ess of abd u cti n g robbi n g an d , ,

m u rderi n g serva n t gi rls i n search o f e m ploy m e n t : there can

b e n o d o u b t t ha t the peopl e s se n se of j u sti ce w i l l h e sat

i s e d w ith n oth i n g l ess tha n the death o f s u ch a mo n s t er ;

t hey w o u l d S i m ply regard i t as an abs u rd outrage t o ke ep
a n d t o suppor t h i m fo r l ife at p u bl i c expe n se I co n fess .
,

t h e fact th at th e L iberal party regards th e ab ol i ti o n of capital

p u n i sh m e n t as on e of i ts chi ef pol itic al ai m s has always ,

see m ed t o m e to prove h o w l it t l e i t u n ders t a n ds th e real

se n ti m e n ts of ou r peopl e A n d I fu rther c o n fess t ha t I d o
.

n o t dee m i t i m possibl e t h a t th e f u t u re w i ll agai n mak e a

m ore exte n ded u s e o f t h e process of exter m i n a ti o n Tha t .

m oder n n a t i o n s wh i ch have fo r s o ma n y ce n turi es rel e n t

,

l essly exter m i n ate d worthl ess i n divi dual s h ave for a few ,

ge n erati o n s s u cceeded i n d i scardi n g th ese m ethods doe s n ot

a t al l prove t h a t s u ch a thi n g i s pe r m a n e n t l y possibl e .

There c an h ardly b e a d o u bt th at th e fear of cri m e whi ch ,

was formerly kep t alive i n th e pop u lar co n sc i ou s n ess by s o

m a n y death se n t e n ces i s n o t s o grea t t o d ay as i t was on e
-
,
-

hu n dre d years ago .

I als o c al l atte n ti o n t o t he fac t t ha t co m pulsi o n i s n o t co n

n ed t o the c ri m i n al l a w W e n d i t i n c ivi l l aw as wel l ;
.

especi al ly wh ere t h e s t ate co m pels th e d i scharge of obl i ga

ti o n s b ase d upo n c o n trac t Here t oo t h e reaso n for c oe r
.
, ,

ci o n i s appare n t ly a t el e ol ogi cal on e Tw o perso n s make a .

co n tract call i n g for a parti cular servi ce or a speci c pay m e n t .

Th e obl i gati o n i s n ot m e t Why d oes th e l aw c o m pe l th e

.

1
[Re chtsleh r a H a rt enst e i n s e di t i on , 1 4 9 ff ]

.
 J US TIC E 6 13

i n di vi d u al t o keep h i s co n tract ? Why does i t n o t say : Tha t

i s a bargai n wh i ch d oes n ot co n ce r n me ; why were y ou s o
reckless as to tr u st t h at m an o r to l e n d h i m m o n ey Evi
d e n t ly becau se i t i s n ot i m m ateri al to th e state ; beca u se i t
,

h as a very esse n ti al i n teres t n ot i n th i s parti c u lar case as

,

s u ch i t i s t r u e b u t i n the keepi n g of c o n tracts i n ge n eral

, , .

W itho u t a g u ara n t e e th at co n tracts w i l l be kept there co u l d ,

be n o i n terco u rse excep t i n t he for m O f excha n ge o r cash

barter an d n o perso n al servi ce excep t i n th e for m of sl avery
, .

If t he n hi gher c i vi l i za t i o n i s m ade poss ibl e o n ly by a de

, ,

v e l O e d sys t e m o f i n tercourse th e per fecti o n O f legal for m s

p ,

an d legal pro t ecti o n beco m es a t eleologi cal n ecess ity for

i n tercourse .

5 From t hi s sta n dpoi n t w e c a n also u n de rsta n d th e d u ty

. .

o f th e i n d ivi d u al to c o O perate i n s u pporti n g th e pos it i ve

-

righ t an d i n b attl i n g agai n s t i n j u sti ce He i s i n d u ty b o u n d

.

t o resi st breaches of th e l aw eve n whe n they d o n ot d i rectly

,

a e ct h i m Thi s d u ty i s rec og n i zed by th e state : I a m co m

.

p e ll e d to resi st at t ac k s upo n t h e ri ght by servi n g as a w i t

n ess ,
j u ror sol di e r o r o f ci al Bu t th e i n d ivi d u al i s al so
, ,
.

m orally bou n d t o protect agai n st i n j u sti c e the i n j u red r igh t

i n ge n eral eve n whe n i t i s n o t protecte d by th e law It i s
,
.

the vi r t u e o f th e chi va lr ou s m an to de feat by perso n al i n ter

v e n t i o n o r to cal l to acc o u n t before th e co u rts eve ry possible
, ,

for m of i n j u sti ce th at i n te rferes wi th th e right espec i ally ,

th e ri ghts o f t h e de fe n celess e i th er by vi ole n ce strategy

, , ,

o r t e m ptati o n W e m u s t of c o u rse exe rci se d u e care i n

.
, ,

thi s regard : for i n j u stic e an d self ca u sed m i sery are fo n d of

-

gi vi n g t he m selves th e ai r O f i n j u re d i n n oce n ce .

Th e abse n ce o f thi s vi rt u e for m s o n e of th e m os t pai n f u l

o m issi o n s i n th e m oral i ty of th e Ne w Testa m e n t To work .

an d s u ffe r for oth ers i t recog n i zes as a vi r t u e b u t o f th e ,

battle agai n s t i n j u stic e a n d v i ol e n c e for th e p rotecti o n o f

others i t says al m ost n oth i n g What o u gh t t h e S a m ari ta n
.

to h ave do n e h ad h e re ach ed t h e spot a q u arte r o f a n h o u r

614 DO C TRIN E OF V IRT UE S A N D DU TIE S

earl i er an d h ad fou n d th e robbers sti ll a t w ork an d h ad ,

h e see n o n ly o n e way o f resc u i n g thei r vi c t i m th a t i s by , ,

attacki n g an d k i l li n g t he m I co n fess I d o n ot k n ow h ow
,

t o a n s w e r th i s q u esti o n i n t h e spi ri t of th e Gospel Moses .

,

wh o stra n gled th e Egyp t i a n gave us an u n a m bi guous a n swe r

,

by hi s ex a m ple ; d oes th e N ew Tes t a m e n t give u s the sa m e

a n swer ? It d oes n ot see m so : Pe t er s e xperi e n ce wi th the

serva n t Malch u s see m s to poi n t to a d i ffere n t sol u t i o n ; th e

m oral to be draw n fro m i t i s evi de n tly this Resi st ye n o t ,

evi l n eithe r t ha t whi ch i s do n e t o y o u rselves n o r that

, ,

wh i ch i s d o n e to others S o too the ol d C h ri sti a n com

.
, ,

m u n i t i e s prese n t u s w i th m a n y exa m p l es of heroi c su ffe r

i n g b u t n ot w i th ex a m pl es o f ch iva l ro u s battl es agai n st th e
,

O ppress ors an d persecutors Of i n n oce n ce Su ch a type of .

co n d u c t was rs t devel oped by medi aeval C hri sti an ity .

NO on e i n ou r t i m es w ill d o u b t tha t i t i s a d u ty t o resi s t

an d ba tt l e agai n s t t h e i njus t i ce d o n e to others Bu t h ow .

abo u t the w ro n g i n i c t ed upo n my se lf ? IS i t a duty to O ff er

resi sta n ce t o th i s also an d eve n t o oppose i t wi th force S h oul d
, ,

occasi o n d e m a n d ? Or i s th e defe n ce of o n e s own righ t s

m e rely a m a tt er Of i n cl i n ati o n a n d n ot a co m m a n d m e n t o f
,

jus t i ce ? Th e e th i cs of th e Gospel favors th e la tt e r vi ew ; i t

n owhere i n si s t s t ha t w e asser t ou r o w n ri ghts wh i le i t oft e n
,

ad m o n ishes u s n ot t o j u dge n ot to go t o l aw n ot t o t ake r e

, ,

ve n ge b u t t o forgi ve tra n sgressi o n s an d to l ove ou r e n e m i es

, .

There has perhaps n eve r bee n a t i m e wh e n a co m m u n ity

calli n g i t sel f C hri sti a n s t ri c tly obeyed s u ch a co m m a n d It .

i s t o be assu m ed tha t C h ri s t i a n s h ave al ways at leas t i n

extre m e cases th o u gh perh aps wi th s o m e m i sgi vi n gs ap ,

peal ed t o th e law for protec t i o n an d for the p u n ish m e n t of

evi l We k n ow that Pa u l appeal ed t o hi s Ro m a n ci ti ze n shi p
.

for protec t i o n agai n s t vi ole n ce an d i n j u s t i ce N ow espe .

,

c i al ly tha t C hri sti a n states h ave bee n establi shed t h e ev an

, ,

g e l i cal i n j u n c,
t i
o n Love an d forgi ve you r e n e m y d oes n ot ,

hi n der an y on e fro m goi n g t o l aw an d ca u si n g p u n ish m e n t

616 DO C TRIN E OF VIRTUE S A ND DU TIE S

ing hi s o w n righ t s an d i f n eed be t o gh t for the m A n

, , , .

E n gl ish t ravel ler says Jh e r i n g re m ai n s i n a t ow n for days

, ,

an d days t o resi s t the ex orbita n t de m a n ds o f a h otel keeper -

o r coach m a n an d S pe n ds t e n ti m es th e s u m i n vo l ved i n the

,

d isp u te i n order so i t appears t o d efe n d t h e rights of o ld

, , ,

E n gla n d Th e peopl e la u gh a t h i m an d d o n ot k n ow wha t

.

,

i t al l m ea n s i t w o u l d be bet t e r fo r the m i f they u n derstood

him . For i n the few g u l de n s fo r wh i ch th e m an i s here
ghti n g there i s i n deed a pi ece o f o l d E n gla n d ; a t h o m e
, , ,

i n h is o w n cou n t ry everybody u n dersta n ds h i m a n d h e n ce ,

takes good care n ot to overch arge h i m Im agi n e an A u stri an .

o f the s a m e soci al ra n k a n d wealth i n a si m i l ar si t u a t i o n

,

h ow woul d he ac t ? If I m ay t ru s t m y o w n expe ri e n ces n o t ,

t e n ou t o f o n e h u n d re d wo u l d foll ow t he ex a m pl e o f t h e
E n gl ishman They w o u l d dread th e i n c o n ve n i e n ce ari si n g
.

fro m t he troubl e th e n otori ety t h e d a n ger O f bei n g m i s u n

, ,

d e r s t oo d whi ch an E n gl i sh m a n i n E n gla n d n ee d n ot fear

,

a n d wh i ch h e cal m ly accepts abroad i n sh ort t hey would , ,

pay Bu t th er e i s m ore i n t h e g u l de n whi ch the E n gli sh m a n

.

ref u ses t o pay an d wh i ch t h e A u stri a n pay s tha n we are

, ,

apt to bel i eve ; there i s a p i ece o f E n gla n d i n i t an d a ,

pi ec e O f A u s t ri a an d i t represe n ts ce n tu ri es O f t hei r r e
,

s p e ct i ve pol i t ical evol u ti o n a n d s oci al li fe
1
.

V ery tr u e ; t h e e n e rgy w i th w h i ch e ach i n di vi dual i n a

n ati o n r esi sts w ro n g an d t h e a m ou n t o f wro n g co m m itted
, ,

sta n d e x ac t ly i n i n verse proporti o n t o e ach othe r In free .

n a t i o n s t hi s ac t i ve si de o f j u stic e t h e se n se of ri gh t de , ,

v el op s .In n a t i o n s t h at are n ot fre e th e i n d i vi d u al expec t s ,

l e n i e n cy privi leges favors m ercy ; h e re me n di can cy the

, , , ,

t ippi n g syste m bribery an d corr u pti o n thri ve

-
, ,
.

6 Th e j u ri s t proper l y e m phasi zes the d u ty to respec t an d

.

pro t ec t o thers as wel l as o u r o wn righ t s by l aw fu l m e a n s

,

an d eve n by vi ol e n t me a n s i f n ecessary Th e m oral is t on .

,

th e ot he r ha n d wi l l i n si s t wi th equal propri ety t ha t thi s

, , ,
 JU S TIC E 617

d u ty i s n o t absol u t e t ha t th e d u ty t o respec t an d pro t ec t th e

,

righ t m u s t b e l i m i t e d an d s u ppl e m e n ted by t he de m a n ds

'

O f e q u i ty an d m ag n a n i mi ty .

E q u i ty de m a n ds tha t we volu n t ari ly resi g n cl ai m s an d ac t s

t o wh ich we have an u n d o u b t ed form al ri ght so tha t ou r ow n ,

i n teres t s m ay n ot be adva n ced a t relati vely greate r d am age t o

th ose of others Thi s i s a de m a n d n ot of th e l aw bu t of
.
, ,

m orali ty wh i ch i t m u s t n o t be forgot t e n i s roo t ed i n th e

, , ,

very n at u re of j u sti ce : m y rega rd for oth e rs an d thei r i n t er

ests wh i ch are j u st as i m por t a n t as m y ow n wi ll h i n de r
, ,

m e fro m ex acti n g fro m oth ers all tha t t h e law all ows To .

i n sis t ri goro u sly o n o n e s ri gh t s would be vi ola t i n g th e very

spi ri t of jus t i ce for j u s t i ce really de m a n d s th a t t h e d i ff ere n t

,

i n terests be fai rly appor t i o n ed b u t i t ca n n o t o n a cco u n t of

, ,

i ts m echa n i cal n a ture wholly adap t i t self t o th e i n d i vi du a l

,

cases an d h e n ce can re ali ze i ts e n d o n ly i m pe rfe c t ly It

,
.

appea l s t o th e fai r m i n ded n ess of t h e i n te res t e d parti es for

-

hel p an d n o w an d th e n expressly authori ze s th e judge t o

,

mak e revisi o n s i n th e i n t eres t s O f eq u i ty .

M ag n an i m i ty i s t h e vi r t u e whi ch d oe s n ot requi t e perso n a l

i n j u ri es b u t ove rl ooks the m an d d oes n ot e m brace th e
, ,

O ppor tu n i ty for reve n ge eve n th ou gh i t prese n t i tself

, .

C hri sti a n i ty goes so far as to d e m a n d lo ve of e n e m i e s : Love

h i m wh o si n s agai n st y ou as a brothe r a n d n ot o n ly h e a r
, ,

h i m n o gr u dge b u t forgive h i m wi t h al l yo u r heart a n d

, ,

re t u r n go od fo r ev i l .

Th e co m m a n d of th e G ospel see m s di fc u lt a n d al m os t
u n n at u ral Th e n atural m an dee m s i t right an d proper t o
.

l ove h i s fri e n ds an d to h a t e h i s e n e m i es Wo u ld i t n ot be .

u n j u st to th e for m er i f we sho u l d t reat t he latte r i n th e sa m e

way What wo u l d th e re be le ft for m y fri e n ds i f I were to

treat m y e n e m i es wi th p u re be n evol e n ce an d b e n e c cn c e ?
A n d shal l I e n d u re eve ry i n j u ry every attack agai n st m yself
,

an d m y i n te rests w ith out excepti o n a n d d o n othi n g b u t good

,

i n ret u r n ? Wo u l d th a t n o t be e n co u ragi n g an d provoki n g

61 8 DO C TRIN E OF VIRTUE S A ND DU TIE S

w i cked n ess Has n ot n a t ure hersel f t a u gh t all l ivi n g crea

t u re s to resi s t at t acks S O th at th ey m ay de fe n d the m selves
'

an d h ave peace ? C ertai n l y we m u st ad m i t it ; an d resi s t

,

an ce an d rese n t m e n t bo t h pri vate an d p u bl i c are j u sti abl e

, ,

i n thei r prope r pl ace Bu t t hey are n ot i n every case the

.

proper m ean s of establ ishi n g an d e n s u ri n g peace an d he n c e ,

th e c o m m a n d Resi st every i n frac t i o n of the l aw by al l l aw

,

fu l m ea n s ca n n ot have absol u te val i dity

,
A n e ighbor i n .

s u l t s m e wi th a fri vol o u s re m ark o r tre ats m e u n k i n dly , .

S hall I s u m m o n h i m be fore court ? S hal l I O btai n s at i sfa c

t i o n by pri vate m e an s ? Th e O pport u n i ty w i ll s u rely pre
se n t i tself owi n g t o th e cl ose n ess of ou r re lati o n s Wha t
,
.

woul d be t h e e ffe c t ? Wo u l d he be more care ful i n fu ture ?

Pe rhaps Bu t a n o the r effec t wo u l d surely follow : m y
.

re t al i a t i o n w oul d leave a s t i n g i n h i m ; h e woul d co n side r

h i m self the a ffro n t ed par t y : For such a t ri e o n accou n t of ,

a mere w ord ! h e woul d s ay He w o u l d make up hi s m i n d .

t o pay me back at the n ex t O ppor tu n i ty an d t o sh ow me a t ,

t he sa m e t i m e t h a t h e was n ot afrai d of me Th e m o m e n t .

arrives whe n h e c an play m e a t ri ck or d o me a favor pro t ec t ,

m e agai n s t d a m age He m akes use o f h i s cha n ce by scor n

.

fu lly re m i n di n g m e of m y for m er co n d u c t A n d n ow i t i s .

my t u r n agai n I si m p ly de fe n ded m y good ri ghts be fore ; h i s

.

prese n t t reat m e n t of m e i s an i n te n t i o n al i n j u ry : thi s I s h al l

n ot forge t A n d s o w e m ove ou r reve n ge back a n d forth
.
,

i n te n s i fyi n g i t as we go m aki n g ou r e n m i ty d eeper each

,

ti m e Here t he str u ggl e for th e ri ght di d n ot bri n g
.

peace as i t sho u ld have do n e b u t t h e bitteres t m ost per

, , ,

n i c i o u s war sappi n g t he stre n g t h o f b oth o f us

,
How di ffer .

e n t i t woul d h ave b ee n ha d th e rs t ac t of reve n ge bee n

,

o m i tt ed h ad t h e rst ac t O f i n j u s t i ce bee n m e t wi th com

,

p l e t e ,
free f orgive n ess ! Per h aps th e i n sulti n g re m ark ,

whi ch i n a u g u rated the w ar o f reve n ge mi gh t h ave for m ed ,

th e star t i n g poi n t Of a l as t i n g fri e n d shi p

-
A n O pportu n i ty .

w as a ff orded fo r req u i ti n g the wro n g ; I d i d n ot embrace i t ,

620 DO C TRIN E OF VIRTUE S A ND DU TIE S

e d ly m ake e xcl u s ive use of t h i s m ea n s If re t al i a t i o n an d

.

p u n ish m e n t we re t h e sol e an d s u rest m ea n s o f m aki n g h i m

peace fu l an d ki n d who t reats u s i m pol i tely u n ki n dly an d , ,

u n ci vi lly we sh o u l d al so k n ow what t o do Th e tro u bl e i s

,
.
,

di ffere n t cases req u i re d i ff ere n t treat m e n t an d i t w i ll of te n ,

b e i m possi ble t o de t er m i n e w i th certai n ty wh a t i s th e m os t

e ffec t ive an d he n ce m os t appropri a t e m eth od of procedur e
, , , ,

i n a parti cul ar i n sta n ce It cer t ai n ly ca n n o t b e i n di ca t e d by

.

m oral phi losophy i n u n i versal propos iti o n s o r categori cal

i m pera t ives On ly e xperi e n ce d m oral t ac t wh i ch takes i n to
.
,

accou n t all th e co n cre t e c i rcu m s t a n ces can d i scove r th e ,

proper co u rse t o pursue i n each parti cul ar case w h i ch ; h ow ,

eve r does n ot ex cl u d e th e possi b ili ty of e rror Moral ph i

,
.

l os oph y can perhaps merely i n di ca t e th e ge n eral poi n ts o f

vi ew fro m wh i ch each case mus t be co n si de red We may .

me n t i o n th e fol l owi n g
1 Forgi ve n ess i s possibl e whe n t he O e n c e i s d i rec t e d
( )
agai n st a p ar ti cu la r p erson ; p u n ish m e n t i s n ecessary whe n
the o ff e n ce i s d i rec t ed n ot so much agai n s t a par t i cul ar per
s on as a gai n st cu st om a n d law i n g en er a l The ft fo r ex .
,

am pl e i s n ot a crime agai n s t t h e par t ic u l ar perso n as such

, ,

b u t agai n st the ow n er as such h e n ce agai n st t h e i n stituti o n

, ,

of proper t y To overl ook i t i s therefore l ess possi bl e tha n to

.

overl ook an i n sult wh i ch i s ai m ed solely at m yself an d d oes ,

n ot S h ow a ge n eral t e n de n cy to such o ffe n ces Th e case i s .

di ffere n t w h e n i t comes t o i n s u lti n g an o fci al i n th e exerci se

o f h i s d u t i es fo r wh i ch reaso n re t al i ati o n i s m ore i n place
,

h ere . Th e cri m i n al l aw t akes accou n t of these facts i n s o far

as i t d i sti n g u i sh es betwee n del i c t s whi ch are prosec u ted ex
o i ci o a n d s u ch as are prosecuted sol ely u po n c o m pl ai n t
.

2
( ) It is a fac t tha t we are apt to be reco n ciled a n d i n

c l i n e d to forgive n ess by r e m o r s e A n d j u stly so . Re m orse is .

a S ig n tha t the O ffe n ce was n o t the expressio n Of th e o ffe n der s

per m a n e n t will that it was the res u lt o f error accide n t

, , ,

haste or careless n ess If n o atte n t io n is paid to hi s r e

, .

 J USTIC E 62 1

morse if we reac t by pu n ishi n g h i m o r taki n g reve n ge a

, ,

revulsio n of feeli n g is likely to e n s u e His re m ors e va n ishes .

,

he has expiated his wro n g n ay he is ap t to feel t hat he h as

, ,

more th a n expiated i t an d he n o w h as i n stead of a deb t t o

, ,

pay a clai m which he will take up as soo n as opport u n ity

,

o e rs . P u n ish m e n t m ay of course be appropriate eve n i n

, ,

cases o f ge n u i n e re m orse a s for exa m ple i n ed u catio n ; th e

, , ,

pu n ish m e n t m ay prove t he re m orse an d ge n u i n e re m orse m ay

,

eve n de m an d pu n ish m e n t as an expia t io n i n orde r h o wever , , ,

at the sa m e ti m e t o ob t ai n forgive n ess thereby A n d if the .

re m orse is n ot deep p u n ish m e n t m ay be n ecessary t o

,

stre n gthe n th e m e m ory of t he will : pu n ish m e n t i s the n a

re m i n der an ad m o n itio n
,
-
Whe n howeve r re m orse i s lack
, ,

i n g whe n a co n scio u s an d st u bbor n will whe n i m p u de n t

, ,

m alice co m m its th e wro n g an d boasts of i t a n d rej oices

,

i n its i n iq u i ty p u n ish m e n t i s n ecessary to t errify an d t o

,

break t he wicked will ; perh aps th e n at u re of the will

m ay eve n be t ra n s formed i n this way for i t is an u n doubted ,

fac t t hat the re have bee n ge n ui n e con ve r si on s am on g cri m

i n al s se n te n ced t o dea t h Th e cri m i n al a u thorities t oo ,

e n deavor t o t ake t hese thi n gs i n t o accou n t b u t they ca nn o t , ,

i n the ve ry n a t ure o f t hi n gs e a sily adj u s t t he m selves t o t he

,

particular circ u m sta n ces an d t o this is due t he i n adequacy of

,

p u blic pu n ish m e n t as co m pared with tha t e m pl oyed i n ed u ca

t io n It n ecessarily so m ewha t rese m bles the m echa n ical
.

process of n at u re which does n ot co n sider th e i n te n tio n b u t

, ,

merely t h e obj ec t ive fac t s The n a gai n the j u dge as a rule

.
, , , ,

h as n o m ea n s o f t es ti n g t h e ge n ui n e n ess of re m orse If this .

factor were t ake n i n to co n sideratio n t he c ri m i n als w o u ld of

, ,

co u rse all si m ulate re m orse as u n i ve rsally happe n s i n p e n

, ,

i te n t i ar i es an d othe r places where a re m orse fu l de m ea n or is

regarded as a sig n of good behavior N eve rtheless th e j u dge .
,

i s i n d u ced by a re m orsef u l co n fessio n t o assu m e ex t e n uati n g

circu m sta n ces .

3
( ) Th e t hi rd i t em i s th e fol l o wi n g : Wherever perso n s l i ve
622 DO C TRIN E OF VIRTUE S A N D DU TIE S

t og e t he r i n p e r ma n en t as h u sb a n d an d wi fe b rothe r
r e la ti on s , ,

a n d sister i n m ates of the sa m e ho u se rel atives n eighbors

, , , ,

etc the co m m a n d of Jes u s n ot to forgive your brothe r

.
, ,

seve n ti m es b u t seve n ty ti m e s seve n wil l be especially i n

, ,

place S ligh t collisio n s are always i n evitable where perso n s

.

live close together Whoever i n sists u po n his righ t s i n every

.

i n s t an ce m akes l i fe i n t olerable fo r hi m sel f an d his s u rrou n d

,

i n gs A certai n m eas u re o f t ole ratio n i s an absol u te p re con

.

ditio n o f peace fu l i n tercourse Be n ot righ t eo u s over m u ch.
,

t he word of the Preacher applies here ; tha t is be care fu l , ,

t o give everyo n e his j u s t d u es b u t do n ot al w ays rigoro u sly ,

i n sist u pon y our o wn rights A n d also re m e m ber the n i n th .

co m m an d m e n t a n d the i n terpretatio n pu t upo n i t S peak well

o f thy n eighbor an d t u r n a ll thi n gs t o good ! To good ! This

is excelle n t advice Y o u r brother is close an d rather fo n d o f

.

mo n ey say he is eco n o m ical an d a good m an ager ; he has

,

a te n de n cy to express his views so m ewhat stro n gly an d with

o u t regard fo r t he feeli n gs of others say he i s si n cere an d ,

loves t he t r u th ; h e i s fo n der of e n j oym e n t an d social pleas u res

t ha n you dee m n ecessary say he i s cheerfu l a n d ligh t ,

hear t ed Th e m an who can n o t see the good i n t hi n gs wh o

.
,

al ways looks at the m fro m the wors t side who is co n stan tly ,

n di n g fault ca n n o t live with m e n an d will d o well to a void

, ,

c o n t ac t wi t h the m as m u ch as possible S chope n h a u er u n .

q u es t io n ably acted wisely wh e n h e withdrew fro m the w orl d

a n d absolutely ref u sed t o e n ter i n t o close perso n al rel atio n s

w ith his fell ows s u ch as m arriage frie n dship society

, ,
In , ,
.

his excl u sive n ess he e n j oye d a t olera ble peace which other ,

wise w o u ld have bee n i m possible Dog m atic distru stf u l a n d .

, ,

reve n ge fu l as he was he wou ld have e m bittered his o wn li fe

,

a n d th at of others h ad h e m i n gled w ith the world .

Where h owever n o pe r m a n e n t relatio n s exist where m e n

, , ,

co m e i n co n tac t with each other occasio n ally o n ly as is the ,

c ase i n b u si n ess it will be m u ch less obj ectio n able fo r on e to

,

i n sist upo n his righ t s To overlook acts of i nj u stice an d t o

.
624 DO C TRIN E o r V I R TU E S A N D DUTIES

t i m es ,
co u rse i t m ay be highly m eri t orious t o i n ic t ex
of ,

e m pl a ry p u n ish m e n t u po n a liter a ry highway m a n t ha t is i n, ,

s o far as t his will te n d to protect o t her wayfarers an d help ,

t o develop a p u blic co n scie n ce alo n g these li n es .

7 Tli e P r i n cip le of R ights

.
Righ t i n th e s u bjec t ive se n se
.

was charac t erized above as t hat sphere of i n terests which

a perso n can j u stly co m m a n d o thers t o r espec t ; wro n g as ,

an o ff e n sive e n croach m e n t u po n t his eld Th e ques t io n n o w

.

arises : A ccordi n g t o wh a t pri n ciple i s the li n e t o be draw n

which separates t he sph eres of the di ffere n t m e m bers of a
legal co m m u n ity fro m each oth e r ? If t he actio n s of i n
d i vi du al s were perfectly i n depe n de n t an d did n o t co n ict
with each othe r i f their i n t eres t s were absol u tely isolated
,

fro m each other i t would be t he fu n ctio n of the righ t si m ply

,

t o pro t ec t thi s rela t io n agai n st arbitra ri n ess an d vi ole n ce .

Bu t the case is di ffere n t Th e actio n s o f each i n divid u al

.

cross those o f o th ers t hei r spheres of i n terests i n tersec t We

, .

m igh t say w i t h Hobbes : Ori gi nal l v i n a ctitiou s n a t u ral

,

s t ate every m an had an d i n sisted o n his righ t t o have every

,

t hi n g an d t o do a nythi n g h e liked He n ce a rose a collisio n

.

of i n teres t s an d actio n s which led t o the co n ditio n of war

,

o f every o n e agai n s t every o n e Th e system of righ t s pre

.

ve n ts s u ch a state ; i t li m i t s th e ac t ivi ty or t he liber ty of each

i n dividual t o a par t icu lar sphere an d a t th e sa m e ti m e de
,

fe n ds h i m i n this agai n s t t he e n croach m e n ts of others O r .

,

with Hobbes : Th e legal order co n sis t s i n each i n divid u al s

resign i n g his righ t t o everythi n g (j u s i n omn i a) an d re ce i v ,

i n g i n ret u r n a li m ited a n d pro t ected sph ere A ccordi n g to

.

what pri n ciple shall the li n es be draw n betwee n the con i ct

in g rights an d i n terests
Th e pri n ciple o f e q u a li ty see m s t o sugges t i t self as t he m os t
i m m ediate an d n atu ral pri n ciple : Each m an shall co u n t for
o n e ; the i n terests o f each m an are as i m porta n t as those o f

every o ther o n e This is the pri n ciple with whic h the advo
.

cates of n at u ral ri gh t s a n ta g o n ized the positive an d his t orical

 J US TIC E 625

sys t e m of l aw prevaili n g i n th e s eve n t ee n th an d eightee n th

ce n t u ries Starti n g fro m th e hypothesis o f the n atu ral equ ality
.

o f i n divid u als they de m a n ded eq u al rights for all

, Th e con .

el u sio n wo u ld be correct i f the pre m ises were tr u e Eq u ality .

o f n at u ral capacities an d powers de m a n ds eq u ality o f rights

i n per fecti n g an d exercisi n g the m as well as equal rights t o ,

the m ean s of their realizatio n .

Positive law has howeve r n ever ack n owledged t his pri n

, ,

c i pl e o f the absol u te eq u ality o f all i n divid u als ; a n d eve n th e

upholders o f n at u ral righ t s have always accepted cer t ai n

restrictio n s as self evide n t There n ever has bee n eq u ality of
-
.

rights betwee n ad u l t s an d child re n an d it h as n ever bee n de ,

m an de d C hildre n it is t rue are recogn ized as havi n g rights

.
, , ,

e.
g
.
,
property rights b u t t-
hey are hi n dered
,
fro m e xercisi n g
the m an d so t oo t heir perso n al freed o m is s u bjected to the
, , ,

m ost decided li m itatio n s Th e positive l aw u n iversally sh ows

.

the sa m e d i e re n ce s betwee n the rights of the sexes : wo m e n

are restricted i n the exercise of certai n righ t s a t l east m arried ,

w o m e n while t hey are al m ost e n t irely devoid of other rights

, ,

like p u blic rights It i s t rue so m e o f the m os t m oder n

.
,

advocates o f n atu ral rights de m a n d the abolitio n of the legal

i n eq u alities betwee n the sexes : eq u al rights i n p u blic an d
private law are cl ai m ed for w o m e n A n d we m ay u n do u bt .

e d ly say tha t o u r previ o u s d evel op m e n t h as bee n te n di n g

t owards eq u alizatio n Y e t t h e m aj ority of perso n s to day

.
-
,

wo m e n as well as m e n do n ot regard i t as probable o r desi r

,

able t ha t the righ t s of m en an d wo m e n be m ade absol u tely

eq u al Why n ot ? Is t he vi s i n er ti ae of i n stit u ti o n s the o n ly
.

reaso n ? Hardly N ay th e i n equ ali ty o f rights correspo n ds

.
,

to an i n eq u ality of n at u ral powers an d n at u ral spheres o f actio n ,

an d so lo n g as this e xists the i n eq u ality of rights see m s to be

,

n at u ral an d n ecessary To t he m ilitary a n d political fu n ctio n s

.

o f the m an an d here we are n o t to thi n k chie fl y o f speech

m aki n g an d voti n g correspo n d ce rtai n politic a l rights ; to

his eco n o m ic po s i tio n correspo n ds h is righ t to be t h e exter
40
626 DO C TRIN E OF V IRTUE S A N D DU TIE S

n al eco n o m ic represe n ta t ive of the ho u sehold Wo m an s m os t .

i m porta n t f u n c t io n o n the other han d still is however

, ,

great the ch an ges of these latter days m ay h ave bee n the

m a n age m e n t of th e h o m e an d i t will co n ti n u e to be so as
, ,

l o n g as the life co n ditio n s of m an hi m sel f re m ai n esse n tially

-

what they are Th e rights of wo m a n are deter m i n ed by this

.

relatio n : it i s h er privilege t o r u le th e ho m e a right which ,

is vo u chsa fe d her n ot o n ly by c u sto m b u t by la w ,

.

Beside the legal di ffere n ces based o n age an d sex the his ,

t o ri cal legal sys t e m s al wav s sho w other d i e re n ce s which

rest upo n class disti n ctio n s Free m e n an d slaves or serfs .
,

n obles an d citize n s property holders an d the propertyless

,

always had di ffere n t righ t s This n o w was the poi n t agai n st .

w hich th e u ph olders o f n at u ral rights directe d their real

a t tacks an d here they were e sse n tially success fu l i n e n fo r c

,

i n g their clai m of eq u al rights Ever si n ce th e gre a t r e vol u.

t io n o n t he eve of the n i n etee n t h ce n t ury which a ffec t ed all

, ,

relati o n s of righ t there h ave bee n n o real cl ass rights i n the

,

E u ropean s t ates ; th ese have e n tirely d isappeared fro m private

law an d are bei n g grad u ally eli m i n ated fro m p u blic l aw ; a
,

few re m n an ts e g i n the for m of a proper ty q u alica t io n

,
. .
,

for voters o r of privileges c o n ce d ed t o certai n classes with

regard to cert ai n o fces are all that is le ft of the old syste m
,
.

Why has th e eq u ali ty o f rights prevai led here ? S urely

becau se th e d i ffere n ces i n capacity an d t he correspo n di n g
di ffere n ces of f u n ctio n an d d u ty have grad u ally disappeared
the classes the m selves have bee n grad u ally dissol ved an d
with the m the legal class disti n ctio n s N atural d i e re n ces-
.

still exis t betwee n m e n di ffere n ce s i n m e n tal an d m oral

,

e n dow m e n t an d ed u ca t io n di ffere n ces i n i n cli n atio n an d skill

, ,

b u t they are n o l o n ger i n corpora t ed i n classes as was largely ,

the case i n for m er ti m es .

This the n wo u ld be t h e pri n ciple which see m s o n th e

, , ,

whole to have gover n ed th e devel op m e n t of positive right

,

th e sph eres of righ ts of the di ffere n t m e m bers o f the legal

62 8 O
D C TRI NE OF VI RTUE S A N D D UTIE S

least i n j u ry to t hose in t eres t s Th e m ore perfectly a posi .

tive legal order acco m plishes t his result the m ore closely it ,

re alizes the p u rpose of the law or wha t e thics de m a n ds an d ,

expects o f the law .

Bu t the legal syste m c an n ever absolu t ely realize t his e n d .

