Grade 11 Biology Notes Unit 1 - Diversity of Living Things Identifying Species species - a group of organisms that can interbreed in nature and produce fertile offspring ‘morphology — the branch of biology that deals with the structure or form of organisms phylogeny — the evolutionary history of a species Morphological Focuses on morphology, comparing Easily and widely used, especially for measurements and descriptions, taking into | plants, but tis challenging to decide account normal variation within a species _| how much difference Is too much Biological Focuses on ability to interbreed in nature | Widely used by scientists, but cannot be and produce viable + fertile offspring applied if species are extinct or physically separated Phylogenetic Focuses on evolutionary relationships Can be applied to extinct species, uses between groups of organisms information fram DNA analysis, but evolutionary histories are not known for all species Nomenclature and Classification System taxonomy ~ the branch of biology that indentifies, namas and classifies species based on natural features binomial nomenclature - the system of giving a two-word Latin name to each species (which is italicized when typed or underlined when handwritten): the frst cepitalized words the genus and the second lowercase word is the species rank a level in a classification system: Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species taxon ~ ¢ named group of organisms, e.g. phylum Chordata or order Rodentia ‘Anatomical | Looksat relationships in structure and | Shows that birds and dinosaurs are related form (morphology) among different _| because they bath have hollow bones, similar bone species arrangement and feathers Physiological | Looks at the physical and chemical ‘Shows that guinea pigs are not in the same taxon functions of organisms, including Internal processes DNA Looks at DNA sequences ‘Shows that fungi and plants, despite physical similarities, are less related then fungl and animalsCharacteristics of Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells prokaryotic ~a smaller, simple type of cell that does not have a membrane kound nucleus: eukaryotic— a larger, complex type of cell that does have a membrane bound nucleus, | se 1-10 um 100-1000 jum Genetic material | Circular DNA, not bound bya membrane, | DNA in membrane-bound nucleus, single chromosome multiple chromosomes Cell division Not by mitosis/meiosis, By mitosis and meiosis Reproduction Usually asexual Usually sexual ‘Number of cells | Unicellular Mostiy multicellular Organelles No mitochondrie/membrane-bound (Mitochondria/membrane-bound organelles organelles are present ‘Metabolism Many are anaerobic Most are aerobic Archaea and Bacteria bacteria shapes: cocc! (spherical), bacill (rod), spiral shaped most bacteria are mesophiles — they can only in live in moderate habitats some archaea are extremophiles ~ thermophiles can live in temperatures over 100 degrees Celsius, acidophiles can live in pH 0, halophiles can live in water with an over 20% concentration of salt archaea and bacteria reproduce through asexual binary fission, where cells break into two Identical parts after they grow large enough sometimes bacteria and archaea exchange DNA by conjugation, where they link together and transfer plasmids (small loops of DNA) endospore—a dormant bacterial cell able to survive for long periods in extreme conditions Protists protist—a eukaryotic, unicellular organism that is not a fungus, plant, or animal Group | Animal-like Protists Fungus-like Protists Plant-like Protists (protozoans) Examples | Cercozoans (amoebas)—no | Plasmodial slime moulds Diatoms [chrysophyta) — cell wall, pseudopods (false | (myxomycota]—plasmodium | phytoplankton with rigid cell feet) blob contains many nuclei, ‘walls made of silica which fit Ciliates— have short hair-like | engulf small particles of food | together ina little box projections (cilia) and oral Cellular slime moulds Dinoflagellates ~ cause red groove (acrasiomycota) — exist as tide which creates @ toxin, Flagellates — have along hair- | individual cells, can join move by spinning like projection (flagellum) and | together Euglenoids ~ thousands of a hard outside covering ‘Water moulds (oomycota)~ | species, autotrophs in Sporazoans— parasites, cause | parasites sunlight, heterotrophs in the malaria darkDistinguis | Consume other organisms for | Absorb nutrients fromother | Make own food via hing food, parasites living or dead orgenisms, some | photosynthesis, some character consume or are parasites consume others when light is istics unavailable or live 2 symbiotes Viruses virus —a structure thet contains strands of DNA or RNA surrounded by a protective protein coat, cannot live outside of cells. Scientists aren’t sure if they are living or not, ‘capsid — the outer protein layer that surrounds the genetic material of a virus, can be many differant shapes SEE PAGE SS FOR LYTIC AND LYSOGENETIC CYCLES prion ~ an infectious particle (misfolded protein) that causes damage to nerve cells in the brain Endosymbiosis Endosymbiosis: How eukaryotic cells developed organelles from one prokaryotic cell essentially ‘engulfing ancther. (chloroplast, mitochondria) Host cell > does the engulfing Endosymbiont> Is engulfed Evidence for symbi 1, Membranes eround chloroplast and mitochondria are similar to prokaryotic cells. 