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Kinetic energy: energy that wants to stay in motion. Depends on vehicle weight and
velocity attained by the vehicle. Power delivered by the engine is typically used to
gain this kinetic energy.
A vehicle brake is a brake used to slow down a vehicle by converting its kinetic
energy into heat. The heat energy is then dissipated finally into the atmosphere. We
apply brakes to stop a car. Friction resists movement between brake surfaces which
changes motion energy to heat energy. Temperature in brake linings can exceed
300C (600F).
The stopping distance depends on the braking force. The required braking force
depends on:
Velocity of the vehicle
Total weight of the vehicle
Coefficient of friction between road-tire interface
There are two coefficient of frictions to consider here one at road-tire interface and
the other at the shoe/pad and metal interface inside the wheel. Coefficient of friction
at road-tire interface varies depending on : Vehicle speed, road surface condition, tire
grip condition etc. Temperature, rubbing speed, amount of wear etc. influences the
friction coefficient at the brakes. Unability of the brake to maintain its frictional
coefficient is called Fading of the Brakes. This may happen due to high
temperature, wetness or high level of wear. If the braking force applied causes a
friction force at the brake shoes/pads exceeding that at the road-tier interface(rolling
resistance) a Wheel-Lock condition occurs, causing the wheel to slide instead of
rotating and the vehicle to skid.
The causes of skidding (loss of traction) can be divided into three groups: (1)
conditions of the road, (2) conditions of the vehicle, and (3) actions of the driver.
1 Conditions of the Road
Ice, snow, or frost.
Wet road, particularly when the road surface has drops of oil and particles of
rubber especially with the first rain after a long dry spell.
Mud on the road, which can be found near farm entrances, outside building
sites, and truck crossings. Packed wet leaves, which occur in the fall.
Broken or uneven road surfaces and sand/gravel commonly found on curves.
Adverse camber on curves (when the road is banked the wrong way on a
curve) or when the curve is flat loss of traction can occur even if the road
surface is dry, but especially when the surface is slippery.
2 Conditions of the Vehicle (mainly brakes and tires)
Brakes should be evenly adjusted so that on application of the brakes the
vehicle slows down in a straight line. If the brakes pull one way or the other, a
skid can easily occur. Front wheels being out of alignment also can cause a
skid by pulling the vehicle one way or another when the brake are applied.
Tires should have good tread, and preferably the front and rear pairs should
be well matched, and the tire pressure should be correct. If there is a different
pressure in one tire from that in the opposite one, the effect can be similar to
that of unevenly adjusted brakes because one tire will drag more than the
other tires.
The stopping distances in the graph above are generic and may be influenced by a number of driver,
vehicle and environmental factors:
In a four-wheel car, requires the master cylinder to be divided internally into two
sections, each of which pressurizes a separate hydraulic circuit. Each section
supplies pressure to one circuit. The combination is known as a dual master cylinder.
Passenger vehicles typically have either a front/rear split brake system or a diagonal
split brake system. A front/rear split system uses one master cylinder section to
pressurize the front caliper pistons and the other section to pressurize the rear caliper
pistons. A split circuit braking system is now required by law in most countries for
safety reasons; if one circuit fails, the other circuit can still stop the vehicle.
DRUM BRAKES
A drum brake is a vehicle brake in which the friction is caused by a set of brake
shoes that press against the inner surface of a rotating drum. The drum is connected
to the rotating wheel hub.
The disc brake is a device for slowing or stopping the rotation of a road wheel. A
brake disc (or rotor), usually made of cast iron or ceramic, is connected to the wheel
or the axle. To stop the wheel, friction material in the form of brake pads (mounted in
a device called a brake caliper) is forced mechanically, hydraulically, pneumatically or
electromagnetically against both sides of the disc. Friction causes the disc and
attached wheel to slow or stop.
During a stopping, vehicle weight shifts to front brakes, so front breaks wear out
faster. Braking causes the car's weight to shift forward, and as a result about 70% of
the work is done by the front brakes. All cars now a days use disc brakes for the front
wheels, but many cars still use drum brakes in the rear.
Disc brakes are generally considered superior to drum brakes for several reasons.
First, they dissipate heat better (brakes work by converting motion energy to heat
energy). Under severe usage, such as repeated hard stops or riding the brakes down
a long incline, disc brakes take longer to lose effectiveness (a condition known as
brake fade). Disc brakes also perform better in wet weather, because centrifugal
force tends to fling water off the brake disc and keep it dry, whereas drum brakes will
collect some water on the inside surface where the brake shoes contact the drums.
By fitting disc brakes to the front wheels and drum brakes to the rear wheels,
manufacturers can provide most of the benefits of disc brakes while lowering costs.
(Drum brakes are less expensive to make than disc brakes, largely because they can
also double as a parking brake, whereas disc brakes require a separate parking
brake mechanism.) Even so, a car with four-wheel disc brakes (versus front disc/rear
drum) will still provide superior braking performance in wet weather and on long
down-hill gradients.