It lies i n th e n at u re o f a m echa n is m to act m echa n ically that ,

is accordi n g to ge n eral laws an d n ot accordi n g t o the r e

, ,

u i re m e n ts o f a partic u lar case Th e legal syste m acts i n

q .

th e sa m e way : i n dividual cases are decided accordi n g t o

ge n eral r u l es We m ay co n ceive of a syste m decidi n g i n di
.

vid u al cases o n ly ; we m ay co n ceive of a legal co m m u n ity

which either as a collective body or thro u gh so m e orga n s
, ,

or other with o u t bi n di n g itself or i t s j u dicial orga n s i n an y

,

way n ds an d d eterm i n es t he righ t fro m case t o case by

, ,

free deliber atio n There is i n reality n o s u ch l aw ; every

.

wh ere the l aw has th e for m of u n iversal rules ; th e right of

the i n divid u al case is ascer t ai n ed by s u bsu m i n g i t u n der on e
o f these rules Th e reaso n for t his is obvious : o n ly w he n
.

there are ge n eral rules or laws can t he i n divid u al k n ow an d ,

do the right with ce r t ai n t y an d ease an d o n ly i n t his way , ,

too can the l aw be pro t ec t e d agai n s t th e arbitrari n ess of

,

those ad m i n is t e ri n g i t If the right were ascertai n ed from

.

particul ar decisio n s o n ly the n t he i n divid u al wh o is i n dou bt

,

abou t th e li m its of his own rights an d those o f others woul d ,

h ave to j u dge accordi n g t o a n alogo u s cases an u n cer t ai n

me thod while th e subj ective n otio n s a n d i n cl i n atio n s of
th e j u dge wo u ld fu r n ish bou n dless opport u n ities for error an d
partiality Th e safe ty o f the law depe n ds upo n i t s u n i
.

for m ity Th e legal order here rese m bles th e n atural order ;

.

a n at u re with ou t u n ifor m ity i n which all eve n ts occurred

,

with ou t rule say accordi n g to absol u te caprice w o u ld be

, ,

u n k n o wable an d practical adaptatio n to its worki n gs wo u ld

,

be i m possible Th e u n i for m ity of the process o f n at u re is

.

teleologically n ecessary for us as acti n g an d k n owi n g bei n gs

an d th e u n iform i ty o f law is n ecessary fo r t he sa m e reaso n .
 J U S TIC E 629

Bu t this very u n i for m ity o f n at u re is fatal t o ou r p u rposes

i n partic u l a r i n sta n ces A l l o u r m o v e m e n ts pres u ppose
.

that there are n o exceptio n s t o the law of gravitatio n a n d ,

their certai n ty depe n ds upo n th e fac t tha t ou r body u n iver

sally obeys i t like everythi n g else At t i m es however i t
,
.
, ,

ca u ses i n j u ry an d death Preci sely the sam e m ay be sai d of

.

th e legal ord er : as a r u le i t te n ds to preserve an d prod u ce

what is by n at u re right b u t cases occ u r i n whi ch owi n g to
, ,

its n ecessary m echa n ical O peratio n th e m oral law is violated

,

a n d broke n by the positive l aw Th e partic u lar cases

.

exhibit co u n tl ess i n divid u al di ffere n ces while t h e law i t ,

sel f is ge n eral co n cept u al sche m atic Th e tra n sitio n fro m

, ,
.

childhood to m atu rity i s as a m atter of fact a co n ti n uo u s

, ,

process of de v elop m e n t which di ffers fo r di ffere n t i n divid

,

u al s
. Th e l aw h owever deter m i n es i n a rigi d for m u la that
, , ,

a perso n i s n ot o f age u n til he is twe n ty on e years old Eve n -

.

if on the day before he reaches his m aj ority the gu ardian s ,

agai n st the will of the w ard take the m ost serio u s an d

,

r u i n o u s m eas u re s affecti n g his rights t hese will have l egal

,

force an d will be u phel d by t h e co u r t s Th e law pro t ec t s

.

co n tracts which were made i n legiti m ate b u si n ess witho u t ,

regard t o whether thei r provisio n s still co n for m to j u s t ice

or n ot . O wi n g to u n foresee n circ u m sta n ces thi n gs m ay so ,

have chan ged as to ca u se the r u i n of o n e o f the co n tract in g

parties sho u ld th e co n tract n ow be c arried ou t perhaps with ,

o u t s u bsta n tially be n eti n g the othe r par ty Th e law i s n ot .

co n cer n ed abo u t that It pit ilessly orders t he evictio n o f

.

a te n a n t wh o h as u n su specti n gly sig n ed a rui n o u s co n

t ract or th e evictio n of a debtor who has bee n robbed of hi s
,

patri m o n y by a us u rer wh o has re m ai n ed withi n the pale

o f the law . It proceeds o n t h e ass u m ptio n tha t everybody
always acts with a co m plete k n owledge o f the l aw an d with
a fu ll u n derstan di n g o f his i n terests an i n dispe n sabl e hypoth
,

esis w hich h owever as we all k n ow is false

, , ,
.

Th e s am e is tr u e of cri m i n al l a w It e m braces u n de r
.
630 DO C TRIN E OF VIRTUES A N D DUTIE S

the sa m e for m u l a t wo acts which are s u bj ect i v ely o r m orally

,

co n sidered i n n itely di ffere n t fro m each other Mu rder is

,
.

the i n te n tion al killi n g o f a m an with m alice a foretho u ght a n d ,

is p u n ishable with death This de n itio n i n cl u des the ope n

.

an d ho n est killi n g o f a disho n orable a n d base sco u n drel who

h as rui n ed t he h o n or an d happi n ess of m y fa m ily t hrough

so m e dastard ly act witho u t h avi n g re n dered hi m sel f a m e n able
,

t o the cri m i n al l aw as well as t he m ost hei n o u s deed of the

,

poiso n er a n d assassi n It is tr u e the cri m i n al law atte m

.
,
pts
to m ake itself m ore el astic where t he di s crepa n cy is greates t ,

i n order to adap t itself to t he i n divid u al case : the disere

t i on ary powers of the j u dge i n re fere n ce to the p u n ish m e n t to
be i n icted th e co n sideratio n o f exte n u ati n g ci rc u m stan ces
, ,

an d the possibility o f pardo n are m ea n s to this e n d Bu t it is .

clear th at these safegu ards are n o t s u fcie n t to co u n terac t

the errors ca u se d by the m echan ical O peratio n of the l aw .

He n ce it h appe n s that th e positive l a w at ti m es de m an ds

an d d oes wha t co n tradic t s th e idea o f j u stice i n a partic u lar

case : s u mm u m j u s su m ma i nj u r i a an i n evitable co u se
,

q u e n ce o f th e u n iversality a n d u n i for m ity of t he law .

A bsol u te adaptatio n of the law t o the partic u lar i n sta n ce i s

possible o n ly whe n th e law appears i n the form o f a perso n al
will as is the case i n ho m e ed u catio n
,
.

Fro m this it follows that it m ay u n der cer t ai n circu m,

s t an ces be morally possible for a perso n to do what the law

,

does n ot all ow It is legally wro n g fo r a m an to dispose of a

.

thi n g e n tr u sted t o his care to the detri m e n t of the ow n er ;

,

s u ch an act i s p u n ishable as a breach of faith A n d yet .

i t m ay be m orally right In case h e can aver t a great

.

cala m ity fro m hi m sel f an d o thers o n ly by appropriati n g the

thi n g e n trusted to h i m he m ay perhaps do so witho u t co m
,

p u n ctio n He m ay be g u ilty an d p u n ishable be fore the law

.
,

b u t be fore t he trib u n al o f co n scie n ce an d m orality h e i s with

o u t bla m e .

It is worthy of n o t e tha t the law i t sel f i n a cer t ai n se n se ,

,
632 DO C TRIN E OF VIRTUES A N D DUTIE S

o thers vital i n terests o n ly by doi n g less da m age to the rights

o f others a co n ditio n o f n ecessity exists which re n ders the

, ,

i n fri n ge m e n t o f others rights exe m pt fro m p u n ish m e n t It i s

.

obvio u s that n o legislat u re c o u ld e n act s u ch a law Its i n de .

n i te n e s s wo u ld m ake all other laws u n certai n : for h ow S hall

we de n e a vital i n terest ? What a eld s u ch a de n itio n

wo u ld ope n to the ar ti ce s of the la wyer ! If we leave the
m atter to t he j u dge witho u t tyi n g h i m to a de n itio n o r co n
,

fu si n g h i m with a vag u e pri n ciple we m ay I believe ass u m e , , ,

that he will hit u po n the righ t with th e tact pec u liar to

a healthy c om m o n se n se tha t h as bee n sharpe n ed by j u dicial
-

experie n ce .

On the other ha n d I ca n n o t agree wi t h Ber n er whe n h e de

,

fe n ds the n otio n of an act u al Notr e cht (r ig ht of n e ce ssi ty) ,

which the I mp er i a l Cr i m i n a l Cod e avoids It m ay be m orally .

j u stiable to do wh at i s co n trary t o the j u ridical right bu t ,

this can n ot as it see m s to m e be de n ed j u ridically as righ t

, ,
.

Tha t wo u ld m ea n a righ t to violate the right Th e law can .

gra n t exe m ptio n fro m p u n ish m e n t on ly u n der certai n ci rcu m

sta n ces Perhaps i t wo u ld be better to speak of a N otu n r e clzt
.

n r i ht o r w r on n a n al ogy with the No t li i e

( n e ce ss a r
y u g g) i g ( eli
of n e cessi t
y) a wro n g which
,
obj ec t ively co n sidered
,
is un ,

doubtedly a wro n g b u t which can n ot be j u dged an d treated as a

,

w ro n g u n der t he existi n g ob j ective an d s u bjective co n ditio n s .

H e n ce the law itself recog n izes i n the n otio n of n ecessity

,

a n d its i n u e n ce u po n the legal esti m ate o f a n act that i t ,

m ay owi n g to its logical m echan ical character act u ally

,
-
,

res u l t i n doi n g wro n g that is d ecide co n trary to the idea of

, ,

j u stice Th e idea of j u stice de m a n ds that eq u al i n terests be

.

treated as equ al u n eq u al i n terests as u n equ al A s a r u le

, .
,

the law takes n o acco u n t of the relative val u e of c on i ct

i n g i n t erests : i t si m ply decides accordi n g t o ge n eral for m al
r u les an d is obliged to d o s o Bu t u n der totally ab n orm al
,
.

circ u m stan ces it goes back eve n t o the very so u rce o f the
decisio n : wherever there is an absol u te discrepa n cy betwee n
 J US TI C E 633

the i n t eres t s i n volved the larger o n es t ake precede n ce ove r

,

the s m aller o n es witho u t regard to th e for m al law In as m u c h

, .

as s u ch correctio n s are a n d can be m ade o n ly i n extre m e

, ,

cases it follows that the e n force m e n t of the law m u st i n

,

m a n y i n sta n ces res u lt i n decisi o n s whic h do n o t satis fy th e

idea o f j u stice .

.9 This is o n e i n co n gr u ity bet wee n l a w an d m orali ty : i t

m ay be m orally possi ble to do wha t is legally i m possible .

More freq u e n t an d m ore i m porta n t is the other case : i t m ay

be legally possible to do what is m orally i m possible ; a m an
m ay be g u ilty o f the m os t serio u s violatio n s o f th e mo ral d u ty
o f j u stice an d ye t re m ai n s t rictly withi n the li m i t s o f the law .

Th e positive l a w de n es we may say o n ly a par t o f the

, ,

actu al right Th e m ech a n ical n a t u re of th e legal order m akes

.

s u ch a li m itatio n n ecessary A legal syste m atte m pti n g

.

t o e n force the co m plete realiza t io n o f th e idea of j u stice i n th e

acts of m e n wo u ld as m ay readily be see n n ecessarily lead
, ,

to a m ost i n tolerable state of i n sec u rity an d tyran n y He n ce .

the legal order co n n es itself to e n forci n g that m i n i m u m of

righteo u s acts witho u t which h u m an social li fe wo u l d n ot be
possible It thereby of co u rse leaves a wid e m argi n for
.
, ,

i n j u ries an d the u n j u s t assertio n o f i n dividual i n teres t s a t the

expe n se of those of others It does n ot e n force th e pay m e n t
.

of a j u st wage b u t si m ply o f the stip u lated o n e ; it does n o t

,

p u n ish the delivery o f good s i n ferior to those which the con

tract calls for b u t o n ly fra u d ; i t doe s n ot co m pel a m an to
,

give to every o n e the h o n or which i s d u e h i m but m erely p u n ,

ishes a ffro n ts A ge n eral s u rvey of all the sphe res of rights

.

will bri n g ou t this discrepa n cy betwee n the de m a n ds of the

law a n d the de m an ds of m orality .

Th e legal spheres as we n oticed before correspo n d to the

, ,

great spheres o f actio n o r the ci rcles o f i n terests fo r the p ro ,

t e c ti o n o f which the legal orde r exists Th e rst an d n arrow .

est sphere o i i n terests i s that which we m ay e m brace u n d e r

the headi n body a n d li fe E n c ro ac lnn cn ts u po n this do m ai n
g .
634 DO C TRIN E OF V I R TU E S AN D DUTI E S

are m ade by ho m icide i s u re m e n t assa u lt an d battery an d

, , ,

al l attacks u po n li fe a n d h ealth Protectio n agai n st s u ch .

cri m es for m s an i m porta n t part of all l aw ; i n the oldest

legal syste m s it occ u pies the m os t con spic u o u s pl ace Th e .

laws o f the a n cie n t Germ an ic races for exa m ple co n sis t , ,

largely i n the deter m i n atio n of the a m o u n t o f blood m o n ey to -

be paid for every ki n d of i n j u ry agai n st body an d li fe If we .

m ea n by e n croach m e n ts upo n this do m ai n o n ly physical

assa u lts the n the l a w see m s to leave n o roo m for i n fractio n s
, .

In fact h owever every h u r t is directed agai n st body a n d li fe

, , ,

a n d so bo u n dless oppor t u n ity i s o ffered for u n p u n ishable

o ff e n ces agai n st oth ers : s u ch as ca u si n g the m a n n oya n ce ,

aro u si n g their an ger or grie f ex ploiti n g an d de fra u di n g the m

, .

This is what th e Gospel has to say i n the m atter : Whoso

ever hateth his brot h er is a m urderer .

A seco n d S phere of i n terests is bo u n ded by t he f am i ly the ,

expa n ded i n divid u al life E n croach m e n ts u po n this do m ai n

.

are m ade by ad u ltery abd u ctio n s u bs t it u tio n o f childre n

, , ,

se d u ctio n an d si m il ar cri m es Th e m ore pro n ou n ced an d

,
.

ta n gible for m s of s u ch o ffe n ces are reached by the cri m i n al

law ; the m ore s u btle for ms of disturbi n g the peace of th e
ho m e an d the fa m ily tale beari n g In trig u i n g by which h u s
,
-
, ,

ban ds are estra n ged fro m their wives an d pare n ts fro m their
childre n do n o t co m e withi n th e reach of the law ; thi n k of
,

O thello s frie n d Iago !

A third sphere o f i n t erests i s de n ed by p r op er ty which ,

i n cl u des the s u m total o f extern al m ea n s o f sel f preservatio n

- -

a n d vol u n tary actio n E n croach m e n ts u po n this eld are m ade

.

by robbery the ft black m ail fra u d forger y e m bezzle m e n t

, , , , , ,

u s u ry an d all s u c h o ffe n ces as co m e u n der th e head o f cri m es

,

agai n st property Here agai n the cri m i n al l aw ca n n ot reach

.

the m ore s u btle m ethods by which property is illegiti m ately

acq u ired at others expe n se In spite of the e ff orts of th e

.

law to p u n ish the o ffe n ders the i n ve n tive ge n i u s of the ,

lowe r and h igher cri m i n al classes always o u twits the law .

6 36 DO C TRIN E OF VIRTUE S A ND DUTIE S

It has its n atu ral roots partly i n m a n s depe n de n ce an d n eed

o f society t he gregario u s i n sti n ct partly i n his arroga n ce

, ,

an d the co n ceited belie f i n his o wn i n fallibility Th e m aj ority .

of m e n are s u re of thei r gro u n d o n ly whe n their fellows

are goi n g i n the sa m e directio n thi n ki n g the sam e tho u ghts
, .

He n ce they de m an d that everybody acco m m odate hi m sel f to

,

the m Deviatio n s fro m the co m m o n r u le are regarded as

.

dist u rba n ces an d give offe n ce an d he n ce all m ea n s are em

,

p l oyed th at see m s u ited either to bri n g the disse n ter i n to har

m o n y with his fellows o r t o re m ove h i m fro m view a n d to ,

dete r others fro m i m itati n g his ex a m ple A rroga n ce has the .

sa m e e ffect u po n the leaders of the m asses They regard it .

as an i n tolerable p resu m ptio n on t h e part o f an i n divid u al to

re fuse to follo w thei r leadership for does he n o t thereby ,

tacitly acc u se the appoi n ted au thori t ies of error ? What wo u ld

happe n if everybody were to dare s u ch a t hi n g A n exa m ple
m u st there fore be m ade Th e opposite h abit of mi n d is called
.

t ole r a ti on li ber a li ty of m i n d wo u ld perhaps be a m ore appro

p r i at e ter m A .liberal ed u cati o n shows itself i n the ability

to u n de rstan d an d to recogn ize wh at is stra n ge an d di ffere n t .

It is acq u ired o n ly by freq u e n t co n t ac t with t he e x t r aor d i

n ary , be i t perso n al literary or his t orical
, ,
In n arrow .

S pheres t he m i n d re m ai n s n a rrow ; n atio n s classes scholas , ,

t ic sects r eligious co m m u n i ti e s wh i ch live for the m selves an d

, ,

scarcely co m e i n co n tac t with t he custo m s an d O pi n io n s of

o thers are u n iversally co n spicuous for t heir i n toleran ce
, .

This is a eld i n which the law i s m os t powerless It can .

reach violatio n s o n ly whe n they can be co n strued as libels ,

which is n ot always the case A n d ye t s u ch o ffe n ces m ay

.

ca u se serio u s i n j u ry ; eve n m ere i n t r u sive a t te m pts at co n ver

sio n u lti m ately b e co m e u n bearable Th e law is powerless .

agai n s t the m N e ver theless t ole r a ti on is n ot a favor but a

.
, ,

righ t : m orally eve ry on e has the right to de m a n d that we do

,

n o t i n t erfere with his h abits his co n victio n s an d his tho u ghts

, ,

if he is deter m i n ed to a dhe re to th e m ; an d it is a d u ty t o
 J USTIC E 637

respect this righ t provided of course t he i n divid u al s b e

, , ,

h avior does n ot violate th e rights of others I have the right

.

to w i n over others to m y ways o f thi n ki n g an d acti n g o n ly by

,

exa m ple an d by m ea n s of persuasio n an d i n the l atter case I

,

m u st respect the rights of others to their o w n opi n io n s Th e .

di f culty arises with the q u estio n To what exte n t have tastes ,

habits assertio n s opi n io n s o f which we ca n n ot m orally

, , ,

approve a clai m to toleratio n that is to what exte n t shal l

, , ,

we co n cede to them eq u al rights ? It is obvio u s that I have

n o t the right to ce n s u re o r to ex press m y co n te m pt for every

state m e n t which ca n n ot be j u stie d m orally or which does

,

viole n ce to m y m oral se n se or t aste A n d it is eq u ally obvio u s

.

that I am not bo u n d i n duty to allow eve rythi n g to pass with

o u t co n tradictio n : i t m a be i n the highest m eas u re j u s t i
y
able to express m y co n te m pt O pe n ly He re agai n n o for m u la
.

c an be give n which will e n able u s t o decide e ach partic u lar

case We m u st leave it to t ac t t o discover what is proper

.

u n de r t h ese circu m stan ces

.
 C H APTE R X

LOVE OF NE IGHBOR 1

B ESIDE j us t ice the n egat ive S ide of be n evole n ce we have

1 .
, ,

love of n eighbor the co m ple m e n t ary positive S ide We m ay , , .

de n e it as that habit of the will an d m ode of co n d u c t

which assists those i n wa n t an d stri v es to pro m ote th e wel ,

fare of o t hers by active sy m pathy t is the great co m m an d .

me n t of C h ristia n ity In the las t j u dgm e n t m a n s worth will be .

m eas u red by this stan dard The n sh all the Ki n g say u n to .

the m o n his righ t h an d I was an h u n gred a n d ye gave m e , ,

m eat : I was thir s t y an d ye gave m e dri n k : I was a stra n ger , ,

a n d ye took m e i n : n aked a n d ye clo thed m e : I was sick , ,

an d ye visited m e : I was i n priso n a n d ye ca m e u n to m e ,
.

Three ti m es m or e t hese works of m ercy are e n u m erated ,

a ser m o n power fu l i n its gra n d si m plicity .

Th e co m m a n d m e n t is s o S i m ple an d cle a r that n o do u bt

c an arise as to its m ea n i n g I m eet a h u n gry m an what shall .

I do Give h i m what you hav e V ery well Te n an d a .

h u n dred others co m e ; shall I gi ve to each S hall I give u n til

I have n othi n g le ft for m ysel f A n d shall I n ot await their
co m i n g shal l I seek the m o u t ? I h e a r that m y n eighbo r
is sick an d i n wa n t ; I visit h i m I help a n d co n sole h i m as , ,

1
[P al ey ,
Bk I II. P a r t II S i dg wi ck B k 11] ,
. ch I V ; Sp e n ce r , I n d uct i ons
. .

c hs . V II .
,
V III ; E th i cs o f S oci a l Life V , Pt s . . V I ; P o r t e r P ar t II , ch s V II
,
. .

XI- X III . H o ffdi n g X II , . a, XX X IV X XXV .

; W u n d t , P art III c h II , 3 , 4 . .

ch . IV ,
3 . 4 ; Do r n e r p p ,

3 95 4 03 , 6 0 5 6 2 4 ; B u n ze , 79 , 6 0 ; S t at i s t i c s .

Oe t t in g e n , 36 See al s o L e ck y , H i s tory o f E u rop ea n M o r a ls , II .

,
8 5- 1 0 1 , an d
re fe r e n c e s un der ch . VIII su
p ra . TE
6 40 DO C T RIN E OF VI RTUE S A N D DU TIE S ,

especially tted by n atu ral i n cli n atio n an d i n sig h t In th e .

last a n alysis every m an k n ows what is good fo r h i m be tter

,

than a nybody else C are for the wel fare o f others sho u l d
.

there fore n ot preve n t the perfor m a n ce of this m os t i m mediat e

d u ty .

This pri n ciple u n do u btedly gover n s o u r ac t ual beh avior an d

judg m e n t If a rich an d tale n ted you n g m an alar m ed by th e
.
,

co m m a n d of the Gospel were to sell his s m all i n heri t a n ce

,

a n d give t o the poor if he were t o aba n do n his st u dies an d

,

n urse the sick i n their ho m es or i n the h ospi tals with o u t ,

bei n g specially qualied for s u ch wo rk we sho u ld n o t ,

approve o f his course We should praise his sel f sacr i ce

.
-

a n d hu m ility but we sh ould n ot a ppl a ud his con duc t an d set

,

it u p as an exa m ple for o thers t o foll o w n ay we should , ,

eve n say that he could an d ough t to h ave put his t ale n t s to

better use Had he q u ie tly co n ti n u e d his studies had h e
.
,

beco m e an able physicia n preacher or t eacher his o w n life, , ,

wo u ld have bee n richer an d more beautifu l an d he co u l d ,

have do n e m ore for o thers A n d so we shall be obliged t o .

say Each perso n does t he m os t fo r hi m self an d others whe n

he m akes the m ost of hi m sel f Raph ael an d Goethe be n eted .

h u m a n ity si m ply by u n foldi n g t he i n bor n c apacities of t hei r

n a t u res .

We n n d i e R o se se lb st si ch sch m ii c k t,
S ch m u c kt si e a u c h r
d e n G a te n .

W e ca n n o t q u es ti o n the validi ty of t he u n iv e rsal propo s

tio n Th e di fc u lty lies i n i t s applica tio n t o co n cre t e co n di
.

tio n s Is a partic u lar ac t which I do for others co m patible

.

with m y o w n d u ties ? My frie n d i s sick I devote m y e n t ire ,

ti m e t o his cure wi thou t hesi t a t io n Bu t he re m ai n s a n

,
.

i n valid ; the physicia n s se n d h i m to a di ffere n t cli m ate ;

shall I can I acco m pa n y h i m sacrice my ed u catio n m y
, , , ,

li fe fo r h i m ? This ca n n ot be decided by the ge n eral fo r

m u la of d u ty b u t o n ly by a co n sideratio n o f the co n crete cir
,

c u m s t an c es ; it will u lti m ately be decid e d n ot by the reaso n

 OVE
L OF N E IG H BO R 641

bu t by the hear t A n d as a r u le we shall fee l i n cli n ed t o

.
, ,

applaud the m an wh o obeys his heart m ore tha n his reaso n i n

these thi n gs We ad m ire the herois m o f a wo m a n wh o
.

resolves to follow her h u sba n d i n to solit u de i n to exile o r i n t o , ,

i m priso n m e n t We respect the sister of charity wh o sacri

.

ce s he r li fe an d give s u p everythi n g to n u rse stra n gers upo n

their sick beds d u ri n g the l o n g weary days an d n ights We
- .

say it is al t ogethe r possible that such a n atu re devel ops an d

exe rcises the gifts with which it is e n dowed a war m heart , ,

a skil fu l an d t e n der ha n d a c o n soli n g courage m ost perfectly

, ,

i n s u ch a calli n g a n d s o realizes the fu llest an d m os t bea u

,

ti fu l for m of li fe possible But wha t i s good fo r o n e is n o t

.

good for all .

( )
2 T h e du ty o f cari n g for t he welfare o f m y n eighbor m u st

be li m ited i n a n other way ; I m u st g u ard agai n st destroyi n g

his i n depe n de n ce My act m u st n o t weake n his i n d e pe n
.

de n ce other wise it ceases to be b e n e ce n t n ay it m ay beco m e , ,

an evil fo r self relian ce is a ge n eral preco n ditio n of a

,
-

h ealthy an d n or m al li fe Th e O bj ect o f all help is a fter all

.
, ,

to m ake help s u per u o u s Th e m atter is sel f evide n t whe n

.
-

i t co m es t o syste m atic an d per m a n e n t aid In ed u catio n we .

h ave an ex am ple o f the m ost co m prehe n sive an d deliberate

care for o thers It is gover n ed sol ely by t he co ns ider atio n
.

that we m u st tr ai n the p u pil so th at he can t ak e care o f

hi m self We call a m other irratio n al who ca n n ot resist her
.

child s e n t reaties t o prepare his lesso n s for h im we ca nn ot

,

praise a father wh o co n sta n tly u n dertakes t o solve th e prob

le m s for his you n g s on wh ich li fe is begi n n i n g to p u t to h i m .

N ot to solve proble m s bu t t o p u t th e proper proble m s that

, ,

i s the real fu n ctio n of the ed u cator In n o h u m a n relatio n .

h as tr u e b e n e ce n ce a di ff ere n t fu n ctio n i t realizes its e n d ,

o n ly whe n it s u cceeds i n m aki n g the pe rso n self s u stai n i n g -

.

This is e specially tr u e o f all eco n o m ic assista n ce : the

p roblem i s to re m ove th e n eed fo r help .

(3
) The re is n ally a third restrictio n o r rather n arrowe r , , ,

u
642 DO C TRIN E o r VIRT UES A N D DUTIE S

d eter m i n atio n , the u n ivers al d u ty of love o f neighb or th at

of :

made n ecessary by o u r sp e ci a l d u ti es towa r d Sp e ci a l n e ig hbor s .

Every m an is related to perso n s wh o h ave special clai m s

upo n his be n evole n ce an d active sy m pathy to childre n an d ,

pare n ts relatives an d frie n ds serva n ts an d laborers n eighbors

, , ,

an d i n m ates of the sa m e ho u se Hi s stre n gth a n d possessio n s

.

belo n g to these rst o f all If an y o n e were to give away .

his fortu n e t o stra n gers an d beggars o r to all ki n ds o f chari

table e n terprises an d were t o l e t the m e m bers of hi s o w n
,

househ ol d s u ffer wa n t o r i f a m o t he r we r e to accep t the

,

preside n cy of seve n be n evole n t associ atio n s an d sha m e fu lly to ,

n eglect her o w n childre n we sh oul d n ot be ve ry le n ie n t i n o u r

,

j u dg m e n t o f the m We S ho u l d say : rs t d u ty the n the s u per

.
,

e r o g at o r y ; rst per for m your par t ic u lar d u ties an d th e n

search for f u rther proble m s to solve By these special c on .

d i ti o n s the virt u e of charity or love of n eighbor is co n n e d to

a xed cha n n el as i t were t hro u gh which it ows as a per
, ,

m an e n t strea m an d fr u ct i e s its ba n ks Here too everybody .

, ,

k n ows with so m e degree of certai n ty wh at is good for those

n earest t o h i m b u t it i s m u ch m ore di f c u l t a n d ofte n i m o s
, p
sible to t ell h ow to hel p stra n gers A n d here too w e m u s t .
, ,

thi n k of the collec t ive bodies t o whi ch th e i n di vid u al bel o n gs .

Th e co m m u n ity an d t he n atio n h ave legiti m ate clai m s u po n

h i m an d th eir per m a n e n t ch aritable i n stit u tio n s s u pply h i m
,

with a safe ch a n n el i n which t o exercise his sy m pathy with

others wel fare

.

Th e for m u la o f the love o f n eighbor C are fo r the welfare ,

o f others ,
m ust there fore be li m ited an d s u pple m e n ted as
follows : In so far as this can be do n e withou t n eglecti n g the
proble m s o f yo u r o w n li fe witho u t viol ati n g the special d u ties
,

which arise fro m yo u r special relatio n s to i n divi d u als an d

collec t ive bodies an d n ally witho u t weake n i n g the sel f
, ,

r elia n ce o f others .

2 C o m m o n se n se by b e n e ce n ce m ea n s above all S O called

.
-
, ,
-

a lmsg i vi ng an d pop u l ar opi n io n i s to this d ay so m ewha t i n

,
6 44 DO C TRI N E OF VIR TUE S A N D DUTIE S

perhaps the fear o f a wicked face pro m p t ed m e to p u t m y ,

han d i n to m y pocket .

In deed tr u e ch arity ac t s di ffere n tly

,
It t ries rst o f all .
, ,

to n d ou t what i s the ca u se o f the trouble ; witho u t a

kn owle dg e o f the ca u ses o f th e distress it i s absol u t ely i m p o s
sible to re n der assista n ce P r o m isc u o u s al m sgivi n g is like
.

q u ackery which witho u t i n vestigati n g the disease prescribes

, , ,

a c u re all If th e tro u ble is d u e t o a n u n happy accide n t

-
.
,

c au si n g te m porary e m barrass m e n t the phila n thropist will ,

help to overco m e it by word an d by deed If it is d u e to .

per m a n e n t disability he will e n d eavor to assist the perso n

,

i n obtai n i n g per m a n e n t support If aversio n to work i s the

.

reaso n for m e n dica n cy he will re fu se to recog n ize a n d foster

,

t his bra n ch of i n d u stry by al m s Of course it is m u ch easier

.
,

to give the beggar a n ickel an d to dis m iss h i m tha n to take

a n i n t eres t i n h i m which latter i n deed m ay n ot always be
,

possible owi n g to the a n o ny m o u s n ess of m e t ropolitan life

, .

Bu t wh oever ca n n ot o r will n ot help has n o righ t to dabble

i n the a ffairs o f a fellow m an Of l a t e years the a u thorities
-
.
,

have repeatedly prohibited the givi n g of al m s to m e n dica n t

vagabo n ds a meas u re which is j u stiable i n p ri n cipl e C are .

less b e n e ce n ce is really m ale ce n ce a cri m e agai n st th e ,

beggar who m it e n cour ages as well as agai n st others who

, , ,

are te m pte d by t he exa m pl e to follo w the sa m e life an d ,

n ally also agai n s t t hose who are overr u n by the ar m y o f

tra m ps which owes its existe n ce t o s u ch n eglige n ce If th e .

oodi n g of a co u n t ry with beggars i s a plag u e it is evide n tly ,

an o ffe n ce agai n s t th e wel fa re of th e co u n try to e n courage

the thi n g To be sure t he prohibitio n of m e n dica n cy an d

.
,

al m sgivi n g o u ght si m ply t o be t he othe r sid e of orga n ized

public charity wh ic h n ds work for t he u n e m ployed an d
,

helps those i n n eed .

Moreover we m ust n ot i m agi n e that al m sgivi n g to beggars

,

a n d tra m ps is th e o n ly for m of careless charity There are . ,

beside these v u lg ar for m s also elega n t for m s of beggi n g

, ,
 L OVE OF N E IG H BO R 6 45

which less da n gero u s to wel fare How ma n y a grea t

ar e n o .

ho u se scatters the ger m s o f rui n a m o n g its clie n ts i n t he

shape o f prese n ts gi fts an d favors ! They are pa m pered
, , ,

m ade coveto u s s h a m e le s s b e gg ar ly e n vio u s m e n dacio u s t h i e v

, , , , ,

ish an d the co n seq u e n ce is thei r be n e factors u s u ally grow tired

,

o f the m an d i f possible get rid of the m by re ferri n g the m

, , ,

to so m e p u blic charity In s u ch ho u ses m uch is said o f the

.

wicked n ess an d i n gratit u de o f the h u m an race Th e story is .

t old that Max Joseph the rst K i n g o f Bavaria received fro m

, ,

the ge n e ral treas u rer o n e th o u sa n d g u l de n s eve ry m orn i n g for

charity Whe n this s u m was spe n t an d it did n ot las t
.

very lo n g for beggars an d n eedy perso n s of every ra n k an d

,

statio n crowded aro u n d h i m as soo n as h e m ade his appear

a n ce ,
he gave orders upo n t he ba n ke rs th e si n ki n g fu n d ,
-
,

the l otte ry fu n d the war eco n o m y treas u ry His ma n i a for

o

,
- -
.

givi n g was carefully n ourished by th ose wh o be n eted by it ,

an d he gre w i n dig n a n t at every m easure o f eco n o m y regard ,

i n g it as an e n croachm e n t upo n his righ t s While m o n ey .

was wa n t i n g for t he m os t u rge n t n eeds an d the o fficials ,

had to wait for thei r salaries for mo n ths t he beggars lived ,

1
i n l u xury .

This for m o f chari ty was evide n tly a perversio n of t h e

d u ties o f t he roy al ofce a cri m e a gai n s t t he s u bj ects fro m

,

Wh ose pockets the m o n ey was take n an d agai n st the parasites ,

w ho m it raised It i s a proof o f th e m u ltit u de s weak n ess

.

for sh ow t ha t ki n gs an d lords o f t his ki n d e n j oy their favor

,

an d are loved an d praised fo r t hei r good n ess There is a .

good It alian proverb : S i bu on che val n i e n te so good tha t he ,

is good fo r n othi n g .

It can hardly be de n ied t ha t C hris t ia n ity has fostered this

ki n d o f b e n e ce n ce Passages are n ot wa n ti n g i n the Ne w
.

Testa m e n t which s u ggest such a co n fu sio n o f love o f n eigh

bor with al m sgivi n g an d a t t he sa m e ti m e see m to r e co m
,

1 Pe rt h e s, P oli t P e rson en a nd Zus tan d e Ze i t d e r f ra nzii s is clze n RC UOZ

. z ur U U OR ,

I 2, 44s .
646 O
D C TR I NE OF VIRT UE S A N D DUTIES

m en d al m sgivi n g as pro m isi n g fu tu re retrib u tio n A passage .

fro m C hrysosto m which I q u ote fro m U h lh o rn s work D i e

, ,

Li e be s tha tig h e i t i n d er a lten l f i r che shows this perversio n

1
,

i n a m arked degree He praises charity

. Sh e i s th e q u ee n
a m o n g the vi rt u es wh o swi ftly raises m an i n to the h eave n s
, ,

a n d is the best m ediator C harity h as m ighty wi n gs ; she

.

pierces the air li fts hersel f beyo n d the m oo n rises above the
, ,

bea m i n g su n an d exte n ds to th e heights of heave n But sh e

,
.

does n ot res t th ere ; sh e pe n etrates the heave n s haste n s ,

t hro u gh the hosts o f a n gels an d th e ch oir o f th e archan gels

an d all the higher h os t s an d places hersel f before the thro n e
,

o f the Ki n g hi m self Learn this fro m the Holy S cript u re

.
,

which says : C orn eli u s t hy prayer i s h eard an d thi n e al m s

, ,

are had i n re m e m bran ce i n t h e sigh t o f G od This m ea n s .

Tho u gh yo u have m a n y si n s if y ou h ave al m s fo r your i n ter

,

cessor fear n o t ; th ey c all for the pay m e n t of the debt an d

,

bear the sig n atu re i n their ha n ds In an other place b e c o m .

pares al m sgivi n g to the prices at the fair : Here we b uy

j u stice cheaply for a piece of bread a worn ou t coa t a dri n k

, ,
-
,

o f cold water . S o l o n g as the fai r l asts let u s b u y o u r sal

vatio n wi t h al m s It is plai n h ere the ob j ect is n o lo n ger
.
,

the wel fare of others b u t o n e s o wn good whether i n this

,

worl d o r i n t he world to co m e is i m m aterial A n d there c an .

be n o do u bt that the wel fare of others can n o t be pro m oted by

s u ch ch ari ty which is solely i n te n t u po n p u rchasi n g rewards
,

o r exe m ptio n fro m p u n ish m e n t S till I am fa r fro m b e l i e v .

