Articles Section

Journal of Cognitive and Behavioral Psychotherapies,

Vol. 7, No. 1, March 2007, 81-93.

EFFECTIVENESS OF RATIONAL-EMOTIVE
EDUCATION: A QUANTITATIVE META-
ANALYTICAL STUDY
Simona TRIP*1 , Ann VERNON2 , James McMAHON2
1. Oradea State University, Oradea, Romania
2. Albert Ellis Institute, New-York, USA

Abstract
Research on Rational Emotive Education (REE) is not as prolific as in
Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT), on which it is based. No
quantitative meta-analytic studies of REE were found in the literature; in
fact, we found only 6 reviews on REE. The objective of this study was to
investigate the effectiveness of REE through a quantitative meta-analitical
study. Twenty-six (26) published articles, which fit the inclusion criteria,
were examined. Results demonstrated that REE had a powerful effect on
lessening irrational beliefs and dysfunctional behaviors, plus a moderate
effect concerning positive inference making and decreasing negative
emotions. The efficiency of REE appeared to not be affected by the length
of applied REE. Rather, the REE effect was strong when participants were
concerned with their problems. Types of psychometric measure used for
irrational beliefs evaluation affected the results. Effect sizes increased from
medium to large when the subjects were children and adolescents compared
to young adults.

Key words: Rational Emotive Education, quantitative meta-analysis,

effectiveness.

INTRODUCTION

Compared to research on Rational-Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT),

the research concerning Rational-Emotive Education (REE) seemed not to be
nearly so ubiquitous. Searches of ERIC, EBSCO, and PsychInfo based on the key
words rational emotive education enabled the writers to discern the following:
1) for the 1970s, twenty-one (21) published articles, 2 books and 10
dissertations were located;

*
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to: Dr. Simona Popa, No. 5
Armatei Romne St., Oradea, Romania; Email: spopa@uoradea.ro

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2) in the 1980s, Rational-Emotive Education (REE) was the topic for

thirteen (13) published articles, 2 book chapters, and eighteen (18)
dissertations;
3) between 1990-2006, the search revealed thirty-one (31) published
articles, 2 book chapters, and fourteen (14) dissertations.
No quantitative meta-analytic studies of REE were found in the literature.
Only 6 reviews were found as qualitative meta-analytic studies (DiGiuseppe,
Miller, & Trexler, 1977; DiGiuseppe & Bernard, 1990; Gossette & OBrien,
1989; Gossette & OBrien, 1993; Hajzler & Bernard, 1991; Watter, 1988). Four
of them presented data (percentages) about the efficiency of REE. The review
studies by Gossette and OBrien (1993) were the most critical and their advice
was that it seemed fruitless for anyone to undertake REE research.
DiGiuseppe, Miller, and Trexler (1977) reviewed Maultsby and his other
studies (Maultsby, 1974; Maultsby, Knipping & Carpenter, 1974; Maultsby,
Costello & Carpenter) that argued that Rational-Emotive Education was an
efficient prophylactic against mental deterioration among non-clinical populations
of children and adolescents. Other studies reviewed by them asserted that the
children involved in an REE program were able to learn the REBT assumptions,
to modify their irrational beliefs, and to have more functional emotions and
behavior than they had before REE.
Watter (1988) analyzed the research that had been done after the dates of
those cited in the previous paragraph on Rational-Emotive Education. Watter
concluded that elementary school pupils who attended REE had modified their
anxiety levels, increased self-esteem, and raised low frustration tolerance (LFT)
toward high frustration tolerance (HFT). Generally, such students became more
skilled at coping with emotionally loaded situations. Compared to an educational
program based on elements of Freudian theory as well as with a sex education
program, REE was helpful for students to decrease irrational beliefs and
dysfunctional emotions.
Gossette and OBrien (1989; followed by Gossette & OBrien, 1993)
judged that the studies that had been conducted on REE did not offer enough data
to support the possibility of efficiency with school populations. The major effect
of REE was on irrational beliefs, as was expected. Their judgments were not
surprising because the content of irrational beliefs measuring scales was identical
with the content of the REE curriculum. Minor modifications were found on
behaviors: students with problems not covered in the curriculum were less
receptive to REE than students who at the outset reported no problems.
DiGiuseppe and Bernard (1990) found that more then 90% of the studies
they reviewed supported REE efficiency in diminishing irrational beliefs. More
then 50% of the studies sampled recorded behavior modification, locus of control
internalization, changes for various personality styles and concerning some
development milestones. Fifty per cent of the studies surveyed by these
researchers supported anxiety levels having decreased while self-esteem increased

