Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulics Lab Manual 2015 PDF

Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulics Lab Manual
Dr. Khalil M. Alastal

Eng. Mohammed Y. Mousa
2015
Table of contents :
Experiment (1): Hydrostatic force on a plane surface ................................................................. 1
Experiment (2): Metacentric height of floating bodies ................................................................ 7
Experiment (3): Impact of jet .......................................................................................................15
Experiment (4): Flow measurement ............................................................................................22
Experiment (5): Flow through small orifices ..............................................................................32
Experiment (6): Flow over weirs .................................................................................................40
Experiment (7): Investigation of Bernoulli's theorem ...............................................................46
Experiment (8): Minor losses .......................................................................................................52
Experiment (9): Centrifugal pump ...............................................................................................62
Experiment (10): Series and parallel pumps ..............................................................................72
Experiment (11): Cavitation demonstration ...............................................................................80
Experiment (12): Major losses .....................................................................................................86
Experiment (13): Flow channel ....................................................................................................92
References .................................................................................................................................. 104

Fluid mechanics and hydraulics lab manual Islamic University Gaza (IUG)
Experiment (1): Hydrostatic force on a plane surface
Introduction:
The study of pressure forces acting on plane submerged surfaces is a fundamental topic in the
subject of hydrostatic involving assessment of the value of the net thrust and the concept of center
of pressure, which are so important in the design of innumerable items of hydraulic equipment and
civil engineering projects.
Purpose:
To investigate the pressure acting on a submerged surface and to determine the position of the
center of pressure.
Apparatus:
1. Center of pressure apparatus (Figure 1).
Figure 1: Center of pressure apparatus
1 Dr. Khalil M. Alastal Eng. Mohammed Y. Mousa

Figure 2: Schematic diagram of center of pressure apparatus
Theory:
Figure 3: Experimental set-up
Referring to figure (3) which shows the experimental set-up consider the forces which result in
turning moments of the beam and submerged part of the model about the knife edged fulcrum.
Liquid pressures on the curved surfaces act at right angles to the curved surfaces, and the design of
the model ensures that these forces pass through the line of action of the knife edges and therefore
do not exert any turning moment. The hydrostatic pressure on the vertical end surface exerts a
force at the center of pressure which is at depth below the surface. The resulting turning
moment about the knife edge from the hydrostatic forces is therefore given by:

( + + )
Which is resisted by the weight of the mass on the balance arm at distance from the knife edge:

Now considering the cases of partial immersion and complete immersion separately:
(A) Partial immersion
Figure 4: Surface is partially submerged
When the vertical end face of the quadrant is only partially immersed, the geometric properties of
the wetted portion of the end face are:
Area =
= /2
Depth of center
Second moment of area = 3 /12
Depth of center of pressure
3 /12 2
+
= = + =
2 /2
3
The force acting on the submerged part of the end surface of the model is:

=
= /2 = 1/2 2
Taking moments about the knife edge:
= ( + + )

Substituting for and rearranging the above equation shows that the force acting on the wetted
end surface can be calculated from the experimental results of and :

= =
2 +
++ 3
3
Which can then be compared with the theoretical result:
= 1/2 2
(B) Complete Immersion
Figure 5: Surface is fully submerged
When the end surface is fully immersed, the properties of the submerged end face are:
Area =
= /2
Depth of center of area
Second moment of area = 3 /12
3 /12 2
+
= = + = +

2 2 12
The force acting on the end surface is:

=

= ( )
2
Taking moments about the knife edge:

= ( + + )
Substituting for and rearranging the above equation shows that the force acting on the wetted
end surface can be calculated from the experimental results of and :

= =
2 2
++ + + +
2 12 2 12
Which can be compared with the theoretical result calculated from:

= ( )
2
Equipment preparation:
Position the apparatus on the work surface of the hydraulic bench and adjust the feet to level the
base. Attach a length of hose to the drain cock and direct the other end of the hose into the overflow
pipe of the volumetric measuring tank. If the quadrant is not assembled to the balance arm then
locate the quadrant on the two dowel pins and fasten it to the balance arm by the central screw.
Procedures:
1. If necessary measure the dimensions , and of the quadrant, and the distance between the
pivot and the weight hanger . Lightly apply wetting agent to reduce surface tension effects.
2. Insert the quadrant into the tank locating the balance arm on the knife edges. Adjust the
counter-balance weight until the balance arm is horizontal, as indicated on the datum level
indicator.
3. Add all the weights supplied to the weight carrier. Fill the tank with water until the balance
beam tips lifting the weights then drain out a small quantity of water to bring the balance arm
horizontal, do not level the balance arm by adjustment of the counter balance weight or the
datum setting of the balance arm will be lost. Record the water level shown on the scale. Fine
adjustment of the water level may be achieved by over-filling and slowly draining, using the
drain cock.
4. Remove one or more weights from the weight carrier and level the balance arm by draining out
more of the water. When the arm is level record the depth of immersion shown on the scale on
the quadrant.

5. Repeat reading for reducing masses on the weight carrier.
Data & Results:

= 275 mm, = 100 mm, = 100 mm, = 75 mm
(A) Partial Immersion
Trials 1 2 3
Total weight on arm (grams)
Depth of water (mm)
Force on end surface (experimental)

= ()
+

Force on end surface (theoretical)
= / ()

= (mm)

(B) Complete Immersion
Trials 1 2 3
Total weight on arm (grams)
Depth of water (mm)
Force on end surface (experimental)

= ()

+ +

Force on end surface (theoretical)

= ( ) ()


= + ()


Experiment (2): Metacentric height of floating bodies
Introduction:
The Stability of any vessel which is to float on water, such as a pontoon or ship, is of paramount
importance. The theory behind the ability of this vessel to remain upright must be clearly
understood at the design stage. Archimedes principle states that the buoyant force has a magnitude
equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the body and is directed vertically upward. Buoyant
force is a force that results from a floating or submerged body in a fluid which results from different
pressures on the top and bottom of the object and acts through the centroid of the displaced
volume.
Apparatus:
1. Flat bottomed pontoon (Figure 1).
2. Hydraulic bench.
Figure 1: Flat bottomed pontoon
Equipment set up:

The flat bottomed pontoon is constructed from non-ferrous materials and has a detachable bridge
piece and loading system. Provision is made to alter the keel weight and the mast weight so
obtaining a variety of loading conditions. For off balance loadings, the degree of list can be directly
measured using the plumb-bob line attached to the mast and swinging over a scale mounted on the

bridge piece. The floatation experiments can be carried out using the measuring tank of the
hydraulics bench.
Floatation characteristics of flat bottomed pontoon.
Depth = 170mm.
Length = 380mm.
Width = 250mm.
Distance from pontoon center line to added weight = 123mm.
Center of gravity of vessel with mast = 125mm approximately from outer surface of vessel
base.
Weight of vessel with mast = 3000g.
Height of mast loading position above water surface of vessel base = 790mm.
Theory:
Consider a ship or pontoon floating as shown in figure 2. The center of gravity of the body is at
and the center of buoyancy is at . For equilibrium, the weight of the floating body is equal to the
weight of the liquid it displaces and the center of gravity of the body and the centroid of the
displaced liquid are in the same vertical line. The centroid of the displaced liquid is called the
"center of buoyancy". Let the body now be heeled through an angle as shown in a subsequent
figure, 1 will be the position of the center of buoyancy after heeling. A vertical line through 1 will
intersect the center line of the body at and this point is known as the metacenter of the body
when an angle is diminishingly small. The distance is known as the metacentric height. The
force due to buoyancy acts vertically up through 1 and is equal to . The weight of the body acts
downwards through .
Figure 2: Illustrative figure of flat bottomed pontoon

Figure 3: Centers of buoyancy of floating and submerged objects
Stability of submerged objects:

Stable equilibrium: if when displaced, it returns to equilibrium position.
If the center of gravity is below the center of buoyancy, a righting moment will produced and the
body will tend to return to its equilibrium position (Stable).
Unstable equilibrium: if when displaced it returns to a new equilibrium position.
If the center of gravity is above the center of buoyancy, an overturning moment is produced and the
body is unstable.
Note : As the body is totally submerged, the shape of displaced fluid is not altered when the body is
tilted and so the center of buoyancy unchanged relative to the body.
Figure 4: Stability of submerged objects
Stability of floating objects:

Metacenter point : the point about which the body starts oscillating.
Metacentric height : is the distance between the center of gravity of floating body and the
metacenter.
If lies above a righting moment is produced, equilibrium is stable and is regarded as
positive.
If lies below an overturning moment is produced, equilibrium is unstable and is regarded
as negative.

If coincides with , the body is in neutral equilibrium.
Figure 5: Stability of floating objects
Determination of Metacentric height

1- Practically
( ) =

=
()
Where = distance from pontoon centerline to added weight.
'
= weight of the vessel including .
2- Theoretically
= +

=

= 0.5

Where = volume of displaced liquid
3
=
12

Exercise A
Purpose:
To determine the floatation characteristics for unloaded and for loaded pontoon.
Procedures:
1. Assemble the pontoon by positioning the bridge piece and mast i.e. locate the mast in the hole
provided in the base of the vessel and clamp the bridge piece fixing screws into the locating
holes in the sides of the vessel.
The 'plumb-bob' is attached to the mounting dowel located on the mast and is allowed to swing
clear of and below the scale provided
2. Weigh the pontoon and determine the height of its center of gravity up the line of the mast by
balancing the mast on a suitable knife edge support and measuring the distance from knife
edge to outside base of pontoon.
3. Fill the hydraulic bench measuring tank, or other suitable vessel, with water and float the
pontoon in it. Trim the balance of the pontoon by applying one of the small weights provided to
the bridge piece at the required position so that the vessel floats without any list, this condition
being indicated by the plumb-bob resting on the zero mark.
4. Apply a weight of 50g on the bridge piece loading pin then measure and record the angle of list
and value of applied weight.
5. Take readings of list angle and applied weights (100, 150 & 200g). Repeat the procedure for
lists in the opposite direction i.e. apply the weights to the opposite side of the bridge piece.
6. Calculate GM practically. Draw a relationship between (x-axis) and GM (y-axis), then obtain
GM when equals zero.
7. Calculate GM theoretically.
8. Repeat the above procedures for increasing ballast loading conditions i.e. 2000 and 4000g.

Data & Results:
Bilge Weight Mean Exp. at Theo.

Off balance wt.
Defln. =
from
(gm) (gm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
(degree) graph
50
100
0.00
150
200
50
100
2000.00
x1 = 30mm
150
200
100
150
4000.00
x1 = 37.5mm
200
250
Conclusion:
Comment on the closeness or otherwise of the practically acquired values of metacentric height
against theoretically derived results.

Exercise B
Purpose:
To determine the effect on floatation characteristics of altering the center of gravity of the pontoon,
with given total loading.
Procedures:
1. Replace the large bilge weights by 450g weights.
2. Apply a weight of 300gm on a height of 190 mm from the pontoon surface.
3. Using the method of exercise A, determine the metacentric height (using applied weights
40, 80 &120g).
4. Move one 50g bilge weight to the mast head and once again determine .
5. Repeat 100, 150 and 200g moved from the bilge weight to the mast head. Measure the position
of the center of gravity from the base of the pontoon for each loading condition.
6. Determine the theoretical for each condition and also a height of a metacenter above water
level.
Note 1: & values are constants for all loading conditions, since the dimensions & the weight
of a pontoon do not alter.
Note 2: Once the center of gravity of the unloaded pontoon has been determined, then the center of
gravity for other loaded conditions can be evaluated by taking moments about the base of the
pontoon.

3000(125) + (35) + 300(190) + (790 + )
= 2
3500
Where : + = 200
= 10 mm when = 50
= 20 mm when = 100
= 30 mm when = 150
= 40 mm when = 200

Data & Results:
Off balance wt. Mean at Theo. above

Exp.
Defln. = water
from level
(gm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
(degree) graph (mm)
Mast Weight = 0.0
40
80
120
Mast Weight = 50.0
40
80
120
Mast weight = 100.0
20
40
80
Mast Weight = 150.0
10
20
40
Mast weight = 200.0
Unstable
Conclusion:
Show the variation of depth of submergence and position of metacentric height under different
loading conditions
Discuss what will happen if the ballast weights were added at the center of gravity so that the
resultant center of gravity was unchanged.