,

i n g that the ch arity practised by t he C hristia n ch u rch alwa y s

exhibited this trai t of calc u lati n g spec u latio n Tho u gh th e .

h Op e o f reward was apt to be m i n gled with it i t was n ot ,

o fte n the o n ly e ffective m otive A n d perhaps C hri stia n ity .

did m ore good on the wh ole i n its ed u cative i n ue n ce than

, , ,

harm .

A par t ic u larly deplorabl e for m o f al m sgivi n g has bee n

developed o f rece n t years : the cha r i ty cr a ze Mis for tu n e -
.
,

1 P 2 72
. .
64 8 DO C TRI N E OF VIRTUE S A N D DU TIE S

a ppealed to Have the poor childre n bee n be n eted I h ave

.

n o t m u ch faith Th e sy m pathy of o n e i n divid u al fo r a n other

.

is really h elp fu l an d the syste m atic help of the co m m u n ity

,

c a n a t least keep the wol f fro m the door On the othe r ha n d .

,

I a m a fraid tha t s u ch collectio n charity which expects others-

,

to d o the co n trib u ti n g like the charity craze n ever yields

,
-
,

blessi n gs b u t si m ply rears greedy beggars It m ay se rve as

,
.

a n exc u se that the m e t ropoli s destroys all other perso n al r e

l at i o n s betwee n the ric h a n d the poor an d yet th e rich desire

,

to ease thei r co n scie n ces by d oi n g so m ethi n g fo r those i n

wa n t so they hel p i n the m a n n er i n dicated
,
.

Ho wever I a m n ot of the opi n io n th at societie s for the

,

organ ized dis trib u tio n o f charity are n o t good a n d u se fu l .

A n associ atio n which co m bi n es freedo m o f m ove m e n t with

order a n d per m a n e n cy is u n do u btedly an e n tirely s u itable
for m o f charitable activity A n d there are do u btless e xcel
.

le n t an d helpf u l societi es N or can we altogether disapprove

.

o f th e m ethod o f i n d u ci n g l arger circles t o m ake n a n cial

co n trib u tio n s Bu t i n stead of a n grily an d m oodily throwi n g

.

a fe w n ickels at every collector wh o prese n ts hi m sel f the ,

givers S hould m ake u p thei r m i n ds t o beco m e active m e m

bers o f so m e orga n izatio n o f whose use fu l n e ss they have
,

co n vi n ced the m selves If they co u ld o n ly take an active i n

.

te re st i n these e n terprises their sy m pathy wo u ld be r e ally

,

helpfu l an d their o wn lives wo u ld be e n riched thereby

,
.

3 Th e opposite o f love of n eighbor i s h e a r tle ss s e ls hn e ss

.
,

w hich seeks its o wn adva n t age regardless o f others o r eve n ,

at the expe n se of others Th e i n te n sicati o n o f i t is m a li ce

.
,

which t akes pleas u re i n th e distress an d s u fferi n gs of others

eve n with o u t adva n t age to sel f A s cr u e lty i t ca u ses physical
.

o r m e n tal s u fferi n gs si m ply i n o rder to feed upo n the m

,
.

Thi s habit does n o t co m m o n ly expres s itsel f i n those brutal

attacks upo n the perso n s an d i n terests of others which the
cri m i n al law purs u es b u t i n the tho u sa n d little i n co n siderate
, ,

m alici o u s acts which are observed i n o u r daily i n terco u rse

 OV E
L OF N E IG H BO R 649

with m en Fo u r o r ve perso n s are sitti n g i n a railroad

.

cou p e ; a n e w traveller e n t ers they all stare a t h i m wi t h

,

an gry a n d hatef u l looks each on e see m i n g to say : Do n t

,

co m e n ear m e ! N 0 on e drea m s of o fferi n g h i m a sea t o r of ,

re m ovi n g his baggage ; we merely wai t u n til th e i n t r u der

t hreat e n s t o si t u po n o u r t hi n gs the n we gru m bli n gly shove
,

t he m aside or begi n t o q u arrel with the m an A n d so these

, .

peopl e will si t t ogether side by side in the n arrow co m

, ,

r t m e n t m aki n g t he m selve s as disagreeable t o each othe r

p a

as possible i n the mea n while boili n g ove r with rage If

,
.
,

i n stead o n e o f the passe n gers had politely ma d e roo m fo r

,

t he n e w co m er a pleasan t feeli n g wo u ld hav e bee n arouse d

-
,

at o n ce an d perhaps a frie n dly co n versatio n m igh t h ave bee n

,

begu n bri n gi n g i n to the tireso m e railroad j o u r n ey sociability

,

an d good cheer These a r e little thi n gs b u t life is m ade u p

.
, '

o f little thi n gs a n d o u r m oods are deter m i n ed m uch m ore

,

by s u ch cou n tless daily tri e s th a n by the great an d u n u s u al

occ u rre n ces There are perso n s wh o are always waiti n g fo r
.

a n opport u n i t y t o perfor m so m e great an d heroic ac t of

'

charity wh o eve n believe t hat they wo u ld be re ady to sacri

,

ce the m sel v es i f n eed be ; a n d i n the m ea n ti m e they a re

weari n g away t hei r o w n lives an d those o f their fellow m e n
with their petty trou bles an d m alicious re m arks .

Besides it c an h ardly be do u bte d that th e plai n people

,

t rea t each oth er with m u ch m ore co n sideratio n tha n the

m e m bers o f s o called good society
-
A m o n g the latter an
.

accide n tal collisio n soo n leads t o a bitte r disc u ssio n ; while

the m atter is a t o n ce passed o ff with a j est a m o n g the for m er .

Th e ge n eral i n cli n atio n to t ake li fe easy is m a n i fested i n

i n terco u rse by the t e n de n cy t o m ake the li fe of others easy
an d cheer fu l A m o n g th e s o called ed u cated the fear of
.
-

loweri n g o n e s dig n ity i s always alive Polite n ess an d civility

.

a r e regarded as a sig n o f sel f debase m e n t as a l oweri n g of

-
,

o n e s dign ity A repell e n t n at u re says to oth ers : C o m e on

.
,

I a m n o t a fraid o f y o u ! There i s a ki n d o f starched li n e n -

6 50 DO C TRIN E OF VI RTU E S A N D DU T IE S

hau ghti n ess which i s al w ays o n the look ou t les t s o m e o n e -

sho u l d beco m e too fa m iliar o r pres u m e to be so m ebody Per .

so n s m ay eve n be fo u n d w h o will with a ki n d o f secret

, ,

pleas u re observe others doi n g wh at they can i n terpre t as

,

o ff e n ces agai n st thei r o wn perso n s so tha t they m ay a fter

,

wards have the satis factio n o f beco m i n g a n gry an d o f holdi n g

it u p to the m Y es i f y ou ask the m be foreha n d whether they
.
,

approve o f a cer t ai n co u rse or n ot th ey w ill lead y o u astray

, ,

si m ply that they m ay a fterwar ds gru m bli n gly an d ill h u m o re dly -

co m plai n o f the s u ffered wro n g It is arroga n ce which i n

.

spires s u ch co n d u ct ; we d o n o t like to appear i n the r ole o f

n eedi n g c o n side rate trea t m e n t a n d o f aski n g for it ; it looks

m ore l ordly an d m ore elega n t rs t to act i n di ffere n tly an d to

beco m e a n gry afterwards A n d he n ce h a u ghti n ess does n o t
.

deserve the last place a m o n g the p l ag u es o f h u m an ity Th e .

ch urch is right i n reck o n i ng it a m o n g the seve n de adly si n s .

A el d i n wh ich col d hearted n ess an d m alice are parti e n

-

l arly co m m o n deserves m e n tio n here : the habit n a m ely o f

, , ,

s i tti n
g i n j u dg m en t u
p

on on e s n e i hbor
g Everythi n g that the
.

latter says o r does is m isco n str u ed an d spite fu lly ex posed to

the ridic u le an d ill will of his fellows A n evil o r a base
-
.

m otive is al w a vs i m p u ted to h i m his prosperity i s attrib u te d to

,

evil m ea n s l u s m i s fort u n e is regarded as his o w n doi n g He

,
.

bel o n gs to the Liberal party : o f co u rse he receives Jewish

m o n ey. He votes the C o n servative ticket : why to be su r e h e , ,

is faw n i n g u po n his s u periors He i s s u ccess fu l i n b u si n ess he

.
,

beco m es rich : h e i s certai n ly a swi n dler a n d owes his s u c ,

cess to crooked m ethods He m eets with literary s u ccess all

.

th ose who are n ot so fortu n ate at o n ce agree that it is beca u se

he appeal s to peopl e wh o h ave n o j u dg m e n t why of co u rse , ,

i f we desired to cater to the v u lgar tastes o f th e p u blic or ,

t o a tt e r the i n tellect u al i n dole n ce an d su p e r ci ali ty o f th e

reade r w e co u l d be fa m o u s t oo i i we we re n ot abo v e s u ch
, ,

thi n gs ! A girl m akes a good m atch ; all those wh o were

strivi n g for the sa m e goo d fort u n e at o n ce begi n to tell h o w
6 52 DO C TRIN E OF VI RTUES A ND DU TIES

4 . Th e
l ove o f n eighbor for hu m a n co n duc t
s ig n i ca n ce o f

hardly n eeds fu rthe r co m m e n t a fter all we have said : i t

di m i n ishes s u ff eri n g an d wa n t it i n creases welfare an d ,

happi n ess i t u n ites hearts i n aff ectio n an d trus t

,
.

Th e i m m edia te e ffect of active be n evole n ce is t ha t i t

lighte n s elevates an d pro m otes the life of h i m upo n who m
, ,

it is besto wed It also i n spi res h i m with courage an d con

.

de n ce fo r the f u ture It at the sa m e ti m e lls h i m with .

ki n dly feeli n gs n o t o n ly t oward s the be n efactor b u t towards

,

the whole w orld ; chari ty wa n ts to b e p assed alo n g to go ,

fro m h a n d to ha n d withou t e n d Eve n whe n the helpi n g ,

.

ha n d does n o t succee d i n re m ovi n g the m isery the bitter n ess ,

o f the pai n is ass u aged by sy m pathy an d co n dole n ce Th e .

hear t that wo u ld pi n e away an d fa m ish i n solitu de an d n eg

lect agai n revives patie n ce an d hope o r resig n atio n e n te r the
,

sou l an d make life bearable Whe n on the other ha n d the

,
.
, ,

u n fortu n ate o n e is repelle d an d m eets wi th harsh n ess it lls ,

his h ear t with the bitterest feeli n gs i t ulti m ately harde n s it , ,

maki n g it m isa n th ropic an d wicked .

How m a n y a cri m i n al m ay trace the begi n n i n g of his

career t o u n ki n d repelle n t treat m e n t i n m is fort u n e ! If a
,

h elpi n g h a n d h ad bee n exte n ded a t t he righ t m o m e n t it ,

m ight have saved a hu m a n soul fro m destr u ctio n It was n ot .

o ffered th e rs t step upo n the wro n g path was t ake n an d

,

drew all the others af ter it u n til the road e n ded i n the pe n i ,

t e n t i ary Wa n t an d bitter n ess over their h elpless n ess i n t h e

.
,

opi n io n of an experie n ced o fficial i n the cri m i n al service bri n gs ,

o n e h alf o f all cri m i n als t o the pe n ite n tiary Fro m the

1
.

cradle t o t he grave the su n o f life does n o t s m ile u po n the m

, ,

t hey see o n ly the ro u gh side of li fe So lo n g as they can .

r e m e m ber they have s u ffered this u n deserved lot ; t hey the

, ,

se r fs o f m isery an d n eglect look with e n vy upo n thei r u n de ,

s e r v e dly happie r fellows A n d to their e n vy are j oi n ed feeli n gs

.

1 H . von V al e n t i n i , Da s Ve r breche r tu m i m P re ussi sche n S ta a te a b ook

wh i ch co n t ai n s m an y s u gg e s t i v e fa ct s .
 L OV E OF N E IG H BO R 6 53

of hatred o n accou n t of th e harsh n ess an d pride of the latter a ,

hatred which is q u ite n at u ral i n vie w of the s u percilio u s n ess

with which these regard the m as tho u gh their respective ,

stati o n s i n li fe w ere the res u lt of i n divid u al m erit o r i n divid u al

de m eri t It i s m ade easy for t hose reared i n love o n
. the

s u n n y side o f life to beli eve i n etern al l ove b u t how S hall ,

these childre n o f the n ight attai n to faith h ope an d love ? , ,

There is o n ly o n e w ay charitable love Harsh n ess will n ot

, .

avail : it si m ply harde n s the m an d m akes the m m orose Bu t .

eve n l ove ca n n ot heal with te n d er n ess an d so ft n ess : it m u s t

wield the stro n g rod of discipli n e .

A ctive be n evole n ce h owever also e n riches an d blesses the

, ,

life o f h i m who practises i t We are n ot m ade poorer by .

givi n g says an ol d proverb ; certai n ly n ot we are m ade

,
I
,

richer if n o t i n o u tward at least i n i n n er blessi n gs There is

, , .

n o p u rer n o m ore bea u tif u l an d lasti n g j oy tha n that acq u ired

,

by b e n e cen ce Th e poores t little favor or service which you

.

u n se l sh ly o e r t h e stra n ger who m y o u m eet upo n the stree t ,

has t he power t o yield you l asti n g pl easure i n m e m ory A n d .

the pleas u re i s the i n te n ser an d th e m ore las ti n g th e m ore y ou ,

s u ppress yo u r se n s u o u s selsh i n cli n atio n s i n doi n g th e deed .

Th e t ri u m ph of o u r selsh i n cli n atio n s on the co n trary over , ,

the wishes an d p u rposes o f others al ways l eaves a bitter

a fter t aste the bittere r th e greate r the sacrice o f others
-
, ,

welfare at which it was bo u ght It has there fore bee n said .

,

n o t u n j u stly tha t th e straight way to o u e s o w n h appi n ess is to

,

work fo r the happi n ess of others A be n evol e n t heart that i s .

free fro m e n vy i s th e best e n dow m e n t eve n so far as o n e s i n

divid u al happi n ess is co n cern ed Th e pleas u re which i t aro u ses .

i n its s u rro u n di n gs is reected back upo n it a n d calls forth ,

sy m pathetic e m otio n s Perh aps the o n ly ti m e yo u s h ar e i n

.
,

the happi n ess of others wholly witho u t e n vy is wh e n yo u have , ,

1
[C o m par e the v e r se i n P r o v e rb s , X I 2 4 : Th e re i s t h a t s ca tt e r e t h an d
ye t
i n cr e as e t h ; an d t h e r e i s t h at w i t h h o l d e t h m o re t h a n i s m e e t , b u t i t t e n d e t h t o

p o ve rt
y . Th e l i b e ral so u l s h a l l b e m a d e fa t TR
6 54 DO C TRIN E OF VIRTUE S A N D DUTIE S

helped t o m ake it Be n evole n ce wi n s con de n c e an d affe c

.

t io n there is n o co m m odity which bears grea t er in t eres t an d

m akes o n e so h appy as this a n d it m ay be acq u ired an e w
,

every day A n d do n o t believe that you m u st be a rich m an

.

o r a great lord i n order to do good N 0 o n e is t oo poor o r too

.

w eak to do good ; the ki n d word the little favor is a h u n

, ,

d red ti m es m ore desirabl e an d n ot rarely i n n itely m ore

val u able th a n great favors or rich gi fts N o m an n eed be .

deprived o f the blessi n g an d pleas u re o f doi n g good Whe n .

y o u feel u tterl y m iserable an d i n desperate straits I o n ce ,

heard a preach e r say ask yoursel f whether there is n ot a

,

si n gle perso n i n the worl d wh o m you can m ake happy .

A n d the reverse is also tr u e There is n o s u rer way t o

.

u n happi n ess th a n a se lsh heart In te n t s olely u po n his

. .

o w n h appi n ess o r what his m o m e n tary desires pict u re to h i m

as s u ch the egoist sees n othi n g but rivals aro u n d h i m wh o

,

are m aki n g for the sam e goal an d e n deavori n g t o o u ts t rip

h im . In hi s breathless has t e he is co n sta n tly goaded by
fear an d hatred to ex er t his u t m ost e fforts A n d n ot w ith .

sta n di n g all this so m e o n e o u tstrips h i m an d n o w e n vy

, ,

is teari n g his V itals the bitt eres t of all feeli n gs the grief
, ,

aro u sed by the s u ccess of others poiso n ed by the pai n of

,

his ow n de fea t C o n te n t m e n t can n ever n d a place i n

.

a m an o f pro n o u n ced selsh n ess : e n vy hatred an d fea r , ,

co n sta n tly h arrow his so u l a n d n ever give h i m peace o r

le t hi m e n j oy what he has achieve d In additio n t o this ,

selsh n ess aro u ses dis t ru s t an d aversio n i n the s u rro u n d

i n gs feeli n gs which m an i fest the m selves i n u n ki n d deeds
,

an d m alicious j oy Let the tyra n t atte m p t t o deceive h i m

.

sel f with the sayi n g I care n ot wh ether they hate m e so

,

lo n g as they fear m e z the day will co m e whe n the h atred

will triu m ph i n spite of the fear
Therefore : be n evole n ce bri n gs peace an d j oy ; selsh n ess
aro u ses e n m ity an d u n happi n ess ; love i s li fe ; selsh n ess ,

death .
6 56 DO C TRI NE OF V IRTUES A ND DUTIE S

factio n of thei r o w n i m p u lses If an e x t ravaga n t an d i m p o r tu

.

n ate patro n is forsake n as soo n as h e h as n othi n g m ore to

give wh at else does he deserve ? He has as m u ch righ t t o

,

co m pl ai n o f i n gratit u de as Ro u sseau delicately p u ts it as a

, ,

sher m a n has o f acc u si n g the sh of i n grati t u de for h av

i n g d evo u red t he bait a n d n o t h avi n g swallowed t he h ook .

For this reaso n t oo it is al w ay s abs u rd fo r n atio n s to acc u s e

, ,

each other of i n gratitu de .

Perh aps the n we m ay say th a t si n cere grat i tude is j u s t

, ,

as co m m o n as ge n u i n e be n evol e n ce Tr u ly u n selsh bo n evo .

le n ce which is n ot worki n g fo r grati tu de will readily receive

, ,

gratit u de This is partic u larly appare n t i n all per m a n e n t

.

rel atio n s tha t are fo u n ded u po n be n evole n ce : the i m m ediate

n at u ral e ffect of t r u e a n d ratio n al b en e ce n ce i s affectio n a t e

piety Pare n ts w h o have trai n ed their childre n t o be ho n es t

.
,

able an d u prigh t m en will have n o reaso n t o co m plai n of

, ,

i n gratitu de Teachers who faithfu lly f u ll thei r m issio n t o

.

develop h u m a n so u l s w ill n ot fail to aro u se affectio n at e

revere n ce i n their pupils A govern m e n t tha t re m ai n s t rue
.

to its high m issio n t o ad m i n ister j u stice u po n e arth m ay

co u n t upo n th e obedie n ce an d the loyalty o f its s u bj ects .

6 Be n evole n ce is chie y co n cer n ed with the relatio n o f

.

the i n divid u al to th e i n divid u al It appears i n a n e w form .

i n a ffectio n fo r an d devotio n to co lle cti ve bodi e s Le t m e ad d .

a fe w re m arks i n re fere n ce t o this phase of it .

Feeli n gs o f good will ( bv r ) for collective bodies are m an i

e

o a

fe s te d i n three fu n da m e n tal for m s asid e fro m the fa m ily

u n io n where the feeli n g o f a ffectio n is still esse n tially an
,

i n divid u al a ffair as love of home l ove of cou n try an d love

,
-
, ,

f
o h u m a n i ty .

Th e tie that bi n ds u s t o these collective bodies i s wove n

o f m a n y threa d s We discover i n it rst feeli n gs of affe c , ,
.

tio n an d piety fo r partic u l ar perso n s ; these are tra n sferred

fro m the i n divid u als to the co m m u n ities o f which the lat t er
are me m bers an d represe n tatives Ou r pare n ts an d an ces .
 L OVE OF N EIG H BO R 657

t ors ,
brothers an d sisters an d play m at es o u r frie n ds an d
ou r ,

o u r n eighbors attach u s i n gratitu de an d love to o u r ho m es

,

an d the ho m e folks Th e m e m ories o f o u r j oys an d sorrows

-
.
,

o f t he ga m es an d drea m s of o u r childhood the hopes an d ,

lo n gi n gs of o u r yo u th are i n terwove n with the n ative heath

,

an d the n ative skies ; the ho m e c u sto m s are i n separable fro m

the ho m e co u n try Thus the heart is bo u n d with a tho u sa n d

-
.

threads to th e ho m e ; t h e farther away it is i n space an d

t i m e the n earer it is t o t he hear t the m ore lo n gi n gly ou r
, ,

tho u ghts t u r n back t o i t Thro u gh the h o m e we are u n ited

.

with the people an d t he fatherla n d ; th e co m m u n ity of spirit

ual life as it i s i m m ediately expressed i n lan g u age th e c om
, ,

m u n ity o f historical li fe the co m m o n reve re n ce o f the heroes

,

an d leaders of the people i n war an d v ictory as well as i n

th e works of peace bi n d u s t ogether i n co m m o n feeli n gs

, ,

thoughts an d belie fs Th e li fe of th e people is the soil o n

,
.

which th e i n divid u al life grows ; fro m i t the latter absorbs

whatever of li fe an d stre n gth m e n tal an d m oral excelle n ce ,

i t possesses He n ce the i n divid u al is bo u n d to his co u n try

.

by ties o f gra t i t u de revere n ce love an d a ffecti o n To these

, ,
.

are added pride a co m m o n h o n or bi n ds the i n divid u al to hi s

h o m e an d hi s people ; i t eve n co n ti n u es w h ere the bo n d o f
l ove has bee n severed Th e exile wh o l eaves his h o m e f u ll
.

o f a n ger a n d h atred discovers i n stra n ge la n ds th at his h eart

can n o t forge t his n a t ive heath In foreig n parts h e lear n s .

to appreciate th e val u e o f his ho m e w hich for m s an i n al i e n ,

able e n dow m e n t of hi s sou l Th e respect for his o w n people

.

co m es back to h i m an d prepares the soil fo r n e w feeli n gs

,

o f attach m e n t an d l ove Th e h o m e an d t h e people n ally

.
,

also u n ite the i n divid u al to h u m a n ity Th e n atio n with .

its historical life appropriates th e great spi rit u al good s o f

h u m a n ity assi m ilati n g the m i n its o w n pec u liar way an d
, ,

each m e m be r of the pe ople participates i n th e li fe of Im m an

i ty an d th a n k fu lly ack n owledges his m e m bership i n t h e great
,

ki n gdo m of S pirits an d o f God u po n earth .

42
65 8 DO C TRIN E OF VIRTUE S A N D DU TI ES

We are acc u s t o m ed to regard ou r relatio n s to o u r o w n peo

ple as the m ost i m porta n t o f these relatio n s an d this is m os t ,

likely the tr u th W e call the s u bj ective relatio n of the

.

i n divid u al to his people p a tr i oti sm an d thi s i s at prese n t ,

reckon ed a m o n g the highest v irtu es of m an Th e word is .

n ot yet ol d an d it is worthy o f n ote that it is of foreig n

,

extractio n It was borrowed fro m the Fre n ch d u ri n g the last

.

ce n tu ry a S ig n that the thi n g itself is n ot old an d n ot of

,

n ativ e origi n If I am n ot m istake n the word p a tr i ot d id n ot

.
,

co m e i n to ge n eral u s e u n til the Fre n ch revol u tio n Th e .

Jacobi n s calle d the m selves patriots i n disti n ctio n fro m the

R oyalists . A patri ot was o n e wh o e n deavored to m ake
the state an affair of the people o r to m ake th e people the
s u bjects o f the state i n disti n ctio n fro m those who regarded
,

the state as belo n gi n g to the dy n asty Th e word patriotis m .

,

t here fore to this day h as especial refere n ce t o th e state It

, , .

is u sed t o characterize t he proper atti t u de o f the i n divid u al

n o t so m u ch to th e people as to t he state Political ortho .

d oxy is always pro n e to clai m pat riotis m for itsel f alo n e an d

to de n y it to its oppo n e n ts Th e J acob i n s m o n opolized th e
.

n a m e p a tr i o t i n revol u tio n ary Fra n ce as did the advocates o f ,

absol u tis m i n P ru ssia d u ri n g t he fties .

It i s plai n th a t th e relatio n o f the i n divid u al to his peopl e

is so m ewhat o n e sidedly de n ed by this ter m n ot to speak
-
,

o f its m is u se by parties A m an m ay be deeply attached t o

.

his people he may love it an d live fo r it w itho u t ex actly

,

livi n g for the state Nay a certai n i n di ffere n ce to a n d eve n

.
,

estran ge m e n t fro m t he state an d politics may go together

with a deep feeli n g of affectio n for the people and all t hat
co n cer n s it Goethe was certai n ly a si n cere child of his
.

peopl e an d w as devotedly attach ed to eve rythi n g Ger m a n ;

,

a n d L u the r was a thoro u gh Ger m a n N evertheless we sho u ld

.
,

h ardly call these m e n patriots : it was n o t the sta t e for which

the y lived which th ey loved b u t the people In deed we are
, , .
,

forced to say : We ca n n o t love the state as s u ch we can o n ly ,

660 DO C T R IN E OF VI RTUE S A ND DU TIES

ties the s t ruggle for exis t e n ce ? I thi n k n ot Ha t e i m pel s

in .

m e n to seek q u arrels an d pride t ur n s thei r heads

,
Bu t pride .

goes be fore the fall : this i s as tr u e o f n ati o n s as of i n di

v i d u al s N ow wh oeve r does n ot believe that it is desirable
.
,

fo r a n atio n to hate an d be hos t ile t o its n eighbors ca n n o t

regard s u ch a dispositio n as a desi rable e n dow m e n t A .

pe ople m ust have a feeli n g of self respect ; it can n ot live with -

ou t i t .B u t there is a cal m an d rm sel f relia n ce which -

,

u n dersta n ds an d respect s wha t is foreig n an d yet i s wh olly

co n scio u s of its o wn value which desires to be an d to re m ai n
,

what it is an d does n ot bow dow n before the foreig n either

,

i n i m i t atio n o r i n co n seq u e n ce o f force S u ch a healthy .

feeli n g of sel f respec t is wholly co m pa t ible with respect for

-

an d j u stice t o forei g n ers i n th e case o f i n divid u als as wel l

,

as n atio n s N ay arrog an ce an d hatred are really always

.
,

the sig n s of an i rritable diseased self co n scious n ess ; t h at

,
-

is o n e th at has n o co n de n ce i n itself
, .

Th e Ger m a n s used t o pride th e m selves on t heir readi n ess to

recog n ize an d thei r ability t o u n derstan d the S p i ri tual li fe of
foreig n ers We have ofte n an d justly boas t ed that n o n atio n
.

h as equalled u s i n assi m ilati n g th e li t erat u re an d poetry of

o ther n a t io n s an d t ha t n o n e t he refore h as par t icipated i n
,

t he his t ory of t he past ce n turies i n so u n iversal a S pirit as

we Freedo m f ro m selsh arrogan t vai n an d n arrow m i n ded
.
, , ,
-

self co n cei t which the att e re r s of pop u lar passio n call p a

-
,

t r i o ti s m has e n able d t he Ger m a n people to d o t his

,
Have .

we s t ill t he righ t to b oas t of such freedo m ? On e thi n g we

may say : Th u s far the Ger m a n people or at least their ,

political leaders h ave b or n e th e ho n ors of thei r n e w positio n

,

o f power a m o n g t he E u ropea n n a t io n s wi t h great an d u n u s u al

m odesty Bu t perh aps t here is gro u n d for addi n g : Th e

.

Ger m a n n a t io n h as reaso n t o b e on i t s guard tha t i t m ay ,

n ot for fei t this m e n tal freedo m .

Th e ques t io n co n cer n i n g the fu n c t io n o f e d u ca ti on an d p ar

t i cu l arly of t he s chool i n aro u si n g pa t rio t is m has bee n much
, ,
 L OV E OF N E IGH BO R 661

disc u ssed Th e m ai n thi n g i n m y opi n io n is to gu ard love

.
, ,

o f co u n try agai n st dege n erati n g i n to a false patriotis m Lov e .

an d a ffectio n fo r o n e s o w n people an d its great leaders i n w ar

an d peace is a n at u ral feeli n g which arises spo n ta n eously i n

,

the healthy m i n d reared u n de r healthy co n d itio n s Why .

should n o t a perso n bor n e an d reared by a Germ an mothe r ,

ta u ght by Germ a n teachers n u rt u red by Germ a n poe t s be

, ,

Ger m a n i n his feeli n gs a n d though t s ? A n d why sho u ld h e

n o t lovi n gly an d faith fu lly cli n g to his people ? A n d why

sho u ld he n ot be pro u d o f its vir t u es an d achieve m e n ts ?

Bu t respec t fo r an d j u stice to the foreig n do n o t arise of their
o w n accord . On the c on trary co n te m p t an d hat red are th e
,

n a t u ral feeli n gs here . To s u ffe r an d u n dersta n d the foreig n

is c u lt u re It is a beau ti fu l m issio n fo r ou r higher schools to
.

o ffer s u ch c u lt u re Th e m asses of the people hardly see beyo n d

.

the boun daries of thei r ow n n atio n ; i n war o n ly do they co m e

i n t o closer co n tac t wi t h t he foreig n Th e gy m n asi u m i n its
.

ol d an d i n its n e w for m m akes th e acquisitio n o f foreig n l an

g u ages the chie f factor i n its i n structio n This is t o e n abl e the

.

f u tu re gover n ors an d leaders of th e people to u n dersta n d an d

t o preserve the his t orical co n n ectio n s of their o wn race S u ch .

i n str u ctio n ass u m es that t he spi rit u al life o f ou r people is n ot

isolated an d ca n n ot th rive i n isolatio n tha t ou r people is a
,

m e m ber o f the E u ropea n fa m ily o f n atio n s which co n tai n s ,

other m e m bers of eq u al wor th by which its o wn life i s su p

,

pl e m e n te d a n d e n riched . Th e u lti m a t e goal o f a h u m a n isti c

ed u catio n wo u ld be to e n abl e the i n di vid u al t o participate
m ore freely i n the spi rit u al li fe o f his o w n people by teachi n g ,

h i m t o u n dersta n d h u m a n li fe i n its h istorical u n ity Tha t .

wo u ld be hu m a n i sti c e d u ca ti on i n the highest se n s e o f the

ter m ; i n it the love of co u n try an d appreci atio n o f h u m a n ity
wo u ld be fu sed .

If the propagatio n o f s u ch h u m a n is t ic c u l ture were t o

weake n the feeli n gs o f e n m ity pervadi n g the leadi n g classes
a m o n g the E u ropean n atio n s i f it wo u ld i n a measure prepare
,
662 DO C TRIN E OF VIRTUE S A ND DU TIE S

the way fo r the e t er n al peace wh ich th e eightee n th ce n t u ry

foretold an d which see m s to be so i n n itely re m ote to the

,

n i n etee n th ce n t u ry it wo u ld be n o s m all gai n

,
Th e E u ropea n .

n atio n s will h ave to acc u sto m the m selves t o the tho u gh t that ,

i n as m u ch as prov ide n ce h as decreed that they m u st live to

gether it will be best for the m to settle their di ffere n ces
'

otherwise than by war Th e spiri t o f brotherly l ove al ready

.

prevails a m o n g the m to s u ch an exte n t that n o n e of the great

civilized n atio n s wo u ld be willi n g to see an y of the others
a n n ihilated o r to bri n g abo u t s u ch a res u lt itsel f Wars o f
,
.

exter m i n atio n are n o l o n ger carried o n a m o n g the m q u arrels

are settled by forcible m ean s at prese n t m erely becau se a ,

n e w an d di ffere n t m ethod has n o t ye t bee n discovered .

It is t o be hoped th at th e fu t u re will bri n g back e n o u gh o f

the hu m a n e cos m opolita n is m of earlier ti m es to restri ct an d
s u pple m e n t patriotis m It is also to be hoped that i t will
.

give back t o u s so m e o f o u r ol d love of hom e Thi s too has .

, ,

bee n so m ewhat stied by the prese n t evol u tio n o f state an d

n ati o n al patriotis m Local pa t riotis m like c os m opolita n
.

,

i s m has for a lo n g ti m e bee n an object o f co n te m p t a n d

,

ab u se . We can u n derstan d why this is so Ger m a n y was .

for m erly split u p i n to a lo t of little s t ates u n til t he establish

,

m e n t o f a Ger m a n u n ited state beca m e a n ecessity i n ord er to

e n able the Ger m a n people to act as a political s u b j ect a m o n g
other n at io n s a fte r h avi n g for ce n turies bee n n othi n g b u t a
,

political O bjec t Bu t n ow t ha t o u r legiti m at e an d passio n ate

.

year n i n g for political u n ity has bee n sa t ised le t u s h ope tha t

,

o u r people s deeply rooted love o f ho m e will agai n assert itsel f

.

It is evide n tly n ot des i rable tha t we i n t erest o u rselves an d

participate solely i n the p u blic affairs of the E m pire or what , ,

is worse that we waste o u r e fforts i n political disc u ssio n s an d

,

patriotic m a n ifestatio n s Th e S phere o f political li fe i n which

.
,

the i n divid u al can n d regular an d fru itf u l e m pl oy m e n t is ,

fo r mos t perso n s circ u m scribed by t he co m m u n ities i n w hich

they live Th e co m m u n ity is the proper place for the m ost
.
 C H APTER X I

V IIRA C IT Y 1

1 . V b e re g ar ded as a form of be n evole n ce

ERA CI T

Y m av
it is be n evole n ce m a n i feste d i n the c o m m u n icatio n of
th o u ghts .

We m a as i n the eas e of ben evole n ce disti n guish tw o

v
, ,

ph ases of v e raci t v : a n ega t i ve side an d a p os it i ve side Th e .

for m er corresp o n di n to j u stice is expressed b v the for m ul a

,
g
,

of d u t : Tho u s h a lt n t l i e
y the latter c orrespo n di n g to l ove o
,

o f n ei g h bor i s ex pressed b v the for m ula of d u t v :

. S er ve thy
nei
g h bo r w i t h th e tr u th .

Let rst disc u ss the n ega tive si de

us .

To li e as we are a cc u sto m ed to de n e it m ea n s wil li n gly ,

an d w i tt i n g l v to t e ll an u n tr u th i n order to deceive others .

Perhaps i t w ill n ot be u nn e ce s sar to m ake th e de n iti on a v

li t t le n ar rower b t a ki n g acc oun t of the fact that falseh ood v

so m e t i m es shelters i t se lf behi n d for m al exc u ses In the rst .

place o f co u rse w ords be th e spoke n or writte n are n o t

, ,
v
,

e sse n t ial to falsehood We can lie wi t ho u t words b v acts .

an d g s t ures or e v e n b v kee pin g sile n t A n abse n t o n e is

e . .

slan dered i n o u r prese n ce ; o u k n o w t hat w hat is said is n o t

v v

t ru e b u t ou have n ot the co u ra g e to co n tradict it it m ight

v

ca u se v ou to be disliked or to be e i ll spoke n of s o o u ar e v v
,
y

1
[Si dgwi ck, Bk IIIV II ; S te p h en, ch V ( I V ) ; Jh e ri n g , II , pp 5 7 8
. . ch . . . . .

; P o rt e r , P art I L C lL X Hd di n g X II b ; S p e n ce r I n d u c ti ons c h IX ; S m yt h,
,
.
, . .

P ar t Do rn e r 3 8 74 9 3 ; R un ze , 6 9 K an t ber e m r e rme i rd
, .
.

fi sh e s Be t h ! a ns M e
ns cj e rd i ebe zu l g e n , 1 7 9 7 ; Jl eta p hy s i l: d e r S i tt e n ( Harte n
'

Stein ) V I L, l i t -
24 1 ; N i e t zsc h e , J e ns e its r an Gut un d B ose ; Nord au , C m
T
,

Li es ; J Mo rl e y On C o mp ro mi se ]
'

tzm al .
, E .
 V ERA C ITY 665

sile n t or s m ile k n owi n gl y That is l y i n g Or y ou wish an

, . .

evi l report co n cern i n g a t h ird part y to be circ u l ated b u t yo u ,

are n ot willi n g to S hou lder the respo n sibili ty an d so you ,

begi n : H a ve you heard what i s bei n g sai d of S o an d s o ?
- -

Th e n ewspapers as well as gossipi n g wo m e n are i n th e habit

, ,

o f lyi n g i n this way : It i s said In circles which

are u s u ally wel l i n for m ed it i s r u m ored To b e s u r e ; .

how m a n y thi n gs are there n ot r u m ored ?

