Supplementary support material for GS World Geography Class

Minerals distribution in the World

Asia
Asia produces more than half of the Worlds tin.
China, Malaysia and Indonesia are among the worlds leading tin producers.
China and India have iron ore deposits.
China leads in production of lead, antimony and tungsten.
Asia also has deposits of manganese, bauxite, nickel, zinc and copper.

Europe
Europe is the leading producer of ironore in the world.
Russia, Ukraine, Sweden and France have large deposits of iron ore.
Minerals deposits of copper, lead, zinc, manganese and nickel are found in
Eastern Europe and European Russia.

North America
Iron ore, nickel, gold, uranium and copper are found in the Canadian Shield
Region.

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Coal is found in the Appalachians region.

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Copper, lead, zinc, gold and silver are found in the Western Cordilleras.

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South America
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Brazil is the largest producer of high grade ironore in the world.

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Chile and Peru are leading producers of copper.

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Brazil and Bolivia are among the worlds largest producers of tin.
South America also has large deposits of gold, silver, zinc, chromium, manganese,
bauxite, mica, platinum, asbestos and diamond.
Mineral oil is found in Venezuela, Argentina, Chile, Peru and Columbia.

Africa
Africa is the worlds largest producer of diamonds, gold and platinum.
South Africa, Zimbabwe and Zaire produce a large portion of the worlds gold.
Copper, iron ore, chromium, uranium, cobalt and bauxite are also found in
Africa.
Oil is found in Nigeria, Libya and Angola.

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Australia
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Australia is the largest producer of bauxite in the world.

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Gold, diamond, iron ore, tin and nickel are also found in Australia. It is also rich
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in Australia is rich in copper, lead, zinc and manganese.

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Kalgoorlie and Coolgardie in Western Australia have the largest deposits of gold.
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Energy Resources

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The major energy resources could be broadly classified as given above

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Figure!5:!Worldwide!Oil!Distribution!
Since!exploration!for!oil!began!during!the!early!1860s,!some!50,000!oil!fields!
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Figure!6:!Share!of!Organization!of!the!Petroleum!Exporting!Countries!(OPEC)!in!
world!crude!oil!reserves!2012!
Classification!of!crude!oil!

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Oil reservestoproduction (R/P) ratios

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Distribution of proved oil reserves: 1994, 2004 and 2014

Percentage
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largest!gas!fields
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Figure!8:!World!Shale!Gas!

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Industrial regions and their location in the World

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A. Great Britain (7)

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Great Britain has the oldest industrialised economy in the world. It gained
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monopoly over the seas and established its colonies scattered all over the
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world in the eighteenth century. The British empire was enlarged and reinforced
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in the nineteenth century, and Britain became the supreme world power. Some
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of the British colonies supplied raw materials and served as market for
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their finished products. Throughout the nineteenth century, Great Britain

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dominated the world production of iron and steel, textiles and coal.
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The condition, however, changed after the two World Wars. The supreme
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position of Britain severely weakened as many of the British colonies gained

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their political independence and other European countries, with the financial
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assistance from U.S.A. reestablished the industries that were destroyed In

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the World Wars.

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The most notable feature of Britains economy is the importance of Industry,

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services and trade. But owing to cheaper and more efficient production in other
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American, European and Asian countries like Japan; old equipments, labour
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problems and world recession, Great Britains industrial prowess nowhere near
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to its past.
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Coal was the most important source of energy for the early industrialisation of
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Britain. But this importance gradually declined during the twentieth century
and an alarming reliance on imported petroleum developed, which
attracted the industries to coastal areas. However, huge deposits of
petroleum and natural gas were discovered under the bed of the North Sea
in the mid 1960s. This improved the situation. Britain not only became self-
sufficient In petroleum production but it also became an oil-exporting
nation upto 1990s. but recently it has again started importing.
The major industrial areas of Great Britain may be divided into:
1. The Midlands
Centred at Birmingham, this is the largest industrial belt of Britain. Its central
location and the presence of coalfields were the two most important advantages
for location of Important Industries. Also a dense network of roads and railways
developed due to its central location. At present, thermal electricity and
imported oil is the chief source of energy for British industries. Though a variety
of products is produced in the region, it specialises in smaller metalgoods of
very high quality. Its major industries have developed around the important
coalfields
South Staffordshire coalfields, Birmingham, Dudley, Wolverhampton, Walisall
and
West Bromwich are Important industrial centres; electrical apparatus, hardware,
glassware, transport equipment, engineering and Iron and steel industry are
important Industries of this region.
Warwickshire coalfields, where most Important centre for automobile industry
is located at Coventry.

Leicestershire coalfields, on which BurtononTrent, the largest brewery town of

Britain is located. The other Important Industrial towns are Derby, specialising

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in textiles and engineering; Nottingham. having hosiery, pharmaceuticals and

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cigarettes and tobacco industry,

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North Staffordshire coalfields, where StokeonTrent. famous for pottery. Is
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located. Northeast 2. England ka
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This Industrial region developed on the coalfields of Northumberland and
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Durham and has the advantage of proximity to iron ore deposits of Cleveland
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Hills (now exhausted). Situated near the coasts, this region specialises in Iron
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and steel Industry, with related marine, mechanical and constructional

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engineering. shipbuilding, chemicals and glass industry. Nowadays. the

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industries of the region rely mainly on imported iron ore and oil while coal is
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also available locally. Newcastle for shipbuilding and transport equipment

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industries; Darllngton for locomotives; Stockton for engineering: Mlddlesbrough

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for iron and steel; Gateshead for structural engineering; Sunderland for marine
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engineering: west Hartlepool for shipbuilding; South Shields for port Industries
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and Bellingham for chemicals, fertilizers, drugs and synthetic fibres are well
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known.
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3. Yorkshire Nottinghamshire and Derbyshire

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The coalfields of Yorkshire, Nottinghamshlre and Derbyshire have given rise to

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many important industries in the region. The most important industries include
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worsted textiles at Bradford and Halifax; woollen textiles at Huddersfield and

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Wakefield; and garment Industry at Leeds. The whole region is very Important
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for woollen textile Industries, which are based upon local coal, soft water from
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the Pennine streams for washing. bleaching and dyeing and local wool from the
sheeprearing region of Pennine. These textile mills are now highly mechanised
and mostly make use of Imported wool. Manufacturing of textile machinery has
also developed in the region.
The above region extends southwards around the coalfields of Derbyshire and
Nottlnghamshire. In close proximity to this coalfield lies the iron ore region of
Lincolnshire and Northamptonshire. Limestone is available from the Pennine
Mountains. Therefore, an important Iron and steel Industry has developed in the
region with steelworks In Sheffield. Other associated industries that have
developed here include engineering, tool manufacturing, machine parts,
locomotives and other metal products. Apart from Sheffield, Rotherham,
Doncaster and Chesterfield are the chief steel centres. The region has a long
history of cutlery making and traditional skilled labour was available, based on
which cutlery industry developed at Sheffield, the worlds largest cutlery town.
4. The Lancashire Region
This region was known for linen textiles In the fourteenth century. However, it
was only In the eighteenth and nineteenth century that the cotton textile
developed here. The localisation and growth of the Industry has been helped by
the availability of coal, traditional skilled labour, humid climate suitable for
cotton textiles, availability of soft water from the Pennine streams and facility of
import of cotton from the U.S.A. and Egypt through the port of Liverpool.

a. Manchester became the main centre. Later, during the twentieth century,
the Importance of this region for cotton textile declined. But apart from
cotton textile other Industries also developed, for example, shipbuilding,
marine engineering, chemicals and the industry for processing of many
tropical products. Important industrial towns, other than Manchester, are

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b. Bolton and Bury for spinning:

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c. Blackburn and Rochdale for weaving; ka
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d. Liverpool and Birkenhead for shipbuilding:

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e. Widnes, Puncorn and Warrington for marine engineering and chemicals:

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f. Port Sunlight ,for soapmaking:

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g. St. Helens for glass:

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h. Ellesmere Port for oil refining and Halewood is known for assembling of
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motor vehicles.
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5. Greater London Industrial Region

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The metropolis of London had many advantages for the development of

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industriesIt Is the capital city, a leading seaport, a financial centre of

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international importance and Its large population provided both labour

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and readymade market. The important industries that developed here

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arecement, oil refineries near Thames estuary; metal working.

chemicals, electrical industries and automobile industry at Dagenham.
Other marketbased Industries are foodstuffs, apparel, musical
instruments, tobacco, furniture, perfumes and cosmetics, luxury goods,
printing and publishing, etc.