Experiment (3): Impact of jet
Introduction:
Impact of jets apparatus enables experiments to be carried out on the reaction force produced on
vanes when a jet of water impacts on to the vane. The study of these reaction forces is an essential
step in the subject of mechanics of fluids which can be applied to hydraulic machinery such as the
Pelton wheel and the impulse turbine.
Purpose:
To investigate the reaction force produced by the impact of a jet of water on to various target vanes.
Apparatus:
1. Impact of jet apparatus (Figure 1).
2. Hydraulic bench.
Figure 1: Impact of jet apparatus

Equipment set up:

Set up the apparatus on the top of a hydraulics bench with the left hand support feet of the impact
of jet apparatus located on the two left hand locating pegs of the hydraulics bench so that the
apparatus straddles the weir channel. Connect the feed tube from the hydraulics bench to the boss
on the rear of the base of the impact of jet apparatus. Fit the 5mm nozzle and the normal flat target.
Figure 2: Illustrative figure of impact of jet apparatus
Theory:
When a jet of water flowing with a steady velocity strikes a solid surface the water is deflected to
flow along the surface. If friction is neglected by assuming an inviscid fluid and it is also assumed
that there are no losses due to shocks, then the magnitude of the water velocity is unchanged. The
pressure exerted by the water on the solid surface will everywhere be at right angles to the surface.
Consider a jet of water which impacts on to a target surface causing the direction of the jet to be
changed through an angle as shown in figure 3 below. In the absence of friction the magnitude of
the velocity across the surface is equal to the incident velocity Vi. The impulse force exerted on the
target will be equal and opposite to the force which acts on the water to impart the change in
direction.

Applying Newtons second law in the direction of the incident jet

=
=
= (2 1 )
= (2 1 )
This is the resultant force acting on the fluid in the direction of motion.
This force is made up of three components:
1 = = Force exerted in the given direction on the fluid by any solid body touching the
control volume.
2 = = Force exerted in the given direction on the fluid by body force (e.g. gravity).
3 = = Force exerted in the given direction on the fluid by fluid pressure outside the control
volume.
By Newtons third law, the fluid will exert an equal and opposite reaction on its surroundings.
The force exerted by the fluid on the solid body touching the control volume is equal and opposite
to FR . So the reaction force R is given by:
=
= (1 2 )
= ( )
= (1 )

= (1 )

Figure 3: Impact of a jet

Application to impact of jet apparatus

In each case it is assumed that there is no splashing or rebound of the water from the surface so
that the exist angle is parallel to the exit angle of the target.
The jet velocity can be calculated from the measured flow rate and the nozzle exit area.

=

However, as the nozzle is below the target the impact velocity will be less than the nozzle velocity
due to interchanges between potential energy and kinetic energy so that :
2 = 2 2
where is the height of target above the nozzle exit.
1. Impact on normal plane target
For the normal plane target = 90
Therefore = 0

= (1 ) = 1

2. Impact on conical target
The cone semi-angle = 45
Therefore = 0.7071

= (1 ) = 0.2929

3. Impact on semi-spherical target
The target exit angle = 135
Therefore = 0.7071

= (1 ) = 1.7071


Figure 4: Interchangeable target vanes
Procedures:
1. Position the weight carrier on the weight platform and add weights until the top of the target is
clear of the stop and the weight platform is floating in mid position. Move the pointer so that it
is aligned with the weight platform. Record the value of weights on the weight carrier.
2. Start the pump and establish the water flow by steadily opening the bench regulating valve until
it is fully open.
3. The vane will now be deflected by the impact of the jet. Place additional weights onto the weight
carrier until the weight platform is again floating in mid position. Measure the flow rate and
record the result on the test sheet, together with the corresponding value of weight on the tray.
Observe the form of the deflected jet and note its shape.
4. Reduce the weight on the weight carrier in steps and maintain balance of the weight platform by
regulating the flow rate in about three steps, each time recording the value of the flow rate and
weights on the weight carrier.
5. Close the control valve and switch off the pump. Allow the apparatus to drain.
6. Replace the 5mm nozzle with the 8mm diameter nozzle and repeat the tests.
7. Replace the normal vane with the 45 conical vane and repeat the test with both the 5mm and
8mm nozzles.
8. Replace the 45 conical vane with the hemispherical vane and repeat the tests with both the
5mm and 8mm nozzles.

Results:
1. Record the results on a copy of the results sheet provided.
2. Calculate for each result the flow rate and the nozzle exit velocity. Correct the nozzle velocity
for the height of the target above the nozzle to obtain the impact velocity.
3. Calculate the impact momentum and plot graphs of impact force against impact momentum
and determine the slope of the graphs for each target. Compare with the theoretical
values of 1, 0.2929 and 1.7071 for the normal plane target, conical target and hemispherical
target respectively.
Target Nozzle Height of target Additional Weights Volume of water

Time
Vanes Dia. above nozzle collected
(sec)
(degrees) (mm) (mm) (g) (Liter)
30

5 30
= 90
30
30
Flat
8 30
30
25

5 25
= 45
25
25
Conical
8 25
25
30
= 135
5 30
30
30
spherical
Semi-
8 30
30

Target Nozzle
Vanes Dia. (m3/s) (m/s) (m/s) (N) (N) Slope
(degrees) (mm)

5
= 90
1
Flat
5
= 45
0.2929
Conical
8
= 135
1.7071
spherical
Semi-

Experiment (4): Flow measurement
Introduction:
The flow measuring apparatus is used to familiarize the students with typical methods of flow
measurement of an incompressible fluid and at the same time demonstrate applications of the
Bernoulli's equation.
The flow is determined using a sudden enlargement, venturi meter, orifice plate, elbow and a
rotameter. The pressure drop associated with each meter is measured directly from the
manometers.
Purpose:
To investigate the flow rate using particular flow measuring apparatus.
Apparatus:
1. Water flow measuring apparatus (Figure 1).

2. Hydraulic bench.
Figure 1: Water flow measuring apparatus

Figure 2: Schematic diagram of water flow measuring apparatus
Water flow measuring apparatus is designed as a free-standing apparatus for use on the hydraulics
bench, although it could be used in conjunction with a low pressure water supply controlled by a
valve and a discharge to drain. Water enters the apparatus through the lower left-hand end and
flows horizontally through a sudden enlargement into a transparent venturi meter, and into an
orifice plate, a 90 elbow changes the flow direction to vertical and connects to a variable area flow
meter, a second bend passes the flow into a discharge pipe which incorporates an atmospheric
break.
The static head at various points in the flow path may be measured on a manometer panel. The
water flow through the apparatus is controlled by the delivery valve of the hydraulics bench and
the flow rate may be confirmed by using the volumetric measuring tank of the hydraulics bench.

Theory:
(1) Pressure drop at sudden enlargement
Figure 3: Schematic diagram of sudden enlargement
The test section consists of a 10mm diameter bore with a sudden enlargement to 20mm diameter.
Two manometer are provided.
Consider a sudden enlargement in pipe flow area from area A1 to area A2.
Applying Newtons second law, the net force acting on the fluid equals the rate of increase of
momentum.
1 1 + (2 1 ) 2 2 = (2 1 )
Where is the mean pressure of the eddying fluid over the annular area of the expansion. It is
known from experimental evidence that = 1, since the jet issuing from the smaller pipe is
essentially parallel.
(1 2 )2 = (2 1 )
(1 2 ) = 2 (2 1 )
From Bernoulli equation:
1 1 2 2 2 2
+ + 1 = + + 2 +
2 2
Since the flow direction is horizontal 1 = 2.
1 2 1 2 2 2
= +
2
And substituting 1 2 from Newtons second law:
2 (2 1 ) 12 22 (1 2 )2
= + =
2 2
Using Bernoulli equation:

1 1 2 2 2 2
+ + 1 = + + 2 +
2 2
1 2 2 2 2 1
= ( + 2 ) ( + 1 )
2 2
1 2 2 2 (1 2 )2
= 2 1
2 2 2
But by continuity equation 1 1 = 2 2 then:
1 2 2
2
1 1 2 ( ) (1 1 1 )
2 2
= 2 1
2 2 2
1 2
2
1 2
1 1 2 1 2 (1 )
2
( ) = 2 1
2 2 2 2
1 2 1 2 1 2
[1 ( ) (1 ) ] = 2 1
2 2 2
1 2 1 2 1 1 2
[1 ( ) (1 2 + ( ) )] = 2 1
2 2 2 2
1 2 1 2 1 1 2
[1 ( ) 1 + 2 ( ) ] = 2 1
2 2 2 2
1 2 1 1 2
[2 2 ( ) ] = 2 1
2 2 2
(2 1 )
1 =
1 2
( 1)
2 2
. = 1 1
. = .
Where is the coefficient of discharge.

(2) The venturi meter
Figure 4: Schematic diagram of venture meter
The venturi is manufactured from transparent acrylic materials and follows the classic 21-10
convergent-divergent design which forms the basis of most engineering standards for venturi flow
meters.
From consideration of continuity between the mouth of the venturi of area A1 and the throat of area
A2:
= 1 1 = 2 2
And on introducing the diameter ratio = 2 1 then:
2 1
= 2 =
1 2
Applying Bernoullis theorem to the venturi meter between section 1 and section 2, neglecting
losses and assuming the venturi is installed horizontally:
1 12 2 22
+ = +
2 2
Rearranging
1 2 22 12
==
2
And solving for 2 :
2(1 2 ) 2
2 = 2 =
1 4
(1 12 )
2
The volumetric flow rate is then given by:

2
. = 2 2 = 2
1 4
The actual discharge will be less than this due to losses causing the velocity through the throat to be
less than that predicted by Bernoullis theorem, therefore it is necessary to introduce an
experimentally determined coefficient of discharge . The actual discharge will then be given by:
2
. = 2
1 4
The coefficient of discharge varies with both the Reynolds number and area ratio. Typical values for
a machined venturi meter are between 0.975 and 0.995.
(3) Orifice plate
Figure 5: Schematic diagram of orifice plate
The orifice flow meter consists of a 20mm bore tube with an orifice of 12mm. The downstream
bore of the orifice is chamfered at 40 to provide an effective orifice plate thickness of 0.35mm.
Manometer tappings are positioned 20mm before the orifice and 10mm after the orifice plate.
Due to the sharpness of the contraction in flow area at the orifice plate, a vena contracta is formed
downstream of the throat in which the area of the vena contracta is less than that of the orifice.
Applying the continuity equation between the upstream conditions of area A1 and the vena
contracta of area Ac:
= 1 1 =
Where suffix denotes the vena contracta.
Applying Bernoullis equation, neglecting losses and assuming a horizontal installation:
1 12 2
+ = +
2 2

Rearranging
1 2 12
==
2
And solving for :
2(1 ) 2
= 2 =
1 4
(1 12 )

The volumetric flow rate is then given by:
2
. = =
1 4
The flow area at the vena contracta is not known and therefore a coefficient of contraction may be
introduced so that
= 2
The coefficient of contraction will be included in the coefficient of discharge and the equations
rewritten in terms of the orifice area 2 with any uncertainties and errors eliminated by the
experimental determination of the coefficient of discharge. The volumetric flow rate is then given
by:
2(1 2 ) 2
. = 2 2 = 2
1 4
(1 12 )
2
The position of the manometer tappings has a small effect on the values of the discharge
coefficients which also vary with area ratio, with pipe size and with Reynolds number. The
variations of with Reynolds number is tabulated below for orifice plates with = 0.5.
Reynolds
Number 2 x 104 3 x 104 5 x 104 7 x 104 1 x 105 3 x 105 1 x 106 1 x 107
D & D/2
0.6127 0.6102 0.6079 0.6068 0.6060 0.6043 0.6036 0.6032
taps

(4) Flow Round Bends and Elbows
A 90 elbow is placed immediately after the orifice plate and before the rotameter. There is a
constant bore diameter throughout the bend with manometer tappings positioned normal to the
plane of the bend before and after the elbow.
Whenever the direction of the flow is changed at a bend or elbow, the velocity distribution across
the pipe is disturbed. A centrifugal effect causes the maximum velocity to occur towards the outside
of the bend or elbow whilst at the inside of the bend or elbow, the flow is slowed or even reversed
in direction if the flow separates from the wall and a vena-contracta formed. A secondary flow is set
up at right angles to the pipe cross section which increases the velocity gradient and hence the
shear stress of the wall.
The loss of head is related to the velocity head by defining a bend loss coefficient so that
2
=
2
Values of are related to the pipe friction factors or by a constant which is dependent on the
ratio of the bend radius to the pipe diameter R/D. This constant may also be treated as an
equivalent length of straight pipe expressed as diameters by using the Darcy Weisbach equation :
2 2
= =
2 2

=

2
=

2
. = =

. = .
For single 90 bends and elbows, the bend resistance coefficient and the equivalent length are
typically:

R/D Elbows 1 1.5 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
30D 20D 14D 12D 14D 17D 24D 30D 34D 38D
30 20 14 12 14 17 24 30 34 38
(5) Rotameter
The rotameter utilises a transparent tube and a stainless steel float providing a visual indication of
the flow rate by measuring the position of the float relative to the position of the tube by using the
integral scale, which is calibrated from 1.5 to 10 litres/minute.
. = .
. = .
Procedures:
1. Position the water flow measuring apparatus on the horizontal operating surface of the
hydraulics bench using the locating pegs on the top surface of the bench. Connect the delivery
hose from the bench to the inlet connection of the water flow measuring apparatus. Insert the
overflow hose from the inlet tank into the overflow pipe of the volumetric measuring tank.
2. Prepare the instruments such that the water passes sudden enlargement, then venturi meter,
orifice plate, elbow, and finally rotameter .
3. With the flow regulating valve of the bench closed, switch on the bench pump and allow water
to be pumped into the apparatus by controlling the opening of the flow regulating valve until
water just begins to flow into the equipment and just overflows through the air vent above the
rotameter. Ensure that there are no air bubbles trapped in the manometer tubes, if necessary
open the supply valve until water spills out of the top of the manometer tubes so that the water
flushes out all air bubbles.
4. Adjust the supply valve to obtain 6 or 7 readings with the height of water in the left hand
manometer tube increasing in increments of approximately 50mm. The maximum flow which
can be achieved for the experiment is when the height of water in the left hand manometer tube

reaches the top of the manometer scale. At each steady state condition record the heights on
each manometer tube and the flow shown on the rotameter. Also measure the flow using the
volumetric flow tank of the hydraulics bench with a stop watch.
Data & Results:
Volume flow (Liters)
Time (min)
Head at tapping 1 (cm)
Rotameter flow rate

Experiment (5): Flow through small orifices
Introduction:
An orifice is an opening in the side or base of tank or reservoir through which fluid is discharge in
the form of a jet. The discharge will depend up on the head of the fluid (H) above the level of the
orifice. The term small orifice means that the diameter of the orifice is small compared with the
head producing flow.
The analysis of the quantity of water which can be discharged through an orifice is arrived at in a
simple, straightforward manner by the application of Bernoulli's equation. However, experimental
tests typically produce a result which is only some 65% of the solution indicated by the simple
analysis. The study of water flow through an orifice is therefore a classic topic to illustrate the need
for a semi-empirical approach which is so often required in Mechanics of Fluids.
Exercise A: Flow through a small orifice
Purpose:
To investigate the discharge characteristics of circular orifices subjected to a constant head.
Apparatus:
1. Constant head inlet tank (Figure 1).
2. Circular orifices with different diameters.
3. Hydraulic bench.

