Biology115SpringSemester:Lab2(Cells:StructureandFunction)

Thislabisdesignedtogiveyouanopportunitytoseethatorganismsare,infact,composedof
cells.Wewilllookatbothofthemajorcelltypesprokaryotesandeukaryotes.Youwillexamine
organismsfromtheKingdomsBacteria(alsoknownasEubacteria),Protista,Animalia,andPlantae.As
youproceedwithyourinvestigation,considerthefactthatyouarealivingorganism,composedofthe
verythingsyouareobserving,i.e.youareliterallycellslookingatcells.

ProkaryoticCells
Cells(thesmallestindividualunitsoflife)aredividedintotwobasiccategories:prokaryotic
cells,andeukaryoticcells.Thecellsofeveryorganismapartfromthebacteriaareeukaryotic.Only
bacteriahaveprokaryoticcells.Therearetwokingdomsofprokaryoticcells,theBacteria(Eubacteria)
andtheArchaebacteria.Thesetwoprokaryotickingdomsaresodifferentfromeachotherthattheyare
actuallyclassifiedintodifferentdomains,theDomainBacteria(containsonlyKingdomBacteria)andthe
DomainArchaea(containsonlyKingdomArchaebacteria).WewillonlyexaminetheBacteriatoday.
Prokaryoticcellsdifferfromeukaryoticcellsinthattheylackamembraneboundnucleusand
membraneboundorganelles.Prokaryoticcellsaresimplerinstructureandarethoughttohaveevolved
beforeeukaryoticcells.However,bothprokaryoticandeukaryoticcellssharemanysimilarities.Both
haveaplasmamembrane,cytoplasm,DNA,ribosomes,andsimilarenzymesystems.And,likeplantsand
fungi,manyprokaryotesalsohaveacellwall.Prokaryoticcellsaregenerallymuchsmallerthan
eukaryoticcells,andthusrequirehighermagnificationtosee(about1000X).However,someofthe
prokaryotesyouwillexaminetodayarelargerandallcaneasilybeseenwithatotalmagnificationof
400X.
Bacteriacanbeclassifiedbyshapeintoseveralgroups,threeofwhichare:coccus(spherical
bacteria);bacillus(rodshapedbacteria);andspirillum(corkscrewshapedbacteria).Additionally,cocci
andbacillicanbeclassifiedbythestructureoftheircellwall.Today,youwillexamineLactobacillus.
Cyanobacteria(bluegreenalgae)arealsoprokaryoticcells,oftenlivinginaggregatedcolonies,
thatperformphotosynthesistoobtainenergyinfundamentallythesamewaythatchloroplasts(the
photosyntheticorganellesinplants)do.Thephotosyntheticpigment,chlorophylla,iscontainedin
organizedmembranoussystemscalledthylakoids.Today,wewillexamine2generaofcyanobacteria,
OscillatoriaandGleocapsa.

EukaryoticCells
Eukaryoticcellshaveamembraneboundnucleusandorganelles.Today,wewilllookatthree
kingdomsofeukaryoticcellswiththemicroscope:Protista,Animalia,andPlantae.However,firstyou
shouldusethediagramsprovidedandthedescriptionsbelowtobecomefamiliarwithcellstructureprior
tolookingatcellswiththemicroscope.

PlasmaMembrane
Theplasmamembranesurroundseachcellandregulateswhichmaterialsenterandleavethecell.It
consistsofadoublelayerofphospholipidandprotein.Inadditiontotheplasmamembrane,some
eukaryoticcells,suchasplantcells,alsohavearigidcellwallsurroundingthecellmembrane.Thisserves
astructuralfunction.

Nucleus
ThenucleusofeukaryotesisastructuresurroundedbyTWOmembranes.Itisthereforeknownasa
nuclearenveloperatherthananuclearmembrane.Itcontainsthegeneticmaterial(deoxyribonucleicacid,
orDNA)andisthereforethecontrolcenterofthecell.Alsopresentinthenucleusareoneormore
nucleoli(singular,nucleolus),wherethesubunitsofribosomesaremanufactured.Thesesubunitsare
transportedacrossthenuclearenvelopeandtheribosomesareassembledinthecytoplasm.