6. central Scotland
This Is the only industrial region in Scotland. Coal is found in the
coalfields of Clydeside, Lanarkshire, Fifeshire, Ayrshire and Midlothian. In
the coalfields of Glasgow Iron ore, deposits are also found. This led to the
development of iron and steel industry at Glasgow, Motherwell,
Coatbridge and other centres. Shipbuilding Is concentrated on Clydeside
from Glasgow to Greenock. Other industries In the region include
engineering at Dumbarton; manufacture of sewing machines at
Clydebank; chemicals at Rutherglen and marine engineering at Renfrew.

7. South Wales
South Wales Is an example of older industrial region, which has
undergone modernisation. The very foundation of the industrial
development of the region was availability of coal (both anthracite and
bituminous). Some amount of iron ore was also found in the region. Both
coal mining and extraction of Iron ore was labour intensive and attracted
a large population to this valley. Based upon these, the iron and steel
industry was established, both Inland at Ebbw Vale and on the coast. Iron

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and steel industry attracted other metallurgical industries, especially tin

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planting, based on Cornish tin from Bristol Channel and later on imports

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from Malaysia and Nigeria.
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exhaustion of local, South Wales had to depend upon imported ores,
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which caused locational change of the iron and steel industries to coastal
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areas at Cardiff, Swansea, Port Talbot and Newport. With the

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development of the Heads of the Valleys road in 1950 and other

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motorway and communication link with other parts of Britain, new

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Industrial plants were encouraged to set up along the roads. Oil refineries,
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plastic plants and other petrochemical plants were set up near the coast.
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The oil was transferred through pipeline and stored at Milford Haven. Oil
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refinery Is located at Swansea. Food processing Industries at Swansea,

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Newport and Cardiff have maintained their importance and have also
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attracted many new light Industries.

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B. Germany (4)
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The German industries are mainly coalfield based. Thus, the Industries
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are mostly found concentrated in and around the coal resources. This is
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best manifested in the various industrial regions.

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1. The RuhrWestphalia Region

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This region has a long industrial history. It originated In the southern

uplands using the waterpower of the valleys and the windblast on the
uplands. Local iron ore, charcoal, water and wind power provided the
basis for establishment of an Iron and steel industry. In addition, local
wool and waterpower encouraged the growth of an early textile industry.
Later, with new findings of coal in the region, heavy industries on modern
lines came up. Also the development of canals such as the Lippe and
Dortmund Ems and railways provided additional stimuli for the
movement of bulky goods within the Ruhr. During the same period,
German Banks began their association with the industries and provided
capital. The Ruhr was also characterised by increasing economies of scale
by the Integration of separate Industrial concerns, for example,
coalmines, steel and chemical works. Chemicals were developed from the
coking coal and metal smelting processes as byp roducts. A natural gas
pipeline from the Ems field and an oil pipeline from Wilnelmshaven
added new resource bases while the import of high grade iron ore from
Sweden to replace the exhausted local ores widened the resource base.
These advantages set the scene for establishment of a wide range of
industries heavy industries including iron and steel industry at
Duisburg, Essen, Bochum and Dortmund: heavy chemicals around
Dusseldorf and Leverkusen: engineering including large interests In
armaments at Gelsenkirchen. Oberhausen, Rheinhausen, Essen and
Dortmund; Cutlery industries at Solingen and Remscheid:
and textiles at Krefeld and Wuppertal.
Coal mining has declined in the Puhr since 1958. Between 1957 and
1961 there was a loss of 1.60,000 miners. The world oil crisis of the
1970s, however, gave a new lease of life to the coal Industry. Now

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with the help of foreign labours, the coal mining has improved and it is

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predicted that by the year 2000 the demand for coal will be some 70 per

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cent up on 1977 levels.
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However, even the decline of coal has not affected the leadership
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position of the Ruhr in Germany. To Improve the position further,
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multi-track electrified railways:

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long distance roads; water and power supplies sufficient for

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industry has been planned.

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2. The Middle Rhine Industrial Area
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The Rhine River forms the main waterway of European commerce. At the
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confluence of Rhine and Main Rivers, a widespread industrial complex has

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developed. Besides the availability of cheap water transport, there is also the
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convergence of rail and road routes In this region. This has encouraged the
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industrial development in the region. Frankfurt is a railway engineering centre

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with electrical, engineering, automobile and chemical Industries; Mainz, have

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leather, brewing and engineering industries; Mannheim and Ludwigshafen with

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water transported raw materials have chemicals, electrical engineering,

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agricultural Implements and iron and steel Industry. In most cases, River Rhine
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provides ample fresh water for chemical Industries. Since the region is deficient
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in raw material and power resource, it specializes on precision goods which

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require less raw material but become high value finished product.
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3. Other industrial regions In Western Germany

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Though concentration of industries is not found In a particular place, this region

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includes wide rang of industries scattered in several large cities. West Berlin,
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the capital city of old Germany, developed as an important industrial centre. It

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produces consumer goods, such as furniture and luxury goods and also has
chemicals, engineering and electrical industries. Electrical apparatus and
electronic equipments are most important product. Hamburg Is a major port and
has shipbuilding and marine engineering works. Munich includes beer, musical
instruments, scientific instruments and photographic equipment manufacturing
units. Stuttgart is a centre for precision goods and high value products and
manufactures automobiles including Mercedes Benz, Porsche and Audi
automobiles; optical and surgical equipment; car components and watches.
Hanover has metal and chemical industries and Aachen and Saarbrucken in the
west of the country Includes Iron and steel, engineering and textile industries.
4. Eastern Germany Industrial Region
In East Germanys earlier history, much of Its Industrial plant was dismantled
and shifted to the Soviet Union. In later years, it was drained of wealth to help
rebuild the erstwhile U.S.S.R from the ravages inflicted by German armies in
World War II. Before the Berlin Wall sealed the last loophole, much of the
population fled to west, thus draining East Germany of needed labour.
But the above history could not prevent industrialisation in East Germany. The
main Industrial areas are based on the Saxony coalfield and the Stassfurt salt
deposits. The Elbe River provides excellent water transport. Under Soviet
direction, money was poured Into a large heavy industrial complex at
Eisenhuttenstadt CSteei Mill City), on the Oder River to the southeast of Berlin,
although neither coal nor iron ore was cheaply available. Part of the plant still
operates, but the rest was never finished. Consumer goods production was
restricted In order to establish firmly the traditional East German industries
such as chemicals and machinery. Recently. an emphasis has been given for
production of high technology lines as optical Instruments at Leipzig: Zeiss
photographic equipment at Jena: machine tools, instruments and automation.

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Dresden is the centre for Dtesden porcelain and Karl Marx Stadt for textiles. The

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abundant supply of Potash salts in Saxony has encouraged the establishment of

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chemical industries at Magdeburg, Stassfurt and Halle. Other industries of this
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region include processing of agricultural products, printing, publishing and
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engineering.
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After the unification of West and East Germany in 1990 a greater success and
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prosperity have apparently attended in the attempt to focus the development of

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high technology industrial production In the region and also efforts are being
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made to bring E. Germany up to West German standards of efficiency and

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environmental requirements. to upgrade rail, road and electricity supplies.