Figure 1: Constant head inlet tank with circular orifice
Equipment set up:

1. If the hook gauge and scale are to be used to measure the trajectory of horizontal jets then place
the two positioning rails on the worktop of the hydraulics bench engaging them onto the
locating pegs. Ensure that the engraved rail is placed closest to the front of the hydraulics bench
with the engraved side uppermost.
2. Position the constant head inlet tank onto the worktop of the hydraulics bench (over the hook
gauge positioning rails, if fitted) at the left hand side engaging two of the feet of the inlet tank
onto the locating pegs. If the orifice is to be fitted into the side of the inlet tank then it should be
moved to the left so that the right hand support feet engage with the locating pegs.
3. Remove the hexagonal (37mm across flats) bush and adaptor from the side of the inlet tank. Fit
the required orifice into the screwed hole in the side and plug the unused hole using the
blanking plug provided.
4. Connect the hydraulics bench flexible delivery tube to the connection provided on the rear of
the inlet tank base. Insert the flexible overflow take off pipe, which is connected to the boss on
the front of the inlet tank, into the overflow pipe of the volumetric measuring tank.
5. Remove or refit the overflow extention tube (screwed) in the inlet head tank to obtain a
nominal head of 250mm or 500mm above the side orifice.

A. Setting the overflow: Switch on the pump and control the flow rate by either adjusting the
hydraulics bench delivery valve or by adjusting the pump speed. The flow should be adjusted
carefully to produce a small but constant overflow and then fine adjusted to give 250 or 500mm
head as required.
B. Flow measurement: The discharge from the orifice may be measured using the volumetric
measuring tank and taking the time required to collect a quantity of water. The quantity should
be chosen so that the time to collect the quantity is at least 120 seconds to obtain a sufficiently
accurate result.
C. Measurement of jet trajectory: Use the hook gauge to measure the trajectory of the jet.
D. Measurement of head: The scale attached to the side of the inlet tank has its zero level with the
center line of the side outlet boss.
Theory:
Consider a small orifice in the side of a vessel with the head of water above the orifice kept
constant.
Figure 2: Discharge through an orifice
Applying Bernoulli's theorem between the surface of the water 1 and the orifice O yields
1 12 2
1 + + = + +
2 2
However 1 = = atmospheric pressure
1 = 0 1 =
hence substituting these into Bernoulli's equation gives

2
=
2
In other words, the theoretical velocity of the water passing through the orifice is given by
= 2
and hence the quantity of water being discharged through the orifice is given by
= = 2
However in practice the discharge is always less than this theoretical amount due to the viscosity of
the fluid, to surface tension and due to resistance of the air. The disparity between the theoretical
discharge velocity and the actual discharge velocity is allowed for by introducing a factor
known as the coefficien of velocity so that
= 2
If the discharge from a sharp edged orifice is examined closely, it will be observed that the
minimum diameter of the jet of water discharging from the orifice is smaller than the orifice
diameter. The plane at which this occurs is known as the vena contracta, which is the plane where
stream lines first become parallel. Applying the discharge equation at the vena contracta
= 2
which can be written as
= 2
Where: = Coefficient of contraction.
or more simply as
= 2
Where: = = Coefficient of discharge.
Typical values of Cd range from 06 to 065, i.e. the actual flow through a sharp edged orifice is
approximately 60% of the theoretical value. The value of the coefficient of discharge may be
determined by measuring the quantity of water discharged over a period of time whilst the head is
maintained at a constant level.

Procedures:
1. Fit the 5mm diameter orifice into the side of the inlet head tank. Remove the overflow extension
pipe. Start the pump and set up an inlet head of 25cm. Measure the flow rate using the
volumetric measuring tank.
2. Replace the overflow extension pipe and set up an inlet head of 50cm. Measure the flow rate.
3. Repeat the procedure using the 8mm orifice.
Data & Results:

1. Record the results on a copy of the result sheet for discharge characteristics.
2. For each result calculate the flowrate
3. Plot a graph of square root of the head against the flow rate for each orifice diameter, the
results should lie on a straight line passing through the origin to confirm that:

Measure the slope of each graph and calculate the coefficient of discharge for each orifice from

=
2
D (mm) 5 8
H (cm) 50 25 50 25
(m)
V (L)
T (sec)
(m3/s)

Exercise B: Trajectory of horizontal jet
Purpose:
To investigate the trajectory of a horizontal jet issuing from an orifice and hence determine the
coefficient of velocity for the orifice.
Apparatus:
1. Constant head inlet tank (Figure 1).
2. Circular orifices with different diameters.
3. Hook gauge and scale.
4. Hydraulic bench.
Theory:
Consider the trajectory of a jet formed by the discharge of water through an orifice mounted in the
side of a tank. The jet will be subjected to a downward acceleration of g due to gravity.
Figure 3: Trajectory of horizontal jet
Taking the origin of co-ordinates at the vena-contracta and applying the laws of motion in the
horizontal and vertical planes then ignoring any effect of air resistance on the jet.
In the horizontal direction =
In the vertical direction = 12 2
Solving simultaneously by eliminating t
2
= =


2
=
2
= 2
2
=
4
Procedures:
1. Fit the 5mm diameter orifice into the side of the inlet head tank. Remove the overflow
extension pipe. Start the pump and set up an inlet head of 25cm.
2. Measure the trajectory of the jet using the hook gauge. Record the horizontal and vertical
distances.
3. Replace the overflow extension tube and establish an inlet head of 500mm. Measure the
trajectory of the jet
4. Repeat the experiment using the 8mm diameter orifice.
Data & Results:

1. Draw a graph of y against x to represent the trajectory.
2. Draw a graph of x against and draw the best straight line through the points to represent
the results. Measure the slope of the line and hence calculate the coefficient of velocity from:

=
2

D (mm) 5 8
H (cm) 25 50 25 50
x (cm) Vertical distance below orifice center line y (cm)
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
Slope of graph

Experiment (6): Flow over weirs
Introduction:
In open channel hydraulics, weirs are commonly used to either regulate or to measure the
volumetric flow rate, they are of particular use in large scale situations such as irrigation schemes,
canals and rivers. For small scale applications, weirs are often referred to as notches and invariably
are sharp edged and manufactured from thin plate material.
Purpose:
To investigate the discharge-head characteristics of a rectangular and triangular weirs.
Apparatus:
1. Rectangular and triangular notches (Figure 2).
2. Hydraulic bench.
3. Basket of glass spheres.
Figure 1: Flow over weirs apparatus

Figure 2: Rectangular and triangular notches
Equipment set up:

1. Place the flow stilling basket of glass spheres into the left end of the weir channel and attach
the hose from the bench regulating valve to the inlet connection into the stilling basket.
2. Remove the five thumb nuts which hold the standard weir in place, remove the standard weir
and replace it with the specific weir plate which is to be tested first. Ensure that the square
edge of the weir faces upstream.
A) Flow measurement : The discharge from the weir may be measured using either the rotameter
(if fitted) or by using the volumetric measuring tank and taking the time required to collect a
quantity of water. The quantity should be chosen so that the time to collect the water is at least
120 seconds to obtain a sufficiently accurate result.
B) Measuring the weir datum : Fill the weir channel with water up to the weir plate crest level
and use the hook gauge to measure the level of the water. This will be the zero or datum level
for the weir.
C) Measuring the head : The surface of the water as it approaches the weir will fall, this is
particularly noticeable at high rates of discharge caused by high heads. To obtain an accurate
measure of the undisturbed water level above the crest of the weir it is necessary to place the
hook gauge at a distance at least three times the head.

Figure 3: Rectangular and triangular weirs
Theory:
1. Flow through a rectangular notch
A rectangular notch in a thin square edged weir plate installed in a weir channel as shown in figure
4.
Figure 4: Rectangular notch
Consider the flow in an element of height at a depth below the surface. Assuming that the flow
is everywhere normal to the plane of the weir and that the free surface remains horizontal up to the
plane of the weir, then
Velocity through element = 2
Theoretical discharge through element = 2

Integrating to obtain the total discharge between = 0 and =

. = 2 1/2
0

2
Total theoretical discharge . = 2 3/2
3
In practice the flow through the notch will not be parallel and therefore will not be normal to the
plane of the weir. The free surface is not horizontal and viscosity and surface tension will have an
effect. There will be a considerable change in the shape of the nappe as it passes through the notch
with curvature of the stream lines in both vertical and horizontal planes as indicated in figure 5, in
particular the width of the nappe is reduced by the contractions at each end.
Figure 5: Shape of a nappe
The discharge from a rectangular notch will be considerably less, approximately 60% of the
theoretical analysis due to these curvature effects. A coefficient of discharge is therefore
introduced so that:
. = .
2
. = 2 3/2
3
2 3
ln(. ) = ln ( 2) + ln()
3 2
3
= +
2

=
2
2
3
2. Flow through a triangular notch

A sharp edged triangular notch with an included angle of is shown in figure 6.

Figure 6: Triangular notch
Again consider an element of height at a depth

Breadth of element = 2( )
2

Hence area of element = 2( )
2
Velocity through element = 2

Discharge through element = 2( ) 2
2
Integrating to obtain the total discharge between = 0 and =

. = 2 2 [1/2 3/2 ]
2 0
8
. = 2 5/2
15 2
Again, a coefficient of discharge has to be introduced.
8
. = 2 5/2
15 2
The triangular notch has advantages over the rectangular notch since the shape of the nappe does
not change with head so that the coefficient of discharge does not vary so much. A triangular notch
can also accommodate a wide range of flow rates.
8 5
ln(. ) = ln ( 2) + ln()
15 2 2
5
= +
2

=
8
2
15 2

Procedures:
1. Start the pump and slowly open the bench regulating valve until the water level reaches the
crest of the weir and measure the water level to determine the datum level.
2. Adjust the bench regulating valve to give the first required head level of approximately 10mm.
Measure the flow rate using the volumetric tank or the rotameter. Observe the shape of the
nappe.
3. Increase the flow by opening the bench regulating valve to set up heads above the datum level
in steps of approximately 10mm until the regulating valve is fully open. At each condition
measure the flow rate and observe the shape of the nappe.
4. Close the regulating valve, stop the pump and then replace the weir with the next weir to be
tested. Repeat the test procedure.
Data & Results:

1. Record the results on a copy of the results sheet. Record any observations of the shape and type
of nappe paying particular attention to whether the nappe was clinging or sprung clear, and of
the end contraction and general change in shape.
2. Plot a graph of ln(. ) against ln() for each weir. Measure the slopes and the intercepts.
Calculate the coefficient of discharge from the intercept and confirm that the slope is
approximately 1.5 for the rectangular notch and 2.5 for the triangular notch.
Trials 1 2 3
(mm)
(L)
(sec)
. (m3/s)
(. )
()

Experiment (7): Investigation of Bernoulli's theorem
Introduction:
The flow of a fluid has to conform with a number of scientific principles in particular the
conservation of mass and the conservation of energy. The first of these when applied to a liquid
flowing through a conduit requires that for steady flow the velocity will be inversely proportional
to the flow area. The second requires that if the velocity increases then the pressure must decrease.
Bernoulli's apparatus demonstrates both of these principles and can also be used to examine the
onset of turbulence in an accelerating fluid stream.
Both Bernoulli's equation and the continuity equation are essential analytical tools required for the
analysis of most problems in the subject of mechanics of fluids.
Purpose:
To verify Bernoulli's equation by demonstrating the relationship between pressure head and
kinetic head.
Apparatus:
1. Bernoulli's apparatus (Figure 1).
2. Hydraulic bench.
Figure 1: Bernoulli's apparatus

Bernoulli's apparatus consists essentially of a two dimensional rectangular section convergent

divergent duct designed to fit between constant head inlet tank and variable head outlet tank. An
eleven tube static pressure manometer bank is attached to the convergent divergent duct. The
differential head across the test section can be varied from zero up to a maximum of 450mm. The
test section, which is manufactured from acrylic sheet, is illustrated in figure below
Figure 2: Test section of Bernoulli's apparatus
The convergent divergent duct is symmetrical about the center line with a flat horizontal upper
surface into which the eleven static pressure tappings are drilled. The lower surface is at an angle of
4 29'. The width of the channel is 635 mm. The height of the channel at entry and exit is 19525
mm and the height at the throat is 635 mm. The static tappings are at a pitch of 25 mm distributed
about the centre and therefore about the throat. The flow area at each tapping is tabulated below
the dimensions which are shown in figure 3.

