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paired quarks. We find that the shear viscosity of the paired quarks is roughly a factor of 100 smaller
compared to the shear viscosity of unpaired quark matter. Our results may have implications for
the damping of rmodes in rapidly rotating, cold neutron stars.
I. Introduction 1 References 28
II. Review 3
A. LOFF phase 6 I. INTRODUCTION
III. Formalism 7
A. Boltzmann transport equation 7 The discovery of neutron stars with masses close to
B. Quark species 8 2M [1, 2], (see Ref. [3] for a recent review), has provided
C. Spectrum of excitations 8 a strong constraint on the equation of state of matter
D. Interactions 10 in neutron stars [48] ruling out large parameter spaces
E. Contribution of phonons 13 in various models of dense matter. (For quark matter
1. Quark-Phonon scattering 13 see Ref. [9].) Refinements in the measurements on the
2. Momentum transport via phonons 14 radii of neutron stars provide additional constraints on
the equation of state [10, 11].
IV. Results for a simple interaction for isotropic In addition to analyzing constraints on the equation of
pairing 14 state, characterising the nature of the phases of matter
A. Unpaired fermions 15 in neutron stars will require observationally constraining
B. Paired fermions 16 the transport properties of neutron stars. These obser-
1. BCS pairing 16 vations can help eliminate models of dense matter incon-
2. Isotropic gapless pairing 18 sistent with the data [4]. Transport properties are sensi-
tive to the spectrum of excitations above the equilibrium
V. Results for anisotropic pairing 20 state (which is essentially the ground state because the
A. Debye screened gluon exchange 20 temperatures of neutron stars are much smaller than the
B. Two-flavor FF phase using t1 , t2 , t3 other relevant energy scales). These excitations can differ
exchange 22 substantially for phases with similar equations of state.
For example, the short time (time scales of many days)
VI. Conclusions 24 thermal evolution already constrains the thermal conduc-
tivity and the specific heat of matter in the neutron star
VII. Acknowledgements 26
crust ([12, 13] and references therein). Neutrino cool-
A. Pairing and blocking regions 26 ing on much longer time scales (105 years) depends on
the phase of matter inside the cores (see Ref. [1416]
for a review). A neutron star of mass around 1.4M ,
with a core of only protons, electrons and neutrons cools
sreemoyee.sinp@gmail.com slowly. The presence of condensates, strange particles,
rishi@theory.tifr.res.in or unpaired quark matter in the cores, leads to fast
cooling. One hopes that observations of the tempera-
2
tures and the ages of neutron stars will be able to tell us transport properties of quark matter are consistent with
whether neutron star cores feature such exotic phases. observations.
A set of observables sensitive to the viscosity of matter Viscosities of unpaired quark matter have been exten-
in the cores of neutron stars are the spin frequencies, sively analyzed in the literature [41, 42]. They are dom-
temperatures, and the spin-down rates of fast rotating inated by excitations of quarks near their Fermi surfaces
neutron stars [17]. In the absence of viscous damping, and are efficient due to the large density of states of low
the fluid in rotating neutron stars is [18, 19] unstable to energy excitations. Models of neutron stars featuring
a mode which couples to gravity which radiates away the a core of unpaired quarks [17, 27] are consistent with
angular momentum of the star. If the mode grows the the observations of their rotation frequencies. (Interac-
neutron stars are expected to spin down rapidly. This is tions between quarks might play an important role [43]
the famous r-mode instability. in this agreement.) Similarly, neutrino emission in un-
The connection between the viscosity and the spin paired quark matter would lead to fast cooling of neu-
observables is subtle because it depends on the ampli- tron stars [44, 45].
tude [20, 21] (determined by non-linear physics) at which However, quarks in the cores of neutron stars are likely
the r-mode saturates if the star winds up in the regime to be in a paired phase (see Refs. [4648] for reviews).
where the r-mode is unstable in the linear approximation. Pairing affects the spectrum of quasi-particles and can
But the essence of the connection can be understood eas- change the transport properties qualitatively. For ex-
ily [18, 19, 22] by ignoring the saturation dynamics. In ample, at asymptotically high density, quark matter ex-
this regime the amplitude of the mode changes with time ists in the Color Flavor Locked (CFL) phase [49]. All
as, the fermionic excitations in this phase are gapped and
transport is carried out by Goldstone modes. The shear
Ae(GW +Bulk +Shear )t (1) viscosity of the Goldstone mode associated with U(1)B
breaking was calculated in [50, 51]. A star made only
where GW < 0. Bulk and Shear are both positive and of CFL matter is not consistent with the observed rota-
depend on the bulk and shear viscosities throughout the tional frequencies [50, 52], but in a star featuring a core
star and therefore depend on the phase of matter in the of CFL surrounded by hadronic matter (hybrid neutron
core and the temperature of the star. The magnitude star) some mechanism involving dynamics at the inter-
of GW grows with the rotational frequency, , of the face (analogous to the one discussed in Ref. [53]) might be
star [18]. able to saturate r-mode amplitudes at a level consistent
If is large enough such that GW +Bulk +Shear < 0, with observations.
the neutron star can be expected to spin down rapidly. At intermediate densities, the nature of the pairing
This will continue till is small enough that the shear pattern of quark matter is not known [48]. We review
and bulk viscosities can damp the r-modes. This ar- some of the candidate phases below (Sec. II). One ex-
gument implies that at any given temperature T , the citing possibility is that quarks form a crystalline color
neutron star frequency should be below a maximum [17] superconductor [54]. (See Ref. [55] for a recent review.)
determined by the shear and bulk viscosities at that tem- These phases are well motivated ground states for quark
perature. The shear moduli dominate at smaller T and matter at intermediate densities [56, 57] although their
the bulk moduli at larger temperatures, and the crossover analysis is challenging because the condensate is posi-
point depends on the phase. tion dependent [58]. Unlike the CFL phase, crystalline
Assuming there are no other damping mechanisms and color superconductors feature gapless fermionic excita-
that the r-modes do not saturate at unnaturally small tions. Therefore, we expect transport properties of these
amplitudes, fluids in neutron stars [23, 24] made up of phases to resemble unpaired quark matter.
only neutrons, protons and electrons do not have suf- Neutrino emission in the crystalline color supercon-
ficient viscosity to damp r-modes in many rapidly ro- ducting phases for the simplest three-flavor condensate
tating neutron stars [17, 2527]. Large damping at the was computed in Ref. [59]. Stars featuring these phases
crust-core interface [26, 28, 29] could stabilize the r-mode in the core do indeed cool rapidly [59, 60] and this rules
in such stars, but would require unnaturally large shear out the presence of these phases in several neutron stars
moduli for hadronic matter [30] and may not be suffi- which have been observed to cool slowly [15, 16]. It is
cient even for extremely favourable assumptions about possible that these stars have a smaller central density
this contribution [17]. Appearance of various conden- (because they are lighter) than the fast rotating neutron
sates and strange particles like hyperons could enhance stars for which observations are consistent with a phase
the viscosity of the hadronic phase. This is a very active with a large viscosity to damp r-modes. Such interest-
field of research [3139]. ing questions can be answered by more observations and
At some high enough density we expect that a descrip- microscopic calculations of the transport properties of
tion based on deconfined quarks (and gluons) is a better various phases of quark matter.
description for dense matter than a description in terms In this paper we present the first calculation of the
of hadrons (though it is hard to say how high with ex- shear viscosity in the simplest member in the family of
isting techniques) [40] and hence it is worthwhile if the the crystalline color superconducting phases: the two-
3
flavor Fulde-Ferrel (FF) [61] phase. The shear viscosity not directly relevant for the two-flavor FF phase, pro-
depends on the spectrum of the low energy modes as well vide intuition for the three-flavor crystalline phases where
as their strong interactions. Hence it is different from both longitudinal and transverse gluons are screened, and
the neutrino emissivity where the strong interactions be- may also be relevant for condensed matter systems where
tween quasi-particles do not play a role. transverse gauge bosons dont play a role.