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C. France (4)
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Compared to Britain, France is far less urbanised and industrialised. The major
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industrial regions of France may be divided Into

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1.The Northeast Industrial Region

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the presence of coalfields of Nord and PosdeCalais (a continuation of the

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SambreMeuse coalfield of Belgium) and the relative ease with which Iron ore
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can be brought from Lorraine or Imported from Sweden have formed the
very foundation of industrial growth in the region. The most important
Industries In the region include iron and steel industries at Dunkirk, Dovai,
Denaim and Valenciennes: metal parts and machinery are also manufactured
here: cotton, woollen, linen and synthetic textiles at L1Ue; railway coach and
arms manufacturing is found at Dorain while engineering industries are found at
Doval, Lembruve and Bethune.
2. Lorraine
The most important producer of steel in France is Lorraine. The iron and steel
industries are based on local Minette ores but coal is imported. The labour force
is made of local people, as well as by those who migrated from Italy, Belgium,
Poland and other European countries. The transportation network is very well
developed. Metz. Thionville, Longwy and Nancy are the most important
industrial centres. Apart from iron and steel Industry other industries of the
region include cotton textiles, glass, furniture, electricals, machinery and leather.
Location In the interior, decline of coal as energy source, marginal economic
viability of the steel industries and the competition from more efficient
producers in the Saar and the Puhr have posed a great challenge to this
Industrial region. Therefore, this region is going through a declining industrial
phase.
3. Greater Paris
Paris is a densely populated city and thus is a source of cheap labour as well as
vast market. From very old times, Paris has been famous for producing delicate
works in Jewellery, laces, textiles, etc. and therefore, skilled labour was easily
available. Later on, transport facilities also developed and the linkages became
stronger. Paris region produces a wide range of goods, for example, jewellery,
cosmetics, ornaments, porcelain, wearing apparel, cigarettes, furniture, musical

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Instruments, precise scientific instruments, automobiles, locomotives, aircraft

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and chemicals.

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4. Isolated Industrial Towns
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There are few Isolated Industrial towns that have developed on the basis of some
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local factors. On the basis of availability of local coal and iron ore, steel industry
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developed at Creusot, St. Etienne and Ales. But as the local ores have exhausted,
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the iron and steel plants are getting the supplies of ore from Africa and Sweden.
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Clermont Ferrand, situated in the heart of the Central Massif, produces tyres,
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chemicals, engineering goods and cotton textiles. Limoges is famous as pottery

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centres. Lyons is known for silk textile production and also produces cotton,
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rayon and nylon textiles. Chemical industry has also developed here which
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provide colours and bleach for textile industries. Marseilles has oil refineries and
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specialises in the processing of sugar refining, soap and margarine making,

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leather tanning, fruit canning and processing, etc. Grenoble utilises the hydel
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power obtained from the Alpine Rivers and has developed light industries. It has
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also developed cement iridustry based on the availability of limestone.

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4. Italy (
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In comparison to the other west European countries, Italy is poorly endowed

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with natural resources. It has the deposits of neither coal nor iron ore and most
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other important industrial mineral deposits that are found are widely dispersed
and generally of poor or inferior quality. Much of the country has a mountainous
terrain and dry climate, which is unsuitable for agriculture in the region. It was
only after World War. II, that deposits of natural gas were found in the Po Basin,
which does not form a longterm energy supply. However, industrial growth,
which mainly started In the nineteenth century, has concentrated In the north
rather than the south.
The Po River Valley in northern Italy is the most developed region. It includes
only onefourth of Italys land but more than 70 per cent of its industries and 50
per cent of its population. The region possesses two advantagesa large supply
of cheap labour and inexpensive sources of hydroelectricity from the nearby
Alpine regions. The Po River, the ports of Genoa and Venice and the close
network of railways in the Lombardy plain allow smooth movement of goods
and workers within the region. The Lombardy plain Is the largest Industrial
region comprising of major industrial cities of Milan, Turin and Genoa. Milan is
the industrial capital of the region and is important for textiles (silk in
particular) and engineering works; Turin Is noted for automobiles (Fiat), rail
coaches and aircraft; and Genoa consists of shipbuilding and repairing
industries. Other important towns areVenice having craft Industries
Venetian glass. lace, silverware, silk brocades and ornaments; Mestre and Porto
Marghera having heavy industries including oil refining, petrochemicals an
metallurgical industries. In recent times, hydroelectricity is supplemented by
domestic natural gas, imports of coal from Germany, Great Britain and Poland
and also by imports of oil, though cheap hydroelectricity continues to play
important role in reducing the cost of operating of industries where required.
Outside the northern industrial region, the important industrial cities are the
capital Rome and Naples. Rome has some light Industries while Naples has wine

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making, food processing, iron and steel industry and petrochemical units. Other

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Taranto, Ban and Catania (Sicily). Affempts have been made to develop the south
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through both Italian and EEC funding. New iron and steel, oil refining and
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chemical plants have been set up to stimulate local and regional economies, but
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had disappointing results in the 1970s and 1980s.

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5. Other Industrial Regions of Europe

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Belgium
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One of Europes major coalfields crosses Belgium in a narrow eastwest belt of

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about 16 km long following roughly the valleys of the Sambre and Meuse Rivers.
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Based on this coalfield and some amount of local ore; heavy Industries including
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iron and steel, manufacture of armaments. heavy chemicals have developed.

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Liege is the most important town in this region and accounts for the largest
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metallurgical manufactures. The region also has many smelters based on the
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local availability of zinc from Ardennes and imported ores of zinc lead and tin.
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Other important Industrial centres In the SambreMeuse region areMons,

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having textiles and brewery industries: Namur, having agricultural engineering:

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Charlerol, making cutlery, mining equipment, chemicals and electrical appliances

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manufacturing plants.
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Newer industrial plants with more modern equipments have come up in

northern Belgium. Ghent has iron and steel industry, linen textiles: Bruges
specialises in lace and embroidery; Brussels, the capital of Belgium have
industries such as textiles, chemicals, paper, food processing and metal goods;
Antwerps, an important port specialises in diamond cutting. and also has
shipbuilding, oil refining, petrochemicals and mechanical engineering industries.
Some Industrial towns have become prominent on the Kempenland coalfield,
which make bricks, paper, glass, chemicals and metal smelting like zinc and
copper. Genk, Hasselt and Turnhout are examples of such towns.
Luxembourg
The most important industry in Luxembourg Is the iron and steel industry based
upon the Minette iron ore deposits. a continuation of the Lorraine iron ore
deposits of France. Important iron and steel producing towns are Esch,
Dudelange and Differdange. Luxembourg City has engineering industries. Most of
the production is exported due to very small home market and in return.
Luxembourg buys fuel. alloy metals and many other products.
Netherlands
Before World War lithe Industrial scenario of Netherlands was quite different
from what it is today. Netherlands had no internal power resources except one
small coalfield (now closed) called Limburg, in the southernmost part. Though it
had dense population providing cheap labour and its location aided cheap
Import of fuel and export of finished products, there was not much industrial
development.

It did not have any heavy Industries and whatever light industries developed,
they were scattered. Textiles, electrical equipment Industries were the important
light industries In the region.

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This situation changed after World War II. Imported oil became more important

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and supplemented coal. RotterdamEuropoort became the most important

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European port through which oil imports entered Europe. Part of it Is forwarded
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to Germany and other European countries as crude oil, while part of It is refined
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at or near Rotterdam before forwarding. Therefore, worlds largest
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concentration of refineries is found in this region. Oil refineries are also found at
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Amsterdam, Pernis and Europoort. Along with oil refineries, petrochemical units
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have also developed here. There are other industries that are equally well
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developed. These Include marine engineering and shipbuilding at Rotterdam,

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Schiedam and Dordrecht; engineering industries at Utrecht and Elndhoven;

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chemical plants at Pernis, Europoort and Masstrlcht; and natural gas based units
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at Groningen. A large iron and steel plant is located at Ijmuiden, on the North Sea
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canal, using Imported coal and ore. Textile industries are mainly found at Tilburg
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(Woollen), Eindhoven (linen), Enschede (cotton), Arnhem (rayon); and Breda

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(synthetic). Amsterdam specialises in diamond cutting and Arnhem has tin