Eq u ivocatio n i s a n other favorite trick of th e liar L . .

S ch m idt 1
gives a few exa m ples fro m Greek life Th e .

Locria n s m ade a co m pac t wi th th e S ic u li a n s an d swore that ,

t hey wo u ld keep it so l o n g as th ey t rod the sa m e ear t h an d

carried their heads upo n thei r sho u l ders Pre v io u sl y h o w .

,

ever they had put earth i n to their S h oes an d h ad place d

, ,

garlic heads u po n thei r S h o u lders u n der their gar m e n ts .

A n othe r favorite m ethod of p rocedure de veloped to an art ,

by poli ticia n s an d historia n s is to le t t he facts the m selves

,

lie. In disc u ssi n g o n e side o f a q u estio n an historia n ,

chooses the m ost ve n o m o u s speech es a n d deeds of its ex

t re m e supporters a n d the c ri ti cis m s an d self reproaches o f
,
-

the m oderate wi n g ; i n prese n ti n g the o ther side h e selects

the m ost sati s factory te n ets th e m ost co m m e n dabl e o r
,

tolerable acts of its frie n ds Th u s by skil fu lly selecti n g

.

a n d arra n gi n g we can m ake a n ythi n g o u t o f e v er y thi n g .

This too is th e m ethod o f the reviewer who does n o t like a

, ,

b ook ; he tears ou t a ha n d fu l o f ph rases or se n te n ces s u r ,

ro u n ds the m ab u n dan t lv with q u otati o n m arks o ce as io n allv ,

i n serts a word o r t w o an d places t h e st u ff ed m o n ster be fore

,

the eyes of th e reader thereby aro u si n g his righteo u s i n

,

dign ati o n There is n o abs u rdity that ca n n ot be d r a w n fro m

.

a book i n this way A partic u larly favorite trick o f rece n t

.

years i s to lie by arra n gi n g the g u res Figu res n e e r lie it . v

,

is said This is n ot t r u e they will pro v e w hate er is ex pected

. v

o f the m .A series of gures is gi v e n : S i n ce the vear 1 8 7 2 ,

1 E th i lc d er Gr i eche n , II 5 .
666 DO C TR IN E OF V I R TU E S A N D DU TIE S

whe n s u ch an d s u ch an o ffici al took charge of the school

syste m the n u m be r o f y o u t hf u l cri m i n als has i n creased i n the
,

followi n g progressio n These g u res are s u ggestive l
Of co u rse says th e h ar m less reader to hi m self who i s n ot
, ,

t rai n ed i n the ar t of rhetoric an d for h i m alo n e l eadi n g ,

articles are writte n this i s the res u l t of such a m ode of

,

govern m e n t .

A ll these thi n gs the n co m e u n der t he head o f falsehood To

lie m ea n s to i n u e n ce others to accept views which y ou d o
n o t regard as tr u e yo u rself by m ea n s o f speech o r sile n ce, ,

by si m u latio n o r dissi m u latio n an d by the selectio n an d ,

arra n ge m e n t o f fac t s .

2 Why is lyi n g wro n g ? In t u i t io n al ethics an swers with

.

co m m o n se n se : Becau se it is i n here n tly wro n g an d disgrace

fu l. Ka n t recko n s veraci ty am o n g t he d u t ies to sel f ; he

regards falsehood as the aba n do n m e n t of o n e s dig n i ty as

a m an an d places it on a level with s u icide : as th e latt er

,

destroys the physical li fe so t he form er des t roys m oral li fe

, .

Thi s view i s well tted for the practical rhe t orical t rea t -

m e n t o f the s u bjec t In deed Ka n t is o fte n an ad m irabl e

.
,

m oral preacher But i t is the b u si n ess of moral philosophy

.

to discove r the objective gro u n d o f m orali ty an d this we ,

shall agai n have t o seek i n the e ffects which falsehood n a t u r

ally te n ds to have u po n the co n d u ct of h u m a n li fe They are .

n o t hard to n d Falsehood directly i n j u res th e deceived

.

party i n so far as fal se i d eas lead to false acts A s a r u le .

,

this is t he p u rpose of t he lie : the deceiver the atte re r th e , ,

s l a n derer wishes t o gai n so m e advan t age over a n other by

,

decep t io n Th u s falseh ood is a m e a n s of i n j u stice an d there

.
,

fore shares i n the j u dg m e n t pro n ou n ced u p on the latter .

Bu t falsehood h as a speci c e ff ect besides S o fa r as i t can .

,

i t d e s tr oy s f a i th and con
d e n ce a m on
g m en ,
and con se
q u en tl
y
u n d e rm i ne s hu m a n s oci a l life , th e fo u n datio n
all real h u m a n of ,

o f all m e n t al historical li fe
-
A n d this explai n s its partic u lar
.

reprehe n sible n ess We m ay ill u s t ra t e the i n ue n ce of fals e

.

66 8 DO C TR IN E OF V IRT UE S A N D DU TIES

m u tual distr u st Th e teacher begi n s to hold hi m self al oo f

.

fro m his p u pils the fran k rel atio n s bet wee n h i m a n d the m are
,

at an e n d he begi n s to observe the m stealthily to spy upo n

, ,

the m Th e pupils n otice it ; they begi n to m ak e co n ceal m e n t ;

.

co n de n ce an d O pe n n ess the co n ditio n s o f a happy relatio n

,

betwee n teacher an d stu de n t are go n e Whe n occ u rre n ces of

,
.

this ki n d beco m e freq u e n t so m ethi n g o f the priso n at m osphere

,

pervades the school which chokes the good an d the p u re

,
.

He n ce n othi n g is m ore i m por t a n t th an to preserve the spirit

,

o f tr u th an d co n de n ce withi n its walls This however can .

, ,

be kept alive o n ly wh ere th e spiri t of freedo m d wells .

He n ce it foll ows fro m the very n a tu re of fal seh ood tha t i t

poiso n s speech u n der m i n es co n de n ce des t roys collective life
, , ,

an d so a t tacks th e very bres of hu m a n exis t e n ce I ca n n ot .

de n y myself t he pleasure of q u o t i n g a beau t i fu l passage from

L u ther s co m me n t ary on t he P sa lm s wh i ch I n d i n Herder s

L e tter s f or t he P r om oti on of Hu m an i ty : It see m s t o me

tha t the re i s n o m ore per n i ci ous vi c e o n ear t h tha n fal seh ood
an d fai thless n ess wh i ch d ivi de a ll h u m a n s oci eti es F or
, .

falsehood an d fai t h less n ess rs t d ivi de hearts ; whe n he arts

are divi ded h a n ds als o sep arate a n d w h e n ha n ds separate
, , ,

what c an we d o or acco m pl i sh ? We Ger m a n s s t i l l h ave a

S park m ay God keep i t al i ve an d s tre n gthe n i t of the ol d

v i r tue : we a re still a l it t l e asha m ed o f oursel ves an d d o n ot

l i ke to be call ed li a rs ; we d o n ot l au gh abou t i t as d o th e
Fre n ch an d th e Greeks or m ake a j es t o f it A n d altho u gh
, .

Fre n ch an d G reek vi ces are m aki n g i n roads a m o n g us ,

n evertheless we h ave re t ai n e d so m u ch o f th e o l d spi ri t th at

n o o n e c an u tt er o r h ear a more severe an d abusi ve epithe t

t ha n that of l i ar .

A n oth er factor helps t o m ake t h e l i e sti ll m ore r e p r eh e n

s ibl e ; i t i s a si g n of cowa r d i ce It ste al s u po n i ts vi cti m
.
,

i n s t ead of va n q u i sh i n g h i m i n O pe n battle A brave m an .

wi l l n o t l i e Th e accusati o n of falseh ood al ways carri es

.

with i t the charge of c oward i ce he n ce i t w ou n ds a m an ,

 V E RA C ITY 669

more deeply tha n al m os t a n y other charge You l i e m ea n s .

,

a t the sa m e t i m e : Yo u are a cowardly k n ave .

8
. Eve rythi n g tha t m akes th e l i e despi cabl e an d base i s
i n cl u ded i n ca lu mn y We m i ght rhetori cally de n e i t as the
.

m urde ro u s attack o f the assass i n u po n th e i deal sel f o f an

oth er In O thell o S hakespe are portrays the n at u ral h i story
.
,

o f cal u m n y wi th awfu l faith fu l n es s a n d cr u el ty Iago stra n

.

gles th e i n n oce n t w i fe wi th th e ha n d s of h e r h u sba n d Had .

Iago killed Desde m o n a w i th hi s o w n h a n d an d robbed her as

a pi rate he wo u l d h ave b ee n an ho n es t m an besi de the real
,

Iago Th e fact t hat h e c an n ot eve n be cal le d t o acc o u n t b e

'

fore a h u m a n j u dge m ak es the m atte r al l th e worse for

wh at d i d h e do b u t act i n good fai th i n cal l i n g O thello s

atte n ti o n t o th e d an gers t hrea t e n i n g h i s h o n or ; well wh o

n e ver made a m i stake ?

Moreover we m u st n ot forge t t ha t t wo pers o n s are alw ays

,

n ecessary t o m ak e a sl a n der possibl e J u s t as th e t hi ef n eeds

.

th e rece ive r o f s tole n goods th e cal u m n i ator n eeds a pe rso n

,

t o accept hi s words an d t o p u t th e m i n ci rc u l a t i o n A n d .

j u s t as steal i n g wo u ld be i m possible on th e l arge scal e wi th

o u t receivers o f stol e n goods th e b u si n ess o f cal u m n y wo u ld
,

be i m possi bl e i f there were n o t s o m a n y to delight i n i t an d

e n co u rage it In a l e t ter wri t t e n d u ri n g the peri od of h i s
.

ba n i sh m e n t (1 8 1 1 ) Freiherr v on S tei n bitterly reproaches

thi s base te n de n cy o f h u m a n n at u re Wh e n o n ce a m an i s
.

m arked as th e vi cti m o f sla n de r hi s past life hi s es t abl i she d

, ,

ch arac t e r th e probabi l i ty o f t h e t ru th o f th e acc u sati o n are

, ,

n o t t ake n i n t o acco u n t ; th e q u esti o n s i m ply i s whethe r

the charge w i ll a n swe r th e i n te n ded p u rpose In a sh or t .

ti m e the cal u m n y i s ci rc u l ated e v ery where ; i t t ri u m phs ,

th e e n e m ies o f th e v i cti m are acti ve th e great m u lti t u de,

m a l i ci o u sly c re d u l o u s h i s fri e n ds prete n d i n g to be i m parti al

,

a r e b ase ; t hey are s il e n t wh ere they o u ght t o take a r m

,

sta n d Fi n ally o n e a fte r the othe r goes o v e r to the O p posite

.

party fro m p u re l ove of vi rt u e fro m a se n se o f d u ty an d

, ,
6 70 DO C TRIN E OF VIRTUES A N D DU TIES

d el icacy Of feel i n g A ll passi o n s wh i ch h e has i n s u lted all

.
,

pres u m ptu o u s n ess wh i ch h e has wou n d ed n ow revi ve ; al l ,

wi sh to celebra t e the day Of r eve n ge an d t o feast on the fat

1
o f the vi cti m .

A n other m odi ed form of t h e l i e i s a ttery It i s so r e .

p u lsive beca u se i t creeps i n u n der the gu i se of fri e n dshi p t o

d efra u d i ts vi cti m . However here agai n t wo peopl e are
,

n ecessary : o n e to d o the a t teri n g an d o n e wh o all ows h i m

sel f to be attered A s a pl as t er draws bl i s t ers s o sel f

.
,

c o n ce i t provokes a tt ery Hyp ocr i sy i s a form of at tery

. .

Rel i gi o u s hypocri sy use d t o be c o m m o n : we m ay de n e i t as

an atte m p t by t he e xac t f u llme n t of the cere m o n i es o f th e

ch u rch t o i n si n ua t e o n eself i n to the good graces of G o d an d

to draw His a t te n t i o n fro m l ess agreeabl e ph ases of o n e s l i fe
.

Religi ous hypocri sy has well n igh d i ed ou t i n ou r world a t

-
,

l eas t a m o n g t h e Pro t es t a n ts ; n owadays i t appe ars solely as a

par t o f pol iti cal hypocri sy wh i ch tri es t o i n si n u a t e i t sel f
,

i n to th e graces Of ear thly r u l ers W i th sh rewd zeal th e .

hypocri t e e n ters i n to th e vi ews i n cl i n a t i o n s an d t astes of

, ,

grea t or l i t tl e l ords p a rti cul arly i n to the i r eccl esi as t i cal an d

,

rel i gi ou s O pi n i o n s an d s ee k s an d gai n s favor t hereby

, .

N othi n g a t ters a h u m a n b ei n g m ore tha n t o be an auth ori ty ;

a u thority however m u st b e ack n owl e d ged by i m i t ati o n
, , .

Th e effec t of hypocri sy i s t h e sa m e as t hat of all lyi n g : a s

forgery makes us s u spect th e ge n ui n e hypocri sy bri n gs r e ,

l i gi on i n t o h a t red an d co n te m pt He n ce al l t r u ly reli gi ous

.

n at u res h a t e hypocri sy an d al l si n cere perso n s h a t e ass u me d

,

orth odoxy l ike dea th .

Fal seh ood rai sed t o the h igh es t power i s p erj u ry It i s the .

l i e acc o m pa n i ed by th e for m al an d s ol e m n assura n ce th a t i t

i s t h e t ru th Perj u ry h a s everywh ere an d al ways bee n r e
.

garded as on e of th e greatest cri m es as a si g n of extreme ,

vi ci ous n ess an d base n ess We can d efe n d o u rselves a g a i n s t

.

vi ol e n ce by vi ol e n ce stra t egy we m ee t wi th s t ra t egy : t h ese

,

Pe r t z, S te i n Le ben, I , 4 4 9

1 s . .
 6 72 DO C T RIN E OF VIR T U E S A N D DUTI E S

4 . The L i e of N e cessi ty
A probl em tha t h as give n the .

morali sts the greatest troubl e i s the l i e o f n ecessi ty Is .

decepti o n u n de r all ci rc u m sta n ces m orally wro n g o r c an ,

c o n di ti o n s arise u n der whi ch i t i s permi ssibl e o r eve n

morally n ecessary ?
In our act u al j u dg m e n t s an d a c t i o n s we experi e n ce n o d i f
c u lty i n a n sweri n g thi s q u es t i o n ; everybody ack n owledges
There i s n o t a ph y

the possibil i ty o f the n ec essary l i e
.

s i e i an i n the whole worl d wh o does n ot at ti m es gi ve d e ce

p
tive a n swers to the q u esti o n s of hi s pati e n ts w h o d oes n ot ,

aro u se hopes wh i ch he does n o t share He does n ot reproach .

h i m sel f fo r doi n g so n ei ther do others bla m e h i m In deed

, .
,

everybody does the sa m e thi n g u n der si m ilar ci rc u m sta n ces .

S u ppose that w itho u t k n owi n g i t a m an sh o u ld b e i n a n

, ,

ex t re m ely da n gero u s posi ti o n an d t hat hi s rescu e depe n ded

u po n h i s bei n g decei v ed fo r a m i n u t e w ou l d an y on e i n th e ,

sli gh t est hesi tate t o e n co u rage h i m i n h i s del u si o n ? Th e

n e wspapers rece n t ly reported a case a n al ogo u s t o t hi s Fi re .

broke ou t d u ri n g a perfor m a n ce i n a t hea t re a t Zu ri ch .

Whe n t h e s t age ma n ager d i scovere d i t he appeared be fore ,

of t h e t ax s e l f-as s e ss m e n t

o fci als w it h to t h e aft er t h e
re s
pe ct p e r s on h as
-

m ad e h i s r e t u rns , ce r t ify i n g t h at t h e y ar e t r u e , acco r di n g t o h i s

b e st k n o w l

ed an d b e li e f, h e i s i n fo r m e d t h at t h e au t h o r i t i e s ar e i n cli n e d n o t t o b el i ev e h i s
ge
s t at e m e n t s , b u t m e r e ly r e g a r d t h e m as v al u abl e m a t e r i al fo r fu r t h e r i n v e st i g at i o n s .

If t h is i s n o t an i n v i t a t i o n t o w i t h h old r e t u r n s, not to s ay t o i g n o re t h e to the

b e s t k n o w l ed g e an d b e li e f cl au se in t he as s e ss m e n t -bl an k , I k n ow no t h i n g Of

p s
y ch o lo g y . Is n ot w h at t h e au t h o r i t i e s p r esu p p o se p e r m i s s i bl e l

Ma y of
n

t he so - ca ll e d
p ro m i s so ry o at h s al s o t e n d t o m ak e p e r so n s ca r e l e s s i n s w eari n
g
'
o at h s Th i n k o f t h e a cade m i c o at h s . Th e m e d i cal d o ct o r s o a th , w h i ch i s cu s

t o m ar y i n Be rli n , b e g i n s : I, J o h n D oe , s w e a r t h at I w ill n o t p ra c t i se m e d i ci n e
r
fo r t h e s ak e o f p e rson al g ai n , b u t fo r t h e g lo y o f G o d , fo r t h e w e lfar e o f m an ,
a n d fo r t h e
p ro m o t i o n o f sc i e n t i c k n ow l e d g e ,
et c B u t t h i s i s e vi d e n t ly a .

s u r v i v al
p r o t e ct e d by t h e L at i n lan g u ag e t h e t h i n g w o u l d b e i m p o s sibl e i n G e r
m an Is it n ot
p o s s i ble
t h a t t h e p ro h i b i t i on a ai n s t sw e a r i n g i n t h e G o s p e l i s
g
ch i e v ai m e d at p r o m i sso r y o at h s Th e r e as o n s gi v e n se e m t o i n d i ca t e i t : You
ar e n o t m as t e r of t h in g s , an d of th e fu t u r e , y o u ca n n o t m ak e one h ai r w h it e or

b l a ck an d y e t so u l b y an o a t h an d b i nd o u rs e l f t o d o ce rt a i n
y o u w il l s e ll y o u r y
t h i n gs . W i t h w h at e as e t h e ch u r ch e v a de s th is e x pli ci t p r o h i b i t io n a g a i n st

s w e ar i n
g a n d h o w t e nac i o u sly
. s h e ad h e re s t o t h e l aw of the S a bb at h , i n sp i t e o f

its ab oli t i o n
 VERA C ITY 6 73

th e sce n es an d a n n o u n ced that owi n g t o th e sudde n i ll n ess

,

o f an actor the per for m a n ce wo u l d h ave to b e s u spe n ded

,
.

Th e th eatre was e m pti ed w i tho u t a n y tro u bl e an d the n ,

b u r n ed to the gro u n d W i l l an y o n e d are t o c o n de m n thi s

.

happy i de a as a l i e ? A n d i t i s n o t eve n n ecessary that the

decepti o n be i n the i n terest Of the pe rso n deceived It m ay .

also be practise d i n o n e s o wn i n terest wi tho u t th e sl i ghtest

,

h esitati o n an d m eet w i th u n i versal a pproval A n o l d wo m a n

, .

i s at ho m e al o n e ; a co u pl e of tra m ps b reak i n to he r h ou se ;
she has prese n ce of m i n d e n ou gh to c al l ou t th e n a m e o f
he r h u sb an d thereby deceivi n g the b u rglars Sh e w i l l n ot
,
.

h ersel f s u ffer re m ors e for he r behavi or n o r w i ll an y on e ,

e lse reproach her fo r i t N ay eve n th e tra m ps the m selves

.
,

wo u ld n ot be s o ri gori s t i c as t o bla m e he r Th e story i s tol d .

t ha t C ol u m b u s e n tere d a s m all er n u m ber o f m i les i n th e

log book d u ri n g h i s rst v oyage of di sc overy tha n h e act u ally
-

traversed e ach day i n order t o m ake t h e d i sta n ce fro m h o m e

,

see m shorter to h i s t i m i d cre w W i l l an y o n e c o n de m n th e

.

brave s ai l or s strategy as a m oral fa u lt ?

O n ly am o n g m oral ph i losophers d o w e s t ill n d perso n s

wh o regard th e matter as seri o u s Ka nt declares : False .

h ood tha t i s i n te n ti o n al u n t ruth fu l n ess i s u n der al l ci r

, , ,

c u m s t an ce s by its m ere for m a cri m e of m an agai n s t h i s

,

,

o w n pers o n a n d a b ase n e ss wh i ch m u st m ake a m an despi

,

1
cabl e i n h i s o wn eyes Whe n a m an m i sdi rects a m u r
.

derer i n search of h i s vi cti m an d dextero u sly t u rn s h i m

,

i n to t h e h a n ds o f th e pol i ce w e c a n n o t exc u se h i m : h e h as
,

tol d a l i e an d h as th ere fore forfeite d h i s d ig n i ty as a m an

, .

A n d Fichte o n ce sai d wi th h i s u s u al rhetori cal fa n ati c i s m

, ,
2
I wo u l d n o t b re ak m y w ord e ve n to s av e h u m a n ity
Le t u s apply th i s pri n ci pl e i n practi ce S u ppose t hat I h ad .

pro m ised so m e o n e to cal l fo r h i m a t ve o cl o ck for a

walk an d that o n m y w ay to h i s ho u se I s a w a ch il d fal l

,

i n to the ri ve r If I foll owed Fi chte I sh o u l d s ay to m y se l f

.
,

1 Tugencllc /u e, 9 .
2
Lye, I I , 5 7

. .
6 74 DO C TRIN E OF VIRTUE S A ND DU TIE S

If you p u ll i t ou t you wi ll h a ve t o go h o m e an d ch a n ge you r

,

clothes wh i ch w ill m ake i t i m possi ble fo r you t o keep y our

,

e n gage m e n t ; he n ce you m u s t hurry on sorry th o u gh y ou ,

m ay be . O r wo u l d i t be right fo r me t o assume tha t m y
fri e n d woul d give h i s c o n se n t i n such a case an d ac t i n g on , ,

th i s bel i ef t o break m y e n gage m e n t ? But suppose I c ou l d

,

n o t ass u m e th at h e wo u l d co n se n t I h ave made a pro m i se

.

n o w I se e wha t I c o u ld n o t h ave k n ow n before o r wh a t i s ,

si m ply the resul t of n e w co n di t i o n s ; a th i rd par ty o r I ,

m ysel f m i gh t be seri ously damaged by fullli n g th e pro m

,

i se I beg t o be rele ased fro m m y word I am w il l i n g t o

.
,

pay an y a m ou n t of i n de m n ity ; i n vai n May I break m y .

word ? U n de r n o ci rc u ms t a n ces I shoul d h ave to say .

,

a ccordi n g t o Fi ch t e s vi ew : Le t t h e world peri sh that i s

,

n ot m y co n cer n ; bu t i t i s my co n cer n n ot to d estroy my

moral d i g n ity as a human bei n g by a l i e Other m or a l ists
are s o m ewh at m ore yi eldi n g or h a ve n ot t h e courage t o
,

d raw th e co n seq u e n ces of thei r vi ews Thus Mar t e n se n .

hol ds i n h i s Theologi ca l E thi cs : Li es of n ecessity are

1
,

u n der certai n ci rcu m s t a n ces ,

permi tt ed on accou n t of th e
weak n ess of h u m a n n a t ure ; bu t i t m u s t be co n fessed t h at

there i s some s m i n e very such fal sehood ; a co n clusi o n

wh i ch surely i s n ot i n accord w i t h t h e words of t he Gospe l :

Let yo u r c o m m u n i cati o n be ye a ye a n ay n ay , , ,
.

Prac t i ce n ot o n ly co n t rad i c t s th e t heory here bu t i s eve n ,

t he ore t i cal ly correc t i n i t s O pposi t i o n t o these theori s t s It .

may be t ha t t h e l i e of n ecessity d oes n ot t i n t o th e syste m of

a morali st b u t tha t m erely proves th e i n abi l ity of h is system
,

to c o m prehe n d m oral t hi n gs A t el eol ogi cal eth i cs n ds n o

.

d i fcul ty i n expl ai n i n g th e phe n ome n o n i n ques t i o n .

In te n ti o n al decepti o n i s objec t ively repreh e n sibl e a s w as ,

sh ow n ab ove because i t te n ds t o d estroy co n de n ce an d thus

, ,

t o lead t o th e di si n t egra t i o n of th e s oci al orga n i s m In .

cases where t hi s e e ct ca n n o t poss ib l y o ccur owi n g t o t he ,

1 II . 2 64 .
,
6 76 DO C TR IN E OF V I RTU E S A N D DU TIE S

these eve n at the expe n se of o ther n at i o n s There i s n o law .

gover n i n g the i n tercourse of s t ates which can sec u re t he m

agai n s t e n croach m e n ts ; there i s n o power whi ch can m e d i
ate be t wee n the m o r call th e breaker O f th e peace t o accou n t .

He n ce a c o n sta n t pote n t i al s t a t e of war ex i sts be t wee n s t at es .

Th e ru les o f dipl o m a t i c i n t erco u rse sh ow t hat i n s o far as

w ar i n wh i ch fo r ce an d stra t egy are absol u t ely per m i t t ed
, ,

i s possible a t an y m o m e n t th e par t i es are reti ce n t an d

,

di stru s tfu l of each o th e r ; they co n ceal t hei r m eas u res an d

a gree m e n t s th ei r plan s an d i n t e n t i o n s Bu t i n s o fa r as
, .

th e real objec t of d i plo m acy i s to m ai n t ai n peac e t o se tt l e ,

by n ego t i a ti o n s wh a t wo u l d oth erwi se have t o be settle d by

t he arbitra m e n t of war a cer t ai n m e a s u re of m u tu al con
,

d e n ce i s req u i red If d i pl o m ats n eeded l a n guage m erely t o

.

co n ce al thei r th ough t s i t would evi de n tly be w iser for

,

n ati o n s n o t t o spe ak to each other at all Besi des . t here ,

see m s to be t he sa m e te n de n cy h ere as i n co m m erce A t .

t e m p t s are bei n g m ade i n th e l a tt er eld gr a d u ally to s t amp

ou t frau d a t l eas t th e coarser ph ases o f i t as an u n s u i t abl e
, ,

for m of i n t erc ourse S O too i n th e di pl o m ati c i n t ercourse

.
, ,

o f n a t i o n s : t h e cl oser t hey are d rawi n g t o each o th er t h e ,

m ore i n t i m ate thei r rel ati o n s are beco m i n g th e m ore t he ,

c o n vi c t i o n see m s to be growi n g th at th e s t r aight c o u rse i s

be t ter t h an t h e crooked course i n the l o n g ru n A n d per .

h aps we may se e i n th i s an evi de n ce t h at th e Europea n

n at i on s a re approach i n g a co n di ti o n o f per m a n e n t peace ,

remote tho u gh i t m ay see m a t prese n t F o r evi de n t ly

.

th e probabi l i ty of w ar an d t h e meas u re of O pe n n ess i n

di pl o m at i c i n tercou rse a re i n i n verse propor t i o n t o each
othe r .

He n ce t he fewer t he rel a t i o n s of t ru s t wh i ch can be di s

,

t u rb e d t he m ore o f i ts da n gerous an d O b j ec t i o n abl e ch ar a cter

,

i n te n t i o n al decepti o n l oses ,an d th e m ore ope n ly i t i s ac tu ally

practi sed u n t i l i t u l t i m ately appears as an altogethe r l e gi t i
,

mate m e an s of war fare i n t he ac t ual s t a t e Of w a r Wh e re .

 VE RA C ITY 6 77

all t ies are broke n where eve n the ki ll i n g of others i s de

,

s i red i t can do n o m ore har m ; thi n gs are s o bad that d e ce p

,

t i o n w i ll n ot m ake the m worse .

A n o ther case whi ch m ay m ake i n t e n ti o n al decep t i o n pe r

m issibl e or n ecessary i s th e i n abi lity o f the o ther par t y to
u n ders t a n d or to bear t he t r u t h It m ay for e xa m pl e u n de r
.
, ,

c i rcu m s t a n ces h ave a qu i e t i n g e ffec t u po n i n sa n e perso n s t o

,

e n te r i n t o t he i r del u si o n s It i s also n ecessary t o aeco m

.

m od at e o n eself t o t h e weak m i n ded Thi s i s t r u e o f ol d .

pe opl e wh o h a ve grow n weak m i n ded ; they h ave lost the -

facul t y Of see i n g an d judgi n g thi n gs i n th ei r true relati o n s ,

bu t n ot t h e faculty of beco m i n g ex ci ted by occasi o n ally mi s

i n t erpreti n g the m We are co m pelled for exa m pl e to m ake
.
, ,

cert a i n arra n ge m e n t s co n t rary to t he w i shes of ou r ol d

,

pare n t s Is i t righ t t o c o n ceal ou r pl a n s or to de n y th em ?

.
,

It i s a hard th i n g t o do ; i t see m s l ike a breach o f O l d con

de n ti al rel a t i on s A n d ye t e very on e wi ll at ti m es deci de
.

to p u rs u e s u ch a course an d jus t ly so for wha t good wo u l d

, ,

i t do t o t ell the m ? We could n ot m ak e the m see th e n e ce s

s i ty of o u r acti o n ; t h e i n for m a t i o n w oul d t h erefore si m ply

gri eve t he m wh i le th e decep t i o n i f n ot de t ected wo u ld be

, , ,

har ml ess Th e case i s di ffere n t i n ou r i n tercourse with

.

ch ildre n ; an d here we are oft e n t oo ready t o h ave reco u rse t o

the m ost co n ve n i e n t for m of decep t i o n th a t happe n s to pres
e n t i t sel f Th e dece p t i o n persi s t s i n m e m ory ; whe n t he
.

i n tel l ige n ce devel ops an d recog n i zes i t as s u ch i t m ay a fte r ,

wards seri o u sly u n derm i n e the ch ild s fai th Besi d es ah

.
,

other m ean s Of escape i s a lways at ha n d ; we can ref u se t o

a n swe r the ch i ld s q u es t i o n s by sayi n g Yo u d o n ot u n der

,

sta n d these thi n gs ye t Or Th ey do n ot co n ce r n you
, ,

It .

would h oweve r be wholly i m possible to treat old peopl e i n

, ,

th i s way eve n i f i t were p rOp e r

,
Here the n we m u st .
, ,

m ake u s e o f l a n g u age as the physi ci a n occasi o n all y pre

,

scri be s a pre t e n ded re m edy s i m ply i n orde r to q u i e t the

,

pati e n t .
6 78 DO C TRIN E OF VIRT UE S A N D DU TIE S

But so m e on e m ight ask i n t rouble d t o n es Where t he n

, , , ,

shall we d raw the l i n e ? Th e tra n si t i o n to ch il di sh ol d age

i s a gradual o n e Where m ay on e begi n to decei ve ? A n d
.

i f I m ay dece ive a weak m i n ded perso n the n wh y n o t a s t u pi d

-
,

bl ockhead ? A n d where s h al l thi s e n d ? A n d wh o i s t o

deci de h ow to cl assify the i n di vi duals i n q u esti o n ? O n ly
o n e a n swer c an b e m ade t o s u ch questi o n s S u ch xe d .

bou n dari es d o n ot exi st i n m oral s Th e law draws h ard an d .

fas t an d there fore arbi tr a ry l i n es while m oral i t y has every

, , ,

whe re to do wi t h grad u al tra n s i t i o n s Th e par t i c u l ar case .

m ust n ecessarily be deci de d by t h e i n di vi d u al s o wn i n sigh t

an d co n sci e n ce an d w i th a vi ew t o t h e co n crete co n d iti o n s

,
.

Moral i ty ca n n o t gi ve h i m a sch e m e whi ch sh al l e n able h i m

to settl e the ma tt e r wi t h mecha n i cal certai n ty It can .

m erely i n d ica t e t he ge n eral poi n t s of vi ew from whi ch t h e

deci si o n i s to be re n de red .

Th e case i s n ot esse n ti a lly di ffere n t for t he physi ci a n i n

h i s i n terco u rse wi th pa t i e n t s He re t o o we have a rel a
.
, ,

t i o n o f t rus t an d d ecep t i o n i s n ot wi t h ou t i ts da n gers

, .

Perhaps we are all a l i t t le i n cre dulous i n refere n ce t o wha t

t he physi ci a n says both wh e n h e tri es t o qui e t u s an d
,

whe n h e war n s u s H e does i t we bel i eve si m ply for

.
, ,

e ff ec t N ever th el ess w e ca n n o t expec t absol u t e ope n n ess

.
,

fro m th e physi ci a n i n every case If i n order t o assi st h i s

.
,

a r t h e skil fu lly an d q u i e t ly decei ves th e pa t i e n t an d hi s

,

fri e n ds as to the m ag n i t u de of th e da n ger h e d oes n o t de ,

serve bl a m e bu t praise It i s a part of hi s ar t t o keep up

.

courage an d h ope ; t o th a t e n d he al so mak es use of speech ,

e ve n at th e ri sk O f subseq u e n t ly di sappoi n t i n g the pat i e n t

an d of weake n i n g t h e lat t e r s fai t h i n h i s word as wel l as i n

the word of physi ci a n s i n ge n eral It was show n above t ha t

.
1

th e vi ol ati o n of for m al ri gh t i s u n de r all ci rc u m s t a n ces an

evi l bu t tha t i t may bec o m e per m i ssibl e o r n e ce ss ar v i n
,

order t o ward Off a grea t er evi l fro m o n eself or o th ers Th e .

1 P p 6 3 0 ff
. .
6 80 DO C TRIN E o r V IRTUES A N D DUTIE S

decei ve by m ean s of th e t o n gue an d n ot wi th th e eyes an d

face ? O r o u gh t we always to sh ow everythi n g w e feel 9

O u gh t I the n t o t ell a fri e n d wh o has an u n fort u n ate l ea n i n g

to ar t whe n h e prese n ts me w i th a pi c tu re as a bi rthday
,

gi ft : My dear fri e n d yo u r i n t e n t i o n s are u n do u b t edly good

, ,

b u t I wi sh you wo u l d spare m e ? O r sh al l I decl are w he n ,

h e expects m e to say so m ethi n g ab o u t th e prese n t : U n for tu

n at e ly I ca n n o t t el l y ou a n yth i n g fo r i f I told y ou th e tr u th
, , ,

wo u l d be a n gry b u t i f I d i d n t t ell the tr u th th i s wo u l d

ou
y , ,

be co n trary to the moral l aw O f co u rse i t m ay be m y d u ty

,

t o say to m y fri e n d fra n kly an d di sti n ctly i n case hi s hobby ,

i s m aki n g h i m ri di c u l o u s o r i s ca u si n g h i m to n egl ec t h i s
,

duti es : S t op i t you wi ll n ever acco m pl i sh a n y thi n g an d y ou

, ,

are si m ply h u r t i n g yo u rsel f Th e good n atured prai se of
.
-

q u esti o n able achi eve m e n ts m ay grow i n to base a t tery Bu t .

all t hi s will n ot sh ake an y o n e b u t an extre m i s t i n th e bel i e f

that i t may u n der ci rc u m sta n ces be ri gh t an d prope r t o t ell

, ,

a m an what wi l l gi ve hi m h ar m less pl eas u re eve n tho u gh ,

thi s d oes n ot e xpress o n e s real O pi n i o n i n stead of t ell i n g

,

h i m thi n gs whi ch i t wi l l n ei the r please h i m n o r be n e t hi m

t o hear .

To th e sa m e ca t egory bel o n g the co n ve n ti o n al h alf t r u th s -

an d u n t r u ths o f soci al i n terco u rse We wel co m e a vi sitor

.

wh o co m es a t an i n opportu n e t i m e ; at t he e n d o f a l et t e r
we ass u re a m an who m we d o n ot k n ow o r wh o m we l ook ,

upo n as a thoro u gh vi llai n o f ou r high es t ee m Th e n e ces

, .

s i t y an d j u s t i cati o n fo r th i s li es i n t h e fac t t ha t s m oo t h

an d pe ace fu l i n terc o u rse i s n ot possibl e a m o n g m e n as t hey

are c o n sti t u ted wi th o u t the exerci se of so m e co n strai n t

, .

Th e c u sto m ary pol i te n ess i s the o i l whi ch preve n ts s o far as ,

possible t he creaki n g an d p u ll i n g o f th e m achi n e Th e

, .

a n gel s i n he ave n d o n o t n eed i t Where the re are n o i n n e r

.

d iscords an d o u t e r obstacles per fec t O pe n n ess i s poss ibl e ;

,

h u m a n bei n gs as th ey are c o n sti t u ted ca nn ot e n d u re i t It .

i s for th i s re aso n that Goeth e del i cately an d t ru th fu l ly says

 VE RA C ITY 6 81

F r ags td a n ach d er K u n s t zu le b e n ?
Le r n

m it N ar r u n d Bo se m l e b e n .