In the two-flavor FF phase, (just like the isotropic 2SC To understand some aspects of the numerical results
phase [62, 63], reviewed below) the blue (b) colored up obtained for the FF phase (Sec. V) we use our formalism
(u) and down (d) quarks do not participate in pairing. to calculate the viscosity in isotropically paired systems
Their transport properties were analyzed in Ref. [64]. with Fermi surface splitting in Sec. IV. For these systems
But because of the presence of gapless modes, (unlike it is possible to compare the numerical results with sim-
the 2SC phase), the red (r) and green (g) colored u ple analytic expressions in certain limits. The results of
and d quarks also contribute to the viscosity. Sec. IV the shear viscosity of fermions participating
We argue that ur dg ug dr quarks scatter dom- in isotropic pairing and interacting via a simple model
inantly via exchange of transverse t1 , t2 , and t3 glu- interaction (the exchange of Debye screened longitudinal
ons (for details see Sec. III D). These gluons are Landau gluons) are not novel, but clarify some physical aspects
damped (in the 2SC phase the longitudinal and trans- of the of the problem. For example we study the role
verse t1 , t2 , and t3 gluons are neither screened nor Lan- played by the scattering of paired fermions with phonons
dau damped [6568]). The polarization tensor of the t1 , in suppressing their transport that have not been high-
t2 , and t3 gluons are anisotropic. lighted before. While the role played by phonon-fermion
Therefore, both the quasi-particle dispersions and their scattering is only of academic importance in the extreme
interactions are anisotropic, and the usual techniques to limits T and T , it may be important in the
simplify the collision integral in the Boltzmann equa- intermediate regime where > T but not T .
tion [42] are not applicable, making its evaluation chal- The plan of the paper is as follows. We quickly re-
lenging. Furthermore, the Boltzamann analysis needs to view the low energy excitations in some relevant phases
be modified to accommodate the fact that the excitations of quark matter in Sec. II to compare and contrast with
are Bogoliubov quasi-particles. To address this we find it the FF phase. In Sec. III we set up the problem. The ba-
convenient to separate the modes in the two Bogoliubov sic formalism is the multi-component Boltzmann trans-
branches (Eq. 43) into modes (Eq. 46) corresponding to port equation (Sec. III A) which we solve in the relaxation
momenta (|p|) greater than the chemical potential () time approximation. We describe the low energy modes
(in the absence of pairing these are associated with par- (Secs. III B, III C) and their interactions (Sec. III D). We
ticle states) and |p| < (in the absence of pairing these also clarify the role played by phonons in Sec. III E. In
are associated with hole states). Sec. IV we show results for isotropic pairing. In Sec. V we
Quasi-particle modes near the gapless surface domi- show results for the FF phase. We summarize the results
nate transport, but the shape of the surface of gapless and speculate about some implications for neutron star
modes in the FF phase is non-trivial. In addition, the phenomenology in Sec. VI. A quick review of the gapless
momentum transferred between the quasi-particles can fermionic modes in FF phases (Appendix A) and the de-
be large and a small momentum expansion can not be tails about the numerical implementation of the collision
always made. Therefore we evaluate the collision inte- integrals (Appendix B) are given in the Appendix.
gral (Eq. 21) numerically.
The main result of the computation is given in Fig. 8
and Eq. 126. The central conclusion is that the viscosity II. REVIEW
of the ur dg ug dr quarks is reduced compared to
their contribution in unpaired quark matter by a factor of We now review some proposed phases of quark mat-
roughly 100. The detailed analyses and the dependence ter in neutron stars. We discuss the excitation spectra
on the shear viscosity on T and the splitting between the and the interactions between the quasi-particles in the
Fermi surfaces , are shown in Sec. V B. phases and this will help us in identifying the ingredients
The reduction of the viscosity by a large factor depends required in setting up the Boltzmann transport equation
on the properties of the mediators between the quasi- for the crystalline phase. Experts in the field can skip to
particles. For example, if we use Debye screened longitu- the end of the section and start from Sec. III A.
dinal gluons (this is appropriate for one flavor FF pairing In the absence of attractive interactions, fermions at
and is also a good model for condensed matter systems a finite chemical potential and a temperature much
like the FF phase in cold atoms) then the viscosity of smaller than are expected to form a Fermi gas, filling
the paired fermions is the unchanged from its value in up energy levels up to the Fermi sphere.
the absence of pairing: the geometric factors associated For massless weakly coupled quarks in the absence of
with the reduced area of the Fermi surface cancel out. pairing, the excitation spectrum is simply
(See Sec. V A for details.) We give an intuitive argument
to clarify the difference between long ranged and short E = || = ||p| | (2)
ranged interactions. These results (Sec. V A), though
where = |p| is the radial displacement of the mo-
4
mentum vector from the Fermi surface. The excitations The fermionic excitations are 9 Bogoliubov quasi-
at the Fermi surface (defined by = 0) are gapless, can be particles [49] (for each hand) which are all gapped. In
excited thermally, and therefore fermions near the Fermi the NJL model [70], the condensate is related to the
surface are very efficient at transporting momentum and gap in the excitation spectrum, 0CFL as follows [49],
charge. They exhibit fast neutrino cooling and suffi-
ciently large viscosities to damp r-modes. 0CFL = , (5)
The interactions between the quarks are mediated by
gluons (eight gluons corresponding to the generators where is a measure of the interaction strength between
t1 , . . . t8 1 ) and the photon. In the absence of pairing, the quarks (the condensate , as well as 0CFL depend on ,
longitudinal components of these mediators are Debye but we are not explicitly writing the dependence here.)
screened [41]. The transverse components of the media- Using the BCS theory one can show that eight
tors (magnetic components) are unscreened in the pres- fermionic quasi-particles in the CFL phase have excita-
ence of static fluctuations of the current, and are only tion energies [7173]
dynamically screened (Landau damping). Consequently, q
they have a longer range compared to the longitudinal E = 2 + 20CFL (6)
gauge bosons and dominate scattering in relativistic sys-
tems [42]. and another branch of quasi-particles have (approxi-
Pairing, induced by the attractive color interaction mately) the spectrum of excitation
between the quarks, qualitatively affects the transport
properties of quark matter. q
At asymptotically high densities (corresponding to a E = 2 + 420CFL . (7)
quark number chemical potential sufficiently larger
than the strange quark mass), the strange quark mass 0CFL is expected to be of the order of a few 10s of MeV
can be ignored, and the lagrangian is symmetric under while the temperatures of the neutron stars of interest
SU(3) transformations between the up (u or 1), down (d is at most a few keV, and therefore the quarks do not
or 2) and (s or 3) quarks. They can all be treated as participate in transport.
massless and form Cooper pairs in a pattern that locks Pairing also qualitatively modifies the propagation of
the color and flavor symmetries (CFL phase) [49] the gauge fields. The Debye screening of the longitudinal
gauge bosons is proportional to the susceptibility of the
free energy to changes in the color gauge potential and
X
hcf sL (r)c0 f 0 s0 L (r)i = Icc0 If f 0 ss0
I
therefore is largely unaffected if (0CFL /)2 1 (as we
(3) shall assume). But pairing generates a Meissner mass for
s0 0
X
s
hcf R (r)c0 f 0 R (r)i = Icc0 If f 0 ss . the transverse gluons. In the limit e 0 all the eight
I gluons have equal Meissner masses. Turning on the weak
electromagnetic interaction, (e g where g is the strong
s, s0 are the Weyl spinor indices, f are flavor indices that
coupling) [49, 73, 74] leads to a mixing between the trans-
run from 1 to 3. c, c0 are color labels that run over 1 (col-
verse gauge fields and a linear combination of the gauge
loquially red or r), 2 (green or g), and 3 (blue or b). The
fields associated with the Q charge does not develop a
left handed quarks (L) and the right handed quarks (R)
Meissner mass while the orthogonal combination has a
pair among themselves and can be treated independently.
Meissner mass approximately equal to that of the other
The condensate is translationally invariant, which corre-
gluons.
sponds to pairing between quarks of opposite momenta.
Since the fermions are all gapped, the low energy the-
The SU(3) color symmetries and the global SU(3)L and
ory consists of the Goldstone modes (phonons) asso-
SU(3)R flavor symmetries are broken by the condensate
ciated with the broken global symmetries [49, 7581].
to a global subgroup consisting of simultaneous color and
While the phonon viscosity [50] formally diverges at small
flavor transformations,
T , what this really means is that the hydrodynamic ap-
SU(3)c SU(3)L SU(3)R U(1)B SU(3)c+L+R Z2 . proximation breaks down at a temperature small enough
(4) that mean free path becomes equal to the size of the
neutron star (or vortex separation [51]). Flow on smaller
A diagonal subgroup of the SU(3)L SU(3)R is weakly length scales is dissipationless, and the r-modes can not
gauged by the electric charge Qe, where Qe is a diagonal be efficiently damped at very small temperatures. The
matrix in the flavor space with entries equalling the elec- conclusion from the discussion of the unpaired and the
tric charges of the u, d and s quarks, and a linear combi- CFL phase of quark matter is that the phenomenology of
nation of the t8 and Q (known as Q) is unbroken [49, 65]. r-mode damping suggests that phases featuring gapless
fermionic excitations might be consistent with the data.
Even at the highest densities expected in neutron
stars [4], the strange quark mass can not be ignored. The
1 We use the standard notation for the Gell-Mann matrices [69] finite strange quark mass stresses [82] the cross species
as the generators of the color SU(3). pairing (Eq. 3) in the CFL phase.
5
To understand the origin of this stress, note that in phases [61, 102] previously considered in condensed mat-
the absence of pairing, the Fermi surfaces of the quarks ter systems. (It has been argued in Refs. [103, 104] that
in neutral quark matter in weak equilibrium Refs. [54, 71] the chromomagnetic instability might instead lead to a
are given [83] by condensation of gluons, a possibility we wont explore fur-
ther here.) We review the LOFF phases in Sec. II A, and
m2s m2s the possibility that LOFF phases are the ground state of
pdF = puF + , psF = puF + (8)
4 4 baryonic matter in the cores of neutron stars motivates
the analysis of transport in FF phases, which is the prime
implying in particular that the splitting between the ud objective of present manuscript.
and the d s Fermi surfaces Restricting, for the moment, to spatially homogeneous
and isotropic condensates, another possibility that has
m2s
2pF = . (9) been considered in detail in the literature [62, 63] is one
4 where the stress due to the s quark mass lead to the s
quarks dropping out from pairing. The u and d quarks
On the other hand pairing between fermions of oppo-
form a two-flavor, two color condensate (2SC pairing)
site momenta (Eq. 3) is strongest if the pairing species
have equal Fermi momenta. This argument suggests that
hcf s c0 f 0 s0 i = 3 3cc0 3f f 0 ss0 . (13)
when pF 0CFL , the symmetric pairing pattern in
Eq. 3 may get disrupted. A detailed analysis [84] bears
The ub, the db are also unpaired, while the ur quarks
out this intuition. For m2s / > 20CFL , a condensate
pair with the dg quarks and the ug with the dr.
with unequal pairing strengths between various species
Taking, for the moment, equal u and d Fermi surfaces,
has a lower free energy than the condensate in Eq. 3 2 .