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smelting units. Dairying, brewing, sugar refining, food processing and oil milling
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are also important in the agricultural rich polder lands. Meatpacking is done near
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the coast.
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Sweden
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The centuriesold tradition of metal mining and smelting has provided the
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Inertia for industrial development In Sweden. The highgrade Iron ores of the
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Bergslagen region, just north of the Central Swedish Lowland, have been
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exploited since medieval times. Sweden has the richest Iron ore resources of
Europe at Kiruna and Gallivare. Apart from iron ore, the region has a developed
hydroelectric power; high technological skills: well developed communication
linksrailways, roads and inland waterways; and a coastal location that
facilitates imports and exports. The problem posed by the absence of any major
coal resources was solved by availability of electricity from hydel power. The
electric process in iron smelting proved costly but it gave an extraordinary
control of quality, therefore, the Swedish steel Is worldwide known as the
highestgrade steel. The main industrial region is In central Sweden, the Lake
depression, with Stockholm as the main centre. Some of the products of Sweden
are internationally known, for example, Volvo cars, Bofors guns, Aga beacons,
Electrolux refrigerators, Laval cream separators, Ericsson telephones, Nobel
dynamites and Johanssons instruments. Robots and many other high technology
items are increasingly Important in Swedens export trade.
The important industrial centre Is Eskilstuna, known for excellent cutlery and
ornamental goods. Other metal and engineering units are centred at Vdteras,
FalL.in, Dannemora and OxelOsund. Other industries Include footwear at Orebro;
textiles at NOrrkOping: paper industry at Karlstad, Norrkoping, Orebro and

TrollhOtton; and glassware and furniture is manufactured at Smaland; GOteborg

is the leading shipbuilding centre and the premier port.
Norway
The most important natural resources of Norway Include spectacular scenery,
hydel power, fish, forests and a variety of minerals. Based on these resources
many kinds of Industries have developed In Norway, particularly after World
War II. The recently discovered resources of large oil and natural gas In the
Norwegian sector of the North Sea floor have made Norway a net exportef of

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crude oil and gas. Hydel power Is most important and accounts for 99.7 per cent

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of all electricity generated here. Along the southwest coast, a considerable

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electrometallurgical and electrochemical industry has developed. These units
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mostly depend upon imported raw materials and most of the finished products
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are exported. Bergen, Trondheim and Stavanger are important towns noted for
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their fishing and shipping activities. Stavanger is a major port servicing the
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North Sea oil and gas fields. Aluminium smelting plants are located at Odda and
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Ardal; Iron and steel industry at MoIRona; Oslo, the capital city Includes
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industries like pulp mills, shipyards, chemical plants and fish canning factories.
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Electrochemical Industries, based on cheap hydel power, are located at

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Glommen Valley and Telemark. Such plants mainly manufacture fertilizers,

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plastics, explosives, and ferro alloys.

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Denmark
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Denmark is a country in which agriculture plays the most important role In its
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economy. Danish agriculture is highly specialised and animal husbandry is well

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developed. Denmark thus, has industries based on agricultural and dairy

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products like grain milling, sugar refining, food processing, butter and cheese
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making. meat packing, etc. The Important towns are Odense. Flensburg. Esbjerg
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and Aarhus. The most important Industrial centre of Denmark is its capital city
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Copenhagen, lying on the Island of Sjaelland (Zealand). It is also the chief port. It
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specialises in diesel engines apart from agrobased Industries. Other important

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industries include chemicals, textiles, fishing vessels, beer (Carlsberg),

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silverware, machinery and electrical equipment.

Switzerland
Though devoid of significant mineral resources. Switzerland is a highly
Industrialised country. All the industries of Switzerland are mainly based on
hydroelectricity from mountain streams of Alps and the skills of Swiss workers
and management. Since it has to depend mostly on imported raw materials, the
use of bulky raw material is minimised and it gives more value to skilled
workmanship and design. The important industries that have developed in the
region areengineering industry Including machinery, tools, electricals, surgical
and optical instruments at Zurich, Basel and Baden; textile industries at St.
Gallen, Appenzell and Zurich; clocks and watch making at La ChauxdeFonds.
Biel and Le Lode; chemical industry. Including acids, drugs, plastics and synthetic
fibre at Basel and Geneva. Switzerlands largest city, Zurich. has become one of
the major centres of

international banking and finance. The scenic resources of Switzerland have

encouraged its tourism industry. Zermatt, Davos and St. Moritz are world famous
ski resorts In the Alpine region.
Poland
Polands main industrial districts are found near the Silesian coalfield and near
small deposits of iron ore, petroleum and natural gas. Based on these the
industries of Poland have developed. Throughout the country, road, rail and
water communications are well developed. Thus, the important industrial towns
are Wroclaw, Czestochowa, Bytom, Katowice, Chorzow and Krakow where the
important industries are iron and steel, heavy engineering, chemicals, textiles
and zinc/lead refining. Warsaw, the capital city and Gdansk on the Baltic sea are
also major industrial towns.

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Russia

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The Industrial development in the CIS had started before World War I. But this
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development was quite slow till Russian Revolution of 1917 and was confined to
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only three areasthe Moscow region, Leningrad (them called Petrograd) and
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the Ukraine, i.e., the European part of the CIS. Actually most of the natural
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resources were found in the Asiatic CIS which contained ninetenths of her coal
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reserves, a bigger proportion of the forest resources and huge potential for
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hydroelectricity generation, besides many varieties of minerals and agricultural

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productions, which could form raw materials for agrobased industries. The
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industrial establishments of European CIS were at considerable distance from

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these sources of fuel and other raw materials, which had to be transported over
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long distance. The concentration of industries in the European CIS was based on
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the plans for achieving lower operational cost even at the expense of higher
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transportation cost. This concentration caused strain on railways and other

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transportation systems. Thus, the cost of transportation increased even more

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and started proving uneconomic.

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Manufacturing
Centers in
Western Europe

Fig. 11-6: The major manufacturing centers

in Western Europe extend in a
north-south band from Britain
to Italy.

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The U.S.A
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The U.S.A. is industrially the most developed country in the world. About four
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fIfth of the industrial output of North America is contributed by the United States
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alone. The northeastern part of the U.S.A contained early population

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settlement centres where the growing network of canal and railroad and
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concentrations of capital investment encouraged the initiation of industrial

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growth. The early manufacturing advantages, however, were soon lost as

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population started settling across the Appalachians into the rich continental
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interior. Gradually other parts of the United States also started developing.
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Industrial development in the USA is found concentrated in six regions.

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1. New England States

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New England region is the oldest manufacturing region of the U.S.A. It comprises
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six states namely, Connecticut, Rhode Island, Massachusetts, Vermont, New

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Hampshire and Maine. Boston is the main centre of this Industrial region.
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Two zones of industrial concentrations may be distinguished within New

England Eastern New England and Western New England.
Eastern New England
This region had some natural advantages which made it industrially developed,
ahead of others. It had a large labour force, mostly migrants from other
countries. Due to high concentration of population, it formed one of the most
important markets in the Western Hemisphere. Numerous streams flowing over
the rocky terrain provided the facilities for waterpower development, which
formed the traditional source of energy in the coal scarce region. It had
developed a shipping fleet and a surplus capital was reaped from the operations
of ships and exports of timber. The rough terrain of the region encouraged
extensive agriculture and wool and hides became its byproducts.
Another advantage lay in the situation of Eastern New England near the sea with
good harbours, which facilitated the Import and export trade with all the
background set for the industrial development. Local technological advances also
increased the economic viability of the factories in this region.

However, with the passage of time. New Eastern New England lost much of its
primacy and competitive advantage. Large scale deforestation of forests, mode
this region exhausted of its supply of the only abundant raw material. Moreover.
with the development of large scale electricity projects the numerous small
water power sites lost their advantage because electrically driven machineries
were cheaper to operate and easier to maintain. Electricity generation at large
waterpower installations proved more economical. Later on, the inventions of
thermalelectrical power (power plants driven by steam) at less cost than most
hydroelectric plants, changed the scene completely.
The major industrial concentrations in this region ore Providence, Brooklyn,

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New Bedford, Boston and Merrimac Valley. Boston Is the centre of the region.

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The traditional industries of shipbuilding are found at Boston and Quincy.