M i t d e n \V e i se n , m i t d e n G u te n ,
Wi rd e s si ch vo n s e lb st e rg e b e n .1

Of cou rse where i s the b ou n dary be t wee n n ecessary pol i t e

,

n ess a n d rep u l si ve attery an d falseh ood ? N 0 syste m o f

m orals can d raw t h e l i n e : m oral tact al o n e m u s t deci de .

A n d the t hi n g i s n ot wi th o u t i ts da n gers A perso n who .

li ve s m u ch i n s oci ety easi ly for m s t h e h abi t o f lyi n g h i s ,

co n sci e n ce grad u ally bec om es seared i t beco m es a seco n d ,

n at u re a n d n ally a n ecessi t y fo r h i m t o l i e We are there .

fore ready to s u spect a m an wh o exhibi ts great ski ll i n th e ar t

o f po l ite speech We are m ore apt to t r u s t on e wh o i s so m ewhat
.

awkward an d backward i n speaki n g co n ve n ti o n al u n tr u th s .

He n ce o u r c o n cl u si o n wo u l d b e : B e tr u thf u l ; thi s h olds

u n co n d iti o n ally ; b u t Sp eak the tr u th d oes n ot h ol d u n con
d i t i o n ally .

5 How sh al l we acco u n t for th i s stra n ge ri gori sm o f
.

the m oralists whi ch i s everywhere c o n tradi cte d by l i fe ?

,

A re they pe rhaps i n u e n ce d by the c u ri ou s n oti o n t ha t th e

stri cte r th ei r syste m s th e b et t e r i t wi ll be for the m ora l,

i ty of m a n ki n d It al m ost see m s so If o u r m oral syste m s .

,

they see m t o thi n k l eave th e s m al lest Iooph ol e for falsehood

, ,

m a n s i n cl i n ati o n to l i e w i ll grad u ally e n large i t an d he

,

wi l l al ways n d an exc u se for n ot speaki n g th e tr u th In .

case h oweve r these syste m s absol u tely prohibi t falseh ood

, , ,

an d th re ate n i t w i th t he m ost awf u l p u n i sh m e n ts l oss o f ,

h u m a n d ign ity a n d self respec t th e n h e w ill be o n h i s -

,

g u ard A s th o u gh m e n al ways rs t re ferred to a ha n d book

.

o f m oral s be fore ope n i n g thei r m on th s !

1 Th e se li n e s , b y t h e w ay , m i g h t b e t ak e n as th e t ra n sla t io n o f a p ass age i n

t he I mi ta t i o n of C h r i s t : It i s n o g r e a t m at t e r t o a ss o c i at e w i t h t h e g o o d a n d
g e n t le ; fo r t h i s i s n a t u r ally p l ea s i n g t o a ll a n d , e ve r y one w i ll i n g l y j
e u o ye t h

p e a ce a n d l o v e t h t h e s e b e s t t h a t ag ree w i t h h i m
. . Bu t to be a b le to li v e p e ac e
a b ly w i t h h ard an d w i t h t h e d i s o r d e r ly , w i t h s u c h as g o
p e r v e rs e p e r s o n s , or or

c o n t ra ry to u s, is a g rea t g ra ce , a n d a m o st co m m e n d abl e and m a n ly t h i n g .

( II .
,
6 82 DO C T RIN E OF V I RT U E S A N D DU TIE S

Bu t perhaps thi s ri gori sm has still a n o t her gro u n d It i s .

s u rpri si n g that we d o n ot n d i t amo n g the G r eek m oral

phil osophers In te n ti o n al decepti o n i s n ot o n ly perm it t ed
.

by the m u n der certai n c i rc u m sta n ces b u t eve n de m an de d

, .

A ccordi n g t o Pl at e the a u th ori ti es i n th e i deal S ta t e m u st

,

e m pl oy decepti o n as a mea n s o f th e wel fare of the g ov

er n ed S ocra t es an d the S toi cs are of t he sa m e opi n i o n Is
. .

o u r se n se o f t r u th m ore n ely devel oped tha n th ei rs ? A re

we s o m u ch s u peri or to th em i n veraci ty ? In m y opi n i o n ,

t h e m atter migh t be expl ai n ed di ffere n t ly I have repea t .

e d ly referre d t o th e fac t t h a t we t o q u ote Lessi n g speak

, ,

m os t Of th e v ir t ues whi ch we leas t possess a n d also tha t , ,

we co n de m n t h ose vi ces m os t t o wh i ch we are m ost i n cl i n ed .

Th e G reek phi l os ophers S ch ope n hau er i s ri ght i n t h i s

e xh ibi t a m e a s u re of O pe n n ess an d stra i ghtforward n ess i n th e
prese n tati o n of thei r th o u ghts whi ch we sel do m n d i n the
ph ilosophi cal l iterat u re of m oder n t i m es A m o n g the mod .

er n s t here i s a t e n de n cy t o co m pro m i se an d ex t e m pori ze t o ,

acco m m odati o n to weake n the l ogi cal co n sequ e n ces of vi ews

, ,

t o e m bel l i sh m e n t to a m big u ity to i n t e n ti o n al obscu ri ty

, , ,

whi ch c o n trasts u n favorably w i th t he ope n n ess an d t ran sp ar

e n cy of th e a n ci e n ts K a n t o n ce co n fesse d th a t t h o u gh he
.

wo u l d n eve r say a n y thi n g h e d i d n ot b el i eve he beli e ved

m a n y th i n gs wh i ch h e wo u l d n ever s ay A Greek mi gh t
.

h ave repli ed t o h i m : In t ha t c ase I d o n ot care very m u ch

for wha t you h ave t o say for I desi re t o k n ow n ot wha t
,

y o u are all owed t o t hi n k wi th t h e co n se n t o f th e h i gh auth or

i t i es b u t what you actu ally thi n k yo u rself !

,

We can h ardly d ou b t t ha t chu r ch a a i r s ha v e so m e thi n g

t o d o w i t h th i s at t i t u de In t el l ec t ual veraci ty si n cerity i n
.
,

mat t ers of t ho u gh t an d fai th c o n si ste n cy i n t h i n ki n g i s n ot

, ,

o n e o f t h e vi r t ues e n co u rage d by t h e ch u rch Pri m i t ive .

C hri sti a n ity h ad n othi n g whatever i n co m m o n w i th th e or e ti

cal k n owledge ; al though i t prac t i cally de m a n ded veraci ty of
t he highes t ki n d th a t i s mar t yr d o m Whe n the ch u rch
, ,
.
6 84 DO C TRIN E OF V I RTUE S A ND DUTIE S

e rn geol ogy It i s t o be pres u m ed tha t Darwi n i s m wil l be

.

di scovere d there be fore very l o n g .

Thi s perversi o n o f th e i n tellect i s n ot n ecessari ly aecom

an i e d by a perversi o n o f the wi l l a f ra n k a n d h o n es t heart
p ;
may ex i st si de by s i de with these d i ago n al t e n de n ci es of the
i n tellec t A m an m ay hesita t e to depar t fro m the fai th o f
.

the church wi th ou t bei n g n ecess aril y i n spi red by t h e fea r of

,

m an a n d the desi re to get al o n g i n th e worl d S till i t ca n n ot .

be de n i e d that th e l ack o f a theoreti cal l ove o f t ruth the ,

t e n de n cy t o acc o mm oda t i o n i s o fte n c o n n ec t e d with q u i te

,

worl dly c on si derati o n s an d i n t e n t i o n s Whe n Keple r l os t .

hi s posi t i o n an d hi s i n co m e a t Pr ague a fter t he d ow n fall ,

O f Ru dol ph s E m pi re t here w as a prospec t of h i s be i n g

,

called t o a professorshi p i n h i s h o m e u n iversi ty a t Tii b i n ge n .

Th e p l ac e was i n al l respects a desi rabl e o n e ; b u t h e

fel t h i m self obl i ged as an ho n es t m an rst t o i n form t h e
, ,

Duke t h a t h i s vi ews On th e d oc t ri n e of t ra n s u bsta n ti a ti o n

w ere n o t q u i t e orth odox th a t he had n ot bee n abl e t o c on
,

vi n ce h i m self of t h e ubi q u i t y of t he body o f C h ris t Wel l .

,

Kepl e r was n ot called Hi s bi ograph e r Re u s chle adds i n

.
,

r epor t i n g t hi s epi sode t h a t Kepl er bel o n ged t o tha t c lass o f

,

h o n es t m e n t o b e on e of wh om as Ha m l e t s ays i s t o b e on e
, , ,

m an p i ck ed ou t O f t e n t h o u sa n d In dee d n o o n e will cl ai m
.
,

t ha t Keple r represe n t s t h e moder n t ype of sc h ol ar i n thi s

respec t L eib n i z wo u l d be a m ore t ti n g ex a m pl e He was
. .

n eve r i n wa n t of a sys t em o f th ough t t o sh ow the si m il ari ty

be t wee n h i s th i n k i n g an d t ha t o f so m e oth er perso n were i t ,

an a t hei sti c ph i l osopher o r a ch u rch bel i ever a Pro t esta n t ,

o r a Jes u i t a n advoca t e o f i m peri al u n i t y o r o f the s ov e r

,

e i gn ty o f th e pri n ces i n Ger m a n y .

W i th thi s s t a t u s of a ffai rs i t see m s t o m e th e i n cli n at i o n t o

, ,

i n vei gh agai n s t fal seh ood an d t o sti g m ati ze decepti o n as

absol utely reprehe n s ibl e an d d i sgrace fu l h as so m ethi n g to d o , .

We feel the n eed i n the face o f o u r co n sta n t d an ger of em

, ,

h as i zi n g t o o u rselve s an d t o others o fte n i n t h e stro n ges t

p ,
 VE RA C ITY 6 85

t er m s th e val u e of t ru th fu l n ess an d th e di sgrace of lyi n g an d

,

o f t ri i n g w i th t h e t r u th Th e Greek phi losophers d i d n ot

.

feel t h i s n ee d s o m u ch beca u se they were less ex posed t o

,

t e m p t a t i o n S ch ope n h au er wh ose p ro u d h arsh an d i n con

.
, , ,

s i derate t e m pera m e n t protec t ed h i m agai n st th e t e n de n cy t o

acco m m odati o n occasi o n ally accuses Ka n t o f a ffec t ati o n on
,

acco u n t of h i s vi ole n t rep u d i a t i o n of eve ry for m of d ecepti o n .

O th e rs are of di ffere n t op i n i o n ; t hey ad m i re Ka n t s syste m

preci sely becau se o f t h e harsh ri gor of i ts for m u l ae of d u ty ,

wh i ch e x cl u d e all excep t i o n s They als o prai se L u th e r as a

.

h ero o f tru t h an d heap al l ki n ds of abuse u po n Erasm u s on

,

accou n t of h i s t e n de n cy t o acco m m oda t i o n an d c o n ci l i ati o n .

Wi l l th e i n i ti a t e d c o n cl u d e from th i s th at t h e t ri be o f
Eras m u s has d i ed o u t an d tha t o u r t he ol ogi a n s an d h i s t o r i
,

an s are all l ittl e L u thers ?

6. We n o w t u rn to the p osi ti ve si d e of ve r a ci ty It corre .

s p on d s t o l ove o f n ei ghbor an d i s expressed i n th e for m u la

,

o f d u t y : S e r ve t hy n e ig hbor w i t h t he t r u t h S i n ce t he c on .

d u ct o f m an i s t o a c o n si derabl e exte n t depe n de n t upo n

, ,

i de as t ru e i d eas are of pri m e i m porta n ce t o hi s wel fare

, .

Th e u n iversal d u ty o f l ove O f n ei ghbor there fore i n cl u des , ,

the d u ty to assi st o n e s n ei ghbor i n ri ddi n g h i m self of false

i de as an d of acq u i ri n g tr u e o n es .

Thi s phase o f th e q u esti o n h as be e n t oo much n eglected by

morali sts a fac t w hi ch acc o u n t s for t he i r meagre treat m e n t
,

o f veraci ty an d als o e xpl ai n s thei r i n abi l i t y t o do j u sti ce t o

th e li e of n ecessi ty Whoeve r l i ves a l i fe of t r u th i n th e

.

mai n w i l l h ave n o t roubl e i n se t tl i n g t h e q u es t i o n o f d e c e p

,

ti o n w h e n eve r i t m ay beco m e n ecessary o r exped i e n t Bu t

,
.

the pers o n wh os e t ru th fu l n ess co n si sts sol ely i n refrai n i n g

fro m t ell i n g l i es wi ll be afrai d of t o t ally destroyi n g hi s rep u
,

t at i o n i n case h e sh o u l d ever happe n t o say wh at i s n ot tr u e .

S u ch p u rely n ega t i ve veraci ty i s o f co u rse a rathe r palt ry

, ,

th i n g ; i t easi ly dege n era t es i n to the m ere art o f avoi d i n g

di rect falseh ood Had the di sci pl es o f C h ri st a fte r th e
.
,
6 86 DO C TRIN E OF V IRTUE S A ND DUTIE S

dea th of t he Maste r m erely ref u sed t o d e n y Hi m d i rec t ly

, ,

had they re t u rn ed t o thei r for m er c al li n gs an d obeyi n g the , ,

co m m a n ds of the authori ti es an d the d ictates of p ru d e n ce ,

l ocked u p the me m ories of the pas t i n th ei r o wn h earts had ,

they i n p u rs u a n ce of the max i m th a t i t i s n ot ou r duty to say

e ve rythi n g we bel i eve care fu lly evade d eve ry di sc u ssi o n of
,

thei r experi e n ces they certai n ly coul d ha ve escaped the r e

,

proach of falsehood b u t they w ould s u rely n ever have beco m e

,

wh a t they n o w are : w i t n esses of t h e t ru t h wh ose t esti m o n y ,

i s shapi n g t he des t i n y of t he ce n t uri es .

Posi t i ve veraci ty wh i ch rs t gives t o n egati ve veraci ty

,

i ts real m ea n i n g an d value ma n ifes t s i tself rs t i n the

, , ,

p er s on a l i n ter c ou r se w i t h i n di vi d u a ls wh e re i t assu m
,
es the
form of advi ce i n s t ruc t i o n ad m o n iti o n an d correcti o n ; sec
, , ,
'

o n dly i n th e u bli c com m u n i ca ti on of th e t ru t h wh ere i t t akes

, p ,

t he form of research t eachi n g an d preach i n g

, , .

A ccordi n g t o t h e rs t for m i t i s m y du t y t o h el p t h e i n d i
,

vi d u al whom I n d i n search of t h e ri ght path o r foll owi n g ,

the wro n g pa th accordi n g t o my bet t e r li ghts Th i s d u ty

, .
,

t o o m u s t be q u al ied
, J u s t as t h e d u ty of love Of n ei ghbor
.

ca n n o t m ea n tha t every o n e i s co n sta n tly t o O ffe r h i s ai d t o

everybody he m eets the d u ty of veraci ty ca n n ot m ea n tha t
,

we are at all ti m es obli ge d t o i n stru ct an d advi se peopl e to ,

ad m o n ish an d se t th e m righ t In ad diti on to th e l i m i tati o n s

.

pl aced u po n th i s d u ty by the sa m e c o n si derati o n s wh i ch were

i n d i ca te d above i n respec t t o love of n ei ghbor i n ge n eral we ,

m us t t ake i n to acco u n t oth e r speci al feat u res depe n di n g u po n

the speci al n at u re of t hi s ki n d of ch arity .

Th e d u ty to i n str u c t a n d se t righ t pres u pposes t wo th i n gs

rs t that I am m yself s u re o f th e righ t path ; seco n dly that
, ,

the i n terested party i s i n cli n ed t o pro t by m y advi ce We .

are esse n ti ally gover n ed by thes e c o n si derati o n s i n o u r ac

t u al practi ce I see a stra n ge r i n th e m o u n tai n s t u r n i n g
.

i n to a road t ha t l eads n owhere ; I d o n o t hesi tate to c al l to

h i m an d to d i rec t h i m Whe n o n the other ha n d I n d
.
, ,
6 88 DO C TRIN E OF V I R TUE S A ND DUTIE S

attery an d falsehood : w e t ry to m ak e the i n t eres t e d perso n

bel ieve th at we wi l l n ot pro n o u n ce a si m ilar j u dgm e n t u po n
h i m whe n h i s back i s t u r n ed It preve n t s u s fro m bei n g .

tr u e to o u rselves : the m an wh o i s always beholdi n g t h e

m o t e that i s i n h i s brother s eye a t last ca n n ot see th e bea m

,

that i s i n h i s o wn eye He n ce the rul e i s : S peak of ev il .

o n ly whe n the good i s pro m o t e d t hereby ; an d fo r th e rest , ,

tu r n all th i n gs t o good 1
.

7 Th e o t he r phase O f t he proble m the p u bli c comm u n i ca

.
,

ti on of the tr u th de m a n ds a so m ewha t more e labora t e

,

t re a t m e n t .

To k n ow th e t ru th as a whol e as co n t ai n e d i n ph i l osophy ,

an d sci e n ce i s n o t a f u n c t i o n o f t he i n di vi d u al m i n d as s u ch ;
,

a pe opl e or i n th e l ast a n alysi s h u m an i ty i s the bearer o f

, , , ,

th e t r u th t h e i n divi d u al s h ares i n i t as the m e m be r o f a

,

pe ople Th e l i t tl e fracti o n whi ch h e possesses h e possesses

.
,

as t he he i r o f th e pas t ; h e th i n ks w i th t he l ogi cal an d

me t aphysi cal ca t egori es whi ch the popu l ar m i n d has devel
ope d i n t h e c ourse O f thousa n ds O f y ears an d h as i n cor ,

o a t e d i n t o gra m m atical for m s He sees t hi n gs t hro u gh

p r .

the i de as an d n oti o n s wh i ch h i s a ge pl aces a t h is d i s

posal he l ab ors upo n t he s ol u t i o n o f t h e proble m s whi ch i t
,

sugges t s t o h i m On t he oth er h a n d i t i s n o less tr u e tha t

.
,

Wack e rn agel s Wi s d om (E d els tezne

'
1 In Tre asu ry of Ger ma n P oetry a nd

d e u tsche r D i chtu ng an d We i s he i t )

,
vol . X I II , i s fo u n d a se r m o n of Bro t h e r
Dav i d of A g s b u rg w h i ch
u , p ie ce o f a d v i ce w hi ch w e o u g h t t o t a ke t o
Offe rs a

h e art : Zi u c h d i n g e m ue t ev o n all e m , d as di ch n i h t a n e t
g Laz e i n e n e gli ch en
'

. j
s i n d i n c a h t e n u n d e si n e u s i t e n h a l t e n u n d e s c h a f d m i t g o t e d i n d i n e Swe s .

a b e r d u m a h t g e b e zze r t w e r d e n , d e s n i m all e in e w ar ; d as an tl e r laz h i n g en .

Be k u m b e r d i n h e r ze n ih t m it u rt e i l e , w an d tl niht w i zze n k an st , u m bb e w e lh e
S ach e Od e r i n w e lh e m si n n e d az g e sch i h t , d az d u rte i lst w a n als w i r zen o ft e

m i ss ese h e n e in e z fur daz an d e r , al sO m i ss er at en w i r Oft e e i n

g u o t e z fur ein

b oe se z, al s de r sch e l h e , de r zw e i si h t fur ein ez u n d i st d a ran b e t r o g e n . M ah t

du z ab e r n ih t zu g a o t e k ere n , d e n n o ch b e k um b e r d i ch n i h t da m i t e . E z i st v il

u n ve rr i h t u n g e i n d er k r i st e n h e i t , d e r d a ll e r n ih t v e rr ih t e n m ah t . Li d ei n e z

m it de m an d e r n . De s d u n ih t
g e b e zz e rn , d a ue b e di n g e d u lt a n
t r w e s t S wa .

ab e r v o n di n e m sw i g e n i b t u n g eve lli g es w ah se n m Oh t e , da z v o n di n e r r e d e m a c

g e b e zze r t w e r d e n d a s p r i ch zu o , s e n ft e cli ch e n , e r n st li ch e , an e s t ri t , d a z d u d i c h
,

d a m i t e u nse h u l d i g est , d a z d u z i h t t e i l h aft i c si s t , d es m an di c h a n sp re ch e .

 V ER A C ITY 6 89

the coll ec t ive m i n d exerci ses th e fu n c t i o n s o n ly th rou gh

i n d ivi d u al m i n ds as i ts orga n s .

Here a n o tabl e d i ffere n ce m ay be obse rved : i n d ivi duals

d o n o t all sta n d i n the sa m e rel ati o n to thi s f u n cti o n Th e .

m asses al ways parti ci pate i n th e tr u t h i n a rathe r recep t ive ,

passi ve m a n n er wh i le n a t u re ch ooses o n ly a few d isti n

,

g u i sh e d m i n d s as be are rs an d i n c reasers o f k n owledge If .

we d esi g n ate t h e latter wi t h the o l d term o f cle rgy (cler u s) ,

w hi ch i n cl u des al l spi ri t u al l eaders of th e peopl e i ts i nv e s ,

t i g at o r s an d t e achers i ts t h i n k ers an d poe t s w e may say

, ,

Th e publ i c co m mu n i ca t i o n of th e t ru t h i s th e t rue l ife call i n g -

o f th e cler u s an d veraci t y i s t he speci c du t y

,
as i t were t he
,

p ro fessi on al vi r t u e o f t he cler i cu s .

Bu t we m ay agai n d isti n g u i sh t wo ph ases i n t h i s vi r t u e

we m ay call th em si n ce r i ty an d t he love of tr u t h Th e .

for m er i s the u n iversal an d ele m e n t ary vi r tu e o f t he cler i cu s

i t c o n si sts i n th i s t ha t h e si m ply an d cl early c on s ci e n
, ,

t i o u s ly an d fai th fu lly empl oys t h e t r u t h i n teachi n g an d

,

pre achi n g i n t he ory an d i n p rac t i ce It i s th e f u n da m e n tal

, .

preco n di ti o n of h i s power t o d o good i n s o far as the la t te r

depe n d s upo n th e co n d e n ce w h i ch th e lay m e n h ave i n h i m .

Bu t co n de n ce i s gai n ed o n ly by si m pl i ci t y an d s i n ceri t y of
hear t an d i n tel lec t In qu i si ti ve l ove of t ru th on the othe r
.
,

h an d i s th e speci al d u ty of t he tru e i n vesti ga t or an d path

,

n der ; i t i s th e passi o n ate i m p u lse wh i ch i n cites t he hi stori cal

o r n a t u ral s ci e n t i c i n ves t i ga t or t o d i scove r n e w facts an d to
-

pe n e t r ate m ore deeply i n t o th ei r relati o n s It i s th e i m

.

p u lse wh i ch u rgi n g th e t h i n k er co n s t a n t ly to t e s t th e estab

,

li sh e d vi ews an d th eori es i s foreve r o n i ts g u ard agai n st

,

error eve n i n the for m of establ i sh ed O pi n i o n s It i s th e l ove

.

o f t ru t h whi ch i n spi res the p oet an d th i n ke r wh o see k s to

co m preh e n d an d express th e secret m ea n i n g o f l i fe an d t h e

u n i verse i n n e w th o u ghts an d sy m bols It i s th e l ove o f tr u th
.
,

n ally whi ch i m pel s th e great l e aders o f m a n ki n d the

, ,

p roph ets an d re for m ers t,

o d i scover n e w u n trodde n paths Of
,

44
6 90 DO C TRI N E OF V IRTUE S A ND DUTIE S

l ife P lu s u ltr a tha t i s th e watchword of these p ath n de r s

.
,

o f t he f u t u re wh o are l abori n g for th e ci vili zati o n o f h u

,

m a n ity They are restrai n e d by n o a u t hori ty by n o p re j u

.
,

d i ce be i t ever s o sac re d ; they foll o w th e l ight whi ch

,

b u r n s i n thei r h earts .

Th e l ove o f tru t h n ds i ts h i ghes t expressi o n i n m a r ty r

d om .We sh o u l d expec t th e n ati o n s t o t u r n to t he i r grea t
leaders an d p ath n d e r s i n tha n k fu l ad m i rati o n A n d so they .

d o b u t i t i s o n ly aft e r t he i r death tha t m ortal m e n are reck

,

o n e d a m o n g th e gods Martyrdo m i s th e great p u ri er by

.

whi ch h u m a n i ty t ests t h e ge n u i n e n ess of n e w tru t hs ; i t i s

the n arrow portal t hrough wh i ch h eroes pass i n to i mm or
tal i ty Thi s has bee n th e m ethod of h u m a n i ty fro m t i m es
.

i m m e m ori al an d i t i s n ot h ard t o see th e h i stori cal n ecessi t y

,

Of t h i s fact w hi ch i s s o s u rpri si n g at rs t si gh t
,
.

8 L e t m e rs t t ry t o show t h e p sy cholog i ca l n ecessi t y

. .

Th e co n cep t i o n s an d t r u ths of a peopl e beco m e a n d t ha t

i s t h ei r tr u e fu nc t i o n t he i de al basi s of i ts i n s t i tu t i o n s of ,

t he s t a t e an d t he l aw of th e ch u rch an d the sch ool A ll

, .

k i n ds of arts an d practi ces depe n d u po n ou r vi ews an d ideas

o f the n a t u re o f thi n gs an d o f m e n the i r rela t i o n s t o each
,

o t her an d to the u n i verse O ri gi n al ly t he e n t i re l ife of every

.

n a t i o n an d all i t s i n s t i t u t i o n s we re based u po n rel i gi o n .

Every religi o n h owever co n tai n s a phi l os ophy of h i s t ory

, ,

a n d a m e t aphysi c t he precipi t a t e o f all t h e experi e n ces

,

o f a people wi th t h e w orl d a n d i ts relati o n s t o t h e world .

He n ce i t foll ows th a t every a tt e m p t a t a radi cal cha n ge of

vi ews i s regarded as a m e n a ce t o t h e e n t i re l ife ; the weake n
i n g of t h e the ore t i cal fo u n dati o n s wi l l res u lt i n the sha tt e r
i n g O f all the i n s t i t u t i o n s fo u n ded upo n the m A n d th i s i s
.

n ot an i ll u s i o n A l l great revol u t i o n s i n th e worl d of i n st i tu

.

t i o n s h ad as the i r s t ar t i n g poi n t revol u t i o n s i n the world of

-

th o u ghts N owhere i s th i s m ore cl early see n t h a n i n t he

.

mos t rece n t eve n ts of E u ropea n h is t ory Th e l o n g se ri es o f .

r evol u ti o n s whi ch ll t he pages o f m oder n h i story are t h e

 6 92 DO C TRIN E OF VI RTUE S A N D DU TIE S

adapted the i r e n t i re l i ves t o the m In th e stabil i ty o f the

.

ed u cati o n al i n stit u t i o n s t he m i l itary i n sti t uti o n s th e pol i t

, ,

i cal an d eccl esi as t i cal sys t e m s those are parti c u l arly an d

,

di rectly i n terested wh o are e m pl oyed as t e achers an d o fcers ,

as state an d ch u rch o ffici als I m ea n i n terested n ot m erely

.

i n th e v u lgar s e n se t ha t th e v an d th ei r fa m i l i es depe n d fo r
the i r support u po n t h e per m a n e n ce of th e i n sti t uti o n s
wh i ch i s O fte n n o l o n ge r the case i n c o n sequ e n ce o f o u r pre s
e n t pe n si o n system b u t i n terested especi ally i n th e i deal
-

se n se fo r whoeve r de n i es th e n e cessi ty or the val u e of these

,

i n sti tu ti o n s d epri ves these pe rso n s of t he i deal basi s o f t hei r

,

exi s t e n ce ; h e see m s by de m a n di n g a cha n ge of sys t em t o

, ,

declare th at thei r fu n cti o n s an d the i r l ives are f u tile A .

sch ool m aste r o f the ei ghtee n t h ce n t u ry wh o h ad re ach ed an

,

ho n orabl e ol d age i n th e practi ce of hi s pro fessi o n i n stru cti n g ,

the yo u n g i n Lati n co m pos iti o n co u l d n ot b u t h ave regarded

,

the re for m s o f t h e i n n ovators wh o repudi ated these th i n gs as

expl oded e rrors an d desi re d t o i n t roduce others m a t he -

m ati es an d n a t u ral sci e n ce Ger m a n an d Fre n ch

,
as an
aba n d on m e n t of s o m eth i n g t h a t had bee n tri ed by experi e n ce ,

o f so m ethi n g hall owed by t rad iti o n S h oul d th a t whi ch h e

.

a n d h i s fa t h e r a n d hi s gra n d fa t her h ad lear n e d an d practi sed

a n d ad m i red as a m asterpi ece of hu m a n c u l t u re a n d erudi ti o n ,

be n o w se t asi d e ? A n d should th i n gs be put i n i t s place w hi ch

h e d i d n ot possess a n d d i d n ot n eed q u i te u n n ecessary
,

t hi n gs n o d ou bt ; for h ad h e n ot bee n ed u ca t ed an d l ear n ed

, ,

respecte d a n d h appy wi th o u t the m Im possibl e ; o n ly cri m

i n al carel ess n ess an d i gn ora n c e o f th e tr u e val u e of t hi n gs can
l ead to s u ch perverse thoughts ! In th e sa m e way the cle rgy ,

m a n w il l m ee t all atte m p t s t o cha n ge t h e ch u rch i n sti t u ti o n s o r

th e cree d ; t h e ge n e ral attacks upo n the m i l itary orga n i za t i o n
,

o r t h e a r m y rati o n ; th e
-
privy co u n ci ll or cha n ge s i n th e
,

sta t e co n stituti o n an d ad m i n i strati ve p rac t i ce A ll of them .

w i ll feel i n cl i n e d to l ook upo n the de m a n ded ch a n ges at

leas t a s qui t e u n n ecessary i n n ovati o n s u sually h oweve r as
, , ,
 V E R A C IT Y 6 93

th e begi n n i n gs of an ob n ox i o u s an d r u i n o u s revol u ti o n .

S ho u l d they really be i n trod u ced th e rui n of t h e cou n t ry

, ,

the des t ru cti o n o f the ar m y th e overthrow o f rel igi o n w o u l d

, ,

be t he i n evitable res u l t Th u s ou r l ear n ed sch ool a u thori t ie s

.

have for th e las t t hree hu n dre d years prophes i e d t h e retur n

o f the barbaris m of t h e Mi ddl e A ges every ti m e they were

d is t u rbe d i n t he i r obsolete peda n try In orde r t o g u ard

.

agai n s t al l s u ch cala m iti es f ro m th e very o u tset al l a u tho r ,

i ties are agree d t ha t t h e bes t an d s afest an d the refore m os t

,

advisable thi n g t o d o i s t o deal ri goro u sly wi th the u n bri dled

cri ti c is m t o wh i ch youth fu l i n expe rie n ced o r m al i ci o u s
, ,

he ads are u n fort u n a t ely always i n cl i n ed .

Th e oppos iti o n O f t he a u th ori ti es n ds s u ppor t i n t h e i n

s t i n ct i v e a ve r s i on of a ll p r i vi leg e d a n d p r op e r t i e d cl a sse s t o

cha n ges an d i n t h e i n e r ti a of the m a sse s Th e propertie d

,

cl asses are al ways c o n servative ; they are sa t u rated a n d ,

there fore i n te n t u po n preservati o n an d peace Happy an d .

c o n te n te d are t h ose i n possessi o n t h u s w e m ight t ra n sl a t e

the old m ax i m o f th e j u rists ; they d o n ot crave fo r th e n e w ,

bu t fear i t . Bu t th e m a sse s t oo are co n servati ve by n at u re

, , .

Th e establ ishe d orde r i s the habi tual order ; we have adapted

o u rselves t o i t ; th e n e w i s u n de r all ci rc u m sta n ces stra n ge
, ,

a n d i n co n ve n i e n t apt t o be ri d i c u l o u s a n d forbi ddi n g

, Ho w .

m a n y sighs m ay n ot have bee n c a u sed d u ri n g th e seve n t i es

by the n e w we ights a n d m eas u res an d th e n e w coi n s ! Thi n gs
d i d n t t t h e l itre d i d n t s u i t th e pot n o r the m etre t h e body

,

.

We feel u n co m fortabl e i n a n e w h o u se ; n othi n g i s i n its

place n o cozy n ook re m i n d s u s of pleasa n t ho u rs N e w
, .

i n sti t u ti o n s a ffect a n ati o n i n t h e s a m e way an d there fore i t

,

sh u n s cha n ge A n d fo r th e sa m e re aso n th e m asses h a ve an

.

i n sti n cti ve fear of a ll cri ti ci s m ; they too feel that th i s

, ,

u n der m i n es the gro u n d upo n wh ich th e i n sti t u ti o n s rest

whi c h h ave beco m e e n deare d to the m o r e n d u rabl e th ro u gh
habi t Bi tte r ex peri e n ces o r stro n g press u re are requi re d t o
.

aro u se i n the m a stro n g d esi re fo r cha n ge .

6 94 DO C TRIN E OF VI RT U ES A ND D UTIE S

We m igh t at last also speak o f the i n e r ti a of the old con cep

ti on s th e m s e lve s .Whe n the C oper n i ca n theory of t he c eles
t i al m oti o n s was rs t adva n ced i t was regarde d by th e
,

au thoriti es as an u n fru i t fu l or abs u rd t oth e s i s wh i ch d i d ,

n o t deserve seri ous co n si de rati o n except perhaps t o b e

, , ,

re fu ted s o tha t th e devil m i ght n ot pl ay h i s tri cks with i t

a n d u se i t t o deri d e the w ord o f G od They di d n ot n d th e
.

n e w vi ew i n a n y way sui te d t o expl ai n t he phe n o m e n a th e

;
O ld ge oce n tri c i dea e xpl ai n ed t hi n gs so n aturally that i n ,

c o m pari so n w ith i t th e n e w o n e s ee m ed awkward n ay

, , ,

abs u rd an d n o n se n si cal F or d o we n ot fe el tha t th e earth

.
,

i s xed d o we observe eve n th e sli ghtes t evid e n ce of thi s

,

fab u l o u s m o t i o n whi ch i s falsely ascri bed t o i t ? Th e n e w

theory was devel oped by Kepl er an d Gal i l eo an d t h e age of ,

r i di cul e was foll owed by the age of re fu t ati o n an d p e r s e cu

ti o n Th e ol d i deas re ally bega n t o appreci ate th e i r peri l
.
,

wh i ch was n ot yet th e case i n th e s i x t ee n th ce n t u ry N ow .

they reac t ed w ith al l t h e m ea n s a t th ei r c o m m a n d ; wh a t

th ese we re we may l ear n fro m the b i ograph i es of Kepl er an d
Gal ile o Th e discove ry o f the ci rc u l ati o n of the bl ood by
.

Harvey m et wi th a s i m i lar fa t e Th e physi ci a n s wh o had

.

for s o m a n y ce n turi es l ooked a t thi n gs an d t rea t ed m e n

accord i n g t o th e Gal e n i a n th eory c o u l d n ot see what a dv an
t ages we re to be d erived fro m t he n e w hypo t hesi s e i ther ,

t heoreti cally o r practi cal ly A n d h ow u n re aso n abl e t o de

.

m a n d th at o n e sh o u l d rep u di ate o n e s o w n pas t an d ove r

throw th e a u th ori t i es o f th e ce n turi es o n acco u n t of th i s

q u ee r headed fel l ow ! In th e s a m e w ay t he au th ori ti es r e
-

e ct e d Darwi n s bi ol ogi cal t heori es a n d S t r au s s s researche s

j

i n eva n gel i cal h is t ory i n a l a t e r ce n tu ry as u n t rue u sel ess

, , , ,

a n d da n gero u s .

Th u s th e o l d t ruths are pr otec t ed by a m i gh t y d am o f con

s e r v at i v e i n teres t s agai n s t the ood o f n e w th o u gh t s No .

n e w t r u ths sh al l c o m e i n to t he world ; i n t his th e au th ori ti es

a n d the masses th e establ i shed orde r an d th e prevai l i n g

,
6 96 DO C TRIN E OF VIRTUE S A ND DUTI ES

r easo n N ow i n s t i t u t i o n s could n ot acqui re s t abi l i ty i f n e w

.
,

i deas were t o r u sh thro u gh the he a ds o f m e n m eeti n g with

,

n o resi sta n ce li ke th e w i n d over a s t u bble e l d Per m a n e n t

,
-
.

c o n cep t i o n s are th e preco n diti o n s of pe r m a n e n t i n sti t u ti o n s .