2SC pairing (Eq. 13) leaves a SU(2) sub group of color
X unbroken. The symmetry breaking pattern is
hcf sL (r)c0 f 0 s0 L (r)i = I Icc0 If f 0 ss0 . (10)
I
SU(3)c SU(2)L SU(2)R U(1)B
(14)
The pairing between the s and the d quarks is the weakest SU(2)(rg) SU(2)L SU(2)R U(1)B ,
because the splitting between their Fermi surfaces is the
largest (Eq.8). The s and the u pairing is also reduced, Since the SU(2) transformations associated with r g
while the u d pairing is not significantly affected [84]. quarks are unbroken, the t1 , t2 , t3 gluons do not pick up
The resultant phase has a remarkable property that a Meissner mass [65, 66]. As we shall see, because of this,
certain fermionic excitations are gapless [72]. To see how the t1 , t2 , t3 gluons play a special role in the two-flavor
this behavior arises, note that if two fermions i and j FF phase that we consider.
with a chemical potential difference |i j | = 2, form If the strange quark mass is large enough that their
Cooper pairs with a gap parameter ( = is not contribution to the thermodynamics can be ignored, the
the gap in the excitation spectrum for finite ), the longitudinal components of the t1 , t2 , t3 gluons remain
Bogoliubov quasi-particles have eigen-energies un-screened [66, 68]. This can be intuitively understood
p as follows. Debye screening (at low T ) requires the pres-
E = 2 + 2 . (11) ence of ungapped excitations (here ungapped fermions)
that can couple with the relevant gauge field. Here, the
For < , the set of gapless fermions lie on the surface r and g quarks of both u and d quarks are gapped (with
p a gap 2SC0 ) due to pairing. Furthermore, the conden-
|| = 2 2 . (12) sate is also neutral under the t1 , t2 , t3 gluons. There-
fore, both longitudinal and transverse gluons t1 , t2 , t3
The gapless CFL phase was found to be unstable can mediate long range interactions between quarks, and
in Refs. [9597]. The Meissner mass squared of some give rise to confinement on an energy scale much smaller
of the gluons is negative in this phase. (This chro- than QCD [67]. The color transformations correspond-
momagnetic instability was found earlier in the 2SC ing to the t4 . . . t7 generators and the associated trans-
phase [98, 99] that we discuss below.) This instability can verse gauge fields do develop a Meissner mass. The lon-
be seen as an instability towards the formation of a posi- gitudinal components of the t4 . . . t7 gauge fields are De-
tion dependent condensate [100, 101], which bear resem- bye screened [66, 68]. Similarly, the t8 gluons feature
blance to the LOFF (Larkin, Ovcinnikov, Fulde, Ferrell) Meissner and Debye screening [66, 68]. As in the case
of the CFL phase, the transverse components of a linear
combination of t8 and Q gauge bosons (Q photon) have
0 Meissner mass. Electrical neutrality is maintained by
2 Other ways by which the CFL phase can respond to the
electrons. Finally, since no global symmetries are broken
stress on pairing include the formation of K 0 condensates (CFL by the condensate, there are no Goldstone modes.
K 0 ) [8589] and K 0 condensates with a current (currCFL
K 0 ) [88, 9092]. The bulk viscosity in the CFL K 0 phase was
The low energy dynamics are therefore dominated by
calculated in Refs. [93, 94]. In the absence of additional damping the unpaired u b and d b quarks interacting predomi-
mechanisms, the viscosity of CFL K 0 appears to be insufficient nantly via the Q photon and the electrons interacting via
to damp r-modes [52].
6
the photons. Transport in this phase has been analyzed have been studied (see Ref. [116] for the calculation of
in detail in Ref. [64]. The bulk viscosity for the 2SC neutrino emissivity and Ref. [117] for electronic proper-
phase was computed in Ref. [105]. Since the b quarks ties.) and it will be interesting to calculate their viscosi-
are unpaired, the transport properties in this mode are ties. Some of the phases feature gapless fermionic modes
similar to that in unpaired quark matter and hence we and would be expected to behave similarly to unpaired
expect that viscosities should be large enough to damp quark matter, though more detailed analyses would be
r-mode instabilities if a large volume of 2SC matter is interesting.
present in the cores of neutron stars. The two points we want to take away from this brief
For weak and intermediate coupling strengths [106, review are (a) the analyses of r-mode damping suggest
107], the 2SC phase has a smaller free energy compared that if a quark matter core damps the r-modes, then
to the CFL phase and unpaired quark matter, only for it features gapless fermionic excitations (b) at neutron
temperatures larger than a few MeV [106109]. For large star densities for a range of parameters, uniform and
couplings [106, 107] however, it is favoured over the CFL isotropic pairing phases are unstable towards the forma-
and the unpaired phase over a range of chemical poten- tion of a position dependent condensate. We now review
tials expected to be present in some region in the cores the salient features of phases with such pairing.
of neutron stars (350 to 400MeV) and the occurrence of
a 2SC phase may provide a plausible mechanism for the
damping of r-modes. It is however worth exploring other A. LOFF phase
compelling possibilities, viable in particular for interme-
diate and weak coupling. A natural candidate for a position dependent pairing
As in the case of three-flavor pairing, the requirements condensate is the LOFF phase which was proposed as the
of neutrality and weak equilibrium tend to split the u d plausible ground state for stressed quark matter [54, 118]
Fermi surfaces [110] and impose a stress on pairing. For before the discovery of the chromomagnetic instabilities.
large enough stress ( 2SC0 ), the u and d quarks The motivation for this proposal is that a condensate of
that participate in pairing exhibit gapless excitations as the form,
suggested by Eqs. 12 and 13 [110, 111].
The low energy theory of the gapless 2SC phase fea- hi (r)j (r)i = e2ibr , (15)
tures the unpaired b quarks near the Fermi surface, as
well as Bogoliubov quasi-particles (linear combinations allows pairing along rings on split Fermi surfaces for
of ur dg ug dr quarks and holes) near the gapless b = |b| > [54] 3 (b, and are all taken to be
spheres (Eq. 12). The gapless quasi-particles interact via much smaller than ). b defines the wave-vector for the
the t1 , t2 , t3 , and t8 gluons and the photon with each periodic variation of the condensate.
other. They can also exchange t4 . . . t7 gluons to change In the NJL model, the phase with condensate Eq. 15 is
to b quarks. In terms of the participants in the low en- preferred over unpaired matter as well as the space inde-
ergy theory, this phase resembles the two-flavor FF phase pendent condensate for [0.7070 , 0.7540 ] [54]. At
that we shall study in detail in the paper. the upper end, the transition from the crystalline phase
The transverse t1 , t2 , t3 gluons remain massless since to the normal phase is second order as we increase ,
the SU(2)c(rg) is unbroken in the gapless phase. (The and 0 smoothly as 0.7540 from the left.
global SU(2)L SU(2)R in Eq. 14 are no longer relevant The crystalline phase is favoured over normal matter for
because it is broken by .) The presence of gapless < 0.7540 , where 0 is the two-flavor gap for = 0.
excitations generates a Debye screening mass [98, 99] for The most favoured momentum b near = 0.7540 is
the longitudinal modes of all the gauge fields.
However, like three-flavor pairing, the 2SC phase with b = , (16)
gapless Bogoliubov excitations is unstable [98] since the
Meissner mass squared of a linear combination of photon with 1.1996786... [61, 83, 102, 119, 120]. (This num-
and the t8 gluon (orthogonal to the Q photon) becomes ber is conventionally called in the literature but in this
negative for > 2SC0 . In addition, the mass squared manuscript we give it a different symbol to avoid con-
of t4 , t5
, t6 , and the t7 gluons become negative for > fusion with the viscosity .) The homogeneous phase
2SC0 / 2 [98]. As in three-flavor case, this instability with pairing parameter 0 is favoured for < 0.707.
can be seen as an instability towards the formation for a (For single gluon exchange the window of favorability is
LOFF phase. larger [121].)
Finally, it is possible that the stress due to disrupts
the inter species pairing altogether and leads to the for-
mation of Cooper pairs of a single flavor [112115]. If
3 The real number b refers to |b| which is different from the
the pairing is weaker than keV scale, then for hotter neu-
tron stars it will be irrelevant and results found for un- blue colored quark. b as an index in the set {a, b, c, d} refers to
the branch of the dispersion as we discuss below. We apologize for
paired quark matter shall apply. For stronger pairing, the degeneracy in notation but the contexts are quite different and
only few transport properties of these single flavor states hence unlikely to cause confusion.