Brake pads are the components that truly convert the kinetic energy of the car to
thermal energy by friction. There are numerous types of brake pads, depending on
the intended use of the vehicle, from very soft and aggressive (such as racing
applications) and harder, more durable and less aggressive compounds. The five
most important characteristics that are considered when selecting a brake pad
material are as follows:
Brake linings are composed of a relatively soft but tough and heat-resistant material
with a high coefficient of dynamic friction (and ideally an identical coefficient of static
friction) typically mounted to a solid metal backing using high-temperature adhesives
or rivets. The complete assembly (including lining and backing) is then often called a
brake pad or brake shoe. The dynamic friction coefficient "" for most standard brake
pads is usually in the range of 0.35 to 0.42. This means that a force of 1000 Newtons
on the pad will give a resulting brake force close to 400 Newtons. There are some
racing pads that have a very high of 0.55 to 0.62 with excellent high temperature
behaviour. These pads have high iron content and will usually outperform any other
pad used with iron discs. Unfortunately nothing comes for free, and these high pads
wear fast and also wear down the discs at a rather fast rate. However they are a very
cost effective alternative to more exotic/expensive materials.
Fully metallic materials - these pads are used only in racing vehicles, and are
composed of sintered steel without any synthetic additives. They are very long-
lasting, but require even more force to slow a vehicle and are extremely wearing on
rotors. They also tend to be very loud.
Ceramic materials - Composed of clay and porcelain bonded to copper flakes and
filaments, these are a good compromise between the durability of the metal pads and
the grip and fade resistance of the synthetic variety. Their principal drawback,
however, is that unlike the previous three types and despite the presence of the
copper (which has a high thermal conductivity), ceramic pads generally do not
dissipate heat well, which can eventually cause the pads or other components of the
braking system to warp. However, because the ceramic materials causes the braking
sound to be elevated beyond that of human hearing, they are exceptionally quiet.
There are environmental factors that govern the selection of brake pad materials. For
example, the bill SSB 6557 [3] adopted in Washington State in 2010 will limit the
amount of copper that is allowed to be used in friction materials, to be eventually
phased out to trace amounts, because of the negative impact of high copper levels
on the aquatic life. Other materials like antimony compounds will be monitored as
well.
Typically ABS includes a central electronic control unit (ECU), four wheel speed
sensors, and at least two hydraulic valves within the brake hydraulics. There are four
main components of ABS: speed sensors, valves, a pump, and a controller. The ECU
constantly monitors the rotational speed of each wheel; if it detects a wheel rotating
significantly slower (more than a threshold rate) than the others, a condition indicative
of impending wheel lock, it actuates the valves to reduce hydraulic pressure to the
brake at the affected wheel, thus reducing the braking force on that wheel; the wheel
then turns faster. Conversely, if the ECU detects a wheel turning significantly faster
than the others, brake hydraulic pressure to the wheel is increased so the braking
force is reapplied, slowing down the wheel. This process is repeated continuously
and can be detected by the driver via brake pedal pulsation. Some anti-lock systems
can apply or release braking pressure 15 times per second. Because of this, the
wheels of cars equipped with ABS are practically impossible to lock even during
panic braking in extreme conditions.
Anti-lock braking systems use different schemes depending on the type of brakes in
use. They can be differentiated by the number of channels: that is, how many valves
that are individually controlledand the number of speed sensors.
Four-channel, four-sensor ABS : This is the best scheme. There is a speed sensor
on all four wheels and a separate valve for all four wheels. With this setup, the
controller monitors each wheel individually to make sure it is achieving maximum
braking force.
Two-channel, four sensor ABS : This system, commonly found on passenger cars
from the late '80s through early 2000s (before government mandated stability
control), uses a speed sensor at each wheel, with one control valve each for the front
and rear wheels as a pair. If the speed sensor detect lock up at any individual wheel,
the control module pulses the valve for both wheels on that end of the car.
Like many other safety features, realizing the full benefits of ABS depends largely on
whether or not drivers interact appropriately with it. ABS does not compensate for
unsafe driving or very poor road conditions. In order to ensure the ideal performance
of ABS, drivers must continue to use caution and good judgment behind the wheel.
BRAKE FLUID
Brake fluid is a low viscosity hydraulic fluid used in hydraulic brake and hydraulic clutch
applications in automobiles. It is used to transfer force into pressure, and to amplify braking
force. Most brake fluids used today are glycol-ether based, but mineral oil and silicone based
fluids are also available. Most brake fluid sold in North America is classified by the US
Department of Transportation (DOT) under its own ratings such as "DOT 3, 4 and 5".
The suspension system allows the vehicle to travel over rough surfaces with a
minimum of up-and-down body movement. It also allows the vehicle to corner with
minimum roll or tendency to lose traction between the tires and the road surface. This
provides a cushioning action so road shocks have a minimal effect on the occupants
and load in the vehicle. Road shocks are the actions resulting from the tires moving
up and down as they meet bumps or holes in the road.
