Uncertainties in Measuring Devices Errors & Uncertainties

All measured quantities have uncertainties associated with them. The purpose of error analysis is to
determine how such uncertainties influence the interpretation of the experimental results

1. Systematic Error
- Results from consistent bias in observation (ie. Instrument-calibration error, natural errors or
personal error).
- Can be eliminated by pre-calibrating against a known, trusted standard.
- Affects accuracy

2. Random Errors
- Results from fluctuations in the readings of a measurement apparatus, experimenter's
interpretation of the instrumental reading or randomly changing conditions (weather,
humidity, etc.).
- Can be reduced by averaging multiple measurements.
- Unbiased
- Affects precision

Uncertainties in Measuring Devices

General rule of thumb used to determine the uncertainty in a single measurement when using a scale
or digital measuring device.

1. Uncertainty in a Scale Measuring Device is equal to the smallest increment divided by 2.

2. Uncertainty in a Digital Measuring Device is equal to the smallest increment.

In general, any measurement can be stated in the following preferred form:

The uncertainty is just an estimate and thus it cannot be more precise than the best estimate of the
measured value. (ie. The number of decimal places for the uncertainty needs to match the number of
decimal places for the obtained value)

Ex. v = 31.25 0.034953 m/s (incorrect) v = 31.25 0.03 m/s (correct)

1
Error Propagation Rules

Relation Error
1. (Use only if A is a single term, i.e. Z = 3x)
2.
3.

4.

5.

a, b, c, ..., z represent constants.

A, B, C, ..., Z represent measured or calculated quantities
, , , , Z represent the errors in A, B, C, ..., Z respectively.

Constructing Tables

1. Follow instructions in the practical manual to construct the table, taking into consideration all
values that need to be tabulated and any multiple readings if necessary.
2. State the physical quantity (ie. Mass), the symbol (ie. m), followed by the uncertainty (if
applicable) and units (ie. 0.01 g) at the headings of the table.
3. Uncertainties should be stated for all measured readings.

Calculations

Significant Figures

1. Measurements
Number of digits recorded is a direct indicator of the nature of measuring device and process,
and hence, how precise the measurement is.
Left-most non-zero digit in any number = most significant digit
Right-most digit (zero or non-zero) = least significant digit
Zeroes are insignificant if used to hold the place of decimals (0.004785)
Trailing zeroes are significant if followed by a decimal point because it indicates precision of
measuring device (42.0)
To avoid ambiguity in significant figures, use scientific notation

2. Computation
Addition and subtraction
Round to same number of decimal places as element with the least decimal places.
Multiplication and division
Round to the same number of significant figures as the factor with the fewest
significant figures
Note: results should not be quoted with a precision higher than the absolute uncertainty
associated with it.

2
Guidelines for Plotting a Linear Graph

1. Provide a title of the graph and label the axes with correct symbols and units.
2. Choose and specify an appropriate scale on the graph paper and plot the data points. (Use as much
of the graph paper as possible. Your graph should be more than half the size of your graph paper.)
3. Identify outlier(s) (if any) and label them clearly to differentiate it from other data points.
Remember to exclude the data point(s) of the outlier(s) from calculations of the centroid; and the
error box or linear least square fit computation.
4. Calculate the centroid. Add the centroid to the graph and circle the centroid to differentiate it from
other points.

5. Draw a best fit linear graph passing through the centroid that best represents the average behavior
of data. (Balance the points on the graph.)
6. Estimate and draw the minimum and maximum slope.
7. Calculate gradient of best fit line, minimum and maximum slopes (s, smin and smax).

Estimating the minimum and maximum slope

Method 1: Using Box Method

1. Plot best fit line.

2. Draw a line parallel to the best fit line using the furthest point away from the top of the best fit
line and another line using the point furthest from the bottom of the best fit line.
3. Draw the box to enclose all the points.
4. The minimum and maximum slopes can be estimated using the opposite corners of the box as
guidelines.
5. Draw a triangle to identify points used for calculating the gradient. Make the triangle as large as
possible using two widely separated points on the line. Do not use data points to calculate the
gradient. The slope that you are determining is of the line drawn (the data plotted no longer plays
a role).