7
Intuitively one expects [119] that condensates featuring Eq. 19 can be seen as denoting pairing between two
multiple plane waves Fermi surfaces with radii and centres displaced by
X 2b. For b > , the two Fermi surfaces intersect. For
hi (r)j (r)i = e2ibm r , (17) 3 0 (true near the second order phase transition be-
m tween the inhomogeneous and unpaired phase), the pair-
ing parameter is small and pairing can not occur when
can pair quarks along multiple rings and give a stronger either the u or the d momentum state is unoccupied [54].
Free energy benefit as long at the pairing rings do not (See Appendix A for a quick reminder.) The boundary of
overlap. The set of plane waves {bm } define a crystal these pairing regions feature gapless fermionic excita-
structure. A detailed calculation [119] till the 6th or- tions. This suggests that the contributions of the paired
der in the pairing parameter in the Ginsburg-Landau ur dg ug dr quarks is not very different from their
approximation confirms this. A more recent sophisti- contributions in unpaired quark matter.
cated numerical analyses reveals [58] that higher order However, the shapes of the gapless Fermi surfaces in
terms are important for determining the favoured crys- LOFF pairing is quite complicated, and their areas drop
tal structure, and may predict different favoured crystal rapidly as 3 increases as we decrease from 0.7540 .
structures than what the Ginsburg-Landau analysis pre- Therefore, it is not clear how their contributions behave
dicts. in the neutron star core. We answer this question in this
For the three-flavor problem, the form of the LOFF paper. In the following section we develop the formalism
condensate [56, 120, 122] is to calculate shear viscosity coefficient in crystalline color
X X superconducting phase.
hcf s (r)c0 f 0 s0 (r)i = I e2iqm r Icc0 If f 0 ss0 .
I {qm }I
(18) III. FORMALISM
Within the Ginzburg-Landau approximation [56], con- This section develops the theoretical aspect of cal-
densates of the form Eq. 18 for two crystalline phases culation of transport coefficients in the LOFF phase.
have a lower free energy than unpaired quark matter as We start our discussion with Boltzmann equation in an
well as homogeneous pairing phases over a wide range of anisotropic system.
parameters of , and ms that are expected to exist in
neutron star cores [57].
Therefore it is natural to evaluate its transport prop- A. Boltzmann transport equation
erties and test whether they are consistent with exist-
ing and future observations. As mentioned above, neu-
In a system of multiple species, the relaxation times
trino emissivity for a three-flavor LOFF phase with the
i for the species i can be found by solving a matrix
simplest three flavor crystal structure were computed in
equation,
Ref. [59].
In this paper we take the first step in the calculation (n)
X (n) (n)
Li = [Rij ]j , (20)
of the shear viscosity in crystalline color superconduc-
j
tors. To simplify the calculations we ignore the s quarks
completely and consider phases with a single plane wave where Li is related to the phase space of quasi-particles
condensate, that participate in transport, and [Rij ] is the collision
integral. We have labelled the collisional integral with an
hcf s (r)c0 f 0 s0 (r)i = 3 e2ibr 3cc0 3f f 0 ss0 , (19) additional index (n) associated with the tensor structure
of the transport property we are considering.
which corresponds to taking 1 = 2 = 0 in Eq. 18, as To be concrete, consider a situation where transport
well as limiting the set of momentum vectors {bm }3 to is dominated by fermionic particles and their interaction
just one vector b. This is also known as the Fulde-Ferrel with each other provides the most important scattering
(FF) state. mechanism. Following the notation of Ref. [64] the Boltz-
Eq. 19 models FF pairing between u and d quarks mann transport equation for each species i can be written
with Fermi surfaces split by 2 = d u [which can
be thought of as the measure of the strange quark mass
m2s /(4) [71] (Eq. 8) in 2SC + s [48] or the elec-
tron chemical potential e /2 [110] in the 2SC phase
without s quarks]. This simplifies the calculations signifi-
cantly since the dispersions of the fermions [54] in the FF
state have a compact analytic form (Eq. 42). We shall
see that even with these approximations, the calculation
of the viscosity contributions of the ur ug dr dg
quarks is non-trivial because of pairing.
8
as, where
1
Z
d3 pi df0i ab ab (n) 3 (n) (n)
(n)
Li = ( ) i = ( (n) i )[Li ]i . (28)
(n) (2)3 d i i 2
X (n) (n)
X 1 1 Z d3 pi d3 p2 d3 p3 d3 p4 To evaluate Eq. 21 we need to identify the relevant
[Rij ]j = 2 species and the interactions between them. We do these
j 234
(n) T (2)3 (2)3 (2)3 (2)3
in turn in the next two sections.
|M(i2 34)|2
X
(2)4 ( p )[fi f2 (1 f3 )(1 f4 )] B. Quark species
(n) (n) (n) (n) (n) (n) (n) (n)
3i .[i i + 2 2 3 3 4 4 ]
We shall consider phases with a condensate of the form
,
(21)
hcf s (r)c0 f 0 s0 (r)i = 3 (r)3cc0 3f f 0 ss0 . (29)
where f is the Fermi-Dirac distribution function.
M(12 34) refers to the transition matrix element for We shall ignore the contribution of the s quarks which, if
the scattering of the initial state featuring 1, 2 (defined present (2SC+s phase [110]), are unpaired. Only ur dg
by momenta p1 , p2 and additional quantum numbers like and ugdr quark pairs participate in pairing. The ub and
spin, color and flavor) to the final state 2, 4. The sum db (b color) quarks as well as the electrons are unpaired.
over 2, 3, 4 runs over all the species that interact with i. Transport effected by the ub and the db quarks, as well
The form of the flows and in Eq. 21, relevant for as by the electrons in the homogeneous and isotropic 2SC
the calculation of the shear viscosity, are given by phase has been studied in detail in Ref. [64]. Since they
are unpaired, techniques from condensed matter theory
ab a b for calculating the transport in Fermi liquids can be used
i =p v
(22) to simplify the calculation, although there are new fea-
iab = (n)ab ab
i , tures associated with the fact that the quarks are rela-
tivistic [123] and due to the non-trivial color and flavor
where structure of the interaction [64].
dE Here we want to focus on the effect of crystalline pair-
va = . (23) ing on the quark transport. In the full three-flavor the-
dpa
ory with 1 , 2 6= 0, the ub and db species as well as
(n)ab are operators that project the shear viscosity the strange quarks will participate in crystalline pairing
tensor into susbspaces, (n), invariant under the rotational (Eq. 18). Therefore we need to develop techniques to cal-
symmetries of the system. n defined by culate fermionic transport properties in the presence of a
crystalline order parameter. In this paper, we shall limit
(n) = (n)ab a b (24) ourselves to the calculation of transport in the two-color
two-flavor subsystem of ur dg ug dr quarks. Even in
are the dimensions of these subspaces. this two-color, two-flavor subspace, the theory of trans-
For example, in an isotropic system, the shear viscosity port is quite rich and we will learn valuable lessons that
tensor should be invariant under all rotations, and the will help in future attempts to extend the calculations to
only projection operator is the traceless symmetric tensor the three-flavor problem.
1 1
ab = ( a b + a b C. Spectrum of excitations
2 2 (25)
1 ab
),
3 The mean field lagrangian for ur, ug, dr, and dg quarks
[46] quarks is given by
with = 5.
We will consider system where the condensate chooses
a particular direction and such systems have 5 indepen- L = 2 +
dent forms. In particular, we will focus on n = 0 for
1 i + u e2ibr
which 4L 4L + (L R) ,
2 e2ibr i d
3 1 1 (30)
(0) = ( )(ba bb ab )(b b )
2 3 3 (26)
where
(0) = 1 .
urLa (x)
The contribution to the viscosity tensor for each ugLa (x)
species i is given by 4L (x) = ab d (x)
(31)
gLb
+ab drLb (x)
X (n)
iab = i (n)ab , (27)
(n)
9
E1 =(|p + b| |p b| + 2)/2
p
2 + 2
1
q
(38)
1
11 2 q
1 = =
FIG. 1. (color online) The four (Eq. 46) branches [solid red 12 e i 1
1 +
2
(a, < 0), dashed green (b, > 0), solid blue (c, < 0), and
dashed cyan (d, > 0) ] for = 100, = 1MeV, =
1.4MeV, b = 1.3MeV, and cos = 0.1 (Eq. 43). The gap
and,
between the lower and upper branches is 2, and for T
only excitations near E = 0 participate in transport.
E2 =(|p + b| |p b| + 2)/2
p
+ 2 + 2
q
(39)
1 1 +
or more compactly as 21 2
2 = = q
22 ei 12 1
uL (x)
4L (x) = (32)
[c ]dC
L (x) p
= (|p + b| + |p b| 2)/2, = 2 + 2 and is the
where, [c ]cc0 = cc0 is the antisymmetric matrix in a two phase of . = (u + d )/2 is the mean of the chemical
dimensional sub-space of color. potentials and d u = 2.
For the ur, dg quarks, it can be written as The Bogoliubov coefficients can be arranged in a or-
thonormal matrix form,
L= +
11 21
[] = (40)
12 22
1 i + u e2ibr
L L + (L R)
2 e2ibr i d
(33) We simplify the momentum integrals Eq. 21 in the
limit , b, , and , T . Near the Fermi surface
where [46],
d3 p p2 dpd d
= 2 d . (41)
= 3 (34) (2)3 (2)3 (2)3
L (x) = (urLa (x), ac dgLc (x)) = (urL (x), dC or in polar coordinates with b = z,
gL (x)) ,
(35) p
E1 (, ) = + b cos 2 + 2
p (43)
where x = (t, r). E2 (, ) = + b cos + 2 + 2 ,
Similarly, the Nambu-Gorkov spinor for ug dr
where = p and vF = (d/dp)p = p is the Fermi
ugLa (x)
ugL (x) velocity.
