O S C I L L A T O R S

The most building block in a communication is an oscillator. An oscillator is a circuit capable of converting
energy from dc to ac. In other words, an oscillator generates a waveform. The waveform can be of any type but occurs
at some repetitive frequency. This can also be defined as an electronic circuit for generating various ac waveforms and
frequencies from a dc energy source.
Oscillate is to fluctuate between two states or conditions.
If an oscillator is self-sustaining, the changes in the waveform are continuous and repetitive, they occur at a
periodic rate. Also called free-running oscillator.
Oscillators that are not self-sustaining require an eternal input signal or trigger to produce a change in the
output waveform also known as triggered and one-shot oscillator.
A number of different forms of sine-wave oscillators are available for use in electronic circuits. The choice of an
oscillator type is based on the following criteria:
1. Output frequency required/desired frequency of operation
2. Frequency stability required/required frequency stability
3. Is the frequency to be variable and if so, what range?/ variable or fixed frequency operation
4. Allowable waveform distortion/distortion requirements and limitations
5. Power output required/desired output power
6. Physical size
7. Application (that is Analog or Digital)
8. Cost
9. Reliability and Durability
10. Desired accuracy

Oscillator are widely applied, for example:

1. many digital devices such as computers, calculators and watches use oscillators to generate rectangular
waveforms;
2. signal generators use oscillators to produce the frequencies and waveforms required for testing, calibrating or
troubleshooting other electronic systems;
3. touch-tone telephones, musical instruments and remote control transmitters can use them to produce various
frequencies needed;
4. radio and television transmitters use oscillators to develop the basic signals sent to the receiver.

T Y P E S O F O S C I L L ATO R

RC OSCILLATOR
It is possible to control frequency of an oscillator by using resistive-capacitive components. This circuit is called
lead-lag network and shows maximum output and zero phase shift at one frequency. This frequency is called resonant
frequency.

WIEN-BRIDGE OSCILLATOR
The feedback is applied through the lead-lag network to the non-inverting input of an op-amp. Feedback
applied to the non-inverting input is positive feedback. However, only one frequency will arrive at the non-inverting
input exactly in phase. All other frequencies will lead or lag.
The circuit is called Wien-bridge oscillator. The lead-lag network forms one leg of the bridge and the other
resistors R and 2R form the other. The op-amp inputs are connected across the legs of the bridge. Resistor R is a
device with a large positive temperature coefficient. The purpose of the R leg of the bridge is to adjust the gain of the
amplifier so that it is greater than the loss in the lead-lag network. If the gain is too small, the circuit will not oscillate. If
the gain is too large, the output waveform will be clipped.
At the moment the circuit is turned on, R will be cold and relatively low in resistance. The circuit will begin
oscillating due to the positive feedback through the lead-lag network. The resulting signal across R will heat and its
resistance will increase. Resistors R and 2R form a voltage divider. As R increases, the voltage applied to the
inverting input of the op-amp will increase.
The Wien-bridge circuit satisfies the basic demands of all oscillator circuits: (1) the gain is adequate to
overcome the loss in the feedback circuit, and (2) the feedback is in phase. This ensures rapid starting of the oscillator.
After that, the gain decreases because of heating of R. This eliminates amplifier clipping. Wien-bridge oscillators are
noted for their low-distortion sinusoidal output.

R
R

R C
2R RL
LC OSCILLATOR
The RC oscillators are limited to frequencies below 1 MHz. Higher frequencies requires different approach to
oscillator construction. Inductive-capacitive (LC) circuits can be used to design oscillators that operate at hundreds of
Megahertz (MHz). These LC networks are often called tank circuits, or flywheel circuits.
First the capacitor is charged. As the capacitor discharges through the inductor, a field expands about the turns
of the inductor. After the capacitor has been discharged, the field collapses and current continues to flow. Take note
that the capacitor is now being charged in the opposite direction. After the field collapses, the capacitor again acts as
the source. Now the current is flowing in the inductor acts as the source and charges the capacitor back to the original
polarity. The cycle will repeat over and over.
For an LC circuit to function as an oscillator, an amplifier is utilized to restore lost energy to provide a constant-
amplitude sine-wave output. The resulting undamped waveform is known as continuous wave (CW) in radio work.
The LC oscillators are basically feedback amplifiers, with feedback serving to increase or sustain self-
generated output. This is called positive feedback, and it occurs when fed back signal is in phase with the input signal.

C L C L C L C L

HARTLEY OSCILLATOR
The transistor amplifier (Q1) provides amplification necessary for a loop voltage gain of unity at the resonant
frequency. The coupling capacitor (Cc) provides the path for regenerative feedback, L 1 and C1 are the frequency-
determining components, and Vcc is the dc supply voltage.
The Hartley oscillator operates as follows. On initial power-up, a multitude of frequencies appear at the
oscillator Q1 and are coupled through C2 into tank circuit. The initial noise provides the energy necessary to charge C 1.
Once C1 is partially charged, oscillator action begins. The tank circuit will only oscillate efficiently at the resonant
frequency. A portion of the oscillating tank circuit voltage is dropped across L 1b and fed back to the base of Q 1, where it
is amplified. The amplified signal appears at the collector 180 out of phase with the base signal. An additional 180 of
phase shift is realized across L1 consequently, the signal is fed back to the base of Q1 is amplified and shifted in phase
360. Thus, the circuit is regenerative and will sustain oscillators with no external input signal.

Vcc

RFC
R1
C2
Vout

L1a
C1
R2 L1b
Cc

COLPITTS OSCILLATOR
The operation of Colpitts oscillator is very similar to Hartley except that a capacitive divider is used instead of a
tapped coil. Q1 provides the amplification, Cc provides the regenerative feedback path, L 1, C1a and C1b are frequency-
determining components, and Vcc is the dc supply voltage.
The operation is almost identical to that of the Hartley oscillator. On initial power-up, noise appears at the collector of
Q1 and supplies energy to the tank circuit, causing it to begin oscillating. C 1a and C1b make up an ac voltage divider.
The voltage dropped across C1a is fed back to the base of Q 1 through Cc. There is a 180 phase shift from the base of
the collector of Q1 and an additional 180 phase shift across C1. Consequently, the total phase shift is 360 and the
feedback signal is regenerative.
 Vcc

RFC
R1
C2
Vout

C1a
L1
R2 C1b
Cc

CLAPP OSCILLATOR
The clapp oscillator has a capacitor in series with the tank circuit inductor. If C1a and C1b are large made
enough, they will swamp out the transistors inherent junction capacitances, thereby negating transistors variations
and junction capacitance changes with temperature. It has a better stability than Hartley or Colpitts. The Clapp
oscillator does not have as much frequency adjustment.

Vcc

RFC
R1
Vout

L1
C1a

R2 C1b
Cc
C2

CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR
The electric equivalent of the circuit is shown in the figure. It represents the crystal by a series resonant circuit
in parallel with the capacitance Cp.
Crystals may be used in place of the inductors in any of the LC oscillators discussed previously. A circuit
especially adapted for a crystal oscillator is the Pierce oscillator.
Crystals are sometimes called crystal resonators, and they are capable of producing precise, stable
frequencies for frequency counters, electronic navigational systems, radio transmitters and receivers, TV, VCR,
computer systems clocks and many other applications.
When greater frequency stability that provided by LC oscillators is required, a crystal-controlled oscillator is
often utilized. A crystal oscillator is one that uses a piezoelectric crystal as the inductive element of an LC circuit. The
crystal, usually quartz, also has a resonant frequency of its own, but optimum performance is obtained when it is
coupled with an external capacitance./

Rs

Ls Cp

Cs