Figure 3: Duct dimensions
Tapping
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
number
Flow
area 102.56 90.11 77.66 65.22 52.77 40.32 52.77 65.22 77.66 90.11 102.56
(mm2)
Equipment set up:

Position the inlet head tank and the variable head outlet tank on the mounting studs provided on
the hydraulic bench working surface and connect the Bernoulli apparatus between them using the
union connections. Connect the bench feed hose to the inlet head tank and attach an overflow hose
to the overflow outlet of the inlet head tank.
Prepare the equipment to the following specification :
Inlet : Constant head inlet tank with overflow extension fitted.
Test section : Bernoulli's apparatus.
Exit : Variable head outlet tank.
Manometer: Insert a sheet of graph paper 440mm high by 325mm wide behind the manometer
tubes to provide an easy method of obtaining a record of the results.

Theory:
Bernoulli's theorem
Bernoulli's equation is applicable to the steady flow of an incompressible and inviscid fluid.
Bernoulli's equation shows that the sum of the three quantities :
2
=
2
=
are constant. Therefore the three terms must be interchangeable so that, for example, if in a
horizontal system the velocity head is increased then the pressure head must decrease
2
+ + =
2
Loss of head due to friction

If the fluid is not inviscid then there will be a small loss of head due to friction within the fluid and
between the fluid and the walls of the passage. Bernoulli's equation can then be modified by the
inclusion of the frictional head loss
1 12 2 22
+ + 1 = + + 2 +
2 2
Where Bernoulli's equation has been written in the integrated form and has been applied between
the upstream section 1 and the downstream section 2.
Since the passage is horizontal 1 = 2. At two positions of equal area the two velocities will be
equal thus the equation reduces to
1 2
=

Most of the pressure loss in the converging part of the duct is recovered in the diverging part of the
duct. The degree of pressure recovery is given by :

=


The continuity equation

The continuity equation is a statement of the conservation of mass. Consider the steady flow of a
fluid through a streamtube of varying cross sectional area as shown in figure 4. For steady flow the
mass of fluid entering the streamtube at section 1 must equal the mass of fluid leaving the
streamtube at section 2. The mass flow rate of fluid at any section along the streamtube must be
constant so that :
=
= =
For an incompressible fluid the density is constant and the continuity equation can be written as :
=
For an incompressible fluid flowing in a converging duct it follows that as the area reduces then the
velocity must increase, whilst in a diverging duct as the area increases then the velocity must
decrease. Applying Bernoulli's equation if the velocity increases then the pressure must decrease
whilst as the velocity decreases the pressure must increase.
Figure 4: Element in a streamtube
Procedures:
1. Start the pump and initiate a flow of water through the test section. Regulate the flow to the
inlet head tank so that there is a small but steady overflow from inlet tank. Adjust the swivel
tube of the outlet tank to obtain a differential head of 50mm.

2. Measure the height of the water level in each manometer tube by marking the paper positioned
behind the tubes and record on the test sheet. Measure the time taken to fill the bench
measuring tank from zero to 10 liters and record.
3. Increase the differential head between the inlet and outlet head tanks by 5O mm increments,
until the water level in the centre manometer tubes drops off the scale. For each condition,
record the heights of liquid in the manometer tubes by once again marking the paper positioned
behind the tubes and measure the flow rate.
Data & Results:

1. Record the results on a copy of the result sheet provided.
2. Calculate the flow rate for each set of results.
3. For each set of results calculate at the cross-section adjacent to each manometer tube and the
flow velocity.
2
4. Plot a graph of head against distance and also + against distance.
2
Quantity of water Time to collect water Volumetric flow rate

collected (liters) (Sec) (m3/s)
Tapping
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
number
Flow
area 102.56 90.11 77.66 65.22 52.77 40.32 52.77 65.22 77.66 90.11 102.56
(mm2)
Static
head
Velocity
(m/s)
Total
head

Experiment (8): Minor losses
Introduction:
Minor (secondary) head losses occur at any location in a pipe system where streamlines are not
straight, such as at pipe junctions, bends, valves, contractions, expansions, and reservoir inlets and
outlets. The specific hydraulic model that we are concerned with for this experiment is the energy
losses in bends and fittings. A full description of the apparatus is given later in these texts.
Purpose:
To determine the loss factors for flow through a range of pipe fittings including bends, a
contraction, an enlargement and a gate valve.
Apparatus:
1. Energy losses in bends and fittings apparatus (Figure 1).
2. Hydraulic bench.
3. Clamps for pressure tapping connection tubes.
Figure 1: Energy losses in bends and fittings apparatus

The following dimensions from the equipment are used in the appropriate calculations. If required
these values may be checked as part of the experimental procedure and replaced with your own
measurements.
Internal diameter of pipework d = 0.0183 m
Internal diameter of pipework at enlargement outlet and contraction inlet d = 0.024 m
Figure 2: Schematic diagram of energy losses in bends and fittings apparatus
The accessory is designed to be positioned on the side channels of the hydraulics bench top
channel.
The following fittings are connected in a series configuration to allow direct comparison:
Long bend.
Area enlargement.
Area contraction.
Elbow bend.
Short bend.
Valve fitting.
Mitre bend.
Flow rate through the circuit is controlled by a flow control valve.

Pressure tappings in the circuit are connected to a twelve bank manometer, which incorporates an
air inlet/outlet valve in the top manifold. An air bleed screw facilitates connection to a hand pump.
This enables the levels in the manometer bank to be adjusted to a convenient level to suit the
system static pressure.
A clamp which closes off the tappings to the mitre bend is introduced when experiments on the
valve fitting are required. A differential pressure gauge gives a direct reading of losses through the
gate valve.
Commissioning:
1. Locate the apparatus over the moulded channel in the top of the bench and ensure that the base
plate is horizontal. Adjust the feet on the base plate if necessary.
2. Connect the flexible inlet tube at the left hand end to the quick release fitting in the bed of the
channel.
3. Place the free end of the flexible outlet tube in the volumetric tank of the bench.
4. Fully open the gate valve and the outlet flow control valve at the right hand end of the
apparatus.
5. Close the bench flow control valve then start the service pump.
6. Gradually open the bench flow control valve and allow the pipework to fill with water until all
air has been expelled from the pipework.
7. In order to bleed air from the pressure tapping points and the manometers, close both the
bench flow control valve and the outlet flow control valve and open the air bleed screw. Remove
the cap from the adjacent air inlet/outlet connection. Connect a length of small bore tubing from
the air valve to the volumetric tank. Now, open the bench flow control valve and allow flow
through the manometers to purge all air from them; then, tighten the air bleed screw and partly
open both the bench valve and the outlet flow control valve. Next, open the air bleed screw
slightly to allow air to enter the top of the manometers, re-tighten the screw when the
manometer levels reach a mid height.
8. Gradually increase the volume flowrate until the pattern just fills the range of the manometer
(adjust the bench flow control valve and the outlet flow control valve in combination to
maintain all of the readings within the range of the manometer). If the pattern is too low on the

manometer, open the bench flow control valve to increase the static pressure. If the pattern is
too high open the outlet flow control valve on the apparatus to reduce the static pressure.
9. These levels can be adjusted further by using the air bleed screw and the hand pump supplied.
The air bleed screw controls the air flow through the air valve, so when using the hand pump,
the bleed screw must be open. To retain the hand pump pressure in the system, the screw must
be closed after pumping.
10. If the levels in the manometer are too high then the hand pump can be used to pressurise the
top manifold. All levels will decrease simultaneously but retain the appropriate differentials.
11. If the levels are too low then the hand pump should be disconnected and the air bleed screw
opened briefly to reduce the pressure in the top manifold. Alternatively the outlet flow control
valve can be closed to raise the static pressure in the system which will raise all levels
simultaneously.
12. If the level in any manometer tube is allowed to drop too low then air will enter the bottom
manifold. If the level in any manometer tube is too high then water will enter the top manifold
and flow into adjacent tubes.
Note: If the static pressure in the system is excessive, Eg. with the bench flow control valve fully
open and the outlet flow control valve almost closed, it will not be possible to use the hand
pump to lower the levels in the manometer tubes. The valves should be adjusted to provide
the required flowrate at a lower static pressure.
13. In operation the pressure drop across each fitting is compared with the volume flowrate which
is measured using the volumetric measuring tank and a stopwatch.
14. To check the operation of the differential pressure gauge associated with the gate valve, close
off the flexible connecting tubes to the mitre bend pressure tappings using the clamps supplied
before closing the gate valve (to prevent air being drawn into the system).
15. Open the bench flow control valve and the outlet flow control valve. As the gate valve is closed
the differential pressure across the valve will be displayed on the gauge.
16. Close the bench flow control valve then switch off the service pump, the Energy Losses in Bends
apparatus is ready for use.

Equipment set up:

1. Set up the losses apparatus on the hydraulic bench so that its base is horizontal (this is
necessary for accurate height measurements from the manometers). Connect the test rig inlet to
the bench flow supply and run the outlet extension tube to the volumetric tank and secure it in
place.
2. Open the bench valve, the gate valve and the flow control valve and start the pump to fill the test
rig with water. In order to bleed air from pressure tapping points and the manometers, close
both the bench valve and the test rig flow control valve and open the air bleed screw and
remove the cap from the adjacent air valve. Connect a length of small bore tubing from the air
valve to the volumetric tank. Now, open the bench valve and allow flow through the
manometers to purge all air from them; then, tighten the air bleed screw and partly open both
the bench valve and the test rig flow control valve. Next, open the air bleed screw slightly to
allow air to enter the top of the manometers, re-tighten the screw when the manometer levels
reach a convenient height.
3. Check that all manometer levels are on scale at the maximum volume flow rate required
(approximately 17 liters/minute). These levels can be adjusted further by using the air bleed
screw and the hand pump supplied. The air bleed screw controls the air flow through the air
valve, so when using the hand pump, the bleed screw must be open. To retain the hand pump
pressure in the system, the screw must be closed after pumping.
Theory:
The energy loss which occurs in a pipe fitting (so-called secondary loss) is commonly expressed in
terms of a head loss (h, metres) in the form:
2
=
2
Where K = the loss coefficient and v = mean velocity of flow into the fitting.
Because of the complexity of flow in many fittings, K is usually determined by experiment. For the
pipe fitting experiment, the head loss is calculated from two manometer readings, taken before and
after each fitting, and K is then determined as :


=
2 /2
Due to the change in pipe cross-sectional area through the enlargement and contraction, the system
experiences an additional change in static pressure. This change can be calculated as :
12 22

2 2
To eliminate the effects of this area change on the measured head losses, this value should be added
to the head loss readings for the enlargement and the contraction. Note that (1 2 ) will be
12 22
negative for the enlargement and ( ) will be negative for the contraction.
2 2
For the gate valve experiment, pressure difference before and after the gate is measured directly
using a pressure gauge. This can then be converted to an equivalent head loss using the equation :
1 bar = 10.2 m water
The loss coefficient may then be calculated as above for the gate valve.
Procedures:
It is not possible to make measurements on all fittings simultaneously and, therefore, it is necessary
to run two separate tests.
Exercise A measures losses across all pipe fittings except the gate valve, which should be
kept fully open.
1. Adjust the flow from the bench control valve and, at a given flow rate, take height readings from
all of the manometers after the levels have steadied.
2. In order to determine the volume flow rate, you should carry out a timed volume collection
using the volumetric tank. This is achieved by closing the ball valve and measuring (with a
stopwatch) time taken to accumulate a known volume of fluid in the tank, which is read from
the sight glass. You should collect fluid for at least one minute to minimise timing errors.
3. Repeat this procedure to give a total of at least five sets of measurements over a flow range from
approximately 8 - 17 litres per minute.
Exercise B measures losses across the gate valve only.
1. Clamp off the connecting tubes to the mitre bend pressure tappings (to prevent air being drawn
into the system).