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(which could further have supported an ipsilateral statistical artifact in that as one
score decreased another increased). The idea that the emotional and behavior
change was due to beliefs modification could not be inferred from the results of
any single study. However, REE had a higher potential for changing adaptive
functioning than for changing any single, targeted behavior.
Hajzler and Bernard (1991) asserted that irrational beliefs decreased in
88% of the studies they surveyed, while locus of control internalized in 71% of
the studied undertaken with students who displayed learning problems. They
reported that anxiety waned in 80% of the studies surveyed, while self-esteem and
general adaptation (functional behaviors) improved in 50% of cases.
Gossette and OBrien (1993) analyzed thirty-three dissertations and 2
published articles concerning REE. That survey showed some greater efficiency
in managing irrational beliefs (53%), with irrational beliefs modification (43%)
for managing neuroticism, and less than 30% of subjects for managing emotional
and behavioral consequences. Based on these results the authors concluded that
perhaps the basic principle of the REE model was troubling and that, . . .the
continued use of REE in the classroom with normal school children is unjustified
and in fact contraindicated (Gossette & OBrien, 1993, p.23). David et al.,
(2005) classified this study as being biased and its conclusions wrong the fact
that Rational -Emotive Education was 30% less efficient than the other treatments
(including group, placebo group, and other interventions) was a misinterpretation
of the data; the correct conclusion would be that Rational-Emotive Education at
least as effic ient as other treatments and more efficient than other treatmentas
about 30% of the time. The objective of this study was to investigate the
effectiveness of REE through a quatitative meta-analitical study.

METHOD

Selection of Studies
The selection of studies was done by searching ERIC, EBSCO, and
PsychInfo from 1970 to 2006, using the key words rational emotive education.
The reference list of articles included in previous reviews was also used. To be
included in the meta-analysis, each study had to fulfill the following criteria:
1. it had to be published in a specialty journal, which meant they were at
least edited or edited-peer reviewed (therefore, dissertations were not
included);
2. at least one study group had to involve REE and that program had to
be clearly described;
3. the selected article had to offer pretest-posttest or REE - control,
placebo, or other intervention group comparisons;
4. the article had to have statistical data to support the main effects;
5. the number of subjects for each group studied had to be specified.

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A total of 26 studies, which met the above criteria, were identified and
included in the present quatitative meta-analysis

Main Effect Estimations

Differences between means evidenced in transformed scores were
calculated, using Cohens d estimate for the effect size. Different people offer
different advice regarding how to interpret the resultant effect size, but the most
accepted opinion is that of Cohen, where 0.2 is indicative of a small/low effect,
0.5 a medium, and 0.8 a large/powerful/strong effect size. The formulae used for
d calculation were: (1) d = the mean of difference scores divided by the standard
deviation of difference scores (related samples), and (2) d = (experimental group
mean control group mean) / intra-group standard deviation (independent
samples). The intra-group standard deviation was derived from the intra-group
variance, that formula supported by Fisher (Hunter & Schmidt, 1990). Where the
means and standard deviations were not offered, d was calculated based on t, r, F
or ?2 scores, that procedure having been supported by Hunter and Schmidt (1990).