Maximum
slope, smax

Best fit line

Furthest point slope, sbest
away from the
top of the best Minimum
fit line slope, smin

Box to enclose
Centroid
all points
X

Maximum
y-intercept Furthest point
away from the
bottom of the
best fit line

Minimum
y-intercept
3
Method 2: Linear Least Square Fit Template

Linear Least Squares Fit

x y xy x^2 y^2 mx mx + c y - (mx + c) [y - (mx + c)]^2

1
2
3
Fill in y-axis values here
Fill in x-axis values here

4
5
6
The programme will perform the calculation here (obtain calculated values below)
7
8
9
10
11
12
0.000 0.000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000

n= number of data Std deviation of y : = average uncertainty of y-axis values

m= gradient Uncertainty in m : m= uncertainty of gradient

c= y-intercept Uncertainty in c : c= uncertainty of y-intercept

Linear correlation coefficient (Worst =0, Best = 1) : r= How well x-axis values relate to y-axis values

4
Discussion

1. Settings of experiment
a. Highlight the usage of certain apparatus and significant methods implemented for
measurements (if any).
Example: Plumb line as reference position for measuring distance, x (Mechanics, P3)
b. Do not repeat the whole setup and procedure.
c. Explain how certain parameters were fixed or varied for the setup of the experiment.
(Example: Controlled/Independent variables, Dependent variables)

2. Observation and results

a. Observations
b. Do your observations match your predictions (theory)?
c. What physical quantities were calculated?
d. Comment on percentage error. Is it high or low? Why is it so?

3. Precautions, limitations and modifications

a. State the precautions taken and explain the reason they were taken.
b. State the limitations (if any) of the experiment and how they affected the outcome of the
experiment
c. Propose modifications (if any) to the experiment based on the previous mentioned limitations

4. Applications (if any) of the experiment

5. Additional info about the experiment

5
Example

1. The values of m, W, L, and L were tabulated.

Note that all readings are recorded according to the precision of the measuring device. (ie.
The number of decimal places in the measured readings matches the number of decimal
places of the uncertainty of the measuring device.)
For calculated values, follow rules of significant figures for computations.
All calculations and labeling have to be consistently presented.

Data:

Frequency of function generator, f = 30.00 0.01 Hz. Every measured reading must
Mass of string, M = 0.48 0.01 g contain a value, uncertainty
Total length of string, l = 1.5480 0.0005 m and unit.

Mass of slotted Tension on string, Length, L L2 (m2)

masses, m (g) W = mg (N) ( 0.0005 m) More than one
1 10 0.10 0.3350 0.1122 reading can be
2 20 0.20 0.3920 0.1537 taken and
averaged out
3 30 0.29 0.4710 0.2218
4 40 0.39 0.5450 0.2970
Since W = mg,
5 50 0.49 it has same 0.6200 0.3844
number of L2 has same
6 60 0.59 significant 0.6840 0.4679 number of sig.
figures as m. fig. as L
7 70 0.69 0.7300 0.5329
8 80 0.78 0.7900 0.6241

The number of significant figures or

decimal places should be the same as the
L w
2
Centroid = , 0.3493,0.44 readings used to calculate it.
n n
If using Linear Least Square Fits method:
Draw the best-fit line by using the gradient from the
Drawing Graphs
LLSF calculation and passing the line through the
centroid or draw the best fit line to pass through the
Graph:
centroid and the y-intercept obtained from LLSF if
Title: Graph of tension, w against L2.
your axis begins at (0,0).
Scale: x-axis 2 cm: 0.050 m2
y-axis 2 cm: 0.10 N
Labels: x-axis: L2 (m2) Ensure that your graph contains the following:
y-axis: W (N) Title, scale, labels with units, centroid, best-fit line, and error box
unless using LLSF method. Circle and identify outliers if any.

6
Alternative 1: Using Error-Box method of calculating error:
1.00
Graph of Tension, W against L2 Scale:
x-axis: 2cm to 0.050 m2
0.90 y-axis: 2cm to 0.10 N

0.80

0.70

0.60
Tension, W (N)

0.50

X
0.40

0.30

0.20

0.10

0.00
-0.050 0.000 0.050 0.100 0.150 0.200 0.250 0.300 0.350 0.400 0.450 0.500 0.550 0.600 0.650 0.700
L2, (m2)

Data points for gradients

1. Best fit (0.125, 0.15), (0.610, 0.78) 2. Max slope (0.150, 0.15), (0.610, 0.80) 3. Min slope (0.110, 0.15), (0.610, 0.74)
(Black line) (Red line) (Blue line)