2. Start with the gate valve closed and open fully both the bench valve and the test rig flow control
valve. Now open the gate valve by approximately 50% of one turn (after taking up any
backlash). For each of at least 5 flow rates, measure pressure drop across the valve from the
pressure gauge; adjust the flow rate by use of the test rig flow control valve. Once
measurements have started, do not adjust the gate valve.
3. Determine the volume flow rate by timed collection.
4. Repeat this procedure for the gate valve opened by approximately 70% of one turn and then
approximately 80% of one turn.
Data & Results:

1. Record the results on a copy of the result sheet provided.
2. For exercise A, plot graphs of head loss () against dynamic head, and K against volume flow
rate Q.
3. For exercise B, plot graphs of equivalent head loss () against dynamic head, and K against Q.
Table 1 : Raw data for all fittings except gate valve

Case No. I II III IV V
Volume (L)
Time (sec)
1
Enlargement
2
3
Piezometer Readings (mm)
Contraction
4
5
Long Bend
6
7
Short Bend
8
9
Elbow
10
11
Mitre Bend
12

Table 2 : Raw data for gate valve

Volume (L)
50% Opened
Time (sec)
Red
Gauge
(upstream)
Reading
Black
(bar)
(downstream)
Volume (L)
70% Opened
Time (sec)
Red
Gauge
(upstream)
Reading
Black
(bar)
(downstream)
Volume (L)
80% Opened
Time (sec)
Red
Gauge
(upstream)
Reading
Black
(bar)
(downstream)

Table 3 : Minor head losses of all fittings except gate valve

Q (m3/sec)
V (m/s)
V2/2g (m)
Enlargement
h
h +V12/2g -
V22/2g
Minor Head Losses (m)
Contraction
h
h +V12/2g -
V22/2g
Long Bend
Short Bend
Elbow
Mitre Bend
Table 4 : Loss coefficient for all fittings except gate valve

Q (m3/sec)
V (m/s)
V2/2g (m)
Enlargement
Loss Coefficients
Contraction
Long Bend
Short Bend
Elbow
Mitre Bend

Table 5 : Equivalent minor head loss and Loss coefficient for gate valve
Q (m3/sec)
V (m/sec)
50% Opened
V2/2g (m)
Minor Head
Loss (m)
Loss
Coefficient
Q (m3/sec)
V (m/sec)
70% Opened
V2/2g (m)
Minor Head
Loss (m)
Loss
Coefficient
Q (m3/sec)
V (m/sec)
80% Opened
V2/2g (m)
Minor Head
Loss (m)
Loss
Coefficient

Experiment (9): Centrifugal pump
Introduction:
Pumps fall into two main categories: positive displacement pumps and rotodynamic pumps. In a
positive displacement pump, a fixed volume of fluid is forced from one chamber into another. The
centrifugal pump is, by contrast, a rotodynamic machine. Rotodynamic (or simply dynamic)
pumps impart momentum to a fluid, which then causes the fluid to move into the delivery
chamber or outlet. Turbines and centrifugal pumps all fall into this category.
Centrifugal pumps are widely used in industrial and domestic situations. Due to the characteristics
of this type of pump, the most suitable applications are those where the process liquid is free of
debris, where a relatively small head change is required, and where a single operating capacity or a
narrow range of capacities is required. The general design is usually simple with few mechanical
parts to fail, however, and it is possible to operate a centrifugal pump outside ideal parameters
while maintaining good reliability.
The centrifugal pump converts energy supplied from a motor or turbine, first into kinetic energy
and then into potential energy.
The motor driving the impeller imparts angular velocity to the impeller. The impeller vanes then
transfer this kinetic energy to the fluid passing into the center of the impeller by spinning the fluid,
which travels outwards along the vanes to the impeller casing at increasing flow rate.
This kinetic energy is then converted into potential energy (in the form of an increase in head) by
the impeller casing (a volute or a circular casing fitted with diffuser vanes) which provides a
resistance to the flow created by the impeller, and hence decelerates the fluid. The fluid decelerates
again in the outlet pipe. As the mass flow rate remains constant, this decrease in velocity produces a
corresponding increase in pressure as described by Bernoullis equation.
Exercise A
Purpose:
To create head, power and efficiency characteristic curves for a centrifugal pump.

Apparatus:
1. Centrifugal pump demonstration unit (Figure 1).
2. Interface device.
3. PC with a suitable software installed.
Figure 1: Centrifugal pump demonstration unit
Figure 2: Interface of one of the suitable softwares
Theory:
The operating characteristics of a centrifugal pump may be described or illustrated by using graphs
of pump performance. The three most commonly used graphical representations of pump
performance are:

Change in total head produced by the pump, H t

Power input to the pump, P m
Pump efficiency, E
The change in total head produced as a result of the work done by pump can be calculated as:
Ht = Change in pressure head + change in velocity head + change in elevation = H s + Hv + He
Where:
( )
Hs = Change in pressure head =

Where Pin is the fluid pressure at inlet in Pa and Pout is the fluid pressure at outlet in Pa.
( )2
Hv = Change in velocity head =
2
Where Vin is the fluid velocity at inlet in m/s and Vout is the fluid velocity at outlet in m/s.
He = Change in elevation.
The vertical distance between inlet and outlet, which is O.075m for the available pump.
The mechanical power input to the pump may be calculated as:

Pm = rotational force x angular distance = 2..n.t/60
where n is the rotational speed of pump in revolutions per minute and t is the shaft torque in N.m .
The efficiency of the pump may be calculated as :

= 100

Where Q is the volume flow rate in m3/s, and P m is the mechanical power absorbed by pump:
Each of these parameters is measured at constant pump speed, and is plotted against the volume
flow rate Q through the pump. An example of this type of graphical representation of pump
performance is given in Figure 2.

Figure 3: Characteristic curves for a centrifugal pump
Examining Figure 3, the general performance of the pump can be determined.

The Ht-Q curve shows the relationship between head and flow rate. The head decreases as flow rate
increases. This type of curve is referred to as a rising characteristic curve. A stable head-capacity
characteristic curve is one in which there is only one possible flow rate for a given head, as in the
example here.
The Pm-Q curve shows the relationship between the power input to the pump and the change in
flow rate through the pump. Outside the optimum operating range of the pump this curve flattens,
so that a large change in pump power produces only a small change in flow velocity.
The E-Q curve shows the pump capacity at which the pump operates most efficiently. In the
example here, the optimum operating capacity is 0.7 dm3/s, which would give a head of 0.95m.
When selecting a pump for an application where the typical operating capacity is known, a pump
should be selected so that its optimum efficiency is at or very near that capacity.
Equipment set up:

If the equipment is not yet ready for use, proceed as follows:
1. Ensure the drain valve is fully closed.
2. If necessary, fill the reservoir to within 20cm of the top rim.
3. Ensure the inlet valve and gate valve are both fully open.
4. Ensure the equipment is connected to the interface device and the interface device is connected
to a suitable PC. The red and green indicator lights on the interface device should both be
illuminated.

5. Ensure the interface device is connected to an appropriate mains supply, and switch on the
supply.
6. Run the software. Check that 'IFD: OK' is displayed in the bottom right corner of the screen and
that there are values displayed in all the sensor display boxes on the mimic diagram.
Procedures:
1. Switch on the interface device, then switch on the pump within the software using the pump
on/standby button.
2. Using the software, set the speed to 80%. The interface will increase the pump speed until it
reaches the required setting. Allow water to circulate until all air has been flushed from the
system. Slightly closing and opening the inlet valve and gate valve a few times will help in
priming the system and eliminating any bubbles caught within the valve mechanism. Leave the
inlet valve fully open.
3. In the results table, rename the spreadsheet (Select Format > Rename Sheet) to 80%.
4. Close the gate valve to give a flow rate Q of 0. (Note that the pump will not run well with the
gate valve closed or nearly closed, as the back pressure produced is outside normal operating
parameters. The pump should begin to run more smoothly as the experiment progresses).
5. Select the (Go) icon to record the sensor readings and pump settings on the results table of the
software.
6. Open the gate valve to allow a low flow rate. Allow sufficient time for the sensor readings to
stabilise then select the (Go) icon to record the next set of data.
7. Increase the flow in small increments, allowing the sensor readings to stabilise then recording
the sensor and pump data each time.
8. Using the arrow buttons on the software display, reduce the pump speed to 0%. Select "Save" or
"Save as" from the "file" menu and save the results with a suitable file name.
9. Switch off the pump within the software using the power on/standby button, then switch off
the interface device and close the software.

Results:
Using the graph facility, plot a graph of head against flow rate. On the secondary axis plot a graph of
mechanical power and efficiency against flow rate.
Alternatively, the results sheet may be exported to an alternative spreadsheet program (or results
may be manually plotted on graph paper) to produce a chart.
Conclusion:
Examine and describe the shapes of the graphs obtained, relating this to the changing performance
of the pump as the flow rate changes. Locate the point of maximum efficiency and the flow rate at
which it occurs.
Exercise B
Purpose:
To obtain a head - flow curve for the piping system through which the fluid is to be pumped. To
determine the operating point of the pump .
Apparatus:
1. Centrifugal pump demonstration unit (Figure 1).
3. PC with a suitable software installed.
4. Tape measure.
Theory:
System analysis for a pumping installation is used to select the most suitable pumping units and to
define their operating points. System analysis involves calculating a head - flow curve for the
pumping system (valves, pipes, fittings, etc.) and using this curve in conjunction with the
performance curves of the available pumps to select the most appropriate pump(s) for use within
the system.

The system curve is a graphic representation of the flow rate in the system with respect to system
head. It represents the relationship between flow rate and hydraulic losses in a system. Such losses
are due to the system design (e.g. bends and fittings, surface roughness) and operating conditions
(e.g. temperature).
Assuming that:
Flow velocity is proportional to volume flow rate.
Losses in the system are proportional to the square of the flow velocity.
It follows that system head loss must be proportional to the square of the volume flow rate, and the
system head-flow graph will therefore be parabolic in shape.
A predicted system head-flow curve may be calculated using standard coefficients for the system
design and a measurement of the system head at zero flow. The simplest method of calculation is
Hazen-Williams equation for major pipe losses. This uses a coefficient based on the pipe material,
along with values for the pipe length and diameter and the flow rate within the system. This is not
the most accurate method and is only valid for water flowing at ordinary temperatures (approx. 5
to 40C), but it is sufficient for many practical purposes. Accuracy may be improved by adding a
second equation for calculating the minor losses due to pipe fittings. The resulting calculation is as
follows:
h = total head loss in system = hf + hm
where :
1/0.54
4 0.63
hf = major losses in pipe = [ ( ) ]
0.85
2
hm = minor losses in pipe =
2
Where L is the total pipe length, V is the flow velocity, d is the pipe diameter, C is a coefficient
obtained from standard values (acrylic pipe = 140) and k is a coefficient obtained from standard
values, as follows:
Pipe entrance 0.5 (reservoir to pipe)
Pipe exit 1 (pipe to reservoir)
90 Bend 0.3
45 Bend 0.4
Ball Valve Negligible when fully open

Gate Valve 2.1 (half open)
As noted previously, pump characteristic curves illustrate the relationship between head,
discharge, efficiency and power over a wide range of possible operating conditions, but they do not
indicate at which point on the curves the pump will operate. The operating point (or duty point) is
found by plotting the pump head-discharge curve with the system head-flow curve. The
intersection of the two curves gives the duty point for the pump in that system, as illustrated in
figure 4 below.
It will be seen that the optimum operating condition is achieved if this operating point coincides
with the maximum point in the efficiency-discharge curve of the pump.
Figure 4: Definition sketch for determination of pump operating point
Equipment set up:

illuminated.
supply.

Procedures:
1. Measure the pipe length of the system, not including the path through the pump. Keep the
measurement as close to the centerline of the pipework as possible. Enter the result in meters
on the mimic diagram screen in the box for Pipe Length.
2. Add up the coefficient values for all the pipe fittings in the system. Do not include the entry and
exit into the pump but do include the pipes entering and exiting the reservoir, all bends. valves
and flow meter. Assume the pressure sensors have no effect on the coefficient. Enter the total
on the mimic diagram screen of the software in the box for coefficient k.
3. Switch on the interface device, then switch on the pump within the software. In the software,
set the pump to 100%.
4. Allow water to circulate until all air has been flushed from the system.
software.
6. Set the pump to 90%, and select the (Go) icon again.
7. Repeat while reducing the pump speed in 10% steps, recording a data sample at each step, with
a final set of data taken at 0%.
8. Select the (New) icon to create a new results sheet.
9. Set the pump to 70% (the design speed of the pump).
10. Select the (Go) icon to record the sensor readings and pump settings on the new results table in
the software.
11. Close the gate valve to give a small but noticeable reduction in flow rate. Allow a few moments
for the system to settle then select the (Go) icon again.
12. Repeat while closing the gate valve in small increments, recording the data at each step, until
the valve is fully closed.
13. Set the pump to 0%, then select 'Save' or 'Save As .. .' from the 'File' menu and save the results
with a suitable file name (e.g. the date and the exercise).
14. Switch off the pump within the software, then switch off the interface device.