He n ce i n order tha t hi stori cal l i fe m ay be possi bl e i t i s

, ,

n ecessary th a t the thoughts beco m e xed an d t a ke r m roo t

i n the m i n ds o f m e n a n d O ffe r resi s t a n c e t o n e w t h ough t s

,

wh i ch seek to p u sh the m o u t Perh aps th ey ca n n o t be estab

.

l i s h e d r m ly e n o u gh a t rs t wi t h o u t a t ra n sce n d e n t sa n c
, ,

t i o n Thi s w o u l d ex pl ai n th e t eleol ogical n ecess ity o f a

.

rel igi ou s m e t aphysi c wh i ch we actu ally n d everywh ere

, ,

as the ori gi n al fo u n da t i o n of th e fai t h an d the life of a

pe opl e of i ts m oral s an d l aws an d wh i ch u s u ally O ffers
, ,

such great resi sta n ce to the i n t rod u cti o n of n e w t r u th s .

N ay we can m an ifestly for m n o co n cep t i o n wh atever of a

,

me n t al his t ori cal l i fe i n wh i ch we sh o u l d n ot h ave t o bat t l e

-

fo r the tr u th agai n st e rror an d prej u di ce ; of wha t w ou l d i t

c o n si st ? W i th o u t fri cti o n n o m oti o n .

N or n ee d we expect these p ath n de r s an d mar t yrs O f t ru th

t o q u arrel with fa t e o n th i s acco u n t Lessi n g s words r e
.

gard i n g the possessi o n an d pu rs u i t o f t r u th are well k n ow n .

He surely wo u l d n ot have desi red that tr u ths be acqui re d

othe rwise tha n by s t r u ggle . No t all of th ose wh o h ave
battle d fo r th e t r u th were as fo n d O f s t ru ggl e as Lessi n g .

Y et i t i s d o u btfu l wh ethe r an y o n e a m o n g th e m woul d h ave

bee n w i ll i n g to cha n ge th e orde r of n ature had i t bee n i n
,

hi s powe r to do so That co n stitu tes th e speci al gl ory Of a

.

w it n ess o f the tr u th an i n n er voi ce m i gh t have wh ispered to

,

h i m i n case t h e te m pter had approache d h i m to be sl a n

, ,

dere d an d persec u ted by t h e prese n t If i n s t ead o f thi s

.
, ,

t h e di scoverers an d pi o n eers of n e w t r u ths were h o n ored

d u ri n g thei r l i ves as t hey are h o n ored by posteri ty these
, ,

h o n ors too wo u ld be t ake n away fro m the m by the ski lfu l

, ,

a n d the a m bi ti o u s . Th e n th e vai n an d sel f co n cei te d wo u l d

-

be eter n ally p u sh i n g the m sel ves to th e fro n t w ith n e w op i n

 V E RA C ITY 6 97

i o n s O wi n g t o thi s b e n e ce n t arra n ge m e n t t h e spi ri t ual

.
,

leadersh i p o f h u m a n i ty i s n ally reserved for m e n of great ,

ear n est an d u n sel sh hearts That would be i m possible i f

,
.

the tr u th attere d thei r co n te m poraries A n d there fore .

, ,

th i s i n n er voi ce m ay h ave co n cl u ded i t i s good that th e ,

sto n es i n te n ded as cor n er sto n es of th e fut u re sh ould b e

-

rej ected by the b u i lders o f th e prese n t .

W
e n n d as G a te wu de r ve rg o lt e n ,

So w ar k e es e i ne K u n st e s zu thu n
A b r V rd i e e e n st i st e s nu n

Zu t h u n , w o fu r d a w i r st
ge sch olt e n .

Th u s al l th e s e m ay co n sole the m selves w i th Ra cker t wh o

are ab u sed fo r tr u th an d j u sti ce sake i f i n deed they n eed

, , ,

a n y co n sol ati o n For i t i s wor thy of n o t e tha t the grea t

.

m ar tyrs o f tr u t h d i d n ot leave the worl d wi th hatred a n d

bi t ter n ess J es u s praye d u po n th e cross fo r h i s persec u t ors :
.

Father forgi ve the m for they k n ow n ot wh at t hey do
, , .

They di d n ot i n te n d to persec u t e th e t r u t h b u t error , ,

destru cti ve erro r N ay t hey the m sel ves had t o serve t h e

.
,

t r u th as u n co n sci ou s orga n s
Must n ot the S on O f m an
.

s u ff e r an d d i e i n o rder tha t all t hi n gs m igh t be fu llled ?

Ho w co u l d the vi ctory be won wi tho u t the l as t ba t tle

A parad oxi cally i n cl i n ed perso n m i ght eve n reas o n as fol
-

l ows : It i s really t o be depl ored th at s o l i t tle zeal i s sh ow n

i n persec u t i n g n e w tr u t hs i n ou r t i m es Th e res u lt i s that .

grea t ch arac t ers are n o l o n ge r for m ed as of ol d whe n w i t , ,

n esses of th e t r u th an d pi o n eers o f t hought were cr u ci ed an d

b u rn ed Tak e t he l ife of C arlyl e Beyo n d do u b t h e was by

. .
,

n a t u re an d t e m pe ra m e n t m ade of t he s t uff of wi t n esses o f the

tr u th prophe t s an d m artyrs : wha t m i gh t h e n ot h ave b e

, ,

c o m e if he h ad l ived three ce n turi es earl i er ! In th i s weak

n i n etee n th ce n t u ry h e was parti ally overwhel m ed by pal try

troubles tro u bles wi th revi ewe rs an d p u bl i sh ers of peri od

,

i ca l s tro u bl es wi th h i s n ei ghbors cocks a n d d o g s

, Th ese

.

were h i s battles battles o f n o very eleva t i n g n a t ure h ow

, ,
 6 98 DO C TRIN E OF V IRTUES A ND DU TIE S

ever ho n estly an d val i a n tly h e m ay h ave fo u gh t the m Thi s .

state o f a ffai rs too m akes i t hard fo r m e n to recog n ize what

, ,

i s tr u ly great an d e n d u ri n g Whether a m an i s thoroughly

.

i n ear n est w i th a ca u se wi ll be per fectly evi de n t o n ly i n case

he i s wi lli n g to o ff er hi s li fe for i t .

However I do n ot dee m i t s u per u ous t o add a re m ark t o

,

these e n ti re reecti o n s U n i vers al a fr m ati ve proposi ti o n s

.

ca n n ot as i s k n ow n be co n ve rted s i m ply Fro m the propo

, ,
.

s i ti on ,
A l l gre at n e w t ruths were persec u t ed an d re j ec t e d as
heresi es a t thei r rst appeara n ce i t does n o t follow that all ,

heresi es a n d paradoxes are great n e w tru ths Wri ters wh o .

are despi sed an d repud i a t ed by thei r co n te m porari es are i n

t he h abi t of reaso n i n g th u s an d o f appeal i n g fro m t he pres
,

e n t t o pos t e ri ty Bu t pos t eri ty d oes n o t accep t all s u ch

.

appeals N ot all those wh o are calle d are ch ose n ; the re

.

are false prophets an d eve n false m artyrs Grea t an d .

ex t raordi n ary powers are n eeded t o bear the ove rthrow o f

recog n i zed tr u ths Whe n co m m o n n a tu res are dri ve n by
.

acc i de n t a n d ci rc u m s t a n ces t o ba t tl e agai n st rec og n i zed

tr u th s an d establ i she d a u t horiti es t hey beco m e e m p t y ,

bl a thersk i t es A re t hese m ore com m o n i n o u r age t ha n

.

for m erly ? If so we m ay perhaps a tt ribute i t t o t he fac t

,

t ha t seri ous persec u t i o n s n o l o n ger occ u r i n ou r t i m es ;

m i n ds were wi n n owed by m ar t yrdo m .

1 0 I sh al l cl ose thi s e n ti re discussi o n wi th a co n si dera

.

t i o n of the q u esti o n : Does t he d u ty o f c o m m u n i ca t i n g t r u th

u n i versally de m a n d t he d e s tr u cti on o
f e r r or wherever an d i n
wha t ever for m i t m ay appear ? It i s on e of t he great e on
t ro ve r s i e s whi ch h ave always moved m a n k i n d We m ay de .

n e i t as the con tr over sy be twe en the w i ll a n d the i n te lle ct ,

betwee n th e practi cal an d spec u lative si des o f h u m an n a t ure .

Th e will t u r n ed t owards sel f preservati o n de m a n ds as was

,
-
, ,

show n above stabil i ty of i n s t i tu ti o n s an d there fore also

, ,

o f t h e co n cep t i o n s upo n whi ch they are grou n ded Th e .

spi ri t u al an d t e m poral authori ti es wh i ch w e m ay ter m t h e ,

700 DO C TRIN E o r V IRTUE S A ND DUTIE S

He n ce an i n adequ ate i dea m ay be better t han n o n e a t al l ;

a n d t he co n di ti o n s m ay be s u ch as t o m ake i t possi ble t o

u n de r m i n e the fal se co n cepti o n w i th o u t establ ishi n g the tr u e

on e . It m ay be possible to deprive a n egro o f h i s fai th i n
the feti ch wi th o u t at th e sa m e ti m e gi vi n g h i m t r u e i deas
,

o f t h e n at u ral co n n ecti o n o f thi n gs Wo u ld h e the n be be n e

.

t e d by bei n g free d fro m error ? Feti ches are e m pl oyed by

n egroes for th e protecti o n o f property
; th e t hi ef fears the
magic an d i t freq u e n tly h appe n s tha t stole n go od s a re r e
,

t u r n ed i n c o n seque n ce It m ay be a ve ry i m per fect pol i ce

.

force b u t i t i s pe rhaps better t ha n n o n e a t al l A woode n

, .

leg says S ch ope n h auer i s be tt er t ha n n o n e at all an d an y

, , ,

rel igi o n bet t e r tha n n o n e .

We m u st re m e m ber that t r u th s are n ot ready m ade th i n gs -

,

whi ch pass fro m h a n d to h a n d l ike c oi n s ; tr u ths are l ivi n g

f u n cti o n s an d d o n ot ex i st i n an y other for m H e n ce t h ey
,
.

can n o t rea l ly be co m m u n i cated A pe rso n m ay assi s t me i n

.

cre ati n g th o u gh t s b u t h e ca n n o t t ra n s fe r h i s th o u gh t s t o m e ;
,

I c an o n ly th i n k t h e t houghts whi ch I m ysel f prod u ce And .

th e assi sta n ce whi ch h e re n ders me h erei n d oes n o t al ways

co n si s t i n hi s repea t i n g t o m e th e t h ou ghts w i th wh i ch h e i s
fa m i li ar Th e s t raigh t est path i s by n o m ea n s al ways the
.

shor t es t i n hi story At t he begi n n i n g o f th e th i rtee n th ce n

.

t u ry the Mi ddl e A ges beca m e acqu ai n te d w i th t h e n at u ral

s ci e n t i c wri t i n gs o f A ri stotl e Ou r n atural sci e n ti sts w i l l
.

hardly see i n the m a n ythi n g b u t a m ore o r l ess s u btl e web of

e rrors A n d yet these book s were u n doub t edly o f great val u e
.

to th e thi rtee n th ce n t u ry pe rh aps o f m u ch gre ate r val u e

,

tha n t h e m os t per fec t text b ook s o f the prese n t c o u l d have

-

bee n t o i t If th e bes t ha n dbooks o f physi cs che m i stry

.
,

an d astro n o m y whi ch t h e n i n etee n th ce n t u ry has brought

,

forth h ad fall e n fro m t h e ski es i n th e th i rtee n th ce n t u ry

, ,

they w o u l d m ost l ikely have bee n t h row n asi de a fte r a bri ef ,

exa m i n ati o n as u tte rl y u n i n tell i gibl e an d u seless th i n gs

,
.

Th e thi n kers o f th ose days w o u l d n o t h ave k n ow n what t o d o

 V E RA C ITY 701

with t he m an y more t ha n w e k n ow wha t t o d o w ith book s

,

fu ll o f c abal i sti c sy m bol s an d fo r m u l ae He n ce i f an y o n e

.
,

i n h i s ze al for the tr u th i f for i n sta n ce that o m n i pote n t

, , ,

bei n g o f Descar t es had i n terfe red n ot i n order to deceive

, , ,

b u t t o preve n t decepti o n an d had destroyed th e A ristotel i a n

,

b ooks a n d se n t t he o t hers d ow n fro m h eave n wha t wo u l d ,

have bee n th e res u lt ? Evi de n tly th e d evelop m e n t o f n at u ral :

sci e n ce a m o n g the Weste rn n a t i o n s w oul d have bee n i f n ot ,

preve n ted at l east retarded for several ce n t u ri es With o u t

,
.

th e a ssi sta n c e o f a teach e r adapted to thei r n eeds these ,

n ati o n s wo u l d have h ad t o e n ter upo n th e l o n g road t o

k n owl e d ge al o n e a n d w h o k n ows wh ethe r th ey ever wo u ld

,

h ave fo un d i t ? Had th e soluti o n of th e ri ddl e i f w e are

bol d e n ough to regard the t ex t books of th e prese n t as s u ch
-

bee n co m m u n i cate d t o t he m i t wo u l d scarcely have hel ped

,

the m It i s wel l k n ow n tha t i n ves t igators for ce n t u ri es tri ed

.

t o n d th e phi l osopher s sto n e wh i ch was s u pposed to be

,

abl e t o tu r n everythi n g i t t ouche d i n t o gol d They d i d n ot .

n d th e s t o n e bu t t he sci e n ce of chemistry
,
Th e sto n e was .

a cti o n but the cti o n l e d t o th e truth aft er all : for does

,

n ot che m istry t u r n every t h i n g i n to gold ?

N ow the di ff ere n t s t ages o f devel op m e n t are n ot o n ly s u c

c e ss i v e but also s i m ul t a n e o u s
,
Th e el ectri cal a r e l igh t an d
.

th e t al low ca n dle ex i s t si de by s i de ; an d each m ay be appro

p r i at e i n its place S o t o o d i ff ere n t physi cal an d meta
.
, ,

ph ysi cal co n cepti o n s an d f u n da m e n tal pri n ci ples ex ist s i de

by si de ; the i n vesti ga t or an d t h i n ker an d the l i ttle mothe r
i n th e re m o t e m o u n t ai n n ook ca n n o t thi n k the worl d
,

with th e s a m e tho u gh ts Tr u th i s on e th e co n cepti o n o f

.
,

t h i n gs projected upo n th e perfect i n tell ec t ; b u t th e real i n

t e l l e c ts are m ore o r less i m perfect an d t he refore req u i re ,

di ffe re n t m e th ods o f co n cei vi n g thi n gs .

Fro m thi s poi n t of vi e w th e co n t ro v ersy be t wee n the pol i

t i c i a n s a n d th e ph i losophers i t see m s to m e m a y be settled
, , .

Th e ph i l osop h ers are ri ght i n th i s : n o l i m its are to be set

7 02 DO C TRIN E o r VIRTU ES A ND DUTIES

t o research Whateve r n e w th o u ghts a n ati o n prod u ces wi l l

.
,

be s u itable an d good fo r i t We m ay cheri sh the bel i e f tha t

.

n a t u re here as everywhe re
,
bri n gs forth a t the prope r ti m e
,

what i s appropri ate an d n ecessary Every adva n ce i n k n owl .

edge vi ewe d fro m the sta n dpoi n t o f t he total develop m e n t

,

o f a pop u l ar l i fe i s a ge n u i n e adva n ce Th e i n vestigator as

,
.

Su ch can the re fore be co n cer n e d wi th n o o t her questi o n tha n

thi s : Wh at i s true ? But s i n ce there c an be n o research with

o u t co m m u n i cati o n we m u st s ay further tha t n o l i m i t shall
,

be se t t o the co mm u n i ca t i o n of k n owledge Th e sc i e n ti c .

wri te r h as bu t on e co n cer n : How shall I m os t clearly an d

de n i tely prese n t the t h i n gs as I see t hem ? Whoever all o ws
h i m self t o be gove rn e d by c o n si dera t i o n s an d purposes of a
di ffere n t ki n d whoeve r i s t h i n ki n g rs t an d l ast h ow h e
, , ,

may pl ease t hi s m an an d a voi d d i spleasi n g th a t on e d oes n ot ,

serve the tru th an d there fore th e t r u th al so despi ses h i m

,
.

Truth gi ves herself o n ly t o h i m wh o seeks for he r al o n e .

Th e i n co n si derate a n d u n i n t e n ti o n al

books are t he e n d u r
i n g b ooks .Th e a u t hor o u gh t n ot eve n t o t hi n k o f t he good
o f th e reader b u t o n ly of t h e s u bj ect i tsel f ; th e m ore h e i s

wrapped up i n thi s th e better h e wi ll wri te

,
With ph i losoph .

i cal syste m s t he old Wa n d sbeche r B o te o n ce said wh i ch

, ,

are i n ve n t ed by th e i r a u th ors fo r oth ers an d are co n s t ru c t ed ,

as g l eaves or for the sake of co n t roversy o r fo r sh ow ,

s e n sibl e people wi ll h ave n oth i n g t o d o Bu t i n ph i lo so .

p h e r s wh o seek fo r l igh t a n d tr u t h t o sati sfy t h e i r own n eeds ,

an d t o re m ove t h e l oad of u n tru t h oppressi n g t hei r h ear t s ,

oth er peopl e have t he de epes t i n te res t .

S o far the ph i los ophers are ri ght Th e pol i ti ci a n s o n the

.
,

oth er h a n d are ri ght i n thi s th at whe n i t co m es to i m parti n g

, ,

k n owledge by i n stru cti o n whi ch i s design ed fo r p a r ti cu la r

,

p e r son s we
,
m u st b e g u i ded n ot o n ly by a regard fo r th e s u b

u t by a regard for th e pe rso n h i s c o n si derati o n we

j e c t b T .

m ay cal l i t th e p e d ag og i ca l co n si de rati o n m ay preve n t th e

teach e r fro m say i n g everythi n g h e thi n ks an d fro m sayi n g ,
704 DO C TRIN E OF V IRT UE S A ND DU TIE S

ti m e h o n ored pre j u di ces an d errors

- Wha t w ou l d h e aecom
l i s h by th at ? If h e s u cceeded i n t aki n g from th e peasa n t s
p
thei r Ol d fai th wh a t co u l d he gi ve the m i n ret u r n
,
S t rau ss s

Life of Chr i st o r Ka n t s R e lig i on wi thi n the B ou n d s of M e r e

R e aso n ? By th at he w o u l d si m ply s u ccee d i n bri n gi n g i n to

,

co n te m p t th e o n ly book wh i ch h i th erto served the m as a gui d e

a n d a l igh t as a poetical pleas u re i n life an d a c o n solati o n
,

i n death F or they would s u re l y be ap t t o s ay i n case t hey

.
,

bel i eved h i m : S o t he n we h ave bee n decei ved by t hi s book ;

, ,

we th o u gh t i t w as God s w ord an d n o w we see i t i s th e

,

word of m an an d he n ce we had be tt e r cas t i t asi de an d r e ad

,

wh a t th e wi se m en of to d ay w ri t e Tha t i s w hat educa t e d

-
.

peopl e do : th ey accept th e co n cl u si o n o f c ri t i ci s m that t h e

Bibl e i s n ot God s w ord an d t here fore c ease readi n g i t

, .

He n ce i f ou r preache r d oes n ot wi sh th a t t o happe n i f h e ,

desi re s as i n fac t h e d oes t he B ibl e t o b e th e rs t th e

, , ,

m ost i m por t a n t n ay perh aps th e o n ly b ook n eeded by h i s

, ,

m oor peasa n t s an d perhaps also by o t he r hu m a n be i n gs

-
, ,

wh i ch i t will d o th e m more good t o read every d ay th a n th e

m os t wi dely ci rcul a t ed dai ly n ewspape r wi t h i t s th ree e d i
-

t i o n s a d ay an d the mos t c u l tu re d w eekly an d m o n thly j o u r

,

nal besi des : if h e bel i eve s thi s h e will wi th ou t scr u pl e a n d ,

hesi ta t i o n speak o f th e book i n th e la n guage i n whi ch t h e

peasa n t s on t h e m oor are acc u sto m ed to h ear i t spoke n of .

Is b e t elli n g t h e m t h e u n t ruth Wha t d oes i t mea n t o say

tha t th e Bibl e i s God s w ord ? Is i t a falsehood ? Is i t a

l iterary h i stori cal n o t i ce li ke th e sta te m e n t tha t Gu t zk ow i s

-

th e a u th or o f t h e M ag i ci an of R om e ? N o i t i s a m etaph or ,

wh i ch expresses a judg m e n t o f value i n t he m os t e m phati c

for m . It m ea n s th a t i t s co n te n ts are s o gra n d a n d tr u e t ha t
i t i s a di v i n e b ook an d co m es fro m God Th e s a m e pre a ch er
, .

m i ght i f h e were t ra n s ferred t o di ffere n t s u rro u n d i n gs a n d

,

n o w had t o speak t o readers o f S t ra u ss a n d Ka n t cha n ge h i s ,

la n g u age wi th o u t cha n gi n g hi s vi e w an d wi th ou t provi n g ,

false t o th e t ru t h i n e i the r c a se He w ould e n t eri n g i n t o .

,
 V E RA C ITY 7 05

the i r c o n cepti o n s say to t he m : A l l t ha t y ou h ave read or

,

heard o r eve n writte n abou t th ese books i s ce rtai n ly h ighly

i n teresti n g a n d so m e o f i t perh aps als o tru e Bu t n o w fo r
,
.

get al l tha t for a m o m e n t an d c o n si der w ith m e w ha t i s sai d ,

i n these books wh ich ori gi n ate d i n s u ch a n d such a way

,

V ery s eri o u s t hi n gs are s ai d i t see m s to m e

.

t hi n gs wh i ch , ,

are o fte n t ol d w i th wo n der fu l an d u n i q u e s i m pl i ci ty an d

power ; s o th a t I am i n a cer t ai n s e n se bro u ght back to the
vi ew tha t th i s b ook l ike n o othe r book i n the world c on , ,

t ai n s d i v i n e words an d a revelati o n of God a vi ew which ,

Goeth e an d H erde r h eld wh o m m y hearers w i ll perhaps be ,

more i n cl i n ed t o bel i eve i n t hese m atters tha n a m oder n the

o l o g i an If t o b u i l d up (o ix o BO/ e i ) a n d n ot to tear d ow n i s
. i v

th e real b u si n ess of th e pre ache r as wel l as o f th e teacher he ,

m ust i t see m s t o me take t h i s posi t i o n

,
Thi s wo u l d be as
,
.
,

the A postl e says speaki n g t h e t ru t h i n l ove an d n ot i n a n ger

,

ew

( a xn e cv

Th ea m e pre ache r m i gh t n ally i f as a sch ol ar h e pu b

s , , , ,

l i s h e d ph i l ol ogi cal h istori cal i n vestigati o n s o f the sacre d

-

S cri p t ures al so speak i n sti ll a n other strai n

,
H ere he w o u l d .

agai n i n ord e r t o fu ll t h e d u ty o f ve raci ty avoi d th e very

, ,

th i n g t ha t h e ca n n o t an d s ho u l d n ot avoi d as a preache r ,

t ha t i s acco m moda t i o n t o th e th o u ghts a n d l a n guage of

,

others A n d he w o u l d l ikewi se avoi d the atte m pts a t c o n c i l

.

i at i on th e makesh i fts a n d t h e weak ex c u ses e m ploye d to

, , ,

s ave a t heory t he sq u i n ti n g at orth od oxy the h aggl i n g fo r

, ,

th e t ru th t he ci rcu m ve n t i o n o f t h e co n fessi o n tha t a th e n

,

s a n d t h i n gs re m ai n ri ddl es t o h i m i n fact everythi n g that ,

mak es m a n y c o m m e n t ari es o n t h e Gospels s o u n bearable to

eve ry tru thf u l m an Here i n deed we n e ed a n e w L u the r .
, ,

wh o wi ll make S h or t work o f t he co m m e n tari es an d

c o n t roversi es
2
.

1 E p he s i a n s , IV . 15 .
,

2 Ob j e ct i o n s h av e b ee n r a is e d a
g ai ns t t h is v ie w . A s i n c e re an d t ru t h fu l n at u r e ,

in i s co n t e n d e d , c a nn o t d o t h is . I c o n fe s s t h e d i tli c u lt y w i t h o u t co n t r o v e rs y ,

b u t I be li e ve i t i s not d u e t o t he t h i n g i tse lf b u t t o t h e c o n d i t i o ns i n w h ic h ou r
 7 06 DO C TRIN E OF V IRTUE S A N D DU TI ES

From thi s poi n t of v i ew the d u ti e s of a chu r ch a n d s choo l

a d m i n i s tr a ti on are t o be d eter m i n ed N 0 m a n sh o u ld be i n .

t e r fe r e d w ith i n h i s call i n g as a teache r o n acco u n t o f hi s

d i sse n ti n g opi n i o n s b u t o n ly on t h e grou n d of p e d ag og i ca l
,

bl u n ders Th e preache r an d the t eache r i s n ot e m pl oyed as

.

a h i reli n g t o prese n t correct vi ews i t i s h i s b u si n ess to

,

express h i s fai th h i s co n vi cti o n s an d h i s soul In case h e

, , .

exhibi ts a l ack o f S k i ll h e sh o u ld rece i ve advi ce fro m th e ,

m ore experi e n ced ; b u t i f h e does n ot wi sh to accep t i t o r

ca n n o t u n dersta n d i t h e m u st ch oose a n oth er calli n g ; n ot
,

everybody i s call e d t o p reach o r t o teach No r 1 s everybody .

q u alied to criti ci se a n other s m e t h od o f t eachi n g s u rely n ot

,

o n e wh ose chi e f cla i m t o di sti n cti o n i s correctn ess of tho u gh t
an d an abi l i ty t o wri t e o f c i al d oc u m e n t s H arsh a tt e m pts .

cl e rgym e n n d t h e m se l ve s pl ace d at p re se n t If t h e v i ll ag e w e r e , a s w as assu m e d,

.

a b sol u t e ly i s o l at e d , i f i t co n t ai n e d o n ly t h e p e as an t s w i t h t h e i r fai t h an d t h e

c le rg y m an w i t h h i s fai t h a n d h i s k n o w l e d g e , o n e d i ffi cu l t y w oul d s t ill r e m ai n

h ow a re p e o p le t o u n d e rst an d e ach o t h e r w h o do not t h i n k th e sa m e t h ou g h ts

Bu t t h e m or a l d i f
y w oul d n o t e i st
cu lt x
Th e l at t e r i s d u e t o t h e fact t h at t h e
.

p r e ach e r li ve s i n a n e n vi ro n m e n t i n w hi ch p o s i t i o n s a n d p r o m o t i o n s ar e o p e n t o t h e
p ro fe ss o rs o f t h e cr e e d , w h a t e ve r m ay b e t h e i r re al at t i t u d e t o i t ; a p r ou d an d
u pr i g h t n at ur e m ay n d i t i m p o ssi b le t o t ol e r a t e e v en th e ap p e ar a n c e o f bei ng in
u e n ce d by s u c h co n s i d e rat i o n s A n d be si d es, w h e r e s h a ll w e n d a v i ll ag e i n t o
.

w hi ch t h e d i sco n n e ct e d e l e m e n t s o f t h e n e w i d e as h av e n o t b e e n ca r r i e d , say by a
so l d i e r r e t u rn i n g h o m e fro m t h e c a p i t al or by a s o c i al - d e m ocrat i c p a m p hl e t
U n d er su ch c i r cu m st an ce s I c an e as i l y u n d e r s t a n d t h e p a i n fu l n e ss o f t h e si t u a

t io n , an d I am far fr o m blam i n g a m an w h o ca nn o t e n d u r e i t a n
y l on ge r . I
s i m p ly s ay : A m an ca n a ss u m e a d iffe r e n t at t i t u d e w i t h o u t d e s e r v i ng t o b e
a ccu se d of i n si n ce r i ty .
Th e c as e i s d iffe r en t so so on as h e is ask e d by t h e

p e o p le Do y o u r ea ll
y b e li e v e t h at G o d i s t h e au t h o r of t h e Bi bl e 7 Th e q u es t io n
s u gg est s d o u bt , an d d o u bt i s an i n d i ca ti o n of a de s i r e fo r k n o w le d g e , Ob sc u r e
t h o u g h i t m ay b e ; an d t hi s call s for i n st r u ct i on , i n s t ru ct i o n i n t h e r e al h i s to ry
o f t h e o ri g i n of the ,
i t w i ll p e r h ap s b e d isc o v e re d t h at t h i s i s
Bi b le i n w hi c h case

a d i f cu l t p r o bl e m ,
p ro b a b ly m u ch m o r e d i f cu l t t h a n t h e i n q u i re r s su r m i s e d .

A n d t o t h e o v e r cu r i o u s h e m ay r e ply M y d e ar fr i e n d , i f y o u w o u ld k ee p t h e
- :

w ord, y ou w o u l d n d ou t w h et h e r i t w a s of Go d o r n ot . On t h e ot h e r h an d, t o
re p e l a n h o n e st d o u b t e r w ou ld b e t o p r o v e false t o t h e t r u t h A n d t he so w i de .

s p re ad d i st r u st o f t h e cl e r
gy a n d t h e i r si n ce r i t y i s a m o r t i fy i n g p r o o f t h at t h i s
h as o ft e n b ee n d on e No r w i ll t he d i s t r u st d i sa pp e ar so lo n g as t he c o n d i t i on s

con t i n u e t o w h i ch i t o we s its o r i gi n : t h at i s , so lo n g as t h e g o o d p os i t i o n s are

g i v e n t o t h ose w h o k no w h o w t o p r ofe s s a n d t o b e s il e n t T h e m ar ty r s h a d . In :

dif cu l ty i n co n v i n ci n g m e n o f t h e g e n u i n e n e s s o f t h e i r fa i th .
 VE RA C ITY 7 07

a t l evell i n g m ake m e n bi tte r an d d u ll Thi s O f ce m ore .

tha n an y other requ i res w i sdo m an d sel f co n trol ac u te n ess -

,

of vi si o n a n d le n i e n cy o f j u dg m e n t an d above all a wealth , , ,

o f k n owl edge an d experi e n ce w ith respec t to the thi n gs u po n

whi ch m e n tal power d epe n ds to e n abl e u s n ot o n ly t o j u dge

,

b u t als o t o gi ve help Li chte n berg s advi ce i s ad m i rable

.
,

a n d al l those wh o bel o n g to the S p i rit u al r eg i m e S ho u l d take

i t to heart e v ery day : Trai n yo u r m i n d to do u bt an d yo u r

heart t o tol erati o n A n d a word o f Goeth e o u ght also t o

.

be bor n e i n m i n d : If O lder perso n s were o n ly wi lli n g to

a d e t tr u e pedagogi cal m eth ods they w oul d n ot p rohibi t a

p ,

yo u n g m an fro m doi n g what gives h i m pl eas u re wh atever i t ,

m ay be n o r set h i m agai n st i t u n less they co u ld at the s a m e

, ,

ti m e give h i m so m ethi n g i n place of i t .

Besi des I d o n ot wi sh to hi de the fac t that we h ave i n

, ,

m y O pi n i o n m ag n ied th e di fculti es ex isti n g i n this el d

,

i n a m a n n er n ot warra n ted by the n at u re o f the case In a .

certai n m e as u re p u bl i c i n str u cti o n wi l l always be beh i n d th e

ti m es Th e sch ool will i n the m ai n always be co n cer n e d
.
, ,

w ith tra n s m i tti n g th e stock of rec ogn i zed tr u ths N ow n e w .

tru ths n ever m ake thei r appeara n ce i n the worl d as recog

n ized t r u ths b u t as heterodox o n es
,
They ca n n ot eve n fo r .
,

th i s reaso n gai n ad m iss io n to the sch ools The n agai n the

,
.
, ,

t eachers h ave for th e m os t par t b ee n ed u cated by the ol de r

, ,

ge n erati o n Thi s m ade i t i m poss ibl e fo r the C oper n i can

.

theory t o beco m e a bra n ch i n t he c u rri c u l u m o f the S i xtee n th

ce n tu ry ; n o r c a n th e Darwi n i a n th eory gai n e n tra n ce i n to
th e school s Of th e n i n etee n th ce n t u ry alth o u gh I am n ot o f
th e opi n i o n th at th e t eache r wh o desi res to speak Of i t an d
can d o i t i n tel l i ge n tly a n d tac t fu lly sho u l d be prohibi ted fro m

doi n g so On th e c o n trary i t i s m u ch wi se r that a l e ar n e d

.
,

an d rel i abl e m an S ho u l d poi n t o u t the si g n ica n ce an d bear

i n g o f the n e w co n cepti o n wh i ch has spread s o rapi dly an d

,

has h ad s u ch great i n u e n ce upo n o u r ti m es tha n that we ,

sh o u ld leave th e m atte r to the acci de n tal an d perhaps ve ry

70 8 DO C TRIN E OF V IRT UE S A ND DUTIE S

i n adequa t e t reat m e n t o f t he rst pe n n y a li n er wh o happe n s

- -

al on g .

Bu t be t hi s as i t m ay i t w ill at s o m e f u t u re ti m e see m very

,

s t ra n ge that o u r age has s o placi dly adhered to a syste m o f

rel igi ous i n st ru cti o n whi ch arose m a n y ce ntu ries ago u n de r
e n t i rely di ffere n t co n d iti o n s o f i n tel lect u al l i fe an d whi ch ,

i s i n s o m a n y respec t s deci dedly O pposed t o t he facts an d

, ,

i deas whi ch are regarded as r m ly establi she d o u tsid e of the

school an d ch u rch It i s a secre t t o n o on e n ot e ve n to the
.
,

p u pils o f o u r gy m n asi a t h a t m u ch of what ou r prese n t

,

reli gi o u s i n struc t i o n obl iges t eachers an d p u pils t o accep t as

l iteral tr u th th i n k of th e O ld Testa m e n t i s n o t regarded
i n t ha t ligh t a n ywhe re i n t he world n o t eve n by ou r school
,

di rec t ors or m i n i steri al co u n cillors wh o i n t hei r rol e o f

,

supervi sors i n sist upo n t he correc t n ess of t he t each i n g

.

Ou r ph i l ol ogical hi stori cal an d n a t u ral sci e n t i c i n v esti ga tors

- -

are s o u t terly o u t of li n e w it h the dog m ati c d octri n e o f ou r

cree d t hat t hey pay absol u t ely n o atte n ti o n to i t t ha t they ,

do n ot eve n t ake the tro u bl e t o co n t radi c t i t A n d everybody

.
.

k n ows how l i tt le t h e grea t poe t s an d th i n kers o f t he epoch

wh ich we t each ou r p u pi l s to regard as the classi c age of o u r
spi ri t ual l i fe cared for the t each i n gs o f the ch u rch n ay i n
, , ,

part also for th e C hri sti a n reli gi o n

, .

I ca n n o t help thi n ki n g tha t rel igi o u s i n str u cti o n wh ich

ove rl ooks thi s fac t o r s i m ply m e n ti o n s i t i n order t o dep lore
,

i t an d t o accuse these m e n of i n fi del ity an d perhaps also of

fri vol ous n ess ca n n ot as a rule prod u ce the e ffec t s wh i ch
, , ,

we expect an d desi re : appreci ati o n of C hri sti a n i ty as an

hi stori cal ph e n o m e n o n an d revere n ce for i t s fo u n der If .

the i n str u cti o n i s i m par t ed by a o n e si de d yo u n g th eol ogi a n

-
,

wh o h as grea t fai t h i n th e correct n ess of h i s d og m ati c v i e ws ,

an d c o m bi n es w ith t hi s l ittl e capacity fo r g u id i n g so u ls the ,

opposite e ffec t i s ap t to e n s u e : d istr u st an d aversi o n fe el i n gs ,

which spread from t hei r so u rce t o every th i n g co n n ec t ed

wi th i t .
 710 DO C TR IN E OF V IRTUE S A N D DU TI E S

bu t th e desi re t o a n alyze the false n ess an d the i n n e r rotte n n ess

of t he ti m es a n d t o expose the m to the m i croscopi c gaze o f the
,

reader ? A n e n ti re l i tera t ure whi ch m akes a b u si n ess of u n

m aski n g falseh ood thi s beyo n d doub t i s the trai t wh i ch th e
, , ,

hi story of l i terature o f a late r age wi ll r egard as high ly charac

te r i s ti c o f the sp iri t o f t h e dyi n g n i n e t ee n th ce n tu ry Th a t t h e .

c o n i ct betwee n what w e really th i n k an d bel i eve a n d wha t ,

we t each o u r yo u th t o sav o r to bel i eve i n ou r ch u rch an d

school i n str u c t i o n i s parti ally t o bla m e for thi s n o o n e wh o
, ,

has eyes t o see w i l l de n y In al m os t every li fe thi s re acti o n.

appears s oo n er or l ater w i th m ore o r less vi ole n ce ; an d ,

si n ce i t usually happe n s a t an age whi ch o the r co n d i t i o n s

also help t o m ake cri ti cal i t O ft e n leads t o a seri o u s cri si s ,

i n wh i ch m an y a you n g m an recei ves per m a n e n t i n j u ry an d ,

m a n y a o n e i s rui n ed for l i fe Wi th t he ch u rch f a ith m oral .