7
Data Analysis

1. Calculating gradients

0.78 - 0.15 0.63

s 1.3 N/m 2
0.610 - 0.125 0.485
Intermediate values in calculations
0.79 - 0.15 0.64 (ie. values that are not the final answer)
s max 1.4 N/m 2 can take an additional significant figure.
0.610 - 0.150 0.460
Example:
0.74 - 0.15 0.59
s min 1.2 N/m 2 s max
0.79 - 0.15

0.64
1.39 N/m 2
0.610 - 0.110 0.500 0.610 - 0.150 0.460
| s max s min |
s
2

1.4 1.2

2
0.1 N/m 2
Present your calculations
s 1.3 0.1 N/m 2 in this form xbest (x)

2. Calculate experimental value for linear density,

s
s 4 f 2
4f 2
1.3
exp
4(30.00) 2
3.5 10 4 kg/m

s f
exp 2
s f
0.1 0.01 4
2 (3.5 10 )
1.3 30.00
(0.08 0.0007) (3.5 10 4 )
(0.08) (3.5 10 4 )
Use the same format and exponent.
3 10 kg/m
-5

Dont write like this:

3.5104 3105 kg/m
exp 3.5 0.3 10 kg/m -4

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3. Calculate reference value for linear density,

m
ref
l
0.48

1.5480
3.1 10 4 kg/m

m l
ref
m l
0.01 0.0005 4
(3.1 10 )
0. 48 1 .5480
(0.02 0.0003) (3.1 10 4 )
(0.02) (3.1 10 4 )
6 10 -6 kg/m
The uncertainty should have the
0.06 10 -4 kg/m same number of decimal places as
the obtained value.
ref 3.1 0.1 10 -4 kg/m

4. Percentage error

exp ref
%error 100%
ref
3.5 3.1
100% In general, it should have no more than
3.1
1 2 significant figures.
13%

Results
The linear density of the string is exp 3.5 0.3 10 -4 kg/m with a percentage error of 13%.

9
Alternative 2: Using the Linear Least Square Fit Method for calculating error:

Linear Least Squares Fit

x y xy x^2 y^2 mx mx + c y - (mx + c) [y - (mx + c)]^2

1 0.1122 0.10 0.0112 0.0126 0.0100 0.1453 0.1343 -0.0343 0.0012
2 0.1537 0.20 0.0307 0.0236 0.0400 0.1990 0.1880 0.0120 0.0001
3 0.2218 0.29 0.0643 0.0492 0.0841 0.2872 0.2762 0.0138 0.0002
4 0.2970 0.39 0.1158 0.0882 0.1521 0.3846 0.3736 0.0164 0.0003
5 0.3844 0.49 0.1884 0.1478 0.2401 0.4978 0.4868 0.0032 0.0000
6 0.4679 0.59 0.2761 0.2189 0.3481 0.6059 0.5949 -0.0049 0.0000
7 0.5329 0.69 0.3677 0.2840 0.4761 0.6901 0.6791 0.0109 0.0001
8 0.6241 0.78 0.4868 0.3895 0.6084 0.8082 0.7972 -0.0172 0.0003
9
10
11
12
2.7940 3.53 1.5410 1.2138 1.9589 0.0022

n= 8 Std deviation of y : = 0.0193

m= 1.2949 Uncertainty in m : m= 0.0395

c= -0.0110 Uncertainty in c : c= 0.0154

Linear correlation coefficient (Worst =0, Best = 1) : r= 0.9972

10
Draw the best-fit line by using the gradient from the LLSF calculation and passing the line through the centroid
or draw the best fit line to pass through the centroid and the y-intercept obtained from LLSF.

1.00
Graph of Tension, W against L2 Scale:
x-axis: 2cm to 0.050 m2
0.90 y-axis: 2cm to 0.10 N

0.80

0.70

0.60
Tension, W (N)

0.50

X
0.40

0.30

0.20

0.10

0.00
-0.050 0.000 0.050 0.100 0.150 0.200 0.250 0.300 0.350 0.400 0.450 0.500 0.550 0.600 0.650 0.700
L2, (m2)

11
Data Analysis

From the linear least square fit computation, the following values can be obtained to perform
the calculations.

1. Gradient
Use 4 significant figures at most as the measured values have
s = 1.295 N/m2
a maximum of 4 significant figures and include units.
s = 0.0395 N/m2
The uncertainty should have the same number
s 1.295 0.040 N/m 2 of decimal places as the obtained value.