Coding System
After having been selected, the studies were analyzed following these
categories of variables: independent, moderators, and dependent, using the coding
system proposed by Smith et al., (1980, as cited in Hunter & Schmidt, 1990). The
independent variable was the treatment offered: Rational-Emotive Education was
compared with the baseline level, control group (e.g., no treatment, waiting-list),
placebo group, or other intervention (i.e., self-instructional training, human
relationships, experiential training, and relaxation). Included in the moderator
categories were the following variables: age (i.e., children, adolescents, students),
measures, intervention length (i.e., short, medium, long), as well as subject
diagnosis (i.e., no problems, academic problems, behavior disorders, anxiety).
The dependent variables were: irrational beliefs, inferential beliefs (i.e., cognitive
distortions cold cognitions), emotions, and behaviors (see David, 2003 for
details).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

REE was analyzed for its effect on different dependent variables. Table 1
shows the values of the effect size of REE on irrational beliefs, inferential beliefs,
emotions, and behaviors. Significant differences were found between groups: F
(3, 202)=2.85, p<.05, as REE seemed more efficient with irrational beliefs and
behavior modification. The effect size seemed powerful concerning decrease in
dysfunctional behaviors, and partially powerful with irrational beliefs
modification, and adequately powerful statistically concerning inferential beliefs
and changing emotions.

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Table 1. Dependent Variables.

Dependent variable d SD 95% interval No. of No. of

(standard subjects comparisons
deviation)
Irrational beliefs 0.73 0.03 0.67-0.78 2816 40
Inferential beliefs 0.50 0.20 0.10-0.89 1784 39
Emotions 0.60 0.26 0.09-1.10 2564 62
Behaviors 0.85 1.10 -1.30-3.00 2069 65

Table 2 shows no significant differences between the independent

variables, F (3, 202)=1.06, p>.05. The effect size was medium when REE was
compared with the baseline, control group and placebo group. The effect size was
large when REE was linked to other interventions (i.e., relaxation, human
relationship, self-instructional training, experiential therapies).

Table 2. Independent Variables.

Independent d SD 95% interval No. of No. of

variable subjects comparisons
Pretest-Posttest 0.63 0.64 -0.62-1.88 1237 56
REE-Control group 0.64 0.55 -0.61-1.71 6187 104
REE-Placebo 0.60 0.10 0.40-0.79 308 6
REE-Other 0.85 1.01 -1.12-2.82 1501 40
interventions

The results showed that the benefit of the REE participants maintained
gains in the follow-up phase compared with the control group and other
interventions (human relationship): d=2.69 [s.d.=2.17; 95% - (-1.56 6.94); 276
subjects; 9 comparisons].
The efficiency of REE seemed not to be influenced by length of training
(see Table 3). A short length was considered less then 4 meetings (50 min. - 1
hour), while medium length was taken to mean 4-17 meetings (50 min.- 1 hour),
and the long length was 17 85 lessons (30 min. 1 hour). Even though the
effect size became larger and larger as the length of training grew, the differences
were not statistically significant (F (2, 43)=2.54, p>.05.

Table 3. Moderator Variables Length of Training.

Training length d SD 95% interval No. of No. of

subjects comparisons
Short 0.43 0.08 0.27-0.58 542 12
Mean 0.52 0.30 0.06-1.10 2304 20
Long 0.92 1.05 -1.13-2.97 635 14

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Other moderator variables that seemed to influence the efficiency of REE

were the diagnostic characteristics of the population involved. REE was an
efficient program of secondary prevention with different subclinical problems
manifested by children and adolescents. The problems studied in the research
involved in this meta-analysis can be arranged in 3 categories: (1) academic
problems including learning problems; school withdrawal; low academic
performance; (2) behavioral problems; and (3) anxiety (test anxiety and state-trait
anxiety). No differences (see Table 4) were found between the categories (F (2,
14)=2.44, p>.05). The effect size was the largest for academic problem solving. A
powerful effect size was obtained concerning anxiety reduction. An average effect
size was recorded with behavioral problems decreasing. The effect size of REE
seems to have supported even a primary prevention program that aimed to reduce
the strength of dependent variables (irrational beliefs, dysfunctional inferential
beliefs, emotions, and behaviors) in a normal population (i.e., no problems).