2. Said organelles reproduce with binary fission. 3. Said organelles contain nucleoids with chromosomes" includes very similar genetic material. Algae and Lichen brown algae — largest and most complex protist, include kelp and rockweed, consist of a holdfast (root), ‘pe (stem) and blade (leaf) red algae — first multicellular organisms (1.5-1.2 billion years ago) have green chlorophyll and red phycoerythin that lets them grow deep in the water, used in foed (milkshakes, sushi) green algae - mostly aquatic, some are unicellular, have chlorophyll and cellulose cell walls lichen — an organisms resulting from a mutualistic relationship between a fungus and a photosynthetic plant, important for food in the North Arthropods Phylum Arthropoda: Largest phylum. Contains insects, crustaceans, myriapods, and chelicerates. Exoskeleton-> External shell that protects organs and prevents water loss. The shell is shed periodically.Main Characteristics of Kingdoms Domain Bacteria “archaea Eukarya Kingdom Bacteria Archaea | Protist_ | Plantae. Fungi ‘Animalia Example Staphyloccacus | Sulfolobus | Amoeba | Maple tree | mushroom | Rabbit archaea cell type oe en =| omen # of cells. Toe eae) Cesta free multicellular Cell wall Peptidoglycan | NotPDGor | Cellulose | Cellulose | Chitin None material (DG) ene or none eer en) eee} fee} eee) fete so) Sexual Sexual el % G, Unit 2 - Genetics Cell Cycle 1. Interphase: Growth period, DNA replication, Growth period- cell prepares for cell division. 2. Mitosis: A cel’s nucieus and genetic material — civide. @)._.= 3. Cytokinesis: The division of cytoplasm and Perales creation of new cell Mitosis Mitosis: The process of a cell splitting into two identical cells. Somatic cells, each daughter has 45 chromosomes. ny Prophase: nuclear membrane breaks down, chromatin condenses into chromosomes, centrosomes and spindle fibres are formed and move to opposite pole. ‘Metaphase: the longest phase, spindle fibres guide chromosomes to the equator. ‘Anaphase: Each chromosome splits apart and sister chromatids move to opposite poles. ‘Telophase: chromosomes unwind to form chromatin, nuclear membrane forms around. chromatin, spindle fibres break down. Cell begins cytokinesis. Meiosis Meiosis: In sex cells. Four daughters all have 23 chromosomes. Produces genetically recombined gametes. Gamste: Sex cell, half the correct number of chromosomes. Independent Assortment of calls allows for ever 8 million genetic possibilities. Synapsis (hornologous ‘chromosomes cross over and exchange alleles) accounts for billions of more possibilities. Non-disjunction: when all chromosomes go to the same pole. This results in trisomy and monosomy.Reproductive Strategies Selective Breeding: The process of breeding for desirable traits. Artificial Insemination: Sperm is concentrated before introduced to female's reproductive system. Cloning: produces identical copies of genes, cells, or organisms. ‘Transgenic Organism: An organism whose genetic material incorporates that from a different species. Phenotype vs. Genotype Genotype: the allales for any given trait, the genetic make-up of an organism. Phenotype: The physical traits of an organism. Heterozygous: An organism that has twe differant alleles for a gene. (Yy| Homozygous: An organism that has two of the same alleles for a gene, (Recessive-> yy, Dominant"> YY) Monohybrid Cross vs. Dihybrid Cross Monohybrid Cross: A cross of two individuals where one trait is monitored. Dinybrid Cross: A cross between two individuals where two traits are monitored. ‘PThere will always be a $:3:3:1 phenotypic ratio in F,. Pedigree Pedigree: A flowchart that uses symbols to show the inheritance patterns of traits ina family over many generations. Autosomal Dominant: The inheritance of a dominant phenotype whose genes are on autosomes. Ex. Huntington Disease. ‘Autosomal recessive: The inheritance of a recessive phenotype whose genes are on autosomas, Ex. cystic Fibrosis. Codominance vs. Incomplete Dominance Codominance: When both alleles for a trait are fully expressed, (Ex. A,roan coat) Incomplete Dominance: An intermediate expression of the trait, (Ex. A rad and white flower makes a pink flower) Incomplete Dominance = Intermediate phenotyp= Multiple Alleles and Sex-Linked Traits Multiple