L (x) = =
ab drLb (x) dC
rL (x)
This labelling also clarifies the contributions to the shear Since the energy exchange, , is governed by the temper-
viscosity from the various branches of the Bogoliubov ature, while the momentum exchange can be much larger
dispersions (Fig.(1)). (typically of the order of g), the transverse gluons have
The matrix equation, Eq. 21, is now a 4 4 matrix a longer range compared to the longitudinal and there-
equation which gives the four relaxation times i and the fore their exchange is the dominant scattering mechanism
viscosities can be found by using Eq. 28. for the quarks. Consequently, the momentum exchange
q that dominates the collision integral for the transverse
gauge bosons is (T l (0))1/3 [123], while for the longi-
D. Interactions tudinal gauge bosons it is (l (0))1/2 .
Similarly, for the photon the Debye screening mass
The interactions between the quarks are mediated by can be obtained from Eq. 50 by replacing 2Nf ( g2 )2
the gauge bosons: the gluons and the photon. The gluon- by Nc e2 (Q2u + Q2d ) and the transverse polarization t
quark vertex is can be obtained from Eq. 52 by replacing 2Nf ( g2 )2 by
Z Nc e2 (Q2u + Q2d ) with Nc = 3.
We now consider the gauge bosons in the two-flavor
Sg = (g) d4 x tm Am
(47)
FF phase. As far as the Debye screening masses are con-
cerned, these are determined by the total density of gap-
where g is the strong coupling constant, and the photon- less states. For gluons that couple with the species that
quark vertex is participate in pairing, this density of states is affected by
Z two competing effects.
Se = (e) d4 x QA (48) First, there is a geometric factor associated with a re-
duction in size of the surface of gapless excitations [54]
where tm are the Gell-Mann matrices and Q = (Appendix A),
diag{2/3, 1/3} in flavor space.
2 2
To contrast with the properties of the mediators in the 2 (1 2 ), (53)
2 b
FF phase, we revise the main features in the unpaired
phase. Transport in the unpaired phase is dominated
by the quarks and the electron. The mediators of their
interactions have the following properties. 4 The projection operator, also called in the previous section,
corrections.
13
6
final color and spin are given by where c is naturally of the order of vF .
Therefore, the scattering matrix in the absence of pair-
g
|iM|2 = 3( )4 ing can be written as
2
i 1 1 i 2 1 c q c q i
|(i3 1 i3 2 ) |2 |(i4 1 i4 2 ) |2 iM ( ) [u3 u1 ][u4 u2 ] (77)
i 1 2 i 2 2 (fij )2 2 v2 q 2
1 1
/3 p
tr[p /1 ]tr[p
/4 p
/2 ]D D where q = (, q) is the four momentum carried by the
4 2p1 2p2 2p3 2p4
g phonon. For q
= 3( )4 i1 i3 i2 i4
2 c2i i
1 1 iM ( ) [u3 0 u1 ][u4 0 u2 ] . (78)
/3 p
tr[p /1 ]tr[p
/4 p
/2 ]D D , (fij )2 v2
4 2p1 2p2 2p3 2p4
(75) This should be compared with the matrix element for
where i1 , i2 , i3 , and i4 run over 1, 2 where 1 corre- the exchange of a Debye screened gauge field.
sponds to and 2 to . Note that the orthogonality of i
[] (Eq. 40) ensures that i1 = i3 and i2 = i4 , and the iM (ig)2 [u3 0 u1 ][u4 0 u2 ]
+ m2D q2
nature of the Bologliubov particles doesnt change at the (79)
vertex. This can be traced to the residual SU(2) symme- 1
i(g)2 2 [u3 0 u1 ][u4 0 u2 ] .
try. The factor 1/(2p1 2p2 2p3 2p4 ) appears in |M|2 due mD
to the convention of the phase space integrals in Eq. 21:
the spinors us are normalized to be dimensionless. Noting that both mD and f can be related to ther-
Eq. 75 can also be used to complete the argument that modynamic susceptibilities [75], and that v 1 in rela-
we made earlier about why the exchange of transverse tivistic systems
AX is less important than the exchange of t1 , t2 , t3
even though they have 0 Meissner mass. In matrix el- m2D g 2 f2 (80)
ements the exchange of AX comes with a coherence fac-
tor (Eq. 99) where two terms of similar size cancel. This we see that Eq. 78 is of the same order as Eq. 79 7 .
is because i3 1 , i3 1 , i1 2 , and i1 2 in Eq. 99 are all Therefore, the contributions to quark-quark scattering
from phonon exchanges can be ignored in our calculation.
roughly 1/ 2 for 0 and in Eq. 99 their products ap-
pear with a sign. On the other hand the coherence
factors in Eq. 75 add for t1 , t2 , t3 gluons. Therefore we E. Contribution of phonons
expect the numerical contribution from AX to be smaller
than the contribution from t1 , t2 , t3 gluons. (There is an Phonons, the Goldstone modes associated with broken
additional reduction by a factor of 1/2 because the symmetries, are also low energy modes. Here we make a
transverse transverse gluon is massive.) Therefore we quick estimate of their contribution to transport and to
neglect the scatterings mediated by AX . This numerical the collision integral. They are not relevant in the FF
suppression is not parametric and in a future, more com- phase but play an important role in gapped phases.
plete calculation, these scatterings should be included.
We note that AX induces coupling between the b quarks
and the paired quarks and complicates the Boltzmann 1. Quark-Phonon scattering
equation Eq. 21 significantly.
There are additional mediators of quark-quark inter-
For quark-phonon scattering, the collision term is
actions in the two-flavor FF phase. Phonons [129] asso-
ciated with the periodicity of the condensate [130, 131], XZ d3 l d3 p3
are derivatively coupled to the fermion fields. [i (pi )] = 3 (2)3
(2)4
The interaction between quark species i and j, and 3
(2)
phonon a can generically be written as [fi b2 (1 f3 ) (4) (pi + l p3 )|M(il 3)|2
c + fi (1 + b2 )(1 f3 ) (4) (pi l p3 )|M(i 3l)|2
L = a j i . (76)
fij f3 b2 (1 fi ) (4) (pi l p3 )|M(i 3l)|2
f3 (1 + b2 )(1 fi ) (4) (pi + l p3 )|M(il 3)|2 ] ,
(81)
6 The only subtle step is noting
/3 0 0 p
tr[p /1 0 0 ]
(74)
/3 p
=tr[p /1 ]
7 In non-relativistic systems [132], the magnetic gauge bosons
if , are both spatial or both 0. do not contribute due to the small speeds and the exchange of
phonons and the longitudinal gauge bosons comepete. For v 1,
the phonon exchange is the dominant scattering mechanism. We
thank Sanjay Reddy for his comment on this point.
14
where f and b are non-equilibrium distribution functions, The kinetic theory estimate for the shear viscosity of
and l = (, l) is the four momentum of the phonon the phonon gas is,
satisfying ()2 v2 (l2 ) = 0.
To the lowest order in gradient of the fluid velocity ua , hnihpiv . (86)
i
fi fi = fi = df i
d [ ], where
The density of phonons at temperature T is given by
3
X (n)
X (n) 1 hni Tv3 and hpi vT . Consequently,
i = i = 3i (n)iab (a ub + b ua ) (82)
2
(n) (n)
1 4
T . (87)
Substituting Eq. 82 in the Boltzmann equation one can v3
obtain the analogue of Eq. 21
is very sensitive to the nature of the excitations
d3 pi d3 l d3 p3
Z
(n) 1 1 present in the low energy theory. For example, if all
[Ri ] = (n) 2 (2)4 3i the fermionic modes are gapped, then the phonons only
T (2)3 (2)3 (2)3
(n) scatter with each other. Since the phonons are coupled
[fi b2 (1 f3 ) (4) (pi + l p3 )(i i )|M(il 3)|2 derivatively, the relaxation time in these cases is very long
(n) due to the small density of phonons at low temperatures,
+ fi (1 + b2 )(1 f3 ) (4) (pi l p3 )(i i )|M(i 3l)|2
(n)
and hence the viscosity is very large. It is well known
f3 b2 (1 fi ) (4) (pi l p3 )(3 3 )|M(i 3l)|2 that in the absence of gapless fermions these phonons
f3 (1 + b2 )(1 fi ) (pi + l p3 )(3 3 )|M(il 3)| ] . dominate the viscosity at low T (Ref. [133, 134])
(4) (n) 2
d3 pi d3 p2 d3 p3 d3 p4
Z
= (1 , 2 )T . (91) 1 1
sun
1 =
(n)
T (2)3 (2)3 (2)3 (2)3
Furthermore, we focus on scattering via longitudinal |M(i2 34)|2
A , which is not affected by pairing. We approximate X
the polarization tensor of the longitudinal mode of A by (2)4 ( p )[fi f2 (1 f3 )(1 f4 )]
the Debye screened mass which has the standard form as (n) (n)
given in Eq.(50) with Nf = 1. 3i .[i 3 ]
The square of the matrix element averaged over initial g4 3 4 T 2
spins and summed over the final spins [64] (after making
16 5 (2)5 l (0)
p
(95)
some simplifying approximations) is given by
d3 pi d3 p2 d3 p3 d3 p4
Z
1 1
sun
2 = (n)
ig T (2)3 (2)3 (2)3 (2)3
2
|iM(i1 i2 i3 i4 )| = ( )4
2 |M(i2 34)|2
(92)
1 q2 q2
]2 [1
X
[ 2 ][1 ]. (2)4 ( p )[fi f2 (1 f3 )(1 f4 )]
q + l (0) 4p1 p3 4p2 p4
(n) (n)
3i .[2 4 ]
We first review the results for the unpaired phase and
then see how pairing modifies them. 0.