Table 4. Moderator Variables Diagnostic Characteristics of Population.

Diagnostic d SD 95% interval No. of No. of

characteristics subjects comparisons
No problems 0.49 0.26 -0.01-0.99 3049 29
Problems 1.23 1.17 -1.06-3.52 432 17
Academic problems 2.10 1.67 -1.17-5.37 155 5
Behavior problems 0.56 0.24 0.08-1.03 72 2
Anxiety 0.80 0.15 0.50-1.09 205 10

An age effect was also revealed (see Table 5): REE was more efficient in
working with children and adolescents compared to working with undergraduate
or graduate students F (2, 204)=4, p<.05.

Table 5. Moderator Variables Age of Subjects.

Age d SD 95% interval No. of No. of

subjects comparisons
Children 0.70 0.03 0.64-0.75 3662 54
Adolescents 0.76 0.88 -0.96-2.48 3603 100
Youth - students 0.47 0.04 0.39-0.54 2055 53

Furthermore, the age moderator effect on different dependent variable

decreased through REE (see Table 6). Even though the effect size was large for
children, no age effect was revealed for irrational beliefs F (2, 37)=2.29, p>.05.
The same pattern of results was obtained for inferential beliefs F(2, 36)=1, p>.05,
emotions F(2, 59)=1.72, p>.05, and behaviors F(2 ,62)=2.46, p>.05. The effect
size was powerful for irrational beliefs and emotions modification with children,

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adequate for the inferential beliefs, and low for behaviors; however, the
differences were not statistically significant (F (3, 49)=2.7, p>.05). For the
adolescents, REE benefits were higher on behavior, but again no significant
differences were found between the dependent variables (F (3, 96)=1.89, p>.05).
The effect size value was adequate for irrational beliefs, inferential beliefs, and
emotions. No variation of the effect size was recorded for young adults; the
values of effect size for young adults were close to medium (F (3, 49)=3, p>.05).

Table 6. Influence of Age on REE Effects (dependent variables).

Age d SD 95% interval No. of No. of

subjects comparisons
Irrational beliefs
Children 0.82 0.70 0.55-2.19 2010 19
Adolescents 0.52 0.07 0.38-0.65 639 16
Youth - students 0.41 0.14 0.27-0.54 167 5
Inferential beliefs
Children 0.46 0.26 -0.04-0.96 776 15
Adolescents 0.48 0.15 0.18-0.77 198 9
Youth - students 0.55 0.10 0.35-0.74 810 15
Emotions
Children 0.70 0.07 0.56-0.83 670 16
Adolescents 0.64 0.43 -0.20-1.48 1163 38
Youth - students 0.43 0.07 0.29-0.56 731 8
Behaviors
Children 0.24 0.18 -0.11-0.59 119 3
Adolescents 0.97 1.24 -1.46-3.40 1603 37
Youth - students 0.48 0.11 0.26-0.69 347 25

It seemed reasonable for the present writers to learn if the values of REE
effect size on the dependent variables were different in function of the
independent variables (see Table 7). As was expected, REE was more efficient
than other interventions (i.e., relaxation, human relationship, self-instructional
training, and experiential training) in irrational beliefs modification; the effect
size was large. Significant differences between designs (e.g., REE vs baseline,
REE vs control group, REE vs placebo, REE vs other interventions) were
obtained F (2, 36)=39.20, p<.01. The effect size value was adequate when REE
was compared with its baseline, or to a control, or to placebo.
The same values were recorded for dysfunctional inferential beliefs when
REE was compared with the control and placebo groups. There were significant
differences between the four modalities of independent variables: F (3, 35)=10,
p<.01; the effect size was low when REE was linked to its baseline and other
interventions.

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No differences seemed evident for emotions (F (2, 59)=0.5, p>.05) and

behaviors F (2, 62)=2.18, p>.05. The evolution of effect size values seemed
relatively constant for emotions. REE seemed to be more efficient regarding
modification of dysfunctional behaviors when it was compared with its baseline
and other interventions.