Alleles: When, within a population, there are more than two alleles far a particular gene. Sex-Linked Traits: When a trat Is located on the K or Y chromosome, X-linked Dominant Fathers can only pass to daughters (100%). Mothers can pass to both sons and daughters (100%). Hypophosphatemia,X-linked Recessive Sons only need to receive ane allele to be affected. Daughter must receive ‘two to be affected. Hemophilia. Unit 3 - Evolution English Peppered Moth ‘The English Peppered Moth had two varieties, beige and black. The spacies spends its days resting on lichen-covered trees. Before the Industrial Revolution, the lichen was the same shade as the beige, moths- the black ones were easier pre for birds, As such, the beige ones were more common, When the industrial revolution began turing trees black, the beige moths became easier prey for the birds as the black moths were at a selective advantage. Lamarck and Darwin Lamarck Inheritance of acquired tralts: characteristics acquired during « lifetime can be passed on to offspring (law of use and disuse) Sie recognized a species line of descent and understood that change occurs aver a long time Darwin-}Theory of Natural Selection: environmental conditions select for and against traits, this leads to genetic change over time Similar spacies vary fram continent to continent. Extinct fossils are similar, but not identical to living species. Animals in islands resemble animals on coastlines. Artificial Selection (ike dog breeding) proved that traits could be inherited. Could nature havea similar effect? Descent with modification: Natural Selection doesn’t lead to progress, only to adaptations more suitable for the environment. Evidence for Evolution (1) Fossils Fossil Records: remains and traces of life, preserved in rock Fossils in younger strata are more similar to living species >rossils age in chronological order through the strata Transitional Fossils: Intermediate fossils between organisms in the fossil record vestigial structure: a useless structure that is a reduced version of a once useful structure (2) Biogeography arimais on islands most closely resemble animals found on the shoreline Close environments have more similar organisms than similar environments that are far separated (3) AnatomyHomologous Structures: Similar structural elements and ancestry, but different functions. (Ex. Forelimbs) Analogous Structures: Similar structural elements and function, but different ancestry. (Ex. Wings) (4) Embryology Dembryos of similar species exhibit similar phases of embryonic development. Bottleneck Effect vs. Founder Effect Bottleneck Effect: A catastrophe removes the majority of a population. it wipes out some alleles entirely; the others become 100% of the population. Founder Effect: Individuals found a new area. Their small gene pools make up the whole population. Disruptive, Stabilizing, Directional Selection stabilizing selection -natural selection that favours intermediate phenotypes and acts against extreme variants > reduces variation and makes what is already common even more common directional selection — natural selection that favours the phenotypes at one extreme aver another, pushing the bell curve in one direction -> common during times of change disruptive selection - favours both extremes of phenotypes, eliminating the middle ground -> can reflect different ‘tactics’ (small fish sneak, big fish attack) Sexual Selection he selective choice of a partner based on tratts. enerally one sex selects for a certain gene. Speciation ‘sympatric Speciation: When populations live in the same but become reproductively isolated. Errors in cell division can lead to a polyploidy (incorrect number of chromosomes) Disruptive Selection can lead to this type of speciation Allopatric Speciation: When the population is spit by @ geographical barrier if squinrels were spilt up by 9 river there would be no gene flow betiveen them. Any characteristic acquired on one side would net get to the other side. Unit 4 - Internal Systems Macromolecules i large molecule made up of small molecules: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucle acids Macromolecule | Main Function ‘other Carbohydrate “quick energy, materials to | Polysaccharides are made up of monasaccharides, build cell walls Starch: stores energy in plants (potatoes)Glycogen: stores energy in animals Lipids “good fatshelphormones | Saturated fats: fatty chains are more compact, -act as barriers for liquids —_| often solid at roam temp, harder to break down Unsaturated fats: fatty chains are kinky and sparse, liquid at room temperature Proteins “help build and repair cell | Composed of amino acids and peptide bonds membranes and muscles _| Form chains called polypeptides -anzymes and antibodies ‘Nuclele Acids “DNA codes for protein Two types: deoxyribonuclel