Ribosomes

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Ribosomesarethesiteofproteinsynthesisinbothprokaryoticandeukaryoticcells.Theyaresometimes
freeinthecytoplasm.However,iftheproteinistobesecretedfromthecelltheysynthesizetheproteinon
internalcellularmembranes.Thismembraneisknownastheendoplasmicreticulum.Areasofthe
endoplasmicreticulumthathavemanyassociatedribosomesarecalledroughendoplasmicreticulum.
Smoothendoplasmicreticulumlacksattachedribosomes.Thevesiclesformedbytheendoplasmic
reticulumcontainenzymesandotherproteinsproducedbytheribosomes.Theendoplasmicreticulum
thentransportstheproteinstoanotherstructure,theGolgiapparatus.

GolgiApparatus
TheGolgiapparatus(orcomplex)isalsoasystemofmembranesthatformsmallvesiclesorcisternae.It
isinthesevesiclesthattheproteinsaremodifiedandtransported.Theproteinsmaybetransportedtothe
plasmamembraneforsecretion.

Vacuoles
Someorganellesconsistoflittlemorethanamembranoussac.Thesearevacuoles.Inplantcells,
vacuolesarenumerous,andoccupymostofthecellsinterior.Inplants,vacuolescontainwater,sugars,
andsalts,andserveasstoragesitesaswellasstructuralfunctions.Inanimalcells,vacuolescarrywaste
andfoodmolecules,aswellasothermacromoleculesandwater.Youwillexaminethecontractile
vacuoleinAmoeba.

Chloroplasts
Theorganellethatperformsphotosynthesisinplantsiscalledthechloroplast.Chloroplaststakethe
energyfromthesunandstoreitinorganicmolecules(carbohydrates)withthehelpofapigmentcalled
chlorophyll.Thechlorophyllisfoundinmembranousthylakoids(rememberthecyanobacteria?)inside
eachchloroplast.

Mitochondria
Althoughanimalslackchloroplasts,bothanimalsandplantshavemitochondria.Mitochondriaarethe
organellesthatusethecarbohydrates(producedduringphotosynthesisandingestedbytheanimals)to
releaseenergy.

Cytoplasm
Thecytoplasmofthecellincludeseverythingenclosedbytheplasmamembrane,exceptthenucleus.The
fluidportionofthecytoplasm(everythingoutsideofthemembraneboundedorganelles)iscalledthe
cytosol.Thecytosolcontainsdifferenttypesoffiberscalledthecytoskeleton.Thecytoskeleton
contributestothecellsshape,helpstomovetheorganellesaroundwithinthecytoplasm(thismovement
iscalledcytoplasmicstreaming,orcyclosis),andplaysanimportantroleduringcelldivision.

PROKARYOTICCELLS

KingdomBacteria(Eubacteria)

(a)Lactobacillus
YogurtisanutrientrichcultureofthebacteriumLactobacillus.Thisbacteriumisadaptedtolive
onlactose(milksugar).Thebacteriumconvertsthemilktoyogurt,whichisacidicandkeepslongerthan
milk.Thisbacteriumhashistoricallybeenusedbypeoplewhoarelactase(theenzymewhichbreaks
downlactose)deficient.

1.Placeatinydabofyogurtonamicroscopeslide.
2.Mixthisdropofyogurtinadropofwater,coverslip,anddryanyexcessfluidwithakimwipe.
3.Performingthestepsthatwewentthroughlastweek,examinetheslidewiththecompoundmicroscope,
usingthe10Xobjectiveandfinallythe40X.

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 WhatshapearethecellsofLactobacillus(coccus,bacillus,orspirillum)?

Drawthecellsinthespacebelow(labelallvisiblestructuresbelow,eg.Plasmamembrane
cytoplasm,etc.).

(b)Cyanobacteria
Cyanobacteriaareoftensurroundedbyamucilaginoussheath.Oscillatoriaoccursasafilament
ofcellsandGleocapsaoccursasalooselyarrangedcolony.

1.PreparewetmountsofOscillatoriaandGleocapsa.
2.Examinewiththe10Xobjective,thenthe40X.