Results:
On a base of flow rate, on one y-axis plot the system head from the first set of data and the total
head from the second set of data. On the second y-axis plot the pump efficiency from the second set
of data.
Mark the point on the graph at which the system head curve and pump curve (total head curve)
intersect to obtain the duty point of the pump.
Conclusion:
Compare the graph obtained with the example given.
Compare the point of intersection of the system head curve and pump head curve with the curve
for pump efficiency.
The k value for the gate valve was greatly simplified for this experiment. A more accurate value varies
depending on whether the valve is fully open or partially open (0.26 for 1/4 closed, 2.1 for 1/2 open, 17
for 3/4 closed). Discuss the effect on the results obtained on having used a single average value for
the gate valve.

Experiment (10): Series and parallel pumps
Introduction:
Centrifugal pumps are often used together to enhance either the flow rate or the delivery pressure
beyond that available from the single pump. For some piping system designs, it may be desirable to
consider a multiple pump system to meet the design requirements. Two typical options include
parallel and series configurations of pumps which require a specific performance criteria. In serial
operation the heads of the pumps are added and in parallel operation the flow rates (capacities) of
the pumps are added.
The experimental unit provides the determination of the characteristic behavior for single
operation and interaction of two pumps. The apparatus consists of a tank and pipework which
delivers water to and from two identical centrifugal pumps. The unit is fitted with electronic
sensors which measure the process variables. Signals from these sensors are sent to a computer via
an interface device, and the unit is supplied with data logging software as standard.
Purpose:
To investigate the result on discharge and total head of operating pumps in series and in parallel.
Apparatus:
1. Series and parallel pumps demonstration unit (Figure 1).
3. PC with suitable software installed.

Figure 1: Series and parallel pump demonstration unit
Figure 2: Interface of one of the suitable softwares
Setting the flow path

The system may be configured to drive flow using single,
series or parallel pumps. The system valves are as shown:

Valves should be set to configure the system as follows. The software should also be set to the
corresponding flow path to ensure that the correct calculations are performed.
Single Pump:
Series Pumps:
Parallel Pumps:
The two pumps are motor-driven centrifugal pumps. On pump 1, the speed of the motor is
adjustable to give a range of 0 to 100%, allowing operation as a single pump for pump performance
analysis. Pump 2 is an identical model but is run at its design speed, which is equivalent to a setting
of 80% on the variable-speed pump for a 50Hz electrical supply, or 100% for a 60 Hz supply.

Exercise A (Series pumps)
Theory:
A single pump may be insufficient to produce the performance required. Combining two pumps
increases the pumping capacity of the system. Two pumps may be connected in series, so that water
passes first through one pump and then through the second. When two pumps operate in series, the
flow rate is the same as for a single pump but the total head is increased. The combined pump head-
capacity curve is found by adding the heads of the single pump curves at the same capacity.
Figure 3: Pump curve for two pumps in series
Equipment Set Up:

3. Check that both pumps are fitted with similar impellers (the impellers may be viewed through
the clear cover plate of each pump).
5. Set the 3-way valve for flow in series.
illuminated.

supply. Switch on the interface device.
Procedures:
1. Both pumps must be used at the same setting in this experiment to ensure identical
performance. As the speed of pump 2 is fixed at its design operational point, pump 1 should be
set to match - select 80% for a 50Hz electrical supply, or 100% for 60 Hz.
3. If results are already available for a single pump across its full flow range, load those results into
the software now and jump to the section of this exercise using two pumps. If results are not
available then proceed as follows:
Single pump performance:
a. Close pump 2 outlet valve and open pump 1 outlet valve.
b. In the software, on the mimic diagram, set the 'Mode' to 'Single' by selecting the appropriate
radio button.
c. Rename the results sheet to 'Single'.
d. Select the (Go) icon to record the sensor readings and pump settings on the results table of the
software.
e. Close the gate valve to reduce the flow by a small amount. Select the (Go) icon again.
f. Continue to close the gate valve to give incremental changes in flow rate, recording the sensor
data each time.
g. After taking the final set of data, fully open the gate valve.
Series pump performance:
4. Create a new results sheet using the (New) icon. Rename this new results sheet to 'Series'. In the
software, on the mimic diagram, set the 'Mode' to 'Series' by selecting the appropriate radio
button.
5. Open pump 2 outlet valve, close pump 1 outlet valve and wait for any air to circulate out of the
system.

software.
7. Close the gate valve to reduce the flow by a small increment. Select the (Go) icon again.
8. Continue to close the gate valve to give incremental changes in flow rate, recording the sensor
data each time.
9. After taking the final set of data, fully open the gate valve again.
Pumps in parallel exercise may be performed immediately after this experiment without closing the
software; otherwise, save the results and ensure they are available for exercise B when required. (It
may also be advisable to save the results from this exercise before starting exercise B even if
continuing straight on, to ensure that the data is not lost in the event of a computer failure. The
results sheet may be overwritten with the combined results once exercise B has been completed).
Results:
On a base of flow rate, plot a graph of total head gain for the single pump and for two pumps
connected in series. Calculate the difference between the total head gain for single and series
pumps.
Conclusion:
Does the total head gain for the two pumps in series match the theoretical prediction of twice the
head gain for a single pump (assuming the two pumps used gave identical performance)?
Exercise B (Parallel pumps)
Theory:
A single pump may be insufficient to produce the performance required. Combining two pumps
increases the pumping capacity of the system. Two pumps may be connected in parallel, so that half
the flow passes through one of the pumps and the other half through the second pump. When two
pumps operate in parallel, the total head increase remains unchanged but the flow rate is increased.
The head-capacity curve is found by adding the capacities of the single pump curves at the same

head.
Figure 4: Pump curve for two pumps in parallel
Equipment Set Up:

3. Check that both pumps are fitted with similar impellers (the impellers may be viewed through
the clear cover plate of each pump).
5. Set the 3-way valve for flow in parallel.
6. Fully open the pump 1 outlet valve and pump 2 outlet valve. Opening both valves fully ensures
that the outlet pressure on both pumps is equal.
illuminated.
supply. Switch on the interface device.
10. In the software, on the mimic diagram, set the "Mode" to "parallel" by selecting the appropriate
radio button.

Procedures:
1. Both pumps must be used at the same setting in this experiment, to ensure identical
performance. As the speed of pump 2 is fixed at its design operational point, pump 1 should be
set to match - select 80% for a 50Hz electrical supply, or 100% for 60 Hz.
3. Exercise A should be performed before this experiment, and the results loaded into the software
if the software is not still open from that exercise. If the software is still open from exercise A,
then create a new results sheet by selecting the (New) icon. Rename the current (blank) results
sheet to 'Parallel'.
software.
5. Close the gate valve to reduce the flow by a small increment. Select the (Go) icon again.
6. Continue to close the gate valve to give incremental changes in flow rate, recording the sensor
data each time.
7. After taking the final set of data, fully open the gate valve. Set Pump 1 to 0% and switch off both
pumps.
Results:
On a base of flow rate, plot a graph of total head gain for the single pump and for two pumps
connected in parallel. Calculate the difference between the capacity for single and parallel pumps.
Conclusion:
Does the total head gain for the two pumps in parallel match the theoretical prediction of twice the
capacity of a single pump (assuming the two pumps used gave identical performance)?
Compare the graphs for pumps in series and pumps in parallel, and describe the similarities and
differences.

Experiment (11): Cavitation demonstration
Introduction:
Cavitation is demonstrated by forcing water through a contraction so that the static pressure of
the water reduces. When the static pressure is reduced, any dissolved air in the water is released
as bubbles. When the static pressure is reduced to the vapour pressure of the water, violent
cavitation (vaporisation of the water) occurs. By restricting the flow downstream of the test
section, the static pressure in the test section is increased. When the static pressure is maintained
above the vapour pressure, increased flowrate is possible through the test section without
cavitation occurring.
Purpose:
To demonstrate the appearance and sound of cavitation in a hydraulic system.
To demonstrate the conditions for cavitation to occur (liquid at its vapour pressure).
To show how cavitation can be prevented by raising the static pressure of a liquid above its vapour
pressure.
Apparatus:
1. Cavitation demonstration apparatus.
The following dimensions from the equipment are applicable:
Upstream diameter = 16mm.
Contraction included angle = 20.
Contraction length = 33mm.
Throat diameter = 4.5mm.
Throat length = 20mm.
Expansion included angle = 12.
Expansion length = 55mm.
Downstream diameter = 16mm.

2. Hydraulics Bench to supply water to the cavitation demonstration apparatus (the flow of water
can be measured by timed volume collection).
3. A 0 - 50C thermometer to determine the temperature of the water.
4. A stopwatch to time the accumulation of water in the volumetric tank.
Figure 1 : Cavitation demonstration apparatus
1. Bourdon gauge for the pressure at the upstream (P1), Range

0-2 Bar (gauge).
2. Bourdon gauge for the pressure at the throat (P2), Range 0-
1 Bar vacuum.
3. Bourdon gauge for the pressure at the downstream (P3),
Range 0-1 Bar (gauge).
4. Support plate.
5. A quarter-turn ball valve (ball perforated to prevent
excessive back pressure in the test section when the valve is
fully closed).
6. Right-hand / outlet end.
7. The test section (circular venture-shaped).
8. Left-hand / inlet end.
9. Diaphragm valve.
Figure 2 : Front view of cavitation demonstration apparatus
Theory:
In accordance with Bernoullis equation, the pressure at the throat of the venturi-shaped
test section falls as the velocity of the water increases. However, the pressure can only fall as far as
the vapour pressure of the water at which point the water starts to vaporise - cavitation occurs. Any
further increase in velocity cannot reduce the pressure below the vapour pressure, so the water
vaporises faster - stronger cavitation occurs and Bernoullis equation is not obeyed.

Equipment Set Up:

Locate the cavitation demonstration apparatus on top of the hydraulics bench.
Connect the flexible tube at the left hand end of the cavitation demonstration apparatus to the
water outlet on the hydraulic bench (it will be necessary to remove the yellow quick release
connector before screwing the fitting onto the outlet). To aid assembly, the flexible tube can be
disconnected from the cavitation demonstration apparatus by unscrewing the union on the valve.
Ensure that the union is tightened (hand tight only) following reassembly.
Locate the flexible tube at the right hand end of the cavitation demonstration apparatus inside the
volumetric tank of the hydraulic bench with the end inside the stilling baffle to minimize
disturbances in the volumetric tank.
Note: that when operating the cavitation demonstration apparatus near or at the vapour pressure
of the liquid, the vacuum gauge will be slow to respond. This is because the liquid inside the gauge
turns to water vapour when operating at the vapour pressure and this process will not be
instantaneous. The effect is more noticeable when the pressure is raised and cavitation stops
there will be a delay before the reading changes on the vacuum gauge after cavitation ceases visibly
and audibly in the test section.
Procedures:
1. Open the ball valve (right hand end) fully then close the inlet diaphragm valve (left hand e nd)
fully.
2. Close the flow control valve on hydraulic bench. Switch on the hydraulic bench, then slowly
open the flow control valve on hydraulic bench until it is fully open.
3. Slowly open the inlet diaphragm valve at the left hand end of cavitation apparatus and allow
water to flow through the cavitation apparatus until the clear acrylic test section and flexible
connecting tubes are full of water with no air entrained.
4. Continue to open the inlet diaphragm valve slowly until fully open to obtain maximum flow
through the system. Note the milky formation at the throat indicating the presence of cavitation.
Also note the loud audible crackling sound accompanying the cavitation.

Observe that the visible cavitation occurs in the expansion of the test section and not in the throat
where the pressure is at its lowest (with the exception of the pressure tapping hole in the throat
that causes a local disturbance to the flow).
5. If a thermometer is available measure and record the temperature of the water.
6. Close the inlet diaphragm valve until water flows slowly through the equipment with no
cavitation in the test section (typically 0.1 Bar on the upstream gauge P1) ensuring that the test
section remains full of water.
7. Record the following parameters:
Upstream water pressure P1 Bar.
Pressure at the throat P2 Bar (Vacuum).
Downstream water pressure P3 Bar.
8. Determine the flowrate by timing the collection of a known volume of water.
9. Gradually open the inlet diaphragm valve to increase the upstream pressure in small steps
(typically 0.1 Bar increments on the upstream gauge p1). At each setting repeat steps (7) and
(8) and note the presence of any tiny bubbles in the water. At each setting wait for the vacuum
gauge to settle before recording the pressure at the throat (there will be a long delay before the
reading changes on the gauge when near to or at cavitation because water inside the gauge is
converting to vapour).
Observe the change in appearance and change in sound when the pressure at the throat reaches the
vapour pressure of the water (air bubbles released from the water at higher static pressure make a
softer noise that is not true cavitation).
Also observe that the pressure at the throat does not continue to fall below the vapour pressure of
the water as the flow of water is increased.
10. Continue opening the inlet diaphragm valve in steps and recording / observing the
characteristics of the water until the maximum flow of water is achieved with the valve fully
open.
11. Gradually close the inlet diaphragm valve and observe that the Cavitation ceases as the pressure
rises above the vapour pressure of the water (again there will be a long delay before the reading
on the pressure gauge starts to fall because vapour inside the gauge is converting back to
water).