acid (DNA) and production ribonucleic acid (RNA) Hydrolysis and Dehydration Synthesis Hydrolysis: When water breaks down macromolecules into smaller molecules Dehydration Synthesis: Removing water from smaller meleculas to form a macromolecule ae of Di = e ae Filter feeders ‘Aquatic animals that use 2 body structure like a filter basket to get small organisms out of the Balen whales, sponges, clams and barnacles water Substrate feeders Live on food source and eat their | Caterpillars, earthworms way through it Fluid feeders ‘Suckor lick nutrientrich fluids | Hummingbirds, bats, spiders, from live plants or animals: ‘mosquitoes, bees, butterfies Bulk feeders Ingest large pieces of food and | Humans, dogs, cats, wolves, chew or swallow hole heronsetc. ‘The Four Stages of Food Processing 1. Ingestion —the taking in or eating of food Digestion the breakdown of food by mechanical and chemical processes into molecules small enough far the bedy to absorbs 3, Absorption ~ the transport of the products of digestion into the circulatory system 4, Elimination the removal of undigested solid waste matter from the body herbivores and omnivores have longer digestive tracts because the cellulose in plant walls takes longer to digest Role of Enz) es, Pancreatic and Gastric Juices carbonydrase | caroonycrates simp sugars amilase: produced in salivary glands anc functions in mouth [Hipase [pas [[etyceroland | Pancreatic ipase: produced in the pancreas andfatty acids functions in the small intestine Protease Proteins ‘Amino acids | Pepsin: produced by stomach gland and functions in the stomach Nuclease Nucleicacids | Nucleotides Pancreatic nuclease: produced in pancreas and functions in small intestine gastiic juice — 2 mixture of hydrochloric acid, salts, enzymes (pepsin), water and mucus that is produced by glands in the stomach to help digest food pancreatic juice - contains various enaymes that digest carbohydrates, lipids and proteins. Also contains bicarbonate which makes the chyme weakly basic instead of strongly acidic so that enzymes can function Peristalsis peristalsis ~ 2 wave-like series of muscular contractions in the esophagus that push a bolus of food towards the stomach Bile bile ~ 2 greenish-yellow fluid secreted by the liver that helps digest fat produced by liver-> stored in gall bladder > small intestine, where it emulsifies the fatin the chyme (breaks into small droplets so that a greater surface area is exocsed to digestive enzymes} Diabetes Diabetasis a condition in which the body is unable to use glucose for energy Normally the pancreas releases insulin, which lets glucose in to the body's cells. Diabetes is when there is not enough insulin or the bedy cannot use it properly so glucose level spikes in the blood and it can be fatal Three types of diabetes: Type 1 Immune system destroys insulin-procucing cells, often diagnosed at ¢ ‘young age), Type 2 (When the body stops producing enough insulin, often diagnosed after 40), gestational diabetes (develops during pregnancy, usually ends when the baby is born) jespirators Surfaces and Comparison ‘Outer skin | Entire skin is a gas exchange surface, oxygen diffuses across layer of | Earthworms, capillaries beneath the skin, must live in a damp area to keep skin moist _| some amphibians Gills Extensions or folds on the body surface that increase gas exchange Fish, clams, surface area , oxygen diffuses in and CO2 diffuses out mussels, crabs Tracheal _ | Internal system of branching respiratory tubes, connected to the Insects outside by spiracles, no circulatory involvement Lungs Involves circulatory system, larger surface area provided by lungs Land animalsLung Volume fnspicatory vole Maximum expiration Time {tidal volume ~ normal breathing volume inspiratory reserve volume — the additional volume that can be inhaled expiratory reserve volume ~ the additional volume that can be forced out (exhaled) vital capacity — total volume of gas tesidual volume ~ the amount of gas that remains in the lungs after a full exhalation (lungs would collapse without it) Alveoli Whea you breathe in, the air has a higher concentration of oxygen than the blood so the oxygen diffuses through the thin walls of the alveoll into the capillaries ‘The blood in the capillaries has a higher concentration of carbon dioxide, so # diffuses through the capillary walls into the alveoli where it is then exhaled Respiratory Disorders tonsilltis— an infaction of the tonsils caused by @ virus or bacteria, symptoms are sore throat, fever and swollen glands, treat with antibiotics or surgery in extreme cases laryngitis ~ an inflammation of the larynx that can cause the volce to become raspy or hoarse, usually clears up an its own pneumonia -a disease that causes inflammation in one or both lungs, caused by viral or bacterial