density is gapless. (A real world example is the elec- states Eq. 43. s are the coherence factors Eq. 38,
tron gas in a lattice of ions.) Quarks can scatter off Eq. 39. There are vertex corrections [138] for the longi-
these phonons. In Sec. III E 1 we made a quick esti- tudinal mode but since we are are only looking for qual-
mate of how these processes affect quark transport and itative insight for the simple interaction in this section,
qph
found that Rij T 4 , which is parametrically smaller we do not consider these here.
than Eq. 96. Therefore they can be ignored for unpaired
quark matter. However, these scattering processes will
turn out to be important in the next section. 1. BCS pairing
Finally, it is easy to see that the viscosity of unpaired
quarks (Eq. 97) is much larger than that of phonons in We first consider the standard BCS pairing with =
the presence of unpaired fermions (Eq. 89). 0. The results are shown in Fig. 2. The top left panel
shows Li i = a, b, c, d (Eq. 46). In this symmetric situ-
ation, Li are equal for all the species and are represented
B. Paired fermions by four overlapping curves (red, green, blue and cyan on-
line). Similarly, Rii (i not summed) are all equal. (This
We now consider the effect of isotropic pairing on is shown on the top right panel. We dont show the cross
transport to get some intuition into the anisotropic prob- terms.) Results for (Eq. 20) and i (Eq. 28) are shown
lem. For b = 0, we can simplify the integrals Rij (Eq. 21) in the bottom left and right panel respectively.
using rotational symmetry (Appendix B). In Sec. IV B 1 0 When the pairing parameter 0 (0 of
we take = 0 and see how pairing affects the fermionic the x-axis in Fig. 2), we get back a system of unpaired
contribution to viscosity. In Sec. IV B 2 we take 6= 0 fermions and one should obtain the result in Sec. IV A in
and see how the gapless modes that arise when < the language of Bogoliubov quasi-particles (Eq. 46).
contribute to transport. In the FF phase, the fermions at Li is given by half the values given in Eq. 94 (the factor
the boundary of the blocking regions are gapless and we of 1/2 arises because we restrict the integrals in to > 0
expect to see that they share some features of the system or < 0 corresponding to Eq. 46)
considered in Sec. IV B 2.
The scattering matrix element for Bogoliubov quasi- 1 un
[L]( = 0) = L (1, 1, 1, 1) (100)
particles (following the steps used for obtaining Eq. 75) 2 1
for an interaction of the form Eq. 90 is given by The dashed horizontal line (green online) on the top left
ig 4 panel of Fig. 2 corresponds to Li = 12 Lun 1 (Eq. 100,
|iM(i1 i2 i3 i4 )|2 = ( ) Eq. 94). A numerical evaluation of the integral for Li
2
in Eq. 21 agrees with the analytic result Eq. 94 to a very
|[i3 1 i3 1 i1 2 i1 2 ][i4 1 i4 1 i2 2 i2 2 ]|2 (99)
high accuracy. For the collision integral, we numerically
1 q2 q2 find that to a high accuracy the matrix Rij has the form
[ 2 ]2 [1 ][1 ]
q + l (0) 4p1 p3 4p2 p4
1
+ f( T , g1 ) 1
f( T , g1 )
2 0 0 2
1
0 + f( T , g1 ) 1
f( T , g1 ) 0
Rij ( = 0) = 2sun 2 2
(101)
1
1
0 f( T , g1 ) 1
+ f( T , g1 ) 0
2 2
1
2 f( T , g1 ) 0 0 1
2 + f( T , g1 )
8
(with sun un
2 = 0 and s1 given in Eq. 95 ). The dashed of species i with i. For = 0 the branch a is con-
horizontal lines (green online) on the top right panel of nected to d and b to c, and these scattering contributions
un
Fig. 2 corresponds to R11 = 2sun
1 (Eq. 101, Eq. 96). are finite and they add up to 2sun 1 . In a wide range
The structure of the matrix Eq. 101 is easy to un- of T , f( T , g1 ) is relatively insensitive to T / and
derstand. The diagonal entries correspond to scattering increases with increasing g1 (weak coupling). This is be-
cause f( T , g1 ) is related to the scatterings between a and
d (or b and c) species which is more prominent if the
8 For the parameters of Fig. 2 numerical result for Run /5 = scatterings that dominate the collision integral are small
11
1.23 109 . The analytic expressions (Eq. 95) give R11
un /5 = angle (q g ).
9
1.31 10 . Finally, the contribution to the collisional integral from
17
FIG. 2. (color online) Plots of Li , the diagonal entries of R, i and i (anticlockwise from top left) for |M|2 given in Eq. 99. The
overall scale is set by . Keeping T / = 3.34 104 fixed and = 0, we plot these as a function of /T for the four species
i =, a, b, c, and d (Eq. 46). The four solid curves [red (a), green (b), blue (c), and cyan (d) online which are indistinguishable
in the plots] denote the results for the four species. The dotted curves (not visibly distinguishable in the plots) signify the
errors in the numerical integration for R (Eq. B1). The dashed horizontal curves (green online) are proportional to values for
unpaired quarks (see text). The dot dashed curves (yellow online) show an exponential fall off, exp(/T ), for Li (Eq. 103),
an exponential fall off, exp(2/T ), for Rii (Eq. 104), and an exponential increase, exp(/T ), for i . The horizontal
dashed line for L [R, , ] corresponds to Lun /2 (Eq. 94) [R11 un
(Eq. 96), 1un and 1un /2 (Eq. 97)].
scattering of particles in the branch a with b or c is 0 from involves single particle excitations, it is easy to see that
rotational symmetry (just like sun 2 = 0 in Eq. 95). For
g = 1 in Eq. 50, f( T , g1 ) 0.32. Li () Li ( = 0)e/T . (103)
From Eq. 100 and Eq. 101 one can easily obtain relax-
ation time i ( = 0) = 1un and hence the shear viscosity This is shown in Fig. 2 by the dot-dashed curve (yellow
is i = 12 1un for all four species. The total viscosity is online). Similarly, since Ri involve two particle excita-
given by tions, we expect that
X Rij () Rij ( = 0)e2/T . (104)
( = 0) = i ( = 0) = 4i ( = 0) = 21un .
i
We see in Fig. 2 that this turns out to be true for /T
(102)
larger than 4 and the suppression for /T . 4 while
The dashed horizontal line (green online) on the bottom
present, is a little weaker. Consequently, one can quickly
left (bottom right) panel of Fig. 2 corresponds to i (i =
deduce that i () i ( = 0)e/T : the few thermally
1un /2) (Eq. 97).
excited quarks rarely scatter with each other. The large
T As is increased, the participation of
relaxation time compensates for the small number of mo-
fermions in transport is thermally suppressed. Since Li
18
mentum carrying fermions and for /T & 4 the viscosity than global, then pairing does not by itself give rise to a
converges back to the value for unpaired quark matter. phonon mode. For example in ordinary BCS supercon-
This result is puzzling since we expect the paired ductors the local U (1) Z2 gives a mass to the trans-
fermions to be frozen at temperatures smaller than the verse photons (the Meissner effect). However even in this
pairing gap and hence not contribute to the viscosity. case there is a Goldstone mode associated with the break-
We expect only the low energy phonons to participate in ing of translational symmetry by the underlying lattice.
10
transport at low energies [135].
We argued in the previous section (Sec. IV A) that in Therefore the common statement that the paired
the absence of pairing for T , the contribution to fermions dont contribute to transport at low temper-
the quark collision integral R from quark-phonon scat- atures is generically true, but subtle. Things are cleaner
tering (Eq. 96) is sub-dominant to the contribution from if there are fermionic modes that are gapless, in which
quark-quark scattering (Eq. 85). Pairing, however, af- case they dominate transport when T . This is the
fects these two contributions differently. Since quark- situation we shall explore next.
phonon scattering involves only one gapped mode, we ex- In drawing Figs. 2 we have taken g = 1. Obtaining
pect the Rij(qph) () Rij(qph) (0)e/T rather than results for arbitrary g is simple. The top left panel (Li )
as in Eq. 104 and dominates scattering. Then i doesnt doesnt depend on the collisions and is not modified.
The
grow exponentially and i is exponentially suppressed. square of the matrix element, |M|2 , scales as g 4 and l
More systematically, for T scales as g. Consequently i and i scale as 1/g 3 .