Drawandlabelthecellsofeachgenusbelow.

Canyouseeanynucleiwithinthesecells?

HowmanycellsareheldwithinonesheathofGleocapsa?

HowdoesthesizeofLactobacilluscomparewiththatofOscillatoriaandGleocapsa?

EUKARYOTICCELLS

KingdomProtista
Theprotistswewillexaminetodayareallunicellular.However,multicellularprotistsdooccur,
suchasthegiantkelpyoumayhaveseenintheocean.

(a)Amoeba
Amoebaisanirregularlyshapedprotistthatmovesbymeansofpseudopodia(falsefeet).Ituses
itscontractilevacuoletoexcretewasteproductsandexpelwater.

1.TheAmoebawillbeatthebottomofthevial,somakeawetmountfromthisarea.Youmaywantto
examinethemwiththedissectingmicroscopefirst.
2.Examinethemwiththecompoundmicroscope,butonlywiththe4Xand/orthe10Xobjectives
(otherwiseyouwillsquashthem!!!).Donotpressonthecoverslip!
3.Decreasethelightintensityandobservethemforafewminutes.

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 DrawtheAmoebabelow.Makesureyoulabelasmuchofthecellasyoucanpossiblysee,
includingthepseudopodia.

Describehowthepseudopodiaform.

(b)Paramecium
Parameciumisaprotistthatmovesveryquicklyusingcilia.Thisprotisthastwonuclei,the
macroandthemicronuclei.

1.MakeawetmountofParameciumandexaminewiththecompoundmicroscope.
2.MakeasecondwetmountofParamecium,butplaceadropofprotosloontheslidefirst.Placethe
dropofParameciumcultureontopoftheprotoslo.

MakealabeleddiagramofParameciumbelow.

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 Describehowthesecellsmove(contrastittothemovementofAmoeba).

(c)Euglena
Euglenaisaphotosyntheticprotistthatmovesviaflagella.

1.MakeawetmountofEuglenaandexaminewiththecompoundmicroscope.

MakealabeleddiagramofEuglenabelow.

Describehowthesecellsmove.

Whatcolorarethesecells?Why?

KingdomAnimalia

HumanCheekCells
Examineyourowncheekcellsusingthemethodbelow.

1. Placeadropofwateronacleanslide.

2. Gentlyscrapetheinsideofyourcheekwithacleanapplicatorsticktoharvestseveraldozen(probably
hundreds)ofcells

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3. Stirtheendofthetoothpickinthewateronyourslide,addacoverslipandexaminewiththe
compoundmicroscope.

4. DisposeofthetoothpickinthetrashDONOTLEAVETHEMLYINGAROUND!

Adjusttheaperturediaphragm.Whateffectsdotheseadjustmentshaveonyourimage?

Youcanimprovethecontrastofthespecimenbymakingadjustmentstotheaperturedisk.Another
waytoimprovecontrastistouseastainsuchasmethyleneblueoriodine.Becausecytoplasmisusually
clearortransparent,stainsareaddedtoimprovevisibilityandincreasecontrastbetweenstructures.
Differentstainsareabsorbedbydifferentkindsofcellsand/orspecificorganelles.

Removetheslidefromthestage,andplaceonedropofstainattheedgeofthecoverslip.Usinga
Kimwipeorapieceofpapertowel,drawthestainundertheslidebyabsorbingwaterfromtheedgeofthe
coverslipoppositethestain.

Describeanychanges,otherthanthecolor,intheappearanceofthecells.

Tryadjustingtheaperturediaphragmagain.Doesthisadjustmenthavealargereffectonstained
cells?

Drawandlabelthestainedcellsunderhighpower.

KingdomPlantae

(a)Elodea
Youwillnowexamineatypicalplantcell,fromtheleafoftheaquaticplantElodea(Canadianpond
weed).

1. GentlyremoveoneleaffromnearthetipofanElodeastalk.
2. Placetheleafonacleanslide,andaddadropofwaterandacoverslip.
3. Returntoyourmicroscopeandexaminetheleaftipunderlowpower.