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Textiles and leather are the oldest industry developed here. Footwear and textile
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manufacturing machinery are Its specialised supplies. Since 1950s, the greatest
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growth has been In engineering Industries, electronics and in research and
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development.
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Western New England

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No particular city dominates this region the way Boston dominates eastern New
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England. Apart from cotton textile and woollen textile industries found at Lowell
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and Providence, respectively, specialised productions are found, such as

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electrical machinery at Springfield, aircraft and armaments are at Hartford,

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Instrument making at Bridgeport and textile machinery manufacturing at

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Worcester, Lowell and New Bedford. Metal products make up over onehalf of all
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manufacturing as this is one of the nations most Important copper belt. This has
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facilitated the growth of Industries like finished copper goods, such as electric
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wire, cooking utensils and decorative hardware. New Haven and New Britain
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Bristol ore the main Industrial centres.

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2. The Middle Atlantic States

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This is the most populous region of the United States. Thus. It has produces a
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large domestic market for its own industrial productions. Though in small
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amount, the region has some row materialscool and Iron. The proximity of the
region to Pennsylvania anthracite, bituminous coal and oil of Appalachians have
facilitated the industrial development in the region.
The regions development was aided by steady Influx of immigrants forming a
vast skilled labour force. Delaware River and Chesapeake Bay not only serve as
convenient waterways for ocean vessels but also provide on easy access to
foreign markets. Today most of the iron ore supply comes from Canada and
Venezuela through them. An efficient transportation has developed via the
Pennsylvania and the Baltimore and Ohio rallroods and Pennsylvania Turnpike,
which links the region with the markets in the Interior part of the nation.

This region is one of the longest, largest and most populous of the worlds
metropolitan chains or Megalopolis, extending from New York to Baltimore with
New Jersey. Pennsylvania. Maryland, Delaware and Philadelphia being other
industrial centres alongwith some small centres like Sparrows Point, Bethlehem,
etc. It has great diversity In manufacturing. Virtually every type of Industry, from
the heaviest industries (blast furnaces at Sparrows Point) to the lightest
industries (the apparel plants and optical Instruments factories at Philadelphia)
are found here. New York City has printing, publishing, metal fabrication,
electrical goods, apparel industry and food processing units. It specializes in
financial and administrative sectors. Philadelphia has a richer agricultural
hinterland than New York and therefore, It has more food processing plants.
Baltimore and Camden are also known as major food processing centres.
Shipyards and petroleum refineries line the Delaware River below Philadelphia.
Petrochemical plants are found at Sparrows Point while chemical plants are
found at Wilmington. Delaware.
3. The Pittsburgh-Lake Erie Regions

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An iron and steel producing belt, based on coal from the northern Appalachian

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coalfields and iron ore from Mesabi Range via Great Lakes, developed from

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Pittsburgh to Lake Erie. Pittsburgh became the iron and steel capital of the
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world. ka
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Other important steel towns Include Wheeling, Youngstown, Warren, Sharon and
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Cleveland.
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The region has an ideal location for iron and steel manufacturing. Apart from
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proximity to an excellent domestic market, this region has excellent

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transportation advantages: the Great Lakes, all the major railroads running from
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Middle Atlantic to the Midwest, major highways and a network of pipelines and
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air routes converge here. Further more, the region Is rich In coal.
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Besides iron and steel Industries, there Is a huge chemical industry based on
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byproducts of coking coal. The region has lead, zinc and alloy metal smelters and
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also specialises in the manufacturing of heavy equipment and machinery (used

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In mining and metallurgy) railroad equipment and heavy trucks. The worlds
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largest synthetic rubber and tyre making centre Is located at Akron. Cleveland
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speclalises In wearing apparel and East Liverpool in pottery. Buffalo. near the
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confluence of the Erie Canal and Lake Erie, produces chemicals, metal goods and
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flour wflh the help of hydroelectric power from Niagara Falls.

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The cheap power from Niagara Falls has helped in the development of several
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new industries like aluminium, paper, electrochemicals, etc. The whole region
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has easy access to the markets both in the Atlantic coast and In the western
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interior.
The older parts of this Industrial region have plants, which have become
obsolete. Raw material depletion, energy cost increases, water and air pollution
control costs that are high by the standards of competing countries, have been
the cumulative factor for their decline In Importance. Cleveland, Erie and Buffalo
still remain Important manufacturing centres.

4. The Detroit Industrial Region

On the western side of the Great Lakes an industrial region at and around Detroit
has developed. It is the greatest automobilemanufacturing region of the U.S.A.
and Is sometimes called as the automative capital of the United States. Detroit is
the fourthranking industrial metropolis In the country. Located along the
Detroit river, this metropolis is on the main stream of Great Lakes shipping with
easy access to iron ore from Lake Superior region and coal from Lake Erie region.
An asymmetrical industrial structure developed in which there was domination
of production of motor vehicles and parts.
The region has developed various ancillary activities to car manufacturing such
as tyremaking, electrical wires, glass, batteries, paints, polishes, alloyed steel
and spare parts. Besides Detroit these are located in Lansing, Flint, Jackson
Pontaic, Dearborn and Toledo.
5. The Lake Michigan Region
An important industrial concentration has developed on the southern Lake
Michigan hinterland, a horseshoeshaped Industrial area wrapped around the
lower end of Lake Michigan. Chicago, Illinois, Indiana and Milwaukee dominate
the scene, The region has four basic advantages, which has helped It to become
on Important manufacturing region.

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i. The hinterland of Lake Michigan is one of the most productive agricultural

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regions. Apart from providing raw material for certain foodprocessing units, the

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agricultural surpluses help in increasing the purchasing capacity for the
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manufactured goods. ka
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ii. This Is a densely populated region, which forms a vast market apart from
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cheap labour.
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iii. The whole regions, specially Chicagos, earliest advantage was Its function as
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a railroad centre. Chicago Is situated on a navigable canal and is a good port (the
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Great LakesSeaway system), a major highway convergence point, it Is the

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largest centre for air travel in the United States and has the largest railway yard
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In the Western hemisphere.

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iv. Though in small quantity, Illinois, Indiana and Kentucky have coal deposits.
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v. Level terrain, fertile soils and suitable climate has supported commercial
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agriculture In the region.

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Diverse manufacturing units have developed in the region. Chicagos early

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industries involved the processing of agricultural products. Meatpacking, grain

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milling and manufacturing of agricultural machinery were prominent. These

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products have declined In Importance and moved to peripheral areas or to

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transportation centres farther west. Southwestern Ohio (notably Cincinnati.

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Hamilton, Middletown and Dayton). eastcentral Indiana (particularly

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Indianapolis,
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Anderson. and Fort Wayne) and Louisville constitute on area of diversified

manufacturing such as machinery, aircraft, paper. etc. Cincinnati is a national
leader In making machine fools, the Miami Valley In paper and Dayton and
Indianapolis In household machinery, office machinery and airplane spare parts.
But the most spectacular manufacturing units are the steel mills lined up along a
twelvemile strip of Lake Michigan shoreline from Gary. Indiana to southern
Chicago. As a focal transportation centre, Chicago has developed units for
construction and repair of railway engines, coaches and other transport
equipments. Textiles, footwear, meatpacking, etc. are other important
industries.
6. The South Region
This region does not have any large industrial agglomerations comparable with
those In the north. The important manufacturing concentrations are Houston,
Dallas, Greensboro, Atlanta, and Birmingham. This region can be subdivided into
two partsCl) the southeastern part, and (Ii) the southwestern part and both
have been enjoying different set of advantages and this Is reflected in the kind of
manufacturing units that are located there.

Southeastern region
The foremost advantages of this region are that It has rich deposits of minerals.
Twothirds of the great Appalachian coal field lies in West Virginia, Kentucky.
Virginia, Tennessee and Alabama, iron ore Is found in Alabama. phosphate In
Florida and Kaolin In Georgia. The region grows cotton and tobacco and has
excellent timber reserves.
This region has excellent waterpower resource. The two important hydroelectric
plants are located at the Piedmont and the Tennessee Valley. The Tennessee

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River and its trIbutaries have been dammed, mostly by the Tennessee Valley

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Authority with the aim of controlling floods, reducing soil erosion, providing

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recreational environments and generating electricity.
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The whole region has moderately large population, which mostly forms unskilled
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labour. The labour, compared to the wage rates of the north, is quite cheap. Other
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living costs, municipal and state taxes are lower, The climate Is mild, which helps
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in incurring less factory overhead expenses than north for winter time and
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heating.
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The chief manufacturing product is steel making, mainly centred at Birmingham,

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cotton textiles, chemicals, metal works and machinery. Aluminium smelting is

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based on Caribbean ores and Arkansas ores. Synthetic chemicals have given rise
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to tyre and rubber factories. Shipbuilding (tankers) is rapidly expanding at the

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present time. New Orleans has oil refining, chemicals and cotton textile
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Industries.
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South western Region

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The industrial scene compared to southwestern region is quite different. The

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southwest does not have as abundant labour as the southeast, nor it has as much
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waterpower or coal. But the regions industrial development is based on oil. The
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region supplies about onethird of the U.S. domestic production of oil and has
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threequarters of the countrys natural gas reserves. Besides there are other
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advantages, such as.