Table 7. Influence of Independent Variables on REE Effects (dependent variables).

Independent variable d SD 95% interval No. of No. of

subjects comparisons
Irrational beliefs
Pretest-Posttest 0.56 0.10 0.36-0.75 387 16
REE-Control group 0.67 0.58 -0.46-1.80 2162 20
REE-Other 1.42 0.84 -0.22-3.06 268 4
interventions
Inferential beliefs
Pretest-Posttest 0.34 0.17 0.006-0.67 256 9
REE-Control group l 0.58 0.14 0.30-0.85 1200 26
REEPlacebo group 0.53 0.10 0.33-0.72 84 2
REE-Other 0.30 0.17 -0.03-0.63 244 2
interventions
Emotions
Pretest-Posttest 0.58 0.20 0.18-0,97 422 12
REE-Control group 0.63 0.40 -0.15-1.41 1542 35
REE-Other 0.53 0.08 0.37-0.68 600 15
interventions
Behaviors
Pretest-Posttest 1.34 1.50 -7.48-10.16 172 19
REE-Control group 0.64 0.75 -0.83-2.11 1508 27
REE-Other 1.30 1.65 -1.93-4.53 389 19
interventions

Table 8 presents the impact of REE on irrational beliefs. A large effect

size resulted for The Idea Inventory, Childrens Survey of Rational Beliefs, and
The Adulat Irrational idea. For the rest of the instruments, the effect size was
average. It therefore can be concluded that the results regarding REE efficiency
were influenced by the quality of the instruments used.

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Table 8. The REE Effect on Irrational Beliefs.

Irrational Beliefs measures d SD 95% No. of No. of

with different interval subjects comparisons
psychometric instrument
Idea Inventory 1.36 0.85 -0.30-3.02 561 14
Children Survey of 1.24 0.61 0.04-2.43 377 8
Rational Beliefs
Common Beliefs Scale 0.36 0.42 -0.58-1.35 24 3
CASI 0.49 0.16 0.17-0.80 160 5
Irrational Beliefs Test 0.59 0.05 0.47-0.70 60 5
Common Beliefs Inventory 0.42 0.05 0.32-0.51 1324 1
for Students
The Rational Behavior 0.21 0.17 -0.12-0.54 109 1
Inventory
Self-Report of Rationality 0.34 0.20 -0.05-0.73 83 1
The Adult Irrational Idea 1.04 0.26 0.53-1.54 58 1
The Personal Orientation 0.54 0.25 0.05-1.03 60 1
Inventory

The next table (see Table 9) presents the results of REE effect on
different inferential beliefs. Locus of control is one of them, measured in all the
involved studies with Nowicki Strickland Internal External Control Scale.
Under the category of self-concept, self-esteem, self-description, and the self-
concept were grouped. Personal orientation and self-control are representatives
for the third category of inferential beliefs. The forth category is given by
attributions and self-efficacy (they were variables only in one study) Significant
differences were found between inferential beliefs categories F (3, 35)=14, p<.01.
The effect size was higher for locus of control and self-concept then for personal
orientation, self-control and attributions, self-efficacy. REE seemed to be more
efficient in locus of control internalization and a positive self-concept
development.

Table 9. The REE Effect on Inferential Beliefs Modification.

Inferential beliefs d SD 95% interval No. of No. of

subjects comparisons
Locus of control 0.70 0.30 0.11-1.28 148 4
Self-concept 0.60 0.09 0.42-0.77 486 14
Personal orientation 0.48 0.17 0.14-0.81 1000 16
and self-control
Attributions and 0.17 0.14 0.03-0.30 150 5
Self-efficacy

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Significant differences (see Table 10) were found for emotions F (5,
56)=32,25, p<.01. The effect size was large in modification of concern and
emotionality related to test anxiety. Average to large effect sizes were observed in
anger modification. Anxiety (i.e., test anxiety, state-trait anxiety) decreases
revealed an average effect size. REE has alower effect size in lessening
neuroticism and negative mental health indices.