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Onceyouhavecenteredthetipoftheleafinthefieldofviewunderlowpower,switchtothenexthighest
powerobjective.

Howdothecellsoftheplantdifferfromthehumancheekcells?Trytofindthecellwall(arigid
structurethatsurroundsthecellandenclosesthecellmembrane),andthechloroplasts
(organellesthatcontainthegreenpigment,chlorophyll,andperformphotosynthesis).

Arethechloroplastsmoving?Ifnot,movetowardsthecenteroftheleafandwatchfor
movementofthechloroplasts(youmayhavetofocusupanddownthroughtheleafuntilyoufind
somemovingchloroplasts....rememberthattheleafis3dimensionalandthemicroscopehasa
limiteddepthoffocus).

Ifyoucanfindsomechloroplaststhataremoving,youareseeinganexampleofcytoplasmicstreaming
(alsocalledcyclosis).Cytoplasmicstreamingisthemovementofcytoplasmfromonepartofthecellto
anotherpartofthesamecell.Itservestotransportdifferentmoleculestoallpartsofthecell,maintain
optimallightandtemperatureconditions,and(insomecases,althoughnotinplants)cytoplasmic
streamingservestohelpthecellmove.Allcellsexhibitcytoplasmicstreaming.

Notethatthechloroplastsaremovingaroundtheoutsideofthecell,insteadofmovingaroundnear
theinterior.Thisisbecausemostplantcellshavealargecentralvacuolefilledmainlywithwater.You
willprobablynotbeabletoseethisvacuoledirectly,butyoucaninferitsexistencebynotingtheposition
ofthechloroplasts.Additionally,becauseofthecentralvacuole,thenucleusofplantcellsisnotlocatedin
theapproximatecenterofthecell,asitwasinyourcheekcells.Althoughyoumaynotbeabletoseethe
nucleuseither(becauseitrequiresstainingtoseeeasily)youmightbeabletofinditslocationbynotingan
areainthecellwherethemovingchloroplastsseemtoslideoveraninvisiblebumpnexttothecellwall.

Drawandlabelacellbelow.Includelabelsshowingthecentralvacuole,thechloroplasts,the
plasmamembrane,cellwall,andtheareawherethenucleuslies(ifyoucanfindit).
Additionally,includethemagnificationyouused,andestimatethesizeoftheplantcells(both
lengthandwidth),aswellasthesizeofthecentralvacuoleandchloroplasts.

Likecheekcells,plantcellsarealsoboundbyaplasmamembrane.Innormalplantcells,this
membraneispressedtightlyagainsttheinsideofthecellwall(becauseofthepressurefromthewaterin
thecentralvacuole),andisimpossibletopickout.However,ifwecancausewatertomoveoutofthe

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centralvacuole,thevolumeinsidethecellwilldecreaseandthecellmembranewillpullawayfromthe
cellwall.Wewillnowtryit.

Takeyourslideandputadropof10%salinesolution(saltwater)ontheedgeofthecoverslipjustlike
youdidwiththestainandyourcheekcells.Now,likebefore,pullthesalinesolutionunderthe
coverslipwithapieceofKimwipe.Returntoyourmicroscopeandexaminetheslideunder100X.

Wherearethechloroplastslocated?

Whatdoyouthinkhashappened?Canyouhypothesizeaboutwhathascausedthechangein
appearance?

Adjusttheaperturediskuntilyougetanexcellentimage.Canyouseetheplasmamembrane,orinferits
presencefromthedistributionofthechloroplasts?

DrawandlabelyourobservationofElodeacellsin10%salinesolution.Includethe
magnification,theapproximatesizesofthecells,thecentralvacuole,andthechloroplasts.

(b)Onion
1.Cutapieceofonionwitharazorblade.Snapthepiecebackwards,thencutasmallsquareofinner
epidermisanduseforcepstoremoveit.
2.Placetheepidermisinadropofwateronamicroscopeslideandcoverslip.

Drawandlabelanonioncellbelow.

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3.Staintheoniontissuewitheitheradropofiodineormethylenebluesolutionbyplacingasmalldropof
stainattheedgeofthecoverslip.
Doonioncellshavechloroplasts?Whyorwhynot?