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1. westward spread of agriculture into drier regions particularly, the cotton

cultivation has provided a sound agricultural base:
2. the oil refining and chemical Industries have been located on the coasts so that
oil and oil products are easily exported to other countries or sent to other parts
of the U.S.A. through the ports and transshipment points, Introcoastal waterway
has been constructed running along the coast and through lagoons giving a deep
channel on the shallow Gulf shore:
3. capital, has been generated by the oil industry which is invested in the
development of other Industries, either linked with oil or producing consumer
goods:
The major cities In the region ore .Houston, Dallas and Fort Worth. Houston has
twelve or more oil refineries, chemical plants, synthetic rubber factories and
steel milling and the manufacture of mining equipment and consumer products.
Dallas is a major cotton market and has apparel and fashIon industries, Fort
Worth is a cattle town with the largest stockyards in the southern U.S.A. and is
famous for aircraft and aerospace industries.
Despite the low population of the southwest and the lower purchasing capacity
(Inspite of rather high population) of the southeast, the region has been
witnessing rapid economic growth. But with the development of oil Industry,
wellfavoured localities, the region Is currently going through a period of rapid
Industrial growth.

Other Industrial Region of the U.S.A

In the central and western part of the U.S.A there exists a vast industrially
poor region can be marked here and there.
The absence of manufacturing in this region is related to low density of

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population. With a small local market to be served, the manufacturing units

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in this region mostly depend upon local raw materials like food, timber and

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primary metals. Specifically, meat products are processed from beef, cattle and
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sheep, timber industry, copper, lead, zinc, silver and gold ores are put through
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primary processing. St Louis has meatpacking, flour milling, footwear and
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agricultural machinery industries. Kansas City has similar manufactures and In

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addition it also has aircraft and oil refining. Omaha, Denver, St. Paul and
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Minneapolis are other industrial towns. Memphis has speclalised in agricultural

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Industries.
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On the Pacific coast, the industrial development has taken place mainly in
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Washington, Oregon and California. These places have goods and services
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oriented units rather than basic industries. Aircraft Industry is located at

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Seattle, partly due to cheap hydroelectric power and aluminium plants.

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Besides Portland, Los Angeles and San Diego are all major aircraft centres as
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well. Suitable climate originally attracted the industry to southern California to

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facilitate aircraft testing.

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The film industry that has developed at Los Angeles Is world famous. Along with
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It the climatic advantages for outdoor living has promoted sportswear and
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apparel manufactures.
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Crop specialisatlon and climate have been the contributing factors for
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flourishing food processing industry. San Francisco is the largest food

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processing centre with tuna, coffee, sugar, oil and other products based on
imported raw materials. Los AngelesSantiago Corridor processes and packs the
fruit and vegetable specialties. San Francisco is the centre for shipbuilding and
repair. Oil refining, chemical Industries are important at Los Angeles and
Oakland. The San Francisco Bay district is famous for Silicon Valley project, and
the electronic/computer/high tech manufacturing.

Canada
The geographical location of Canada has restricted it with regard to
vigorous Industrial growth like the U.S.A. The vast Canadian region, which
lies in the north, comes under the influence of tundra climate and is barren.
Most of the southern parts are forested wherever there is sufficient soil.
Thus, in this difficult condition sparse population resides( 3.2 Cr against US
32 cr.).

The pattern of industrial location in Canada Is similar to that of the United States.
The hub of industrial activity is in the eastern half of the country, and within
the eastern half, it is concentrated in a few outstanding zones. The main
manufacturing zones run through the St. Lawrence Valley and southern
Ontario, between the two cities of Quebec and Windsor, 85 per cent of the
Canadian manufacturing takes place in this region.
As for as the raw material is concerned, this region has meagre raw materials
and has to depend upon raw materials brought from other regions: coal from the
Appalachian field, Iron ore from the Lake Superior ranges, Labrador and Quebec

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field and agricultural product like wheat from the Prairie Provinces. On the other

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fruits, vegetables and tobacco.
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The main market seems to be located in this eastern region where most
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Canadians with high purchasing capacity live, particularly, in the peninsula of
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southern Ontario and along the St. Lawrence lowland. This is also the region,
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which provides the largest labour force.

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In its own way, the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence River have played a
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very important role in the industrial development of the region. They not
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only link the industrial zone with the rest of the country but also with
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foreign sources of raw materials and foreign markets.

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The important industrial cities are: Toronto, the second largest Canadian city,
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having engineering, automobiles, chemicals, textiles, sowmilling, pulping, food

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processing and other industries: Hamilton at the western end of Lake Ontario,
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having heavy engineering industries, iron and steel, cars, porcelain and
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agricultural machinery; Windsor and the adjacent towns of the Lake Peninsula,
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having automobile and tyre industries due to their proximity to Detroit. One of
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the worlds largest oil refineries is located at Sarnia on the shores of Lake Huron,
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and aircraft are designed and tested at Malton. At Kingston, locomotive

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manufactures and at Guelph, electrical engineering unit is located. Other

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important industrial cities are Montreal, Ottawa and Quebec. Montreal has
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shipbuilding, oil refining, railway engineering, chemical, papers and pulp

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industries. Quebec specialises in marine engineering and shipbuilding. Ottawa,

the capital of Canada has mainly sawmilling, paper and pulp manufacturing,
food processing and agricultural machinery manufacturing industry.
Other regions in Canada where some manufacturing units are found are located
In the interior of the continent at Winnipeg specialising in wheat milling,
brewing, textiles, fur dressing and tanning; and Edmonton having Industries
based on local extraction of oil, natural gas, potash and coal. The discovery of
petroleum in Alberta has stimulated the location of refineries in the region.
Dense forests and waterpower resources have attracted some manufacturing
units to the Pacific coast. Vancouver is the main centre having lumbering, timber
industries, fish canning (salmon) and metal smelting.

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There are six areas of prime industrial significance:

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The Moscow Region, The Ukraine Region, Leningrad region, The middle
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Volga Region, The Urals region, and Siberia region

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1. The Moscow Region

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The industrial region surrounding Moscow is often called by different names,

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viz., Central Industrial Region. Old Industrial Region or MoscowTulaGorkiy

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Region. From Moscow, the region extends southward to include the metallurgical
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and machinebuilding centre of Tub: eastward to the diversified industrial centre

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of Gorkiy on the Volga; northward to the important textile centre of Ivanovo (city
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proper) and Yaroslav (city proper); a diversified centre of oil refining.

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petrochemicals and many other Industries on the upper Volga.