,

i ty beco m es an objec t of s u spi c i o n an d t h e e n l i gh t e n m e n t ,

l eads t o an os t e n si bl e rep u di ati o n of mor al i ty Whe n i n do .

le n c e r egard for othe rs o r c owardi ce keeps o thers from

, ,

professi n g t he i r t h o u gh t s o r from co n fessi n g th ei r d ou bts ,

to t he m selves hypocri sy o r i n n er fal seh ood u tt erly d es troy s

,

th e m oral l i fe 1
.

I se e b u t o n e way o u t of t h i s di f cul t y Du ri n g t h e for .

t i es an d the ft i es m a n y i n dulged i n the hope th at th e c o n i c t

m i gh t b e overco m e by a m ore rigoro u s u s e o f auth ority i n
favor o f th e O l d or t hodoxy Eve n gover n m e n t s i n a l arge .
,

m easure foll owed t h e advi ce t h a t sci e n ce b e forced t o a

,

1 F r Jo dl
. ad m i r abl y p o i n t s o u t t h e d an g e r i n a t h o u g h t fu l le ct u r e o n t h e
N a tur e a n d A i ms of the E thi ca l M o ve men t i n Ger ma ny ( 1 8 9 3 ) [VVe s e n u n d

Ziele d cr e thische n Be wegu ng i n Deu tschla n d] Y e ar aft e r y e ar t h e h i g h e st a n d

m o st sacr e d t hi n g s , e t h i cal co n v i ct i o n s an d i d e al s , ar e i m p ar t e d t o t h e y ou n g e r
x
g e n e r a ti on , m i e d w i t h d o g m at i c p r e p o s i t i o n s, w h i ch ab s o l u t e ly co n t r ad i ct t h e
m e n t al t e n d e n cy w h i ch a ll o t h e r fo rc e s i n l i fe a n d e d u cat i on a i m t o d e v e l o p .

A nd th u s a d o u b le e v il is e t e r n a lly
p r o d u ce d w h i ch li ke a can cer e at s a w ay o u r
s p i r i t u al li fe : i n w ar d ly t h e e t h i cal p r i nc i p l e s a n d i d e a l s b r e a k d o wn w i t h t h e

w e ak s u pp o rt s t o w h i c h t h e y h av e b e e n a r t i ci ally at t a ch e d , o u t w ar dly t hey ar e

a d h e re d to , o ft e n w i th co n sci o u s h y p ocr i s y on accou n t of th e at t i t u d e of t he

,

st a t e . R e l i g i o n b e co m e s t h e s t at e d re s s fo r ou r s ant inis m . b e h i n d w hi ch i n t e r
n al S h allow n e ss ,
n ay , r o tt e n n e ss , w i t h d iffi cu l ty con ce a l s i t s e lf .
 VERA CITY 71 1

cha n ge O f fro n t or a t leas t th a t i n s t ruc t i o n be gover n ed s o

, ,

far as possible by t h e o l d for m u l ae Th e resul t i s appare n t :

,
.

they have thereby c rea t ed these re aders of th e li terat u re m en

t i on e d above . He n ce o n ly on e way i s le ft : t o acco m m odate
t he ch u rch dog m a to the theoreti cal tho u ghts an d co n cepti on s
w hi ch are possi bl e t o o u r t i m e In t hi s way C hri sti a n i ty
.

wo u l d n ot b e gi ve n u p as a practi cal l i fe pri n ci pl e bu t freed

-
,

from bo n ds wh i ch i m pe de i ts progress What robs th e Gos .

pel o f i ts e fcacy i n o u r t i m es i s its a m alga m ati o n with t h e

o ld ch u rch dog m a If i t were o ff ere d u s as s o m ethi n g p u rely
.

hu m a n an d hi s t ori cal i t wo u l d eve n n ow m ove the hearts of

,

m en . Th e for m u l ae of th e l o n ge r an d S h or t e r c a t echi s m s
s t i e an d ki l l i t .

It l ooks as if thi s vi ew were maki n g so m e headway wi t hi n

t heol ogi cal ci rcl es a t l east upo n Protes t a n t soi l If the
, .

move m e n t we re t o l ead to a re al an d pe rm a n e n t peace b e

t wee n rel igi o n an d sci e n ce I S ho u ld regard i t as a blessi n g
,

fo r th e E u ropea n n ati o n s N ati o n s ca n n o t live w i th o u t r e

.

l i gi on ; rel i gi o n h oweve r ca n n ot l i ve per m a n e n tly if i t i s

, ,

i n c o n i c t wi th philosophy an d sci e n ce Bu t the possibi li ty

.

o f the peace li es i n the d i rec t i o n i n wh i ch K an t so u ght i t

an d bel i eved hi m self t o h ave fo u n d it a h u n dred years ago .

L e t sci e n ti c research procee d as far as possibl e u po n he r

course regardl ess o f the O bjecti o n s of th e dog m a ; th e e n ti re
,

h istori cal an d n at u ral realm i s absol u t ely ope n to he r i n ves t i

a t i o s Bu t th e rela t i o n o f th e hu m a n m i n d to reality i s
g n .

n ot e xh auste d by sci e n t i c k n owledge It ca n n o t hel p co n

.

s t ru ct i n g th o u gh t s co n cer n i n g t he m ea n i n g o f the wh ole ;

these though t s h oweve r are n ot a matter of de m o n strati o n

, , ,

l ike physi cal t heori es o r h i stori cal facts ; they are based
u po n t h e s o u l s par t i ci pati o n i n th i n gs u po n the selective

,

j u dg m e n t of value ; th ey rest u po n th e vol i ti o n al si d e o f m a n s

n ature . In t hei r u n it y they m ake u p th e fai th o f th e h u m a n

so u l There wi l l th ere fore be u n i ty o f fai th betwee n al l
.

t h ose wh o recog n i ze th e s a m e h igh es t good Bu t th e d og m a .

,
71 2 DO C TR IN E OF VIR TUE S DU TIES

as th e for m u l a of th e fai th wo u l d b e an expressi on o f t h e

,

co n cepti o n o f real i t y fro m the poi nt of vi ew of th e hi ghes t

good A d ogm a i n thi s s e n s e c oul d n ever co m e i n c o n i ct
.

wi th sci e n ce becau se i t wo u l d n ever m ake any asse rti o n s

,

co n cer n i n g that aspec t Of th i n gs whi ch i s accessibl e t o

sci e n ce It w o u ld b i n d t h e wi ll bu t n ot t he u n derst an di n g
.
, .
71 4 INDE X

Bla ck ie , 48 3 n 2 . . w i th Bu ddh i sm , 1 1 4 f w i th G re ek i d e al,

.
,

Bli n d , 9 0 n 5 , 7 09 n 2
. . . 6 5 iii .
,
w i th o th er i d ea ls, 3 3 ff ; N i e t z .

sc h e s c r i t i ci s m
1 50 ff ; an d pe ss i o f,

Bl un tsch li , 2 6 2 n 1 , 55 0 . . .

Bod ily l i fe , 5 0 5 ff . m i sm , 4 0 5 f ; a n d p i ty , 8 1 f ; a n d . .

Bow n e , 1 9 3 i t n 1 , 4 1 5 n 1 , 5 9 9 n 1 , 6 06 n 1
. . . . .
p leas u re , 7 4 f ; a n d Ro m a n s , 98 ff ; an d . .

Bo w r i n g , 1 9 0 n 1 . . s e lf- e s t e e m , 8 1 f ; an d s i le n ce , 7 6 ; an d th e .

Bra d le y , 1 9 3 it n 1 , 2 2 7 n 1 , 2 5 1 n 1 , 3 50
. . . st ate , 7 2 ti ; i ts t ri u m p h , 1 1 2 ff
. an d the

n. 1 . Gree k v i rt u e s , 6 7 ti ; an d w e a lt h , 7 7 f . .

Bre n t an o , 3 4 0 n. 1 . C h ry so stom , 6 4 6 .

Bri lla t- S a v ari n , 506 n 1 . . C h u rch 1 1 6 ff , 1 2 3 iii , 1 2 6 , 1 3 1 f , 4 09 ,

. . .

Br m ck m a n n , 3 2 4 n 1 . . 4 3 6 , 6 82 706 ii .

Bu ch n e r , 709 . C h r i sti a n i z ati on o f an t i q u i ty , 9 8 ff ; of th e .

Buc k le , 1 36 f . Germ an s, 1 1 7 ff .

B u d d h a, 1 1 4 f . C i ce ro , 4 7 , 53 n 1 , 5 6 n 1 . . .

Bu d d h i sm a n d C h ri st i an i ty , 1 1 4 f . C i v i li z at i on , an d art , 559 ti ; C h ri sti an i ty .

Bu h l e , 1 4 7 n 1 . . an d , 9 1 ff ; an d m o ral ity , 3 1 4 ti ; a n d
. .

Bu rck h ard t, 1 1 1 , 1 2 7 n 1 , 1 2 8 , 3 7 2 . . s u c ce ss, 3 1 4 ii a n d w ars, 3 9 5 ff . .

Bu tle r, 3 4 0 n 1 , 3 7 9 n 1 , 6 9 9
. . . C lark e , 3 40 n 1 . .

By ro n , 3 03 , 4 4 4 n 1 . . C lassi cal e d u cat i on a n d p atri oti sm , 6 6 1 f .

C le m e n t of le a n d ri a , 7 7 A x .

C A DE R W OOD , 3 5 n 1 , 1 92 * n 4 , 3 4 0 n 1
L . . . C le rgy , 1 1 9 f , 1 3 2 , 6 89 . .

C a lli ng , 5 3 0 ff . C lo t hi n g , 5 1 7 ff .

C a l u m ny , 6 6 9 f . C oh e n , 1 9 4 n 1 . .

C al v i n , 4 5 4 n 4 ; on f re e w i ll, 4 55
.
-
. C o i t , 4 1 5 i i 1 , 44 7 n 1 . . .

C a m p s , 48 4 n 2 . . C oll i n g w ood , 709 n 3 . .

C ap i tal, 5 3 3 ff . C olu m b u s, 6 7 3 .

C a p i t a l p u n i sh m e n t, 6 1 ] f . C o m en i u s , 9 5 .

C a rd i n al v i rt u e s , 4 5 . C o m p assi on , ff C h r i s t i an , 8 1 f .

C arly l e , 3 7 5 , 6 9 7 ; h i s c on c e p ti on o f h ig h e st C o m p u ls i o n i n l aw , 6 0 4 ti .

g oo d , 2 6 3 h i s co n c e p t i on o f e v i l, 331 n C om te , 4 8 n 1 , 1 9 1 ; an d al tru i sm , 3 79 f
. .

1 ; h i s e st i m ate o f su ic i d e , 5 88 n . 1 .
C o n d e n ce , 6 6 6 f .

C arr iers , 1 2 7 n 1 , 2 1 5 n 1 . . . C o n sc ie n ce , 3 4 0* au t h o r i ty of, 3 6 3 ff ; .

C a r u s, P , 1 1 4 n 1
. . . i n d i v id ua li zat i o n o f, 3 6 8 i n fall i b ili ty .

C ass i an , 8 5 f . o f, 3 5 7 ff ; o r i g i n o f, 3 4 0 ff ; i t s tra n
. .

C a t h oli c e t h i cs , 1 6 9 if s c e n d e n t s an c ti o n , 3 6 6 f ; K an t s t h eo ry

. .

C a th olici s m , 1 2 5 n 1 , 1 3 6 , 1 6 0 f , 1 6 9 ff . . . f
o , 3 50 ff S h a f
. tesb u ry s v i e w of, 1 8 6 ti ;

.

C at h r e i n , 2 1 5 n 1 . . S ocra tes an d , 3 7 1 n u t i li ty o f, 2 3 2 f . .

C a usali ty an d fre e- W i ll, 4 6 0 n 1 . . C o n se rv at i sm an d l i be ral i s m , 6 90 ff .

C e l su s, h i s c r i ti c i sm o f C h r i st i an i ty , 9 8 f . C on v e r s i o n , o f G e rm an s t o C h ri st i an i ty an d
C e rtai n ty o f m o ral law , 3 56 if . a n t i q u i ty , 56 3 ff ; o f Old Wo rld t o .

C h a m fort, 52 3 . C h r i sti an i ty 9 8 ff .

C h am i ss o , 4 1 3 . C ou la n g e s , F u ste l d e , 4 1 6 n 1 . .

C h a rac te r, i n ue n ce o f p rospe ri ty u p on , C o u rag e , 4 8 4 f , 4 9 5ale ti ; Gre e k . . an d C h ri s

4 07 ff . t i an e s t i m a te s o f, co n t r aste d , 69 ii ;
C h a ri t y , 6 3 8 ff ; C h ri s ti a n , 8 3 f , 1 57 n 1
. . . . l
P a to s

co nce p t i o n o f, 45 .

A
i n M i d d le g e s , 1 2 4 . C o w ar d i ce , 4 9 5 ff ; 6 6 8 f . .

C h a ri ty - craz e , 6 4 6 . C re e d , re lig i on a n d , 4 3 4 ff .

C h arle m ag n e , 1 1 8 . C r i m e , ch a ri ty a n d , 6 5 2 tf ; p ov e rty a n d, .

C h ri s ti a n i ty , 1 57 ii , 4 02 , 6 1 3 , 6 3 8 ff ; . . . 54 1 n 1 . .

an d Bu d dh i sm 1 1 4 f C rim i na l ch arac te rs , 3 7 1
, ; a n d c h ari t y , 8 3 .
.

f 1 an d c o u ra ge , 6 9 ii an d e a l t hl y . C ris p i n , 2 2 8 f .

g o o d s , 8 7 ii an d fam i ly - l i fe , 8 4 ;
. . C ri t ici sm , h i g h er , 7 0 3 ti .

a n d h on o r, 78 f ; an d h u m i l i t C ru e lty , 6 4 8 ff
y , 7 9 , an d
. .

i m m ort ali ty , 4 4 4 f a n d u s t i ce , 6 1 3 ff ; . j . C u d w o r th , 3 40 n 1 . .

an d k n o w le d g e , 6 7 f ; a n d l i b e ra li t y , 8 2 ; . C u l t u re , 5 4 3 .

a nd m i r ac le s , 4 3 5 ff ; a n d t h e m o d e rn . C u lt u r e re l ig i on s a n d r el i g i o n s o f re dem p
-

s p i r i t, 1 5 5 ff ; i ts m o ra l i d e a l, 6 5 ff
. t io n , 1 6 3 .

c o n t ras t e d w i th b ar bari a n i d eal 1 6 7 ff C u mb e r la n d , 3 79 n. 1 .

, , , .
 I NDE X 71 5

C u p idi ty , 4 9 1 ff . j u dge d m orally , 3 9 1 ti ; i n Hob b e s . an d

C u s t o m a n d d u ty , 3 4 3
E
ff ; an d i nst i nct , 8 . S p i n o z a, 3 8 0 ; i n S h afte sb u ry an d
f ; law , m o ra li ty , a n d re li g i on, 4 1 5 ff 9
. . H u t ch e so n , 1 8 6 .

an d w i l l, 3 4 3 ff . Ei nj ah r ig e n sc h e i n , 55 1 f .

C y n i cs, 1 09 . E lio t , G e o rg e , 90 n 5 , 3 05 . .

C y renai cs, 2 5 1 n 1 . . Em e rs o n , 52 2 .

Em p i ri ci s m a n d ra t ion ali sm i n e th i cs, 6 if .

DA TE , 48 n 1
N . j
E n d u st i e s th e m ea ns , 2 3 3 ff .

Darw i n , 2 51 n l , 2 74 f 3 4 0 n 1 , 3 44 n
. .
, . . E n d s an d m ean s , 2 53 ti , 2 7 5 6 . .

2 , 3 79 n 1 , 4 3 3 ; h i s e t hi c al th eory ,
. E n e m y , lo v e o f, 6 1 6 ff .

1 92 f ; h is t h e o r y o f co n sci e nce , 3 4 1 f
. E n e rg i sm , 2 2 3 f , 2 5 1 9 , 2 70 ff . . .

A
Dav i d of u g s b u rg , 6 8 8 n 1 . . E n l igh te n m e n t , 2 8 , 4 0, 1 46 f , 3 3 6 , 5 54 .

Death , 3 3 5 at if ; E pi c u r u s s a tt i t u d e t o

e t h i ca l co n c e p t i o n s o f, 2 0 1 f .

w ard s , 57 f ; Greek an d C h ri stian cou . En n u i , 5 3 2 .

c e p ti ons o f, 6 7 . E p i cte t us , 55, 6 2 , 1 06 at f , 4 93 , 5 01 , 6 2 4 . .

De ce pt io n , 6 6 4 ff . E pi c u rea n s , 5 8 7 .

De m ocri tus, 56 n 2 , 2 51 n 1 . . . E pi cu r u s , 5 6 iii , 2 5 1 . n. 1 ; h is con ce p ti on

De scartes an d th e m od e rn s p i r i t, 1 40 ff . of p h i los o p h y , 6 1 .

De si re , i m p u lse , an d w i ll, 2 2 0 f . Eq u a li ty , 6 2 4 if .

De t e r mi n i sm , 4 52 if . E q u an im i ty , 5 00 if .

De w ey , 1 93 n 1
'
. . Eq u i ty , 6 1 6 .

Di o ge n e s Laer ti us, 5 3 f , 56 n 1 , 2 77 n 2 , . . . E q u i v oca t i on , 6 6 5 .

33 7 n 1 . . E rasm u s an d L u t h e r, 1 3 1 .

Di plo m acy , 6 7 5 . Er dm an n , J E , 3 5 n 1 , 51 9 . . . n . 1 .

Di sc re t i o n , 6 8 7 . Error, h arm fu lness o f, 6 9 9 f .

Di s h o n o r, 5 7 3 . Esse ne s , 1 09 .

Di sp osi t i on o f a g e n t a n d w o rt h of act , E t h i cs , aest h e ti c s an d , 19 ; Ait r s o tle s con

2 2 4 ft . ce p t i o n 1 ; C h ri st i a n , 3 3 f , 1 6 7 ,
o f, .

Di st ru st , 6 6 6 . .
1 6 9 ff ; d e n i ti on o f, 1 ti ; fu n cti o n o f, .

Ddri n g , 2 1 5 n 1 . . 4 ff ; Gree k , 3 3 tf ; G ree k con ce p t i on o f,

. .

Dorn e r, A , 2 9 . 1 , 1 22 n 1 , 2 15 n 1, n. . . 1 ; h i story o f, 3 3 ti ; i n t u i t i o n al an d .

4 7 5 n 1 , 483 n 1 , 5 05 n 1 , 52 9 n 1 ,
. . . . t e le olo g i cal , 2 2 2 6 2 ; m e d i ae v a l, 1 6 9 ff ; .

56 9 i i 1 , 5 99 n 1 , 6 38 n 1 , 6 6 4 n 1
. . . . . m e ta ph y si cs an d , 4 4 f ; m e t h o d o f, 6 ti ; .

Dorn e r, I A , 1 7 9
. . . m o d e rn , 1 79 ff ; n at u ral s ci e nce an d , .

Dos to i e v s k i , 3 7 5 n 1 . . 6 ff ; n a t ure of, 1 ff ; a s a p rac t i cal

. .

Dr e ss, 5 1 7 . s ci e n c e , 1 ff ; p rac t i cal v al u e o f, 2 5 ff ;

. .

Drobi sch , 4 6 4 n 1 . . re lati on o f, t o ps y ch olog y an d an t h r o

Drun k e nn ess, 4 7 9 , 50 7 iii , 590 . .

po logy , 2 ; rat i o n a l is t i c a n d e m p i ri cal,
Duh r, 2 3 9 n 1 . . 6 ff ; th e olo g ica l , 1 6 9 ff
. .

Du h ri n g , 2 1 5 n l , 584 n 1 . . . Eth i cal soc i e t i e s, 4 8 3 n 2 . .

Du n c k e r, 1 1 4 n 1 . . Eth i cal v i rt u es , G re e k a n d C h ri s t ia n co n .

Du n s S cot u s, 4 54 n 4 . . ce p t i o n s o f, con t ras t e d , 6 8 f .

Du r e r, h i s con ce pt i on o f a rt, 5 5 8 E u daam o n i a , 3 6 ff ; A ri s to t le s co n ce p t io n

n. 1 . .

Du t i es , 4 7 5 ff . o f, 49 ; S t o i c co nce p t i o n o f, 5 4 .

Du ty an d C o n sc i e nce , 3 4 0 " ti ; . an d c u s E u d ae m o n i s m , 1 9 4 ff , 2 5 1 H . .

to m , 3 4 3 f ; . and i n cl i na tio n , 3 4 6 11 ; an d E uck e n , 1 7 n 1 , 3 5 n 1 . . .

m e rit , 3 7 7 f . E u t u c h i a an d e u d zn m on i a , 4 07 ff .

Dwe ll i ng , 5 1 5 ii . Ev e re t t , 4 7 5 n 1 . .

v l, 3 2 1 ff ; p h y s ica l a n d m oral , 3 2 2 ff
.

EC K E M R A NN ,
4 3 1 , 580 . re s p o n s ib i li ty a n d , 4 6 1 f .

Econ o m i c li fe , 5 2 9 ff ; v i rt ue s , 5 3 6 ff . E v o l u t i o n , 2 7 8 ; eg o i s m , a ltru i sm an d,
Ed u ca t io n , 5 4 3 ff ; b o d i ly , 5 0 5 ff ; i n te l . . 3 9 4 ff ; e t h ic s an d , 2 1 4 f
. .

le ct ual , 5 4 3 ff ; m o r al, 4 7 6 ff , 4 8 3 ft . . . E v o l u ti o n al e t h i cs, 1 9 2 f .

4 9 8 ; re li g io u s , 7 08 ff . E v o l u t i o n i s t i c v ie w o f co n sc i e n c e , 3 6 4 f .

Effec ts o f ac ts an d d i s p os i t io n o f ag e n t x
E a m i na t i o n s, 54 9 f .

2 2 4 ff . Ex e rc i s e , 5 1 9 ff .

Eg o i s m , c r i t i c is m o f, 2 44 ff Ex p e d i e n cy a n d t r u th , 6 7 2 ff .

Ex t
.

E gOi s in a n d a lt r u i s m , 2 44 (f , 3 7 9 ti ; h o w . . ra vag a nce , 5 3 6 fi .

71 6 I N DE X
F a rm an d cr ee d , 4 3 4 ff ; . and life , 4 2 1 ff .
g i s m , 2 83 ; h i s cr i t i c i sm o
. f Pau l sen

s

Fals e h oo d , 6 6 4 6 c on ce p t i on o f r el i g i o n an d m o r a li t ,
.
y
Fam e , 5 6 9 E . 44 6 ii .

Fa m i ly -l i fe a n d p rimi t i v e C hr i st i an i ty , G lad i ators at Rom e , 1 03 .

8 4 ii . G lu ck se l i g k e i t, 3 7 ff .

F am i ly -ri gh ts , 6 3 4 . Gl u t t on y , 506 f .

Fash i o n , 5 1 8 f . God, 4 3 , 1 60 f , 2 1 9 , 2 82 , 4 2 8 ff 43 6 , 44 2 f
.

Fa u l t n d i n g , 6 5 0 f , 6 87 . . a s t h e h i g h est g oo d , 2 82 f
; K i n g d om o f, .

Fau st , 408 f ; an d con sci ence , 3 72 . . 2 80, 3 1 8 .

Fe ch n e r , 3 3 9 n 1 , 4 2 7 . . G oe th e, 3 08, 3 2 0, 3 3 3 , 3 3 5, 3 55 , 3 7 1 n 1 , .

Fe e li ng a s so u rce o f m oral k no wle dg e ,

. 40 2 , 4 1 0, 4 2 5 , 4 3 0 iii , 4 8 3 n 2 55 2 , 5 5 4 , . . .

1 1 f ; an d w i ll , 2 2 1
. . 5 6 8 5 7 9 f , 59 4 f , 6 58 , 6 80 ,
. a nd .

Fe t i ch i s m , 4 1 7 f . C h ri s t i an i ty , 1 6 4 ; h i s conce p t i o n o f e v i l,
Fe u ch t e rsle b e n , 4 83 n 2 . . 3 2 8 ff ; hi s i deal, 2 0 1 f ; h i s o p tim i s m ,
. .

Fi c h t e , J G , 3 4 0 n 1 , 3 53 , 48 3 n 1 ; h i s
. . . . 3 01 f .

al tr u i sm , 3 80 n 2 ; an d t h e h e o f mece s . Good , an d h ad , 2 2 2 ff ; d e ni tion o f, .

s i ty , 6 7 3 f . 2 4 8 f ; th e h i gh est , 2 51
. .

Fi ch te , J H , 1 7 9 n 3 . . . . Go o d s, d oct ri n e o f, 4 .

Fi sch e r, K , 1 2 7 n 1 , 1 79 n 3 . . . . Gord o n , C G , 503 n l . . . .

Fi sh e r, 6 5 n 1 , 9 8 n 1 . . . Got h e n b u rg sy ste m , 5 1 2 .

F lat t e ry , 6 70, 6 8 1 . Go tth e l f, J 3 02 .

Fo rgi v e ne ss, 6 1 6 ii . G racch u s , C ai u s , 1 03 .

Fo rmal an d m a te ri al u dg m en t s of acts , j Grati t u d e , 6 5 5 f .

2 2 7 ff . Gree k ar t , 56 1 f ; Greek , b a rb ari an , an d .

Fo rst er, 1 94 n 1 . . C h r i st i an c on ce p t i on s co n t raste d , 1 6 7 ii .

Fo u i l le , 1 7 9 n 3 , 4 52 n 1 . . . G re e k an d C h ri s t i an c o n ce pt i on s c o n
Fo w le r 1 8 5 n 2 ; a n d W i l son , 1 9 2 n 1 ,
. . . t ra st e d , 6 5 ff ; G re e k a n d C h ri st i a n s p iri t ,
.

2 51 n 1 , 4 52 n L, 4 7 5 n 1 , 4 8 3 n 1 ,
. . . . 1 6 3 ff ; G re ek c i v i li z at i on a n d Mi ddl e
.

5 0 5 n 1 , 52 9 n 1 , 5 6 9 n 1 , 5 9 2 n 1 ,
. . . . A
g es, 1 2 1 ; G reek e t h i cs, 3 3 ff ; G ree k .

e th i cs, s u m m ary of, 58 fi

599 n 1 . . .

Fran ck e , H , 8 0, 305A . . Gre e n , T H , 1 89 n 3 , 1 9 3

. . 2 51 n 1 , . .

F ran k l i n , 484 n 2 . . 4 52 n 1 . .

F r e d e r i ck t h e Great , 5 88 ; h is pe ssi mi sm , Greg o ry o f Tours, 1 42 f .

300 . G u h rau e r, 1 4 5 n 1 . .

Fre ed o m an d c au sa l i ty , 4 6 0 n . of G ur y , h i s t h e o log i cal sy s te m of e th i cs,

te ach i ng , 7 06 f ; o f th o u gh t, 6 9 8 ti ; . . of 1 7 3 ff .

t h e w i ll, 4 5 2 ff . Gu y au , 1 7 9 n 3 , 3 6 4 n 2 . . .

Free -mi n d ed n e ss , 5 77 f .
Gw i n ner, 2 1 0 n 1 . .

Free w ill, 4 52 ff
'
-
. Gy m nast ics , 5 1 9 .

Fr eyt ag , 3 06 .

Fri e d l and e r , 9 8 n 1 , 1 01 . .
,
52 3 . H AB IT, e th i cal i m portance o f, 2 4 1 f .

F ru g ali ty , 53 6 ii . H a b i t at i o n , 5 1 5 .

F u llerto n , 1 8 1 n 2 . . Ha ld an e a n d K e m p , 2 0 9 n 1 . .

Ham an n , 1 6 4 .

G A I E O a n d Ho bb e s, 1 7 9 f
LL . Ham e rli n g , 3 2 6 .

G al i t z m , Pri nce ss, 82 . Ham le t, h i s pe s si m i sm 3 07 n 1 , 3 3 5 . .

G a llw i t z , 2 1 5 n 1 , 2 2 2 n 1 . . .
Hap p i n e ss, 2 7 0 ff ri s t o tl e s c o n ce p ti o n A

Gass , 6 5 n 1 , 74 n 2 , 1 7 1 n 1 , 3 40 n
. . . . 1 . o f, 4 9 if ; Gr ee k an d C h ri st i an con ce p
G e i g e r, 1 2 7 n 1 . . t i on s o f, 1 6 9 f i t s in ue n ce o n c h ar .

ff ; S p i noz a s co n ce p t i on o f,

G eld art , 90 n 3 . ac t e r , 4 07 le
a .
.

1 8 3 f ; S to i cs c on ce pt i on o f, 54 f ; v ir

G e lle rt , 1 9 9 . . . .

G e lli u s, 2 52 n 1 . . t u e an d , 4 00 ii .

G e n e ra l c u lt u re , 54 7 . Harnack , 6 5 n 1 , 4 8 8 n . . h is e st im ate

G e r h ar d t , P a u l , 1 6 1 . of C a th o li c i s m 1 2 5 , n . 1 .

Ge rm an e t hi cs , 1 93 ff . Harri s, 3 9 4 n 1 . .

G i lm a n , N P , 4 7 5 n 1 . . . . Hartle y 3 80 n 4,
. .

G i z v ck i , 1 7 9 n n 2 1 89 , 2 5 1 . .
, n . 1, Har t m an n , 2 1 5 n 1 , 2 88 . n . 2 , 5 84 n . l .

41 5 n . 1 ; h is cri t i c i s m o f Pa u lse n s e ner

i Hasb ac h , 3 2 7 n 1 . .
 I N DE X
93 ri ; and Bu ddh a, 1 1 5 ; an d
a sc e t i ci s m , . Lagarde , P . 1 55 , 4 83 n 2
, . .

con sc i ence , 3 7 0 f ; d i ffe re n t c o n c e p t i on s . Lam e ttri e , 3 80 n 4 . .

o f hi s ch arac ter, 89 f ; h i s love o f n atu re , . L an g e , F . A , h i s v i ew

. of C hri sti am ty ,
1 65 . 1 62 f .

Jaw i sh - Greek ph i lo sop h y , 1 09 . Laots ee , 4 7 4 .

Jh e r i n g , 7 1 , 2 1 5 n l , 2 2 2 n 1 , 2 75 n 3 , . . . La Ro ch efo u ca u l d, 3 80 n 4 , 593 , 6 55 ; h i s .

3 40 n 1 , 3 80 n 1 , 5 1 7 n 3 , 52 9 n 1 ,
. . . .
p e ss i m i sm , 2 9 8 .

5 41 n 1 , 56 9 n 1 , 599 n 1 , 6 1 0, 6 1 5 f ,
. . . . Lasp ey res, 5 1 7 n 1 . .

664 n 1 . . Law , m o ral i ty an d , 6 2 7 ff ; m orali ty , reli .

Job , 4 1 0 .
g i on , an d , 4 1 5 .

Jo d l, 3 5 n 1 , 1 79 n 3 ,. n 1 , 3 41 . . Law su i t , C h ri sti an conce p t i on of th e , 7 2

-
.

n 1 , 4 52 n 1 , 7 1 0 n 1
. . . . Lear, 581 .

Joh n th e Bap ti st, 6 6 . Le cky , 6 5 n 1 , 8 5 f , 98 n 1 , 1 09 , 1 7 9 n 3 ,

. . . .

J o n as , 2 0 5 n 2 . . 2 5 1 n 1 , 2 2 2 n 1 , 3 4 0 n 1 , 4 88 n 1 , 584
. . . .

Jow e t t, 4 1 n 1 , 53 1 n 1 . . . n 1 , 58 7 n
. 1 , 638 n 1 . . .

J u d as , 7 7 ; m oral e sti ma te of hi s su i ci de Le h rfre ih e i t , 706 ff .

59 1 . L ei bn i z , 2 7 4 , 32 1 n 1 , 4 0 1 , 4 2 6 , 4 56 , 4 6 0 .

J uli an , 82 , 1 59 . n. 1 , 6 8 4 ; h i s con ce p ti o n o f e v il , 3 3 2 ;
J u st ice , 599 ff ; Greek an d C h ri s ti an . a n d th e m o d ern sp i ri t , 1 4 4 f .

Op i n i on o f, 7 1 f ; i n M i d d le g e s, 1 2 3 f . A . Leo X , 1 2 9 . .

n e g at i v e S i d e of , 5 9 9 ff i n N e w Te s ta . Leop ard i , h is p essim ism , 2 87 .

me , 6 3
n t 1 Pla t o s con ce p t i on o f, 4 5 f

. L essi ng , 3 2 0 n 1 , 483 n 2 , 6 96 . . .

p os i ti v e si de of, 6 02 ff ; t eleology of . Le x d i v i n a and le x nat u rae , 1 7 2 f , 1 7 8 . .

6 02 ff . Lib e ralism an d con se rv at i sm , 6 90 ff .

Li b erali ty , G re e k a n d C h ri st i an e stim ates

KA N T, 1 , 2 2 3 , 2 2 7 n 1 , 2 51 n 1 ,
2 22 n. . . o f, co n t rast e d , 8 2 .

2 59 , 2 7 4 , 3 2 0 n 1 , 3 2 1 n 1 , 32 5, 3 2 8 . . Li ch te nb e rg, 7 07 .

3 4 0 n 1 , 4 2 0 , 4 2 6 , 4 3 1 , 4 5 6 , 58 4 n 1 ,
. . Li e o f n e ces s i ty , 6 7 2 11 ; G reek v i e w of,
6 00 f , 6 6 4 n 1 ; cri ti ci s m o f, 3 50 ii ; a n d
. . 6 82 f ; m o de rn v i ew of, 6 8 2 ff
. .

E n gli sh e th i cs , 1 9 4 ; hi s e th i cs, 1 9 4 916 ff .

L i e s , 6 6 4 if .

h is e st i m ate of fals e h ood , 6 6 6 ; h i s con Li fe , an e n d i n i tself, 2 94 .

ce p t i on o f i mm ort a li ty , 440 ii ; a n d t h e Li sz t , F r , 6 1 0 . .

h e of necessi ty , 6 7 3 ; h i s p e ssi m i sm , 2 9 8 '

Lock e , 2 51 n 1 , 3 40 n 1 , 4 86, 5 3 3 . . .

h i s t h eory of p u n i sh m en t , 6 06 , o f capi t al Locri ans, 6 6 5 , 6 9 5 .

p u n i sh m en t, 6 1 1 ; h i s r ig or i sm , 2 3 f a n d . Lom b ro so, 44 6 , 4 81 n 1 . .

Rous seau , 1 98 if ; an d u ti li t ari an i sm , Lon g , 55 n . 1 .

1 9 8 ff . L ot z e ,
1 , 2 3 3 , 4 2 6 , 4 6 0 n 1 ; h is
1 93 n . .

Ke i m , 9 8 ; hi s c oncep ti on o f th e ch aracte r cr i t i c i sm o f S ehl e i erm ae h e r, 2 08 .

o f Jesu s, 9 0 . Lou is X IV , 2 7 2 . .

K e lle r, 1 2 2 n 1 . . Lov e , 6 3 8 ff ; o f co u n try , 6 56 ff ; of e n e . .

K e m p i s , Th om as a, 1 77 , 6 81 n 1 . . m y , 6 1 6 ff ; of h o me , 6 5 6 ff o f h u m an ity ,
. .

K e ple r, 57 6 , 6 8 4 . 6 56 ff ; o f n e ig h b o r,
. ii ; t e le
K e rn , 3 3 7 n 1 . . ol ogy of, 6 52 ff ; o f t ru t h , 6 8 9 f . .

Ki dd , 3 9 4 n 1 . . Lu b b o ck 52 3 ,
.

K i erk e g aard , 1 2 2 n 1 . . L u ci a n 6 2 n 1 ,
. .