AUTOMOTIVE SPRINGS
Four types of springs are used in automotive suspension systems. These are coil,
leaf, torsion bar, and air spring. The softness or hardness of a spring is its spring
rate. This is the load required to move a spring a specified distance. The spring that
compresses uniformly is said to have a linear spring-rate. Variable-rate springs do not
move or deflect at a constant or linear rate. Coil spring made by winding the coils
from a tapered rod provides a variable spring-rate.
TORSION BAR: The torsion bar is a straight rod of spring steel, rigidly fastened at
one end to the vehicle frame or body. The other end attaches to an upper or lower
control arm. As the control arm swings up and down in response to wheel movement,
the torsion bar twists to provide spring action. Apart from packaging space and
durability, torsion bars do have one advantage over coil springs. By rotating a torsion
bar relative to the frame, a driver can easily raise or lower his vehicle by several
inches for either more ground clearance or for a pavement-scraping ride. This
adjustability makes torsion bars perfect for off-road vehicles (SUVs, Tanks) which is
where you'll normally find them. However it cannot provide progressive spring rate.
The total weight of the vehicle includes the sprung weight and the unsprung weight.
The sprung weight is the weight supported by springs. The unsprung weight is the
part not supported by springs. In a ground vehicle with a suspension, the unsprung
weight includes the mass of the suspension, wheels or tracks (as applicable), and
other components directly connected to them, rather than supported by the
suspension. It includes the mass of components such as the wheel axles, wheel
bearings, wheel hubs, tires, and a portion of the weight of driveshafts, springs, shock
absorbers, and suspension links. If the vehicle's brakes are mounted outboard (i.e.,
within the wheel), their weight is also considered part of the unsprung weight. The
mass of the body and other components supported by the suspension is the sprung
mass.
The unsprung weight is kept as low as possible. The roughness of the ride increases
as unsprung weight increases. To take an extreme example, suppose the unsprung
weight equals the sprung weight. As the unsprung weight moves up and down, due to
the wheels meeting road bumps and holes, the sprung weight would move up and
down the same amount. For this reason, the unsprung weight should be only a small
part of the total weight of the vehicle.
Knuckle
Joint
FRONT SUSPENSIONS:
REAR SUSPENSIONS:
1. LEAF-SPRING REAR SUSPENSION
Figure above shows the construction of a simple shock absorber. It is basically an oil-
filled cylinder or tube in which a piston moves up and down. This forces the oil or
hydraulic fluid in the cylinder to flow through small fluid passages or orifices in the
piston. The resulting fluid friction limits spring bounce.
Solenoid/valve actuated type is the most economic and basic type of semi-active
suspensions. They consist of a solenoid valve which alters the flow of the hydraulic
medium inside the shock absorber, therefore changing the damping characteristics of
the suspension setup. The solenoids are wired to the controlling computer, which
sends them commands depending on the control algorithm (usually the so-called
"Sky-Hook" technique). Another fairly recent method incorporates
Magnetorheological Dampers. In this system, the damper fluid contains metallic
particles. Through the onboard computer, the dampers' compliance characteristics
are controlled by an electromagnet. Essentially, increasing the current flow into the
damper raises the compression/rebound rates, while a decrease softens the effect of
the dampers. Information from wheel sensors (about suspension extension), steering,
acceleration sensors and some others is used to calculate the optimized stiffness.
The fast reaction of the system allows, for instance, make softer passing by a single
wheel over a bump in the road.
An active suspension system uses hydraulic actuators instead of springs and shock
absorbers. The hydraulic actuator is a device that converts the hydraulic energy in a
pressurized fluid into mechanical motion. The system uses the hydraulic pressure
to keep each tire pushing against the road surface with a constant force. This force
changes as the tires move up and down. It also changes when the center of gravity
shifts during vehicle cornering, and when front-end dive and rear-end squat occur
during braking and acceleration.
A sensor in the actuator signals the computer when the tire force changes. Other
sensors on the vehicle signal changes in steering position, acceleration and
deceleration, and body stability. An on-board gyroscope serves as a yaw sensor.
It detects any swerving or wandering away from a straight-ahead course. The
computer receives these inputs and then signals the proper servo valve. It sends
high-pressure hydraulic fluid through a computer-controlled valve in the double acting
actuator that raises or lowers the wheel so the tire maintains the same force against
the road. This keeps the vehicle level while providing the best possible ride and
handling.
All these actions occur almost instantly, and go unnoticed by the driver. By
acting instead of reacting to an irregular road surface, most of the tire-and-wheel
movement is absorbed in the suspension system. Little shock and vibration reaches
the vehicle body and its occupants. Vehicles with active suspension may also have
springs, these are usually soft and easily overridden by the more powerful
actuators. The springs allow the vehicle to be driven if the hydraulic system fails.