infection, causes oxygen starvation, can be treated by antivirals or antibiotics bronchitis—a disease that causes inflammation of the mucous membranes of the bronchi, can be acute (infection) or chronic (irritant), leads to persistent cough, leads to COPD which cannot be cured but can be treated asthma ~ cause chronic inflammation of the lungs and overproduction of mucus, narrows bronchioles reducing airflow, causes wheezing, coughing and chest tightness, cannot be cured but can be treated with an inhaler ‘emphysema ~ a chronic disease that affects the ability of the lungs to expel air, reduces elasticity of respiratory surfaces, caused by smoking, incurable but can be treated with an inhaler or an oxygen tankcystic fibrosis ~ caused by a genetic mutation, causes mucus build-up in the lungs leading to infection and inflammation, can be treated with medicine and possibly gene therapy Insect Blood Insects have an open circulatory system, where blood vessels open directly into the body cavity and makes direct contact with organs Other animals have a closed circulatory system, where blood is physically seperated from ether body tissues Types of Blood Cells plasma — makes up about 55% of the blood, clear yellowish fluid, 92% water and 7% dissolved blood proteins, contains albumin, globulin and fibrinogen, also carries nutrients, respiratory gases and waste products red blood cells ~ also called erythrocytes, makes up 44% of the blood, carries oxygen that binds with hemoglobin white blood cells ~ make up 1% of blood, also called leukocytes, help fight infections and cancer platelets — also called thrombocytes, membrane bound cell fragments that help clat blood. Origin Red bone marrow | Red bone marrow Thymus, red bone | Red bone marrow marrow, lungs Relative size | Small largest large Smallest Function Carries oxygen and | Engulfs foreign particles | Forms antibodies Clots blood carbon dioxide lifespan | 120days “Tew hours toa few | Unknown 28 days days Blood clotting 1. When a blood vessel is broken due to injury, releases chemicals that attract platelets tothe injury site 2, The platelets rupture, releasing chemicals that com enzyme thramboplastin 3, Thromboplastin reacts with calcium ions and prothrombin (liver protein) to produce the enzyme ‘thrombin, 4, Thrombin reacts with fibrinogen to produce fibrin, which forms a fibrous mesh over the injury which prevents blood loss and solidifies to form a clot ‘with plasma chemicals to create the Blood Pressure Measure using a sphygmomanometer, the form of systolic/diastolic (healthy is 120/80) Two kinds of blood pressure: systolic (the pressure when the blood vessels contract to move blood away from the heart) and diastolic (the pressure generated when the vessels fill with blood)Circulatory Disorders arteriosclerosis - when the walls of the arteries thicken and lose elasticity, can be treated with medicine cor angioplasty (surgery where balloon is inserted to expand artery) or coronary bypass (where blood is rerouted through the heart to avoid blockages), can lead to heart attack or heart failure aneurysm ~ 2 bulge in an artery or heart chamber caused by @ weakened muscle or arterial wall, can be treated by surgery, can burst and lead to death if eft untreated arrhythmia — an irregularity in heart rate, treated by a pacemaker which provides electrical impulses to steady the heartbeat, can lead to insufficient blood flow to organs ‘congenital heart defect— malformed heart valve, chamber or vesse's, can be heard with a stethoscop= and treated with surgery, heart murmur isa common dafect stroke — ischemic (when a clot blocks flow of blood to the brain) or hemorthagic (when a blood vessel bursts, flooding the brain with biood), kills brata cells and leads to death, must be treated immediately with drugs, surgery or non-surgical procedures haemophilia — when blood doesn't clot, leads to endlessly bleeding injuries, can be treated with protein Injections fewer than normal healthy red blood cells, can lead to headache, dizziness and fatigue, treated with iron supplements leukemia ~ cancer of the white blood cells, Unit 5 - Plants Cells Parenchyma: Make up most of the plant. Perform photosynthesis, gas exchange, storage and tissue repair and replacement, Collenchyma: Support surrounding tissues; provide flexibility for plant, tissue repair and replacement. Sclerenchyma: Have a very thick cell wall which supports a mature plant. Psclereids: jistriuted throughout the plant. ‘Fibres: Needle shape, stacked end to end Tissues Meristematie Tissue: embryonic plant tissue from which all other plant tissue develops. shoot meristem-> grows the shoot system taller Root meristem grows the roots further into the ground Apical meristems-> growing longerDermal Tissue: The outer layers of cells that form a protective covering; includes