K n ow le dge , 5 4 3 ff ; an d con d uct , 6 1 f ; . . Lu cre ti u s 56 n 1 , 57 f ,

. .

d ev elo p m e n t o f, 54 3 f ; Gree k an d C h ri s . Lu th ardt , 3 5 n 1 , 6 5 n 1 . . .

t i a n est im a te o f, 6 7 f ; of se lf , 5 7 9 ii ; . . Lu th er, 1 2 1 , 1 2 9 H , 4 2 0, 577 , 6 58 , 6 6 8 ; . on

v al u e o f, 5 4 5 . free w i ll, 4 55
-
.

K ostl i n , 3 5 n 1 , 56 n 2
'

. . . x
Lu u ri e s, 53 8 ff .

K rafft-Ebi n g , 3 76 n 1 , 508 . n. 1 . Ly i ng , 6 6 4 ; w h y wron g , 6 6 6 . .

K re ibig , 3 73 n 1 . .

K nelp e , 4 52 n 1 . . MA C K E N ZI E , 29 n . 1 , 1 93 it
,
2 51 n . 1 , 32 0
n . 1 , 3 50 n. n . 1 , 41 5 n. 1 , 4 52 n. 1,
L AA S 42 n 1 , 2 1 5 n 1
, . . . 59 9 n. 1 .

La b or , 52 9 ; Gr ee k e s t i m ate of, 6 2 n. 1 . Mack in tosh , 1 7 9 n 3 . .

La Bruy ere , 3 8 0 n 4 . . M ag nan i m i ty , 6 1 6 ff .

L a dd , 2 53 n 1 , 3 4 1 n 1 , 3 43 n
. . . n . 1 . M ag u i ce nc e , 8 3 .
 I N DE X 71 9

Mai n l an d e r 2 88 i 2 58 4 n 1 , i ng 2 3 f , i . 4 7 8 H , 4 89 f ; m o ra l
,
. .
, . . .

M ali ce , 6 4 8 if . t ra i n i n g , 4 7 6 ff ; m o ra l p h i loso p hy , s e e .

Ma n d e v ille , 1 89 , 3 2 7 n 1 , 3 80 n 4 E t hi c s . . . .

M an i c h azan s, 3 3 2 Mo r ali s t i c p e ssi m is m , 2 9 7

. .

Ma n u al t ra i n i n g , 52 6 f M ora li ty , la w a n d 6 2 7 ff ; m e tap h y s ics.

,
.

Man z on i , 4 9 0 . a n d , 4 2 1 11 ; re l ig i o n a n d 4 1 5 ti ; o f .

A
M a rcu s u re li us 1 06 , 1 07 ff 2 1 8 , 4 1 1 ; h i s Ro m e 1 0 1 ff , .
, , .

e s ti m a t e o f C h ri s t i a n i ty , 1 00 More , Th o m a s, h is U t o p i a, 588 n 1 . . .

M ar i on , 2 9 n 1 . Morle y , J , 6 6 4 n 1
. . . .

Marr i ag e , C h ri sti an v i e w o f, 8 6 f Mors e lli , 584 ff . .

M a rte n se n 1 7 9 , 4 3 7 , 6 7 4 . Mose s, 6 1 4 . .

M ai ti n ea u , 3 5 n n n 1 , 2 2 4 Mo t i v e s e g o i s t i c an d al t ru i st i c 3 8 1 ff ; a n d
. . .
, ,
.

n . n . 1 , 2 51 n . 1 , 3 40 n . 1 , 3 42 n . 2, m ora l i ty o f acts , 2 2 7 if .

4 52 n . 1 . M u i rh e ad , 2 9 n 1 , 1 9 3 i
. n . 1 , 2 51 n . 1 , 32 1
M ar t i u s 5 1 0 n 1 , . . n 1 , 3 50 n 1
. . .

M arty r d om , 6 9 0 ff .
; n e ce ssi ty o f, i n h i s tory , M u n ro 56 n 1 ,
. .

6 95 f . M u n ste rb e rg , 2 9 n 1 , 3 4 0 . n . 1 , 4 52 n . 1 .

M asary k , 58 4 n 1 : . M u ri ay , 2 5 1 n 1 . .

M a teri a li s m an d i deal i sm , 4 2 2 if
N A T I O A I M i n M i d d le A g e s , 1 2 4
N LS
.

x
M a w e ll , 1 8 5 n 3 . .
.

M ea l, 50 6 .
Na t u ra l l aw a n d m o ra l l aw , 1 3 ff .

M ean s a n d e n d s , 2 7 5 .
Na t u ra l r i g h t s , 6 2 4 ff .

M e d iae v a l con ce pt i o n o f lif e , 1 1 6 if ; e th

Nat u ral i sm a n d s u p er n at u ral i s m , 1 6 5 f .

i cs , 1 6 9 .
Ne ce ssi t y , l ie o f, 6 72 ff ; la w o f, 6 3 1 f . .

M e n an d e r, 4 1 0 .
Neo Plat o n i sts , 5 89 ; p r e c u rso rs o f, 1 09
-
.

M e n o ik e us, 5 6 .
N e o Py t h ag ore an s, 1 09
- .

M e nz ies, 6 5 n 1 . .
Ne ro , 1 00 .

Me ph i st o ph e le s an d e v il, 3 2 8
'

.
Ne u m an n 1 7 n 1 , . .

M er i t a n d d u ty 3 77 N ew t ru t h s , re ce pt i on o f, 6 90 ff .

, .

M e tap h y sics, m ora li ty an d , 4 2 1 ff N i b e l u n g e n l i e d an d Ili a d , 1 1 9

; P au l
.
.

se n s,

2 19 .
Ni e tz sch e , 2 8, 4 7 , 6 5 , 3 7 1 n 1 , 6 0 6 n . . 1,
Me t ro p o li s, i n uen ce o f, m ode 664 1 ; an d C h ri s t ia n i ty , 1 5 0 ff ; h i s
n.
of l i fe , .
on
'
e g o i sm , 3 8 0 ; h i s i i n in o ral i s m , 1 5 0 ff ; h i s
49 1 , 51 9 .
.

Mey r, M , 2 90 . .
i n u e nc e y o u n g , 1 5 3 11
on .

M i ddle A g es , 2 1 f ; th e i r con ce p ti on of li fe .
Ni h ili sm , m o ral , 3 7 3 ff t h eo re t i c a l , 4 2 4 . .

116 ii ; e th i ca l sy s t e m s o f, 1 6 9
. ff .
No ack , 4 7 4 .

M i ddle m an , 1 2 7 n 1 . .
Nord au , 3 73 n 1 , 6 6 4 .
. n. 1 , 7 09 .

M i ll, Jam e s , 1 90 a f , 2 5 1 n 1 , 3 4 0 n 1 ; o n . . .
N o t re c h t , 6 3 2 f .

N ov a A t lan t i s , Bac o n 1 3 7 ff

s,
p le asu re an d d es i re , 2 5 4 f
.
.

M i ll, J S , 1 9 1 i f f , 2 2 2 n 1 , 2 2 3 , 2 5 1 n 1
. . . . .
Nu tri ti on , 50 6 ff .

2 7 5, 3 4 0 n 1 , 3 5 4 , 3 79 n 1 , 4 2 7 , 599 n 1
OA T H , 6 7 1 S
. . .

h is Op t i m i s m , 3 1 6 f
M i lto n , h i s c o n ce p t i on o f ar t, 558 n 1
.

Ob j ec t i v e an d su b e ctiv e j m o ral i ty , 3 70
'

CEd i p u s , 4 1 1
. .

Mi rac le s , re li g i o n
.

an d , 4 3 5 11 ; s ci e n ce a n d
Oe t t i n g e n , 2 1 5 n . n . 1, 52 9 n . 1,
4 3 5 ff .

543 n 1 , 5 84 n 1 , 6 06 n. ii 1
Mo d e i n e t h ics 1 79 ff
. . . .

Old 1 13 f 2 96 f 3 3 5, 4 4 3 ; and
.
,

Mo de s ty , 4 9 1 ff , 58 1
ag e , .
,
.
, pe s
ii .

S i m i s ni
.

3 09
M o e s e r, 6 1 2
.
,

Old e n b e rg , 1 1 4 n 1
.

Mo n as t i c is m , 8 5 , 1 00 , 1 1 6 f
. .

119 1 33
Op t i m i s m , 1 82 3 0 1
E
ff 32 1 "E 4 0 0 ff ;
. .
, ,
. .
, , , .

1 6 8 , 4 88 ii
in ag e o f e n l i g h t e n m e n t , 1 46 f
.

Mo no th e i sm , 4 1 8 f
.

Ord e r li n e ss , 4 9 9
.

Mo ral e v i l a n d p h y si cal
.

e V l l, 322 ff
Ori e n tal re li g i o n s i n Rom e , 1 1 1 f
.

m o r al i n sa n i ty , 3 76 n 1 , 4 8 1 ; m o ra l i n
.

s t r u c t i o n 2 5 ff f , 4 7 6 ff , 4 83 fl
.

Ort h o d o y , 6 7 0 x
, 40

,
Ov e r bec k 1 2 4 n 1
. .

4 98 ; m o ra l la w a n d n a t u ral la w , 1 3
. .
,

Ove i e d u c a t i o n , 5 4 9
- .

2 2 5 f , 3 4 8 f 3 6 2 f , 3 76 , 4 4 8 f ; m o ra l
. .

la w s n o t s t ric t ly u n i v e rs a l , 1 9 fi , 2 3 3 1 1 , .
P A IN , as m oti ve , 2 37 ff fu n c t i o n o f,
3 5 7 ff ; h i li s m, 3 7 3 ff ; ni Oi a l p re ac h
'

2 64 f ; p le a s u r e , 2 9 1
. ni .
. an d .
 72 0 I N DE X
Pale y , 1 9 2 4 n . 1 , 2 51 n. 1 , 3 40 n. 1 , 3 80 n. Po e try , i n M i dd le Ag e s, 118 f .

n. 1 , 52 9 n . 1 , 5 84 n . 1 , 59 9 n. 1, Po li te n e ss , 6 48 ft 6 80 f .

638 n. 1 . P o l i t i c a l li fe a n d G re e k e thi cs, 6 2 6 .

Pa rt i s an sh i p , 2 3 9 , 6 01 f . Po li ti cs , 1 4 3 f .

P a ti en ce , 4 99 f . P o llo c k , 4 1 5 n 1 . .

Pat ri o t i sm , 6 5 6 ; i n e d u ca t i on , 6 6 0 . . Po ly crat e s, 4 1 2 .

j
P a u l , 6 1 4 ; an d u st i ce , 72 ; h i s c on ce p t i o n o f Po ly t h ei sm , 4 1 8 .

l ife , 6 6 f ; h i s d o c t r i ne of lo v e , 6 5 1 ; h i s
. P on t i u s P i la te , 3 0 0 .

o p i n i on o f m ar ri ag e , 8 6 f ; h i s p e s s i m i s m , . Porte r , 1 92 5le n 4 , 1 9 4 n 1 , 4 7 5 n 1 , 483 . . .

405 ; a n d t h e p u rs u i t o f p lea s u re , 7 5 . n 3 , 50 5 i i
. 1 , 52 9 n . n n 1, . . .

P aul se n , 3 2 1 n 1 , 4 1 5 n 2 , 4 6 0 n 1 , 54 5 . . . 5 8 4 n 1 , 592 n 1 , 59 9 n 1 , 6 3 8 n 1 ,
. . . .

n 1
. . 6 64 n. 1 .

P eck , 1 06 n 1 . . Pos i t i v e r i g h t, 6 03 iii ; te le olo g ical n e ce s

P e n al ri g h t , 6 04 . si ty of, 6 03 ff .

P e n z ig , 4 53 n 1 . . P o sn i v i sm an d re lig i o n , 4 4 6 ff .

'
P e r fe ct i on , 4 , 1 0 17 2 01 f , 2 2 3 f , . . . Po v erty , cri m e a n d , 5 4 1 n 1 ; a n d t h e .

2 5 1 ii , 2 7 0 ff S t oi c i d ea o f, 5 4 . econ o m i c v n t u e s , 5 4 0 if .

j
P e r u ry , 6 7 0 f . Pract i ca l k n ow le d g e , 5 43 f .

Pe r se v e ra n ce , 4 9 8 f . Practi cal v al u e o f e t h i cs , 2 5 if .

P e rso n al l i b e rt v , 6 3 5 ; an d d r u n k e n n ess , Prac t ic e an d t h e ory , 1 ff .

507 ff . Preach i n g t h e t r u t h , 70 2 ff .

P e rson al i t y , 4 6 8 . Pre d e st i n ati on , 4 55 .

P e r t he s, 6 4 5 n 1 . . Pri d e , 57 3 f G re e k an d C h ri st i an
. e sti m a tes

P e r tz , 6 7 0 n 1 . . o f, 7 9 f .

P esch e l, 1 2 7 n 1 . . Pr i m ary sch oo l , 5 48 .

P e ss i m i s m , 2 1 0 , 2 4 6 f , 2 8 7 * ti , 4 02 ff ; . . . Pr im i t i v e C h ri st i a n i ty an d m e di ae v al C hr i s
cri t i ci sm o f, 1 4 8 ii ; i n n i n e tee n t h ce n t i an i ty , 1 2 1 ff .

t u ry , 1 4 7 . P ri v at e r i g h t , 6 04 .

P e st alozz i , 2 4 0 . P rocr a sti n a t i o n , 4 99 .

Pe t rar ch h i s c h ar acte r, 2 1 3 f
, . Prod i g a li ty , 5 3 6 6 .

P e t ron i us , 1 02 . P rofessi o n , 53 0 11 .

Pfa e n t u m , 1 2 2 . P ro fessi on al e d u ca t i on , 5 4 7 ff .

P h i lo , 1 09 . Pro le tarian i sm , 5 3 0 .

P h i loso p h y , 3 6 9 , 54 2 ti , 5 4 5 ; an d e t h i cs . P i o p e rty r i g h ts , 6 3 4 f .

a m o n g t h e G r e e k s , 5 8 ff ; o f h i s t o ry , . Pr os p e ri ty a n d V i rt u e , 4 00 f .

p e ss i m i st i c v i ew o f, 3 08 ff ; i n Rom a n . P r o t ag oras, 4 0 .

Em p i re , 1 09 f . Pro t e s tan t e th ic s , 1 78 f .

Ph y si ca l cu l tu re , 505 ff . P ru d e n ce an d v i rt u e, 4 0 f .

Pi t y , 5 92 ale ff ; C h ri st i an , 8 1 f . . P u d o r, 5 8 1 .

P la to , 3 9 n 1 , 2 5 1 n 1 , 2 7 3 , 2 79 , 3 7 1 f
. . . P u n i s h m en t , 6 06 ff ; i n t u i t i on ali st ic v i ew .

3 7 3 n 1 , 4 2 6 , 5 3 1 f , 6 8 2 ; an d a sce t i c i sm
. . o f, 6 06 f ; an d re s p on si bi li t , 4 6 0 ii ;
.
y
4 7 f ; h i s e th i cs, 4 1 5ie ff ; h i s p o li t i cs, 4 6
. . t e l e ologi cal V iew Of, 6 07 ff .

ff ; a n d sch oo lm e n , 4 3 ; an d S o ph i s ts,
. Pu si ll an im i ty , 5 7 8 if .

42 f .

P lay , 48 7 , 5 1 9 H , 5 5 6 ff . .
Q um r i s m, 3 3 2 ff .

P l ea s u r e , as e n d o f l i fe , 2 5 1 4E ff ; as u n .

con s c i ou s e n d o f act i o n
,
2 5 5 ff C h ri s . RA OM , 9 0 n 3
NS . .

t i an co n ce p t i o n Of, 7 5 f ; E p i cu r u s s c o n . Ra t i o n a li s m , e m p i r i c i s m a nd , in e th i cs ,

ce p t i on o f, 5 6 ff
; as fre e d om fr om p a i n , . 6 ff an d Re fo r m at i o n , 1 3 4 f
the .

2 91 f unc t i on an d s i g n i ca n ce o f, Ra t i o n al i s ti c v i e w of co n sci e n ce , 4 4 5 if .

2 6 5 f ; ou r j u d g m en t of, a s ab so l u te e n d ,
. Re a li sm i n li te ra t u re , 3 03 ti .

2 6 8 ii ; L u t h e r s con ce p t i o n o f, 1 3 0 ;
. Rea son , 1 8 1 2 7 7 f , 4 6 8 ff ; a s so u r ce o f . .

Pa u l s c o n ce p t i o n o f, 7 5 ; P l at o s c on

m o r al k n o w l e dg e , 1 1 f ; an d i m p u l s e , .

ce p t i on o f, 47 f ; S to i c . conce p t i o n o f, 4 76 11 .

54 .
Recrea t i on , 52 7 f .

P le as u re t h e ory , 2 5 1 ff
-
. Re , 2 1 5 n 1 , 3 40 n 1 , 3 6 4
. . .

P lo t i n u s, 1 0 9 , 3 2 1 n 1 . . Re form a t i on , 1 2 6 ff ; a n d c h u rc h l ife , .

P l u m ac h e r, 2 8 7 n 1 . . 1 3 1 ; a n d c i v il i z a t i on , 1 3 0 ff ; a n d
. .
 INE X 72 1

rat io n alis m , 1 34 1 3 76 an d Re nai ssan ce ,S at ie ty of li fe , 1 7 1 ,

.

d i e re nce be t w e e n , 1 3 0 ff S a v o n aro la , 84 ; V i lla ri s L i fe o f, 9 7 n l

.
. .

Re g u l u s , 2 4 7 . S c h ad e n fre u de , 593 1 .

Re lig i o n , 60 ti , 1 1 3 111 ; an d art , 4 2 9 ,

. 3 10 .

'
a n d m i rac le s , 43 5 tf , a n d m o ra li ty , 1 6 1 ,S c li i lle r , 3 5 5 ; h i s re lat i on t o K an t , 2 02 f
.

; .

4 1 5 112 , 4 9 2 ; n a t u re o f, 4 1 7 h i s ri d i c u le o f K a n t s ri g ori sm , 3 5 1 .

4 3 1 ti , a nd sc ie nc e , 4 3 1 ff
. S e h le i e r m ae h e r , 1 7 8 , 2 7 4 ; h i s e t h i cal s s
.

y
Re h g i o u s i n s t ru c t i o n , 1 2 6 (I , 7 08 ff te m , 2 0 5 5 h i s v i e w o f ca p i tal p u n i sh
. .

Re m o rse , 2 40 ; 3 4 0 , 6 2 0 f m e n t , 6 1 1 ; h i s co n c e p t i on of m o ra l law
Re n a i s sa nce , 1 26 ff 558 , 56 3 11 as n a t u ra l law , 1 7 n 1 .
. .

Re na u , 1 7 8 ; h is co nce pt i o n o f t he c h arac te rS c h m i d t I 3 5 n 1 , 58 , 3 7 1 n l , 4 00, 496 , . . .

01 Je s u s , 90 1 . 5 79 , 5 8 7 n . 1 , 6 6 5, 6 7 1 .

Res po n s i b i li ty , 4 6 0 ff . Sc h o last i c i s m , 1 2 0 f 4 5 4 1 .

Re s t, 5 2 7 1 . Sc h oo l , fu n c t io n o f 54 7 ff . .

Re ta l i at i o n , 2 4 2 i , 6 1 6 11 . .
Sc h oo lme n a n d Pla to , 4 3 .

Re usc h le , 57 6 n . 1 , 684 . Sc h o p e n h au e r 2 09 ii , 2 57 1 , 4 2 6 , 478

,
n .

Re n te r , F ri t z h i s , o p t i m i sm , 3 02 1 . 5 69 n 1 , 580 58 4 n 1 589 , 6 8 2 , 7 00
.
, . .

Re ve ng e , im p u lse o f, 6 19 1 . h is al t ru i s m , 3 7 9 ti ; a n d Bu dd h i sm , 1 1 5 , .

Re v e re nce , 4 3 1 11 . h i s ch arac te r, 2 1 1 ff ; a n d C h r is ti an i ty , .

Re v ie w e rs , 58 2 f , 6 2 3 f , 6 6 5 . 1 6 4 ; o n c om p as s ion , 5 9 8 ; o n eg o i sm , 2 4 6
. .

Re v o lu t io n , 6 9 0 f . f ; o n free W i ll, 4 5 3 ; h i s p ess im i s m , .

-

Ric h te r, 303 . 1 4 7 ff , 2 8 7 ff ; h i s p ract i c e an d h i s . .

R i e h l, 4 5 2 n 1 . .
p reac h i n g 2 1 0 if ; o n t h e p ract i cal val u e ,

Rig h ts , 5 9 9 6 0 3 ,
ii ; n a t u r al 6 2 4 ff ; th e o f e t h i cs , 2 5 f
. . . .

t h e d i tl e re i i t s ph eres Sc h re mp h , 1 2 2 n 1

p r i nc i p le o f , 6 2 4 ii ; . . .

o f, 6 3 3 ff . i e h u p pe , 2 1 5 n 1 . .

Ri tc h i e , 59 9 n l . . i c h u ri i i an , 2 9 n 1 , 1 9 2 n 5, 1 9 4 n 1 , 3 4 2 . . .

Ro lph , 2 57 n 1 . . n 1 , 41 5 n 1 . . .

Ro m a n Em p i re , 5 2 3 f ; co n v e rs i o n o f, to i c h w arz , 3 4 0 n 1 . .

C h r i s t i an i t y , 1 00 ff ic li w e i n i ch e n , 5 1 0
. .

Ro m a n m o ra ls , 1 0 1 ti .
ic h w e i tz e r ,
2 05 n . 2 .

Baco n a n d , 1 3 7 ff ; C h r i st i an a n d
Ro m a n s , 48 3 n 3
Ro m a n t ic is m , 3 1 0
. .

.
ic i e nce ,

m o d e rn es t i m a te s o f, 1 3 6 11 ; fu n c t i o n
.

Ro t h e , 1 7 8 . o f, 5 43 ti ; re li g i o n a n d , 4 3 1 ff ; t h e i s m
. .

Ro u ssea u , 2 0 2 , 3 4 0 n 1 , 4 80, 505 n l , . . a n d , 4 2 5 ff ; c lassi e d as t h e ore t i cal an d

.
6 56 ; Kan t a n d 1 9 8 ti ; h is p ract i ce ,
.
p ract i ca l, 1 ff ,

a n d h i s p re a c h i ng , 2 1 4 ; h i s p e s s i m i s m , e con d ary sc h oo l , 5 4 8 ,

1 48 , 3 1 4 h i s p h i lo so p h y o f h i s tory , e c u lari za t i o n o f C h ri s t i an i ty , 1 2 1 if .

3 09 . e i d li t z , 58 3 .

Ro u sse lot , 1 6 9 n 1 . . e lb y -
Bi gg e , 1 8 9 n 3 . .

Ru c k e rt , 3 1 3 n l , 3 5 5 , 4 8 1 , 6 9 6
. . e lf-c o n c e i t , se e V an i t y .

Ru n z e , 2 9 n 1 , 2 1 5 n 1 , 3 2 1 n
. . n . 1, e l f- co n t r o l , 4 83 ff ; G re ek ad m i ration
.

1 , 50 5 1, P ato s conce p ti on of,

47 5 n . 1 , 480 n . 1 , 48 3 D n. o f, 4 83 n . 2; l
51 9 n . 1 , 5 4 0 11 1 , 5 43 11 1 .
1 , 52 9 11 .
.
45 .

5 6 9 D 1 , 53 4 IL 1 , 59 2 n 1 , 5 9 9 n 1 ; 6 06 . .
e lf-e d u cat i o n , 46 8 f , 47 7 f . .

D 1 , 638 D 1 , 6 64 D 1
. . . . e lsh n e ss , 6 4 8 .

Ru p p re ch t, 5 1 7 n 1 . . e lf k n o w le d g e , 5 7 9 ff
- .

R ussi a , 5 2 3 . e lf- p re s e r v a t i o n , 1 7 9 ii ,
1 8 5, 2 4 8, 2 7 1 ,

S A c a m n x r s, 66 f .

S acr i c e , 3 8 8 f
72 2 N
I DE X

S h a ftesb u ry , 2 7 4 , 3 4 0 n 1 ; 3 7 9 n 1 , 4 02 . . S tock ] , 1 6 9 n 1 . .

S h ak e sp e are , 3 0 7 n 1 , 6 6 9 . . S toi c s, 2 7 3 , 3 2 1 n 1 , 4 92 ff , 587 , 598 6 82 ; . .

,

S h am a n i s m , 4 1 7 f . t h e i r e th i ca l sy st e m , 5 3 ff ; t h e i r co n .

S i dg wi ck , 2 9 n 1 , 3 5 n 1 , 1 9 3 2 22 n 1 , . . . c e p t i o n o f g oo d s , 2 77 ; Ro m an , 1 06 ii .

2 5 1 11 1 , 2 5 6 n 1 , 3 7 9 n 1 , 4 52 n 1 , 4 5 9
. . . . S tow e , H arr i e t Beech e r, 4 83 n 2 . .

n 1 , 4 7 5 n 1 , 4 8 3 n 1 , 5 9 2 n l , 59 9 n 1 ,
. . . . . S t rau ss, 709 ; h i s c once p t i on o f ch ar ac te r
6 38 n . 1 , 6 64 n. 1 ; o n c on sc i e n ce , 3 6 8 . o f Je su s , 9 0 n 5 , 9 1 f ; h is op i n io n of
. .

S i g w ar t , 2 1 5 n . 1 , 4 52 n 1 . . C h r i st i an i ty , 1 5 6 .

S i len ce , C h ris ti an i n u n ct i on j of, 76 . S t rum p e l l, 4 81 n 1 . .

S i mm e l, 2 9 n n . . n. 1 , 3 40 n. 1 S t u p id i ty , i g n o r an ce an d , 5 4 9 ff .

3 79 n . 1 . j
S u b e ct i v e an d Ob e ct i v e u dg m e n t s of j j
S i n , C h r i st i a n c on ce p t i on Of, 1 5 8 f . act s , 2 2 7 if .

S i n ceri ty , 6 89 if , 7 0 5 n 2 . . j
S u b ect i v e m oral i ty , 3 7 0 11 .

S i tte , 3 43 . S u cce ss a n d v i rt u e , 4 00 ff .

S lan d e r, 6 6 9 f . S u e ri n g , 1 6 3 f , 2 5 9 ff , 3 2 1 4 1 0 ii ;
. .

S lav e ry , i n M i d dl e g e s, 1 2 4 A . C h ri st i an n o t i o n o f, 1 5 7 f .

S m y t h , 1 7 9 n 2 , 3 4 0 n 1 , 3 79 n . . 1 , 41 5 S u i c i d e , 5 84 ff ; c a u s e s of, 5 90 ff ; c i v ili
. .

n . l ,
48 3 n . n . 1 , 5 99 n . 1 , 664 n. 1 . z at i on an d , 584 ff ; h o w u d e d m oral l v
g ,
. j
S n e at h , 1 7 9 n 4 . . 5 8 6 if .

S oc i a l v i rtu e s, 2 7 8 f a n d e v o l u t i on , 3 9 4 11 . . S u lly , 2 87 n 1 , 3 4 l n . n n 1 . . . .

S o cr at e s, 51 f , 3 2 6 , 4 1 1 , 6 82 h i s con
. S u l z er, 3 0 0 .

1 ; h i s e t h i cs , 3 9
'

sc i en ce , 3 7 1 n
9
ff . . S u p e rci l i o u sn e ss , 5 78 .

an d S o p h i s t s , 4 0 . S u p e r i i atu ral i s m a n d n a t u ral i sm , 1 6 5 f .

S old an , 1 4 2 . S u p ersti t i on , 4 3 5 .

S olon an d C roesu s, 3 7 ff . Sy m o n d s , 1 2 7 n 1 . .

S om m e r , 2 87 n 1 . . S y m pat h e ti c p a i n an d p l easu re , 5 9 3 ff .

S o p h i s t s, 40 ii , 3 7 3 n 1 ; a n d Pl at o, 4 2 f ; . . S y m p ath y , 2 48 , 2 7 8, 5 92 1L , 6 3 8 ff .

an d S ocra te s, 4 0 .

a w fp p o m i w )
,
4 8 3 ff . A N
T I E , 2 99 .

S p ec i al i s m , re l i g i on an d, 4 3 4 . Tay lor, B , 3 2 8 n 1 , 3 2 9 n 1 , n 2 , n 3
. . . . . .

S pe cu lati v e P h i lo so p h y , 2 04 if , 4 2 9 . Tay lor, T , 5 99 n 1

. . .

S pe e ch , C h r i st i a n e st i m a te o f, 7 6 . Te d i u m , 5 3 2 .

S p e n ce r, 1 , 7 1 n 1 , 1 9 3 at , 2 4 9 n 1 , 5 07 n . . . Te le o lo g i c al an d i n t u i t i on ali st i c e thi c s,
2 , 3 40 n 1 , 3 4 6 n 1 , 3 7 9 n 1 ,
. 11 . . . 2 2 2 ff .

l , 4 85 n . n 1 , 5 1 9 n 1 , 52 9 n . . . Te m p e ran ce , 48 4 916 11 ; G re e k an d C h ri sti an

1 , 5 4 3 n 1 , 59 2 n 1 , 5 99 n 1 , 6 3 8 n 1 ,
. . . . co n ce p t i o n s o f, c o n t r as te d, 7 4 if .

6 6 4 n 1 ; on eg o i sm a n d al trui sm , 3 95 ff
. Ten e m e n t h o u se s , 5 1 6 f
-
.

Spen e r , 4 2 0 . Te rt u ll i an , 1 1 7 , 1 2 1 ; h i s e st i m ate o f cou r

S p i n o z a , 2 7 4 , 30 7 , 3 5 4 , 3 8 4 , 4 01 , 4 06 , 4 2 6 , ag e , 70 ; ou t e m p ora l p ow e r, 7 4 .

4 2 8, 598 , 6 06 n 1 , 6 1 9 ; a nd
. ri s to t l e , A Th ack e ray , 3 04 .

5 2 ; h i s e g o i sm , 3 80 ; h is e t h i c al sy st e m , Th e atre i n Rom e , 1 05 f .

1 81 ff ; h i s c on ce p t i on
. of e v i l, 332 '
Th e i sm , 4 2 2 f .

o n fr e e w ill, 4 5 6 -
. Th e m i st ocle s, h i s su i c id e , 5 88 ff .

S p i ri t u al li fe an d cu lt u re , 543 ff . Th e o d i cy , 3 2 1 .

S tate , ch u rch an d , i n M id d l e g es , 1 2 0 A
Th e og n i s , 4 07 n 1 . .

G ree k a n d C h ri st i a n e s t i m ates o f, 72 ff . Th eol og ic al e th i cs, 1 6 9 ff .

m o d e rn th eory of, 1 43 f . Th eol og y an d fre e w i ll, 4 5 4 1 -

.

S tat i u s , 1 04 . Th e o re t i ca l k n ow l e d ge , 5 4 5 ff .

S t au dl i n , 5 84 n 1 . . Th eor i es of l i fe , 3 3 ff .

S te i n , Fre i h e rr von , 57 7 , 6 6 9 . Th eory an d p rac t i c e , 1 if .

S te i n e r , 3 7 1 n 1 . . Th i lly , 3 5 n 1 , 2 1 9 n
. n n 1 . . . .

S te i n th al, 2 1 5 n 1 , 2 5 9 , 41 5 n 1 , 4 5 2 n 1 . . . . Th o m a s A
q u i n as, 2 7 3 f , 4 3 1 , 4 54 n 3 . . .

S te p h e n , 2 9 n 1 , 1 7 9 n 22 2 n 1
. . . Th o m as a K e m p i s , 4 90 n 1 , 6 8 1 n 1 . . .

2 3 3 n 1 , 2 7 5 n l , 3 40 n 1 , 3 79 n 1 ,
. . . . Th u cy dide s , 1 5 4 n 1 . .

4 52 n 1 , . 1 , 4 9 5 n 1 , 59 2 n 1 , 5 9 9 . . Ti lle , 1 5 1 n 1 . .

n . 1 , 664 n 1 . . Ti p p i n g , 5 4 1 .

S te rr e t t , 2 05 n 1 , 6 07 . n. 1 . Tob a cc o , 5 1 3 if .

S t i rn e r, 3 7 3 n 1 . . Ten n i e s , 1 79 n 4 , 2 1 5 n 1 , 599 n 1 . . . .
 A SYSTEM OF ETHICS
F R IE D R I C H PA U L S E N

P r ofess or o f P h ilos ophy i n th e Un iv e rs i ty o f Be r li n

T ra n s l a te d By

F R A N K T H l L LY
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o o a

Sv o , Ne t

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 IMMANUEL KANT
H I S LI FE A N D D O C TR IN E
By

F R I E D R IC H P A U L S EN

Pr ofessor f Phi losophy i n Ber li n Un i v er si ty

o

T r a n s la te d b y

J E . . C R E lG HTON a n d A L B E R T LE F EV R E

f
o t he Sag e School of P hi los o h
p ,
y C orn e ll U n i v ersi ty

SV O , Net

Th e w h o le bo o k i s a n e e x a m p le of p h ilo soph ical e xp o s i t ion .

E sp e c i ally r
w o thy of p r ai se i s th e in t r o du c o t ry c h ap t e r on

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an t s s ig n ican ce , b o th fo r t h e th o u g h t of h is own t im e an d fo r t h e

g en e r al h i st o yr of th o u g h t .L

o n don A th e n a e u m .

Of v a lu e b o th a s an e x p iti os on o f K t an

s wo k r an d a s an au th o r it a

t i v e o p in i o n of it . Th e D ia l .

Th o s e w h o w ish t o s t u dy K an t h i m se lf, r at h e r t h an t o r e ad ab o u t
h i m , w ill n d h e r e a li g h t fo r t h e i r p ath , p o i n t i n g t o w h a t is of per
m an e n t v a lu e in h is s y st e m a n d a ls o to w h a t is no t .

Th e Ou tlo o k .

Pr o fe s s o r P a u lse n s

e x p i tios on of th e gr e at p h ilo so p h e r
s r
d o ct i n e s
is s i n g u la rly ab le , c le a r an d co h e r t
en . Th e t r an s lat i o n is ex

c e lle n t an d i d i o m at i c .
Lo n d o n A cad e m y .

S e ld o m d o e s one n d a b o o k th a t wi h t s u ch k e en c ri t i c al i n s ig h t
co m b i n e s so lu c i d an in t e p rr e t at i o n , so c o n s i de r ate an d ad e q u at e an

a d a p t at i o n t o t h e l i m i t at i o n s of t h e st u d e n t.
Bo s to n Tr a n s cr ip t .

S Pu b l i s h Ne w Y o r li

C h a r le s S c r ib n e r s o n s , e rs .
 HISTORYOFPHILOSOPHY
A LF R E D W EBE R

Pr o ssor i n t he Un i v e rsi ty f S tr a sbou rg

o

T r a n s la te d b y

F RA N K T H l LLY

Pr ofessor of Phi losop hy i n t he Un i v e rsi ty o f M i ssou r i

Sv o , Net

Th e sp e ci a l v alu e of t h is w o k i s in r its cl e a r an d co m p act e x p o si

t io n of t h e d e v e lo p m en t of th o u g ht . It co v e s r t h e w h o le e ld .

Th e Ou tlo o k .

r m it i it l r
F o i ts p r p rti
s s ze, it i d p t d b tt r f r
s c e a n e ss, o o on , s a a e e e o

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eve o Th b k m y b
en o m ou . e oo a e r e co

m en d d t e i r it io d h l
u n ve s th m t r i bl m
es an l sc oo s as e os se v cea e an u a

on th e bj t su N w Y k S ec . e or un .

P r f r W b r i m g th ery f w w h o h
o e s so e e rig h t ly tim t d
s a on e v e av e es a e

th e i g i
s n f L kc an ced H m o I t l th i im
oc e an u e . c an n o c o se s

p rf t
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acc o u n r W b r b k w ith t x p r i g m y g r t
o o e sso e e

s oo ou e e ss n ea

a pp r i t i
ec a f t h w rk d
on by th t r
o l t r b th i
e o th tr l on e e an s a o , o n e an s a

ti on i t lf b t
se p i lly i
, th u ry x t i
es t
ec a d r f r n t e ve e e n s ve n o e s an e e e n ce s o

au t h r it i
o d i th
e s, mp l t i d x ;
an ll t h
n dd i t i
e co t r ib t e e n e a e se a ons co n u e

m u ch t o m ak e t h e b o o k a v a i lab le to s t u de n t s, an d h e lp m ak e i t t h e b e st
h i s to yr of p h i lo s o p h y I h av e se e n i n En g li s h fo m P r o fe s s or Jo h n
r .

E R u s s e ll i n Th e N e w , Wo r ld .

Pu b l i s h Ne York

C h a r le s S c r ib n e r s S o n s , e rs , w