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The whole of Moscow region is devoid of mineral resources other than lignite
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and peat, phosphate deposits and small iron ore deposits (now almost
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exhausted). However, the industrial eminence of this region has been achieved
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owing to its central location, physically within the CISs western plains and it is
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functionally the major focus for the entire SovietUnion. It lies at the centre of the
Soviet rail and air networks, which connect It to all parts of the country. This
facilitates the constant flow of minerals and fuel from other parts of the country.
It is also well connected by rivers, Volga and Oker draining It; and with the Baltic,
White, Azov. Black and Caspian Seas by canal transportation. Besides, electric
lines from Volga power stations and gas and oil pipelines from the Ukraine, north
Caucasus, the VolgaU rals fields, central Asia. and western Siberia supply the
Moscow region with important sources of energy. This region Is also a densely
populated region, which provide large skilled labour pool, as well as a large
market. All these factors continue to make the region an important industrial
region.
The important Industries of the Moscow Region include steel mills at Moscow,
Tula, Gorkiy and Lipetsk; engineering industries like automobile industries at
Moscow, Gorkiy and Yaroslavl; locomotive in Kolomna; railway coach factories at
Kalinin:
agricultural machines: synthetic rubber and auto tyres at Yaroslavl: textiles such
as cofton at Ivanovo and Moscow; linen textile mills at Kalinin; chemical
industries like dyes and fertilizer manufacturing units at Moscow.
2. The Ukraine Region
This is a mineral rich region and the Industrial development of the region is
based on the rich Donetz or Donbas coalfields, Krivoi Rog and Kerch ironfield,
manganese of Nikopol and Vanadum of Kerch. Heavy Industries specially iron &
steel industries have developed mainly in Donetz Basin. where important
manufacturing towns areDonetsk (former name Stalino). Kramatorsk,
Voroshilovgrad, Artemovsk, etc. The region is also an important centre for
manufacture of chemicals, which is based on blast furnace wastes, coke oven
gases. huge deposits of common salt, natural gas and oil piped from wells in the

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Ukraine and the Caucasus. Based on cheap hydroelectricity from the Dneiper

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Dam. other Important iron and steel Industries are found along the Dnieper

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River at Dnepropetrovsk and other places: on the west of the Dneiper at Krivoy
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Rog; and Zhdanov (formerly Mariupol) on the Sea of Azov, Taganrog and at the
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Dnelper port Zaporozhe. Engineering Industries have also developed extensively
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throughout this region. These include the industries such as locomotive at

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Voroshilovgrad and Donetsk: agricultural machineriesy factories at Kiev. Odessa

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and RostovonDon; high grade steel alloys, machine tools, ball bearings, tractors
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and aluminium industries at Zaporozhe; and engineering Industries at Kharkov.

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Though the Donetz coalfields accouni.ed for almost ninetenth of the total cool
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production (bituminous and anthracite) of CIS, the Importance of coat as a

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source of power has declined and other sources have developed in recent times,
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such as, natural gas and oil; hydroelectricity which is available at Dneiper and
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Volga Rivers, and electricity from several nuclear stations scattered throughout
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the region.
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The Ukraine region is also famous for high agricultural productivity. Therefore,
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throughot.the southern Steppes of the western European CIS food processing

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industries and the production of agricultural equipments are found.

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Leru naiad
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Leningrad (originally known as St. Petersburg) is the second largest Soviet city
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and the countrys principal port. The location of Leningrad is a strategic one, at
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the entrance of the Baltic Sea and it is the European terminus of TransSiberian
Railway (8960 km long). The industrial development of Leningrad has not been
because of the availability of local minerals. Only a small amount of peat, oil,
shale and lignite deposits are found. The main source of energy however is
hydroe lectricity. Besides, electricity is obtained from large nuclear stations near
the city. Metals for metalfabricating industries are obtained from other areas.
But still, the city and Its immediate environments contribute around 5 per cent
of the CISs manufacturing.
Leningrad is supported by university and technological research workers, and it
contains highly skilled labour force. This has helped Leningrad to speclalise in
certain Industries, such as making of huge turbines for hydroelectric stations,
precision instruments, electrical apparatus, specific machine parts with great
precision.
3. The MIddle-Volga Region
Many cities, which are industrially developed, are found scattered along the
Volga River from Kazan southward, for example. Kuybyshev, Volgograd
(formerly Stolingrad). Kazan and Saratov. These are included in the MiddleVolga
industrial region. The MiddleVolga region owes Its industrial development to its
extensive energy resources. It not only contains one of the major petroleum
producing areas of the Soviet Unionthe VoigaUrals fields, but also has
important gas fields and surplus hydroelectric power generated by some of the
countrys largest dams. These dams are constructed as a chain of dams along the
River Volga and its large tributary, the Kama. The largest units are found near
Volgograd and Kuybyshev.

Apart from the advantage of power resources, this region has a long history of
industrial development. During World War lithe battle line crossed just west of

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this region. Thus, it was close enough to supply the required war materials.

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Hence, during this period the region experienced a rapid Industrial and

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population growth. Since the late 1950s, industrial production of this region has
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Increased faster in the Volga area than in the Soviet Union as a whole.
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Another advantage in the region is the development of means of transport and
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communication. The Volga River system forms the major water route of the
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country, carrying more than 60 per cent of the total freight transported by river.
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Water, rail and pipeline network has not only stimulated development of mid
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Volgas energy resources but also allowed the expansion of industrial activities in
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the surrounding areas.

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The important industries in the region includeautomobile industry at Tolyatti

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(city proper) on the Volga, the Kama River Truck Plant at Naberezhnyye Chelny;
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oil refining and petrochemical centres at Kuybyshev and Ufa. Besides, this region
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also includes diversified machinery, chemical and food processing industries.

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4. The Urals
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After Moscow Region and Ukraine Region, the Urals rank third in terms of overall
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industrial production. This region extends from Magnitogorsk, through

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Sverdlovsk to Nizhni Tagil. The industrial development of this region is

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comparatively recent, only after World War II. However, under the Fiveyear
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plans erstwhile U.S.S.R placed great emphasis on the development of the Urals as
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an Industrial region. Though the region Is devoid of good quality coking coal for
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metallurgical purposes, it is rich in other mineral deposits like copper in the

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central Urals and at Karabash; iron ore at NizhnlTagilKushva, and

Magnitogorsk: chromium at Sarany, Khalllovo; and other minerals like nickel,
cobalt, manganese, lead, bauxite, asbestos, potash. zinc and industrial salt.
The Important industries In the region include one of the worlds largest iron
and steel centres at Magnitogorsk: machine building, machine tool works,
chemical industry have also developed at Magnitogorsk; copper smelting, steel
machines and machine tools at Sverdlovsk: lignite mining, tractorbuilding, flour
milling industries at Chelyablnsk; steel plants, and rail wagonbuilding works
(largest in the world) at Nizhni Tagil; gold and copper refining, steel plants,
locomotive building at Orsk; nonferrous metallurgy, fertilizer factories and ship
building at Molatov. Many petroleum refining and petrochemical Industries have
developed in many centres of the region based on the VolgaUral oilfields.
5. Kuznetsk Region
The most Important Industrial region, east of the Urals Is the Kuznetsk industrial
region. The region has many advantages for its industrial development such as
enormous deposits of coal, much of it suitable for coking, oil deposits nearby at
Tyumen, Surgut and Nizhnevartovsk, hydroelectric power availability; location
on

the TransSiberian Railroad, BaikalAmur Mainline (BAM, 3204 km. long) and the
Ob River; availability of minerals likeiron ore at Kuznetskiy; tungsten at
kovlyven: mica at Barga; asbestos at Chadan and Mlnusinsk and having an
unlimited supply of softwoocftlmber.These advantages led to the development
ofiron and steel industries at Novokuzhetsk (city proper); H.E.P. engineering
at Novosiblrsk; saw milling, pulp and paper at Kuznetsk; textiles at Barnaul.
Other industries found in the region include chemical, food processing, machine
manufacturing, etc.

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6. Other isolated industrial centres
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There are some Isolated industrial centres which are based on local resources.
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Koragondo, near rich coal and Iron ore fields, having Iron and steel Industry;
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Krasnoyarsk, along TransSiberian Railway, having iron and steel and

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engineering industries: Bratsk, having paper and aluminium Industry;

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lrkutskCheremkhovo, with footwear, chemicals and timber works; Vladivostok,

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Magodon and Khabarovsk based on minerals and timber from the interior.
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Asia
Japan
Japans economic development is called as century In a decade. The most
important factor that has worked behind this development is the cooperation
and balance between government and people. Otherwise, if we compare Japan
with other developed nations we find that Japan is smalla mere 371,973 sq.
km., with 122 mIllion people living in it. It is one of the most densely populated
countries In the world with more than 15,022 persons per sq. km. The island
chain is part of the unstable orogenic (mountainbuilding) zone that encircles the
Pacific Ocean. It has hundreds of volcanoes (10 per cent of the worlds active
volcanoes); and earthquakes are a serious natural hazard. The level lands are In
short supply as 75 per cent of the island area of Japan Is too steep for cultivation
or has little utility for human occupancy. If we consider the mineral resources,
Japan is devoid of important minerals except coal deposits in Kyushu and
Hokkaldo. Even coal that Is found here is of noncoking coal variety. As a result,
the Japanese have had to rely overwhelmingly on Imported raw materials for
their industrial development.
The industrial development, prior to World War II, stressed on textiles and coal
based heavy industries. Before the World War II, Japan was the worlds leading
exporter of cotton textiles. Iron and steel Industry was set up in northeast
Kyushu. on and near the coalfleid. These industries mainly produced railway
equipments and commercial production of naval shipping. Hydroelectricity was

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developed on many mountain streams, which provided energy for the Industries.