2. Calculate experimental value of linear density

s
exp
4f 2
1.295

4(30.00) 2
3.597 10 4 kg/m

s f
exp 2
s f
0.040 0.01 4
2 (3.597 10 )
1.295 30.00
(0.031 0.0007) (3.597 10 4 )
(0.032) (3.597 10 4 )
The uncertainty should have the
1.2 10 -5 kg/m same number of decimal places as
the obtained value.
exp 3.60 0.12 10 -4 kg/m

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3. Calculate reference value for linear density,

m
ref
l
0.48

1.5480
3.1 10 4 kg/m

m l
ref
m l
0.01 0.0005 4
(3.1 10 )
0. 48 1 .5480
(0.02 0.0003) (3.1 10 4 )
(0.02) (3.1 10 4 )
6 10 -6 kg/m
The uncertainty should have the
0.06 10 -4 kg/m same number of decimal places as
the obtained value.
ref 3.1 0.1 10 -4 kg/m

4. Percentage error

exp ref
%error 100%
ref
3.60 3.1
100% In general, it should have no more than
3.1
1 2 significant figures.
16%

Results
The linear density of the string is exp 3.60 0.12 10 -4 kg/m with a percentage error of 16%.

13
Discussion: (sample)

1. Background of the experiment:

When transverse waves travel in a string fixed at both ends, the forward wave and the reflected wave
interact by superposition to produce a combined wave. Under certain conditions called resonance, the
interaction will produce waves that have a regular pattern called standing waves.

The speed of a wave in a string is given by the relationship v F , where F is the tension in the

string and is the linear density (or mass per unit length).

At resonance, when standing waves are formed, the length between two nodes of the standing wave at
1
the fundamental resonance frequency, L and the speed of the wave is thus v f f (2L)
2
Combining the relationship give the equation used in this experiment, thus F 4f L where F is the
tension in the string provided by the weight, w of the slotted masses.

2. Sources of Error:

The main source of error is in identifying and measuring the length between the two nodes.
A major contributor to error is the accuracy of judgment as to when the standing wave actually
occurs. Secondly, because of the dynamic nature of the experiment, the string being vibrating all the
time, it is not possible to accurately measure the length between the two nodes to the accuracy
inherent in the ruler used as the measuring instrument, hence the expected uncertainty in measurement
is likely to be more than 1 mm.

The frequency or function generator has a small inherent uncertainty of 0.01 Hz and although the
frequency often varies slightly during the experiment 0.05 Hz, this variation is unlikely to contribute
much to the overall error of the experiment.

The third and possible source of uncertainty is the mass of the slotted masses, which we assume to be
accurate to its stated value although it was not measured using a weighing machine.

3. Precautions taken:

Care is taken to determine when the standing wave occurs as this is identified to be a major
variability. For this, instead of merely taking the distance from the vibration generator to the wedge as
the length between two nodes, the distance between two actual nodes were identified instead, where
possible, by extending the string to produce two nodes for the same frequency.

In measuring the length between two nodes, several readings were taken for each measurement to
average out the uncertainties of the readings.

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4. Modification to the experiment:

The following modifications to the experiments are suggested to improve the results further:

First, a vibration generator that could generate clearer and stronger waves is recommended to produce
clear nodes and antinodes.

Second, the weighted masses can be weighed using a weighing scale to ensure we have a more
accurate value of the tension.
The measuring ruler can also be held up using a set of retort stands so that readings can be taken in a
stable condition.

Another suggestion is to fix the length between the two nodes and vary the frequency as the tension
varies, as the variation in the frequency is more accurately determined than the measurement of the
length between the nodes.

5. Applications:

A large number of musical instruments work on the principle of resonance of standing waves in
strings that are fixed between two fixed ends. Examples of these are the guitar, violin, ukulele, piano,
and many other instruments. Resonance of standing waves also play an important role in the design of
cables used and the safety mechanisms incorporated into, for instance, suspension bridges, as such
resonance can result in standing waves with vibration large enough to cause the collapse of the bridge,
as had happened during one stormy gale in 1940 when the Narrows Bridge in USA collapsed as it
galloped under resonance due to the strong winds, and became known as the Galloping Gertie.

Conclusion:

The experimental data and graph showed that the theoretical formula for standing waves on a string
1 T
during resonance, f was valid with small variation in the readings obtained and the linear
2L
density of the string was found to be exp 3.5 0.3 10 -4 kg/m with a percentage error of 13%..

Bibliography and references: if any.

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