Table 10. REE Effect on Emotional Indicators.

Emotions d SD 95% interval No. of No. of

subjects comparisons
Anxiety 0.67 0.22 0.29-1.16 1114 29
Neuroticism and 0.34 0.06 0.22-0.45 881 12
mental health
Depression 0.39 0.15 0.09-0.68 172 6
Concern 1.60 0.37 0.87-2.32 110 5
Anger 0.78 0.20 0.38-1.17 107 3
Emotionality & 0.89 0.15 0.59-1.18 180 7
emotional reactivity

The differences between the effect size of REE on different behaviors

were also significant F (6, 56)=45.03, p<.01. A very large effect size (see Table
11) was revealed on playing hookey from school, behavioral problems, GPA, and
relationship with others. An average value of the main effect value for REE on
academic performance was measured on standardized tests, academic interest, and
achievement-motivation. The REE seemed not to be as efficient in assertiveness
modification.

Table 11. The REE Effect on Dysfunctional Behaviors Modification.

Behaviors d SD 95% No. of No. of.

interval subjects comparisons
Academic performance measured 0.56 0.37 -0.16-1.28 352 15
with standardized tests
GPA 0.95 0.75 -0.50-2.40 316 7
Academic interest / achievement 0.47 0.16 0.15-0.78 285 4
motivation / Academic effort
and satis faction
Behavioral problems 1.02 1.15 -1.23-3.27 468 8
Playing hookey from school 5.51 0.51 4.51-6.50 72 3
Assertive behavior 0.36 0.10 0.16-0.55 287 24
Relationship with others 0.80 0.17 0.46-1.13 120 2

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CONCLUSIONS AND DISCUSSION

The results of this quatitative meta-analysis generally supported the

efficacy and effectiveness of REE. Unlike some previous studies (e.g., Gossette
& OBrien, 1993) the results encouraged even further research in REE. Gosette
and OBriens comments seemed antagonistic toward psychoeducational research,
and their reasoning seemed shoddy based on 35 particular cases (until 1993 there
were more then 55 unpublished dissertations and published research articles).
Thus, they underestimated possible future REE research potentials through their
biases. They also ignored the research on REBT, arguing that the principle of the
model was wrong. Finally, they totally ignored the notion of primary prevention.
This meta-analysis also sustained the argument made by David et al., (2005)
concerning the biases of the Gossette and OBrien studies.
REE had a powerful effect on lessening irrational beliefs and
dysfunctional behaviors, plus a moderate effect concerning inference and
decreasing negative emotions. These results were similar to conclusions made by
DiGiuseppe & Bernard (1990) who noted that REE was more efficient then other
interventions concerning irrational belief modifications. DiGiuseppe and Bernard
(1990), as well as Hajzler and Bernard (1991), found reasonable support for
REEs efficacy on anxiety. Our results also supported a medium to low REE
effect on neuroticism.
In conclusion, based on this first quantitative meta-analysis on REE, REE
does have significant effects on a number of variables. It can be concluded that
REE is a viable approach that can affect negative emotions and behaviors, as well
as lessen irrational beliefs and dysfunctional behaviors. However, to strengthen
this conclusion and to fully explore the potential of REE, shortcomings of REE
research need to be corrected, and high-quality studies should be implemented
and better promoted. More attention should be paid to generic methodological
criteria such as (a) formal clinical assessment of psychopathology; (b) adherence
to/adequacy of REE protocols; (c) measures of the clinical significance of change;
(d) collection of follow-up data; (e) subject attrition. Finally, careful attention
needs to be paid to the instruments used, as those will affect outcome research.

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Kachman, J.D., & Mazer, E.G (1990). Effects of rational emotive education on the
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Knaus, W.J., & Bokor, S. (1975). The effects of rational emotive education lessons on
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Jacobs, E., & Croake, J. (1976). Rational emotive theory applied to groups. Journal of
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Laconte, A.M., Shaw, D., & Dunn, I. (1993). The effects of a rational-emotive program
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