2 4 /T
Li e , i = a, b, c, d (105)
15 (2)2 2. Isotropic gapless pairing
and (Eqs. 104, 85), To analyze the effect of gapless fermions in this simple
system let us consider an isotropic gapless paired phase
1 g 3 T 2 3 2/T (b 0, > ). As discussed in Sec. II, this phase is
Rii () [ e cT 4 e/T ]
2 640 2 (106) unstable, but the analyses will give us insight into the
cT 4 e/T i = a, b, c, d anisotropic calculation. In Fig. 3 we keep > T fixed
(/T = 2.5), and consider the effect of increasing
where we have taken l (0) = (g/(2))2 and c is a num- keeping b equal to 0.
ber O(1). Hence, Based on the discussion in Sec. IV B 1, we expect that
for > both Li and Rij to be exponentially sup-
2c 3 pressed from the unpairedp value. Whereas for <
i i = a, b, c, d . (107)
15(2)2 T 4 (Eq. 42) E1 = 0 for = 2 2 and therefore the
branches a and b in Eq. 46 are gapless while the branches
Therefore, the fermionic contribution to the shear vis- c and d are gapped. Therefore, for > we expect Li ,
cosity is given by and Rij corresponding a and b to be unsuppressed com-
pared to the unpaired value.
4 7 /T More specifically, for T
i = 3i Li e i = a, b, c, d ,
75(2) T 4
4
(108) 1 un () ()
La,b (, ) L1 e T = La ( = 0, = 0)e T
2
which is subdominant to the phonon contribution 1
(+) (+)
(Eq. 88, since we are assuming no other gapless fermions Lc,d (, ) Lun
1 e
T = La ( = 0, = 0)e T .
2
are present). (109)
This entire argument relies on the existence of a gap-
less mode in the low energy theory, but in most of the In the top left panel of Fig. 3, the curves for Li for the
paired systems we know such a mode is present. If the a and b branches (red and green online) split from the
symmetry broken by the fermion condensate is global or c and d branches (blue and cyan online) on switching
has a global component 9 then the pairing itself gives rise on a small . The splitting increases as we increase
to a Goldstone mode which can scatter off fermions. If and for T , near the gapless surfaces =
the symmetry broken by the condensate is local rather
9 For the quark pairing the condensate breaks baryon number the Fermi speed of the fermions and fermion phonon scattering is
conservation. For cold atoms fermion number conservation is a kinematically allowed. However hypothetically one can consider
global symmetry. a situation where this is not the case. Then the statement that
In both these cases the dispersion of the resultant gapped contributions do not contribute to transport will not hold.
mode is vF / 3 and hence absorption of phonons by fermions is
kinematically allowed. Since this is not germane to our paper we will not explore this
further here.
19
FIG. 3. (color online) Plots of Li , the diagonal entries of R, i and i (anticlockwise from top left) with |M|2 given in Eq. 99
for the four species a, b, c, and d (Eq. 46). The dashed horizontal lines correspond to the values for unpaired matter (see the
caption of Fig. 2 for details). The pairing is isotropic (b = 0). T / = 3.34 104 and /T = 2.5 are held fixed, and is
varied from 0 to 2. For > (/T < 2.5 in all the plots) all fermionic excitations are gapped and all components of R are
exponentially suppressed. For < , branches a and b feature gapless fermionic excitations. The asymptotic value ( )
for a = b = 21un . The dot dashed curves (yellow online) for L are the simple forms given in Eq. 110 for > , and Eq. 109
for < . The error bands are shown by the dashed curves of the color of the corresponding solid curves, and are associated
with errors in the five dimensional Monte Carlo integration used for evaluating Rij (Eq. B1). c , d are noisy but dont affect
the final result for .
p
2 2 , both a and b branches resemble unpaired As is increased, the gapless branches a (green on-
fermions. Therefore, line), b (red online) split from c (blue online) and d (cyan
online), and eventully for T
La,b (, ) Lun1 = 2La ( = 0, = 0)
1 un (+) (110) Raa,bb (, )| R1un (111)
Lc,d (, ) L1 e T .
2
the top right panel of Fig. 3 shows this behavior clearly.
The limiting behaviors Eq. 109 and Eq. 110 are shown by Rcc,dd (, ) R1un exp(2( + )/T ). The off-
dot dashed curves (yellow online) on the top left panel of diagonal terms of R are also exponentially suppressed.
Fig. 3. This pattern is repeated for and : a (a ), b (b )
Similarly, for T we expect Rii for each i to be tend towards 1un (1un ) for T while c (c ),
un
suppressed compared to Rii . For example, for = 0, d (d ) are weakly (exponentially) suppressed. All this
we see that for /T = 2.5, Rii ( = 2.5T, = 0) is just a complicated way to obtain the well understood
un
Rii /15. The suppression factor of 15 is consistent with result (for eg. see Ref. [84]) that the transport in gap-
un
Rii ( = 2.5T, = 0)/Rii in Fig. 2.) less superfluids is dominated by fermionic modes near
20
FIG. 5. (color online) Plots of Li , the diagonal entries of R, i and i (anticlockwise from top left) with |M|2 given in Eq. 99 for
the four species a, b, c, and d (Eq. 46). The pairing is anisotropic with b = 1.19 and is taken from Fig. 4. T / = 3.34104
is held fixed and T /0 = 0.02. The central values are given by filled circles and the error bars are are shown by the dashes of
the corresponding color. The error bars for Rij are associated with errors in the seven dimensional Monte Carlo integration
used for evaluating Rij (Eq. B2) and are propagated to and . The large errors in c and d (blue and cyan online) do
not affect the final . The dashed horizontal lines correspond to the values for unpaired matter (see the caption of Fig. 2 for
details). The upper dot dashed curves in the panels for La and Lb (Raa , Rbb ) [yellow online] are associated with geometric
reduction due to a smaller gapless surface as described in Eq. 115 (Eq. 116). The lower dot dashed curves in the panels for
Lc and Ld (Rcc , Rdd ) [yellow online] are associated with exponential reduction due to pairing. The results are discussed from
Eqs. 115 to Eq. 118 in the text.
To get a concrete feel for numbers, one can take = cent with arc-length 1+
b instead of 2. Therefore, we
300MeV, 0 = 5MeV (which is on the lower edge of 0 un
expect La = Lb = L g( b , b ) where g is a dimension-
for model studies) and T = 0.1MeV. We choose 0 = less function smaller than 1 corresponding to the limited
5MeV so that the exponential suppression exp(/T ) is range for which the modes are gapless. The following
small enough to be clearly visible in the results, but still geometric estimate turns out to be reasonably accurate
large enough to be accessible within numerical errors.
First considering Li (top left panel of Fig. 5) as a func- 1
La = Lb Lun (1 + ) . (115)
tion of , we note that the branches a and b are gapless 2 b b
for
This is shown by the upper dot dashed line (yellow on-
+ line).
cos [ , 1] (114)
b On the other hand, the branches c and d are gapped for
/0 < 0.735 and hence Lc and Ld are exponentially
throughout the range /0 (0.575, 0.75) (Ap- suppressed. A rough estimate is Lc = Ld e/T . The
pendix A). The gapless surface is the boundary of a cres-
22
where,
1 2 3
B. Two-flavor FF phase using t , t , t exchange Lxx 2
t = (cos(1 ) cos(2 ))
Lyy
t = (sin(1 ) sin(2 ))
2
Now we use the interaction mediated by the Lan-
1 (121)
dau damped t1 , t2 , t3 to calculate in the two-flavor Lxy
t = (sin(21 ) sin(22 ))
FF phase. In the Eq. 21 the left hand sides, Li , de- 4
pend only on the spectrum of quasi-particles and not Lyx
t = L xy
t ,
the interaction. Therefore, they are not modified. For
yy
T /0 = 0.02 they are as shown in the top left panel of and xx
t , t are specified by Eqs. 61 62. In an isotropic
Fig. 5 in Sec. V A. system t = yy
xx
t = for which Eq. 120 matches the
The difference from Sec. V A appears in the collision expressions in Refs. [42, 64].
integral [Rij ], where the square of the matrix element Before exploring the main results of anisotropic pairing
|M(12 34)|2 in Eq. 21 (or Eq. B2) is given by Eq. 75 with anisotropic Landau damping, we quickly review well
23
FIG. 7. (color online) Plots of i (anticlockwise from top left) for the four species a, b, c, and d (Eq. 46) for anisotropic pairing
with b = 1.19. T / = 3.34 104 is held fixed and T /0 = 0.025, T /0 = 0.05, T /0 = 0.1, T /0 = 0.2.
known results for the the simpler unpaired system. For anisotropic with b = 1.19 and is taken from Fig. 4.
isotropic Landau damping (Eq. 52) a rough estimate [42, T / = 3.34 104 is held fixed and T /0 = 0.02 (the
64] is same as the parameters used in Fig. 5). The geometric
suppression due to the smaller gapless surface (Eq. 116)
t un
R11 4 2g 1/3 would lead to a reduction in Raa and Rbb . The actual
3 , (122)
R11un 2 T numerical evaluation for Raa and Rbb shows that they
are enhanced over the unpaired isotropic result. This can
where R11un
is given by Eq. 96. For T / = 3.34104 and be understood as follows.
g = 1 the estimated enhancment factor is numerically For small q,
about 36. Evaluating the collision integral numerically,
one obtains R11t un
/5 7.2108 shown by the dashed dEp1 dEp1
Ep3 Ep1 p1 + cos p1 vp1 p1 ,
horizontal line (green online) in Fig. 6 . Comparing with dp1 d cos p1
the numerical result for the longitudinal gluon exchange, (123)
un
R11 /5 1.23 109 from the dashed horizontal line
in (green online) on the top right column of Fig. 5, we see where
that numerically the enhancement factor is 58, which dEp1 p
shows that the estimate (Eq. 122) is in the right ballpark. vp1 = =q , p1 = |p1 + q| |p1 | .
dp1 p2 + 2
This also impies we can ignore the longitudinal gluons.