epidermis and periderm. Guard Cells a pair of cells that contral opening and closing of stoma stoma a small opening thet allows for gas exchange Ground Tissue: Makes up most of the plant, has multiple functions including photosynthesis, storage, and support. Vascular Tissue: Internal tube that run lengthwise throughout the stem, connecting roots and plants. xylem Transports water and minerals from the roots to the leaves. DEAD Phloem Transports organic nutrients from the leaves to the roots. ALIVE Organs Roots: Roots anchor the plant, take in water and dissolved minerals, and store carbohydrates that are produced by photosynthesis Root Cap? covering the tip of the root, reduces friction Cortex A layer of cells between the epidermis end the vascular tissues Endodermis> One cell tick, divides cortex fram vascular tissues. Contains Casparian Strip ‘Taproot Thick root with smeller branches (carrots) Fibrous-> Many smaller branching roots (grasses) ‘Stems: Provides support for the plants leaves and flowers. leaves: ‘erforms photosynthesis, cuticle? wany layer on the epidermis Palisade Mesophyll> Contains many chloroplasts, most of the photosynthesis, Immediately below epidermis. ‘Spongy Mesophyll> Loosely packed cells below palisade mesophyll around vascular tissue. Monocots and Dicots characteri ‘Monocots, Dicots Number ofembryonic | 1 2 seed leaves, cotyledons ‘vascular tissuein roots | Arranged ina ring ‘Arranged ina star shape ‘Vascular tissueinstems | Scattered throughout stem ‘Arranged in distinct ring Venation Parallel Palmate, Pinnate Number of flower parts_| 3 4orsRoot system’ Typically Fibrous Typically taproot Reproduction gametophytes produce gametes, which join together to produce sporophytes, which produces spores, which produces gametophytes in non-vascular plants, gametophytes are larger, and in vascular plants it is the opposite pollination: when the male gametophyte (pollen grain) is transferred to the female reproductive structure (pistil) angiosperms have flowers, which consist of pists and stamens, pistil—fernale reproductive organ, consists of stigma (captures pollen grains}, style (stalk that supports stigma}, ovary (base of carpel that contains ovules) and ovules (sacs containing female gametes) stamen ~ male reproductive organ, consists of anther (site of pollen production end storege), pollen (cases that contain male gametes) and filament stalk (supports the anther) flowers with both pistils and stamens are perfect flowers , flowers with sepals, petals, stamens and pistils are complete flowers i ‘monoecious ~ individual flowers are imperfect but the plant has flowers of both sexes diecious has flowers of only one sex ‘methods of pollination -> wind, animals, o- by themselves (two sexes close together} seeds can be dispersed by wind, water, or by animals Transportation phloem carries sugars and carbohydrates rom the leaves to the rest ofthe plantxylem carries water and dissolved nutrients from the roots to the rest of the plant active transport — when particles need energy in order to move across cell membranes transpiration — the process by which water evaporates from the inside of a leaf to the outside through the stomata, causing water to be pulled up due to negative water pressure in the leaves, aided by ‘cohesion and adhesion |cohesion-tension model) root pressure — the mechanism by which positive pressure in the roots moves water upward ina plant — ‘as water enters the xylem by osmosis, it oushes water up the stem aided by adhesion of water to xylem tissue, can move it about 10 m, sometimes root pressure pushes water out through leaves causing droplets on the surtace(guttation) same process for movement of nutrients in phloem, but itis called translocation (pressure-flow model) Plant Hormones ‘Auxins: Stimulste cell division and elongation in stems and roots “Responds to light and gravity cells will elongote on the side opposite to the light source causing the plant to grow to the source Cytokinins: Stimulates cell division and prevents ageing of leaves and fruit Found in root tips Gibberellins: Stimulate cell elongation and seed germination Found in developing seeds and young shoots Ethylene: Promotes ripening of fruit, When one fruit ripens, it sends cut ethylene which causes the other fruit to ripen Abiscus: Generally inhibits growth, often needed when plant is under stress inhibits seed dormancy and shoot growth Dcloses stomata to cut off CO: intake Tropic Responses Tropism: The growth response to external stimulation, (particularly directional) Phototropism: The growth response to light, (caused by auxins) Gravitiopism: The growth response to gravity, (Seen in roots that grow downward no matter what way the seeds facing) Thigmotropism: The growth response to contact or touch, (seen in vines that wind around structures)