12. Close the inlet diaphragm valve until water flows slowly through the equipment with no
cavitation in the test section (typically 0.1 Bar on the upstream gauge P1) ensuring that the test
section remains full of water.
13. Close the outlet ball valve fully (the valve is perforated to allow water to flow when fully closed).
14. Repeat steps 6 10 with the outlet restricted.
15. Repeat step 14 with different settings of the outlet ball valve (partially closed).
16. Close the flow control valve on the hydraulic bench, then switch off the pump.
Results:
For each set of readings calculate the volume flowrate, then plot the graph of P2 against volume
flowrate Q for each set of results.
If the temperature of the water is known, determine the vapour pressure of the water using the
table below. From your results determine the minimum static pressure achieved at the throat of the
test section and confirm that this agrees with the vapour pressure of the water.
Analysis of the graphs should show that increasing flowrate (increasing velocity) through the test
section results in decreasing static pressure (as predicted by the Bernoulli equation) until the water
reaches its vapour pressure.
Results obtained with the downstream ball valve throttled should show that the onset of cavitation
is delayed due to the higher static pressure in the system (higher flowrate is possible before
cavitation occurs).
Conclusion:
The graphs should clearly show how the pressure at the throat falls as the flow / velocity of the
water is increased as predicted by the Bernoulli equation. It should also show that the pressure
reaches a minimum value that cannot be exceeded despite increasing water velocity.
Consider the effect of cavitation if allowed to occur in a hydraulic system.
The exercise shows that the cavitation can be prevented by increasing the static pressure of the
fluid. However, this technique can only be applied to delay the effect (a slight increase in flowrate
without cavitation occurring) and is not efficient as additional energy / a larger pump is required to
overcome the additional losses in the system. Cavitation is therefore best avoided by careful system

design to eliminate any high velocities, low pressures or high temperatures that could lead to
cavitation.
Table 1: Vapour pressure of water at different temperature
Vapour Vapour Vapour Vapour
Temp. Temp.
pressure pressure pressure pressure
C C
KN/m2 Bar (abs.) KN/m2 Bar (abs.)
4 0.8130 0.0081 28 3.7814 0.0378
5 0.8720 0.0087 29 4.0074 0.0401
6 0.9348 0.0093 30 4.2451 0.0425
7 1.0015 0.0100 31 4.4949 0.0449
8 1.0724 0.0107 32 4.7574 0.0476
9 1.1477 0.0115 33 5.0332 0.0503
10 1.2276 0.0123 34 5.3326 0.0533
11 1.3123 0.0131 35 5.6264 0.0563
12 1.4002 0.0140 36 5.9451 0.0595
13 1.4974 0.0150 37 6.2793 0.0628
14 1.5983 0.0160 38 6.6296 0.0663
15 1.7051 0.0171 39 6.9967 0.0700
16 1.8180 0.0182 40 7.3812 0.0738
17 1.9375 0.0194 42 8.2053 0.0821
18 2.0639 0.0206 44 9.1075 0.0911
19 2.1974 0.0220 46 10.094 0.1009
20 2.3384 0.0234 48 11.171 0.1117
21 2.4872 0.0249 50 12.345 0.1235
22 2.6443 0.0264 52 13.623 0.1362
23 2.8099 0.0281 54 15.013 0.1501
24 2.9846 0.0298 56 16.522 0.1652
25 3.1686 0.0317 58 18.160 0.1816
26 3.3625 0.0336 60 19.933 0.1993
27 3.5666 0.0357

Experiment (12): Major losses
Introduction:
When a fluid is flowing through a pipe, it experiences some resistance due to which some of energy
(head) of fluid is lost. Energy loss through friction in the length of pipeline is commonly termed the
major loss (hf) which is the loss of head due to pipe friction and to viscous dissipation in flowing
water.
The resistance to flow in a pipe is a function of the pipe length, pipe diameter, mean velocity,
properties of the fluid and roughness of the pipe (if the flow is turbulent), but it is independent of
pressure under which the water flows.
Friction head losses in straight pipes of different sizes can be investigated over a range of Reynolds'
numbers from 10 3 to nearly 105, thereby covering the laminar, transitional, and turbulent flow
regimes in smooth pipes. A further test pipe is artificially roughened and, at the higher Reynolds'
numbers, shows a clear departure from typical smooth bore pipe characteristics.
Exercise A (Fluid friction in a smooth bore pipe)
Purpose:
To determine the relationship between head loss due to fluid friction and velocity for flow of water
through smooth bore pipes and to confirm the head loss predicted by a pipe friction equation.
Apparatus:
1. Fluid friction apparatus.
2. Hydraulics bench to supply water to the fluid friction apparatus (the flow of water can be
measured by timed volume collection).

Figure 1: Fluid friction apparatus
Theory:
Professor Osborne Reynolds demonstrated that two types of flow may exist in a pipe.
1. Laminar flow at low velocities where h u
2. Turbulent flow at higher velocities where h un
Where h is the head less due to friction and u is the fluid velocity. These two types of flow are
separated by a transition phase where no definite relationship between h and u exists.
Graphs of h versus u and log(h) versus log(u) show these zones.
Figure 2: Fluid friction apparatus
Furthermore, for a circular pipe flowing full, the head loss due to friction may be calculated from
the formula:
2
=
2

where L is the length of the pipe between tappings, d is the internal diameter of the pipe, u is the
mean velocity of water through the pipe in m/s, g is the acceleration due to gravity in m/s2 and f is
pipe friction coefficient.
The Reynolds' number, Re, can be found using the following equation:

=

Where is the molecular viscosity (1.15 x 10 -3 Ns/m2 at 15C) and is the density (999 kg/m3at
15C).
Having established the value of Reynolds' number for flow in the pipe, the value of f may be
determined using a Moody diagram as shown below.
Figure 3: Moody diagram
Equipment Set Up:

Additional equipment required: Stop watch, Internal Vernier calliper.
Arrange the valves on the equipment to allow flow through only the test pipe under observation.
If using the data logging accessory, ensure that the console is powered and connected to the PC via
the USB connection. Load the software and choose a suitable exercise.

Procedures:
1. Prime the pipe network with water. Open and close the appropriate valves to obtain flow of
water through the required test pipe.
2. Take readings at several different flow rates, altering the flow using the control valve on the
hydraulics bench (ten readings is sufficient to produce a good head-flow curve).
3. Measure flow rates using the volumetric tank (if using a software, flow rate is measured
directly). For small flow rates use the measuring cylinder. Measure head loss between the
tappings using the portable pressure meter or pressurised water manometer as appropriate.
4. Obtain readings on all four smooth test pipes.
5. Measure the internal diameter of each test pipe sample using a Vernier calliper.
Data & Results:

All readings should be tabulated as follows:
Pipe Calculated Measured
Volume Time Flow rate Velocity Reynolds
diam. head loss head loss
No

(liters) (Sec) (m3/s) (m/s)
(m) (m H2O) (mH2O)
From 2
Moody (hC-hD)
2
Diagram
1. Plot a graph of h versus u for each size of pipe. Identify the laminar, transition and turbulent
zones on the graphs.
2. Confirm that the graph is a straight line for the zone of laminar flow h u .
3. Plot a graph of log h versus log u for each size of pipe. Confirm that the graph is a straight line
for the zone of turbulent flow h un. Determine the slope of the straight line to find n.
4. Estimate the value of Reynolds number (Re = /) at the start and finish of the transition
phase. These two values of Re are called the upper and lower critical velocities.
5. Compare the values of head loss determined by calculation with those measured using the
manometer.
6. Confirm that the head loss can be predicted using the pipe friction equation provided the
velocity of the fluid and the pipe dimensions are known.
It is assumed that the molecular viscosity is 1.15 X 10- 3 Ns/m2 at 15C and the density is 999

kg/m3 at 15C.
Exercise B (Fluid friction in a roughened pipe)
Purpose:
To determine the relationship between fluid friction coefficient and Reynolds' number for flow of
water through a pipe having a roughened bore.
Apparatus:
1. Fluid friction apparatus.
2. Hydraulics bench to supply water to the fluid friction apparatus (the flow of water can be
Theory:
The head loss due to friction in a pipe is given by:
2
=
2
Where L is the length of the pipe between tappings, d is the internal diameter of the pipe, u is the
mean velocity of water through the pipe in m/s, g is the acceleration due to gravity in m/s 2 and is
pipe friction coefficient.
The Reynolds' number, Re, can be found using the following equation:

=

Where is the molecular viscosity (1.15 x 10 -3 Ns/m2 at 15C) and is the density (999 kg/m 3 at
15C).
Having established the value of Reynolds' number for flow in the pipe, the value of may be
determined using a Moody diagram.
Equipment Set Up:

Additional equipment required: Stop watch, Internal Vernier calliper.
Open and close the ball valves as required to obtain flow through only the roughened pipe.

If using the Data Logging accessory, ensure that the console is powered and connected to the PC via
the USB connection. Load the software and choose a suitable exercise.
Procedures:
1. Prime the pipe network with water. Open and close the appropriate valves to obtain flow of
water through the roughened pipe.
2. Take readings at several different flow rates, altering the flow using the control valve on the
hydraulics bench.
3. Measure flow rates using the volumetric tank (if using the software, flow rate is measured
directly). For small flow rates use the measuring cylinder.
4. Measure head loss between the tappings using the hand-held meter, sensors or manometer as
appropriate.
5. Estimate the nominal internal diameter of the test pipe sample using a Vernier calliper (not
supplied). Estimate the roughness factor e/d.
Data & Results:

All readings should be tabulated as follows:
Pipe Measured Friction
Volume Time Flow rate Velocity Reynolds
diam. head loss
No coefficient

(liters) (Sec) (m3/s) (m/s)
(m) (mH2O)
2
( )
2
1. Plot a graph of pipe friction coefficient versus Reynolds' number (log scale).
2. Note the difference from the smooth pipe curve on the Moody diagram when the flow is
turbulent.

Experiment (13): Flow channel
Introduction:
An open channel is a duct in which the liquid flows with a free surface exposed to atmospheric
pressure. Along the length of the duct, the pressure at the surface is therefore constant and the flow
can not be generated by external pressures but only by differences in potential energy due to the
slope of the surface.
The flow channel is one of the most important tools available for the teaching of hydraulic
principles. The flow channel has been designed to allow students a wide range of experiments on
water flow in an open channel under different flow conditions and analyze the effects of test models
of various shapes on water flow. It also allows the verification of the Chezy equation and Mannings
friction factor. In addition studies of 'specific energy-depth' relationships, the effect of various
weirs and flumes, hydraulic jump and the determination of hydraulic mean depth can also be
carried out.
Flow channel:
Flow channel is designed to allow a series of experiments on water flow through a rectangular
channel to be conducted. The channel is of rectangular cross section 175mm high x 55mm wide and
2500mm long. The flow channel incorporates a specially designed entry section which incorporates
a stilling pond, filled with glass spheres, to provide smooth non turbulent flow conditions at entry
to the channel. At the discharge end of the channel an adjustable undershot sluice gate is provided
which can be used to control the exit flow.
The channel is supported on a steel framework which incorporates a variable height support at the
right hand end allowing the slope of the channel to be varied. A measuring point is provided
together with a clock distance gauge and the calibration is such that 1 revolution of the clock dial is
equivalent to a slope of 1 :1500.

Figure 1: Flow channel apparatus
Exercise A (Flow in open channels)
Purpose:
To investigate the flow of water through a rectangular open channel.
Apparatus:
1. Flow channel.
2. Hydraulics bench to supply water to the flow channel apparatus (the flow of water can be
Theory:
Consider an open channel of uniform width B and with a flat but sloping bed as illustrated below, in
which a liquid flows from left to right.
Figure 2: Rectangular open channel

At plane X let the

Height of the channel bed above datum =
Depth of liquid in the channel =
Width of the channel =
Wetted perimeter = = + 2
Mean velocity of the liquid =
The hydraulic mean radius is defined as:
.
= =
+ 2
Applying Bernoulli's equation to the liquid at plane X then the total energy head above the datum is:
2
=++
2
It is often advantageous to use the channel bed as the datum. The total energy head above the
channel bed is known as the specific energy, is:
2
=+
2
Rearranging to obtain the mean velocity:
= 2( )
Depending on the slope of the channel, the depth of the liquid along the channel may be constant or
it may either decrease or increase. Consideration of continuity of flow rate between two planes X 1
and X2 requires that the flow rate is the same at each of the planes so that:
= 1 . 1 = 2 . 2
and for a rectangular channel of uniform width :

= = 1 1 = 2 2

For a uniform or steady flow in a constant width channel the depth of liquid will be constant along
the length of the channel 1 =2 and therefore the slope of the surface must be parallel to the
slope of the bed so that = .
If the velocity along the bed increases then the depth decreases in the direction of flow 1 > 2 and
the slope of the surface is greater than the slope of the channel bed > or if the velocity
decreases then the depth increases 1 < 2 and < .
Consider the case of constant flow, a mean velocity in a rectangular duct can be calculated using

Chezy formula:
=
where is the Chezy coefficient for the channel.