This also applies to the FF phase. (124)
The non-trivial results shown in Fig. 6 are the val-
ues of Raa and Rbb for the FF phase. The pairing is Therefore, the energy conserving functions can be ap-
proximately written as (vp1 p1 )(vp2 p2 ).
24
FIG. 8. (color online) i for species a and b for anisotropic pairing with /0 = 0.35, /0 = 0.6, and b = 1.19 as a
function of T . The viscosities are obtained from Fig. 7.
3/2
possibilities. damped. For (/T )1/3 & (s /5/3 ), Q exchange dom-
Our main result is given in Fig. 7 and Fig. 8. The key 5/3
inates b b scattering and paired /b 102 s /5/3 .
result is that the viscosity of the ur dg ug dr quarks 3/2
For (/T )1/3 . (s /5/3 ), gluon exchange dominates
for a wide range of in the LOFF window is reduced by
b b scattering and paired /b 102 (T /)1/3 . This im-
a factor of roughly 102 compared to the viscosity of un-
plies that the sum of the viscosities due to the b quarks
paired quarks interacting via Landau damped transverse
and the electrons calculated for the 2SC phase in [64]
gluons. This is summarized in a compact parameteriza-
gives the shear viscosity of the two-flavor FF phase to a
tion of the viscosity Eq. 126.
very good approximation.
This is a surprising result. In the 2SC phase the
In this paper we have only given results for the pro-
ur dg ug dr quarks are fully gapped and are frozen.
jection operator (0) . It will be interesting to repeat the
In the FF phase the geometric area of the gapless surface
calculation for the other projection operators (1) and
is reduced by pairing. But at the same time the phase
(2) ((3) and (4) are Hall projections and the associ-
space for collisions is also reduced by the square of the
ated viscosities are expected to be zero in a system with-
geometric factor. Hence this simple argument suggests
out magnetic fields). The difference between the three
that the shear viscosity should be comparable to that for
is related to the anisotropy in the shear viscosity tensor
unpaired quarks. Indeed this is precisely what happens
and might have interesting implications, although con-
if the interaction between the quarks is assumed to be
densation in multiple direction will tend to isotropise the
mediated by Debye screened longitudinal gluons corre-
shear viscosity.
sponding to the broken generators, as shown in Fig. 5.
Looking ahead, one can think of several advances that
For long range interactions (dominated by smaller mo-
can improve upon our calculation; for example consider-
mentum exchanges), however there is an additional ef-
ing more complicated pairing patterns and including the
fect due to the increase of the density of states satisfying
strange quark. In the following discussion we attempt
the energy conservation equation due to small velocities
to present a plausible picture of how the shear viscos-
over a part of the Fermi surface. The collision integral
ity of these more realistic phases might behave based on
is enhanced and the shear viscosity is reduced (Eq. 126).
the intuition gained from our calculation, and make some
This effect is particularly pronounced for t1 , t2 , t3 glu-
speculations about the physical implications for neutron
ons because the coherence factors in the matrix element
star phenomenology.
dont cancel (Eq. 75).
For example, one can consider more realistic two-flavor
Comparing the shear viscosity of the paired quarks in
LOFF structures [119] involving multiple plane waves.
the FF phase with the contribution of the ub and db
Even these more complex condensates [129] feature gap-
quarks Ref. [64] we note that it is suppressed due to
less fermionic excitations, and while the details are more
two effects. First, the paired quarks dominantly scat-
complicated, the two main features (a) gapless quasi-
ter via Landau damped gluons. As discussed above
particle excitations over a Fermi surface with a compli-
(Eq. 126), the viscosity is further reduced by a fac-
cated shape (b) transverse t1 , t3 , and t3 gluons are Lan-
tor 100 due to pairing effects. In contrast the trans-
dau damped, are expected to be present also in these
verse gluons exchanged by b quarks all have a Meiss-
more complicated phases. Consequently the shear vis-
ner mass and only the transverse Q photon is Landau
cosity of the ur dg ug dr quarks can be ignored as
26
The pairing region is expressed by the relation Appendix B: Evaluation of the collision integral
cos [1, max( , 1)] The evaluation of the left hand side (Li ) of the Boltz-
p b mann equation (Eq. 21) is straightforward. For =
(, ( + b cos )2 2 ) 0, = 0, b = 0 the integral can be performed analyt-
p
( ( + b cos )2 2 , ) ically for T [42, 64] and gives Lun (Eq. 94). For
, Fermi liquid theory predicts that the result is
or 2Lun . For generic , , b one can use Azimuthal sym-
+ metry to write the integral as a two dimensional integral
cos [ , ]
b b (A2) which can be evaluated easily numerically.
(, +) The general evaluation of the collision integral R is
or more difficult. For b = 0, spherical symmetry can be used
to simplify the integral [42, 64]. Performing d3 p4 integra-
+ tion using the momentum function, changing variables
cos [min( , 1), 1]
pb from p3 to q = p3 p1 , and using Eq. 41
(, ( + b cos )2 2 )
(n) 1 1
Rij = 2
p
( ( + b cos )2 2 , ) . (n) T
(2)2 2 2
Z Z
The system is cyllindrically symmetric and polar angle d d d dq(4) d
p1 p2 p2
[0, 2]. (2)9 i j
The complementary region in momentum space is the |M(12 34)|2 [f1 f2 (1 f3 )(1 f4 )]
blocking region consists of two disconnected regions cres- h
cent shaped regions near the Fermi sphere. The bound- 3 1 ( (0)1 (0)1 (0)3 (0)3 )
aries of the blocking regions are the place where the dis- i
persions Eq. 43 are gapless. + 1 ( (0)2 (0)2 (0)4 (0)4 ) |Ep3 Ep1 ==Ep2 Ep4 .
In the d (larger) blocking region, E1 > 0, E2 > 0. (B1)
Then,
p The azimuthal angle p1 can be set to be 0.
E (, ) = E1 = + b cos 2 + 2 The five dimensional integration can be done easily
p (A3) using Monte Carlo techniques and we find converged an-
E+ (, ) = E2 = + b cos + 2 + 2 .
swers with 105 106 points. The results for Rij shown in
This requires, Figs. 2, 3 are obtained using 106 points. The error bars
are the estimated error in the Monte Carlo integration.
+ More points are required for Landau damped exchange
cos [min( , 1), 1] bosons since the |M(12 34)|2 and hence the integrand
b
p p is more sharply peaked at q 0.
( ( + b cos )2 2 , ( + b cos )2 2 ) .
For the anisotropic case, simplifications associated
(A4) with spherical symmetry are not applicable and one is
left with a seven dimensional integral. The direction z is
At the edge of the d blocking region, E is gapless. From
taken as the direction of the unit vector parallel to b.
Fig. 4, < 0.6 for [0.55, 0.754]0 and therefore
( + )/b = ( + )/1.19 < 0, and hence the d (n) 1 1
blocking region never closes. Rij = 2
(n) T
The u (smaller) blocking region is defined as the mo-
(2)2 2 2
Z Z
menta where E1 < 0, E2 < 0. Then, d p d cos p d p d cos p d p dq z d
p (2)9 i j 1 1 2 2 2
E (, ) = b cos 2 + 2 1
(A5) |M(12 34)|2 [f1 f2 (1 f3 )(1 f4 )]
Jq
p
E+ (, ) = b cos + 2 + 2 h
3 1 ( (0)1 (0)1 (0)3 (0)3 )
This requires, i
+ 1 ( (0)2 (0)2 (0)4 (0)4 ) |Ep3 Ep1 ==Ep2 Ep4 .
cos [1, max( , 1)] (B2)
p b p
( + b cos )2 2 , ( + b cos )2 2 . The azimuthal angle p1 can be set to be 0.
(A6) Because of the higher dimensions the convergence of
the Monte Carlo evaluation of Eq. B2 is much slower
At the edge of the u blocking region, E+ is gapless. For
compared to Eq. B1. In making Fig. 5 where the media-
( )/b = ( )/1.19 < 1, the u blocking
tor is Debye screened, we used 7107 points and obtained
region closes and the associated gapless surface disap-
pears. This happens for / > 0.19 which corresponds
to /0 < 0.735.
28
reasonably converged results. The evaluation of Rij for nodes. The most challenging part of the computation is
Figs. 6, 7 was more computationally involved because the simultaneously solving for the momentum energy conser-
dispersions as well as the interactions are anisotropic and vation constraint Ep3 Ep1 = = Ep2 Ep4 and required
the interactions are mediated by Landau damped gluons. writing a robust solver in c. The convergence of Rij is
Thus the integrand is sharply peaked at small q. To eval- poor, as seen by the large error bars in Rij and . Sub-
uate Rij for Figs. 6 7 we used 2.2108 Monte Carlo points stantial improvements would require significantly higher
which took about a week on a modern cluster with 100 computing resources and/or a better algorithm which we
leave for future.
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