The Manning formula is used exclusively for open channels and is usually used in large civil
engineering applications. Whilst the formula of Darcy-Weisbach and Colebrook-White applied to
channels are derived from flow in circular and non-circular pipes which are more suited to
mechanical engineering problems.
From the study of frictional forces in pipes, the friction factor is found to be dependent on the
Reynolds number and on the relative roughness of the pipe wall, however for very rough pipes the
friction factor becomes independent of Reynolds number and depends only on the roughness of the
pipe wall. For many open channels found in civil engineering problems the channel walls are very
rough and in studying these civil engineering channels Robert Manning found from experimental
work that the Chezy coefficient varied as the sixth root of the hydraulic mean radius and inversely
to the roughness of the channel.
1/6

=

Where is the Manning roughness factor.
The velocity in an open channel is given by the Manning formula:
2/3 1/2

= =

Typical values of Manning's roughness factor are:
Irregular rock channels 0.035 to 0.045
Rough earth channels 0.025 to 0.040
Smooth earth channels 0.017 to 0.025
Rubble masonry 0.017 to 0.03
Clean smooth brick or wood channels 0.010 to 0.017
Smooth metal channels 0.008 to 0.010
General experimental procedures:

1. Position the flow channel to the left hand side of the hydraulics bench so that the discharge
from the flow channel will enter the weir channel of the hydraulics bench.
2. Adjust the feet of the flow channel support frame so that it does not rock.

3. Connect the delivery hose from the hydraulics bench to the inlet connection of the flow channel.
4. Lower the sluice gate at the discharge end of the tunnel to seal the exit from the tunnel.
5. Start the hydraulics bench pump and allow water to enter the channel until it is filled to a depth
of approximately 20mm.
6. Measure the distance of the water level from the top edge of the channel wall at each end and by
means of the slope adjusting knob, make the measurements equal.
7. Set the clock dial to zero and note the reading of the dial counter gauge.
8. Check that the depth of water in the channel is constant along the length of the channel. This is
the setting for zero slope.
Procedures:
1. Set up the hydraulics bench using the general experimental procedures.
2. Fully raise the sluice gate at the discharge end of the channel so that it will not restrict the flow.
3. Set the flow channel slope to a downwards gradient from left to right of 125 in 1500 i.e. 1
revolutions of the clock dial from the zero point.
4. Start the hydraulics bench pump and adjust the flowrate to approximately 15 liters/sec.
5. When the flow conditions have become stable measure the flow rate using the volumetric tank
of the hydraulics bench and measure the depth of water in the flow channel at 50cm from the
left hand end.
6. Keeping the flow rate constant flow repeat the above measurements for the following different
downward gradients.
Revs. on dial from
Slope
'zero slope'
1.7/1500 17/10
1.8/1500 18/10
2.5/1500 21/2
3.0/1500 3
4.0/1500 4
5.5/1500 51/2

Results:
1. Record the results on a copy of the results sheet.
2. For each value of slope of the channel calculate:-
The water flow rate Q
The flow area from A = B. D
The mean velocity from V = Q/A
The hydraulic mean radius from R h = A/(2D + B)
The slope of the channel bed
2/3
The expression R h S1/2
2/3
3. Plot a graph of the mean velocity V against R h S1/2 and determine the Manning roughness value
from the slope of the graph.
Conclusion:
Comment on the value of Manning's roughness coefficient n and compare it with values quoted in
text books.
Exercise B (Flow under a sluice gate)
Purpose:
To investigate the flow of water under a sluice gate.
Apparatus:
1. Flow channel.

Theory:
By applying Bernoulli's equation to the flow in a channel it was shown that the specific energy
measured from the bed of the channel at any plane is given by:
2 2
=+ =+
2 22
the mean velocity is:
= 2( )
and the discharge is:
= 2( )
Substituting for in the specific energy equation and defining as the volume flow per unit of
channel width so that = /
2 2
=+ =+
22 2 2
Now differentiating with respect to depth and equating to zero to determine the conditions for the
minimum value of the specific energy :
3 2
=

3
=
2
The critical depth corresponding to minimum specific energy is:
2
=
3
and the velocity at this critical condition is:
3
= 2( ) = 2( ) = .
2
For a given value of discharge there will be two possible depths for a given value of specific
energy as shown in the graph below.

Figure 3: Specific energy-depth curve
For depths greater than the critical depth, the flow is said to be sub critical or tranquil and for
depths less than the critical depth, the flow is described as supercritical or shooting.
The flow under a sluice gate is dependent on the upstream head and the height under the sluice
gate.
Assuming tranquil conditions upstream, the flow under the sluice gate may be either tranquil or
supercritical, if it is supercritical then a downstream hydraulic jump can occur if the slope is either
insufficient to maintain the supercritical flow or if there is a downstream restriction.
a) Free discharge Unrestricted b) Flooded discharge Downstream

downstream restricted
Figure 4: Flow under a sluice gate
Procedures:
1. Set up the hydraulics bench using the general experimental procedures.
2. Fit the sluice gate in the channel at a distance of 50cm or more from the water flow entry.

4. Turn on the hydraulics bench and adjust the water flow to approximately 15 liter/second.
5. Check that stable conditions are achieved at the upstream measuring point (20cm upstream
from the sluice gate) and when stable flow conditions are established in the channel measure
the water depth:
20cm upstream of sluice gate.
10cm downstream of sluice gate.
20cm downstream of sluice gate.
6. Check the width of the flow channel at each of the three measuring points.
Results:
Record the results on a copy of the results sheet.
1. Calculate the water flow rate.
Q2
2. Calculate the specific energy for each of the three measurement points from:E = D +
2gA2
3 q2 3
3. Calculate the critical point using: DC = and EC = DC
g 2
4. Draw a graph of depth D against specific energy E for the three measured points and for the
calculated critical point. Draw a smooth curve through the four points.
2 2
5. Superimpose on to the graph a line from the origin at a slope of to represent DC = EC
3 3
Conclusion:
Discuss the shape of the graph of depth against specific energy.

Exercise C (Demonstration of a hydraulic jump)
Purpose:
To investigate the phenomenon of a hydraulic jump.
Apparatus:
1. Flow channel.
Theory:
If the flow in a channel is supercritical and there is insufficient slope for the gravity forces to
overcome the frictional forces then the flow will suddenly change to a sub critical flow by means of
a hydraulic Jump which is illustrated in the figure below.
Figure 5: Hydraulic jump
The depth of water before the jump is less than the critical depth and the depth after the hydraulic
jump is greater than the critical depth. The specific energy before and after the hydraulic jump must
be higher than the critical energy value. The hydraulic jump is a highly irreversible process, there is
a loss in kinetic energy, and although there is a gain in potential energy, the irreversibility of the
process requires that the specific energy downstream of the hydraulic jump is less than the specific
energy upstream of the hydraulic jump. A hydraulic jump will occur in a supercritical flow if the
downstream water level is raised above the critical depth by an obstruction.
For continuity of flow through the hydraulic jump:
= 1 1 = 2 2
1
2 = 1
2

In a hydraulic jump, the velocity changes from 1 to 2 and hence there is a change in momentum
through the jump. The force producing this change in momentum is due to the difference in
hydrostatic pressure resulting from the change of depth.
By equating the resultant hydrostatic force to the rate of change of momentum, the conjugate depth
2 can be calculated from the initial depth 1 from the following relationship:
1 212 1 12
2 = + +
2 4
The loss of specific energy due to irreversibility in a hydraulic jump can be calculated as the
following:
(2 1 )3
= 1 2 =
41 2
Procedures :
1. Set up the flow channel as for exercise B.
3. Turn on the hydraulics bench and adjust the water flow to approximately 15 liter/second.
4. Adjust the height of the sluice gate fitted to the discharge end of the flow channel until the
bottom of the sluice gate just touches the water surface.
5. A hydraulic jump will then form, make fine adjustments to the discharge sluice gate until a
stable stationary position of the hydraulic jump is obtained between the two sluice gates.
6. Measure the water depth each side of the hydraulic jump.
Results:
1. Record the results on a blank copy of the results sheet.
2. Calculate the water flow rate.
Q2
3. Calculate the specific energy for each of the three measurement points from: E = D +
2gA2
4. Provided that the flow rate is unchanged from that for expercise B, superimpose on the graph
for exercise B the two points for the depth and specific energy before and after the hydraulic
jump.

Conclusion:
Discuss the shape of the water surface before and after the hydraulic jump.

References :
1. Fluid mechanics, by Douglas, J.F., Gasiorek, J.M., Swaffield, J.A., Jack, L.B., Fifth Edition, 2005.
2. Fundamentals of Hydraulic Engineering Systems, Houghtalen, R.J., Akan, A.O., Hwang, N.H.,
Fourth Edition, 2009.
3. Lecture Notes of Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulics, Alastal, K.M., 2014.
4. http://www.cussons.myzen.co.uk/SOFTWARE/FrontEnd.htm. Access date 01/06/2014.
5. http://www.discoverarmfield.com. Access date 01/06/2014.
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Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulics Lab Manual

Dr. Khalil M. Alastal

Experiment (1): Hydrostatic force on a plane surface ................................................................. 1

Experiment (2): Metacentric height of floating bodies ................................................................ 7

Experiment (3): Impact of jet .......................................................................................................15

Experiment (4): Flow measurement ............................................................................................22

Experiment (5): Flow through small orifices ..............................................................................32

Experiment (6): Flow over weirs .................................................................................................40

Experiment (7): Investigation of Bernoulli's theorem ...............................................................46

Experiment (8): Minor losses .......................................................................................................52

Experiment (9): Centrifugal pump ...............................................................................................62

Experiment (10): Series and parallel pumps ..............................................................................72

Experiment (11): Cavitation demonstration ...............................................................................80

Experiment (12): Major losses .....................................................................................................86

Experiment (13): Flow channel ....................................................................................................92

References .................................................................................................................................. 104

Experiment (1): Hydrostatic force on a plane surface

Figure 1: Center of pressure apparatus

1 Dr. Khalil M. Alastal Eng. Mohammed Y. Mousa

Figure 2: Schematic diagram of center of pressure apparatus

Figure 3: Experimental set-up

2 Dr. Khalil M. Alastal Eng. Mohammed Y. Mousa

(A) Partial immersion

Figure 4: Surface is partially submerged

3 Dr. Khalil M. Alastal Eng. Mohammed Y. Mousa

(B) Complete Immersion

Figure 5: Surface is fully submerged

4 Dr. Khalil M. Alastal Eng. Mohammed Y. Mousa

5 Dr. Khalil M. Alastal Eng. Mohammed Y. Mousa

5. Repeat reading for reducing masses on the weight carrier.

Data & Results:

(A) Partial Immersion

(B) Complete Immersion

6 Dr. Khalil M. Alastal Eng. Mohammed Y. Mousa

Experiment (2): Metacentric height of floating bodies

Figure 1: Flat bottomed pontoon

Equipment set up:

7 Dr. Khalil M. Alastal Eng. Mohammed Y. Mousa

Figure 2: Illustrative figure of flat bottomed pontoon

8 Dr. Khalil M. Alastal Eng. Mohammed Y. Mousa

Figure 3: Centers of buoyancy of floating and submerged objects

Stability of submerged objects:

Figure 4: Stability of submerged objects

Stability of floating objects:

9 Dr. Khalil M. Alastal Eng. Mohammed Y. Mousa

If coincides with , the body is in neutral equilibrium.

Figure 5: Stability of floating objects

Determination of Metacentric height

10 Dr. Khalil M. Alastal Eng. Mohammed Y. Mousa

11 Dr. Khalil M. Alastal Eng. Mohammed Y. Mousa

Data & Results:

Bilge Weight Mean Exp. at Theo.

12 Dr. Khalil M. Alastal Eng. Mohammed Y. Mousa

13 Dr. Khalil M. Alastal Eng. Mohammed Y. Mousa

Data & Results:

Off balance wt. Mean at Theo. above

14 Dr. Khalil M. Alastal Eng. Mohammed Y. Mousa

Experiment (3): Impact of jet

Figure 1: Impact of jet apparatus

15 Dr. Khalil M. Alastal Eng. Mohammed Y. Mousa

Equipment set up:

Figure 2: Illustrative figure of impact of jet apparatus

16 Dr. Khalil M. Alastal Eng. Mohammed Y. Mousa