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Wood was available, in relatively abundant quality, from the forestlands.

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The Industrial development after World War II was completely different.
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Destruction from the war had been catastrophic. especially, in urban and
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industrial areas. But In postwar period the role of the United States became very
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important. American assistance, in the form of financial aid or the opendoor

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policy for Japanese exports to the United States, contributed in a big way to erase
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the war effects. Soon Japan started reviving its Industries and there was
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phenomenal rise since the Korean War period of 1950s. New modern cofton
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textiles, Iron and steel industries, shipbuilding and chemicals (especially

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fertilizer) were established with a labour force, which was not only
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comparatively cheap but also relatively well educated and skilled, Therefore, the
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quality of the finished product was very high. Based on imported raw material
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like Iron ore, coal and petroleum these industries opted for coastal location. In
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the 1960s, Japan started producing electronics, cameras, optical equipments,

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petrochemicals, synthetics, fibres and automobiles. In the 1970s and 1980s,

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Japan was more involved in the manufacturing of computers and robots. In

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robotization of industry, Japan already had a clear lead over all other countries.
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Once again, the Japanese skill and sophisticated technology, efficient

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management and the governments incentive paved the way for Japans
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industrial progress. Between 1970 and 1984 when industrial production

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declined by 4 per cent in Great Britain, and increased by 48 per cent in the
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United States, Japans industrial production soared by 162 per cent Bank.
Unemployment in 1992 was reported to be by 13.5 per cent In Great Britain and
7.7 per cent in the United States, In Japan it was only 3.5 per cent. When in the
1980s the trade deficit of the U.S rose, Japans trade surplus mounted. In 1980s
Japan replaced America as chief creditor, buying stocks, bonds and real estate In
the world.
With this phenomenal industrial development, Japan has acquired the status of a
developed nation.

There were many factors that contributed to this phenomenal development.

1. Japan has developed hydroelectric power as supplement of coal. It provides

5 per cent of energy needs. Japan has also developed nuclear energy accounting
for 26 per cent of electricity generation In 1986 and Is projected to reach 60 per
cent by the year 2030.
2. The Indented coastline has facilitated the development of many large ports,
which helped import large quantities of raw materials from all over the world.
3. Some of the raw materials like copper, manganese, as well as silk, kaolin and
timber have been fully utilised.
4. Nearness of Japan to the densely populated continent of Asia provides a big
readymade market. The high quality of Japanese goods ensures an ever growing
market even in Europe and North America.
5. The high density of population of Japan has proved a boon for the Industrial
development. Not only the labour is cheap, it is skilled as well.

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6. The extent of government encouragement can be imagined by the fact that

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apart from encouraging the Industrialists, it has formulated a technically biased

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educational system. A unique collaborative partnership between MITI Japans
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Ministry of Industrial Trade and Industry and private enterprise helped in
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making Japan the envy of the West.
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7. Other factors have been generous aid from the U.S.A In post World War II
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period, the competitiveness of Japanese Industries, technological Innovations

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and above all the acceptance of automation of industries by the welle ducated
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and skilled Japanese labours. This increased the productivity, efficiency as well
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as the quality of the product.

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There are four important industrial regions in Japan. They arethe Kwanto
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Plain, the Kinki Plain, the Nagoya region, and Northern Kyushu
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1. The Kwanto Plain

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The Kwanto Plain has attracted the largest urban agglomeration in Japan and in
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the world and contributes about 30 per cent of nations industrial output. It is
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the largest plain of Japan and provides Ideal sites for setting up of industries. In
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this plain, Tokyo grew originally as a political capital and Yokohama developed
as the areas main seaport. Both of them are now the most important industrial
centres of Japan. Hydroelectric stations have developed in the region which
provide cheap electricity; coal is brought from northern Kyushu and Hokkaido;
the region is well served by railways: and has abundant supply of labour. All of
these factors favoured industrial development in the region. The important
industries (mainly light industries) include textiles, furniture, chemicals, paper
and pulp. Tokyo electrical engineering industries like television sets,
refrigerators, washing machines and computers. Yokohama specializes In
engineering, shipbuilding, oil refining, petrochemicals and port industries:
Kawasaki has marine engineering, cement works and glass works and Chiba, is
an Important centre having integrated iron and steel works.
2. The Kinki Plain
Around 320 km. west of Tokyo lies Japans second largest urban agglomeration
and industries concentration In the Kinki Plain at the head of the Osaka Bay. The
three important citiesOsaka, Kobe, and Kyototogether contribute about 20
per cent of the countrys industrial output. The local power supplies are
inadequate and the region obtains coal from north Kyushu, Hokkaido and
abroad. The development of excellent shipping and a good network of railways
and cheap hydel power have aided the industrial development in the region.
Osaka is important for textiles, plastics, footwear and textile machinery; Kobe
includes shipbuilding, oil refining and petrochemical Industries: Kyoto deals in
traditional handicrafts, oriental porcelain, toy lacquer works.
3. Nagoya
A huge metropolis, Nagoya, has developed as an important industrial centre, on
the Nobi Plain at the head of the isa Bay. It is also an important port. A variety of
manufacturing units has developed which include textile mills (cotton, woollen,

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silk and synthetic), engineering industries like machinery, automobiles,

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locomotives and aircraft; fine porcelain is manufactured at Tajimi and Seto; and

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musical instruments such as guitars, violins and pianos are produced at
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4. Northern Kyushu
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On Northern Kyushu are the Kitakyushu (a collective name for several cities
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including Yawata, Kokura, and Moji) and Fukuoko agglomerations. Here heavy
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industries have developed on or near the Chikugo coalfield. It produces steel,

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ships, machine parts, chemicals and textiles. Nagasaki is also an important

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industrial centre in the region.

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Besides the above manufacturing regions, there are some scattered important
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industrial towns which include Muroran, having Iron and steel industry; Akita
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and Nilgata having oil refinery; Hiroshima having engineering industry; Kure
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having shipbuilding; Okoyama having textiles industry. Other Industrial towns

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are Hakodate and Sapporo In Hokkaido.

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The industrial regions of China may be divided into seven zones:

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Manchuria
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It has been the countrys leading heavy industrial region since modern industries
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were developed. Heavy Industries are centred on the AnshariFushunShenyang

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(Mukden) triangle. Both coal and Iron ore are found in the region lying In
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convenient proximity. The important industries developed in the region are Iron
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and steel, engineering, cars, tractors, factory equipments and chemicals.

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TianjinBeiiing Area
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The most Important factor for the industrial development of this region has been
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the presence of coal In Shanxi (Shansi) and Hebel (Hopel). Important Industries
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of Tianjin are metallurgical, engineering, shipbuilding, textiles and chemicals

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while light industries, textiles and machinerymaking is important at Beijing, the

national capital.
ShanxiBaotou (ShansiPootow) Area
Largest coalfield of China is located in the province of Shaanxl and Shanxi (Shensi
and Shansi). Besides coal, Iron ore with 50 per cent metallic content is also found
here. Based on these, the Important industries that have developed are iron and
steel Industry at Baotou (Paotow), Talyuan and Datong (Tatung); and
agricultural implements manufacturing industry.
Lower Chang Jiang (YangtzeKiang)
This is considered as the oldest industrial region of China. Due to its coastal
location, the region has greater accessibility. With Western technological
influence a number of Industries have developed. They areiron and steel
industry and cotton textiles at Shanghai: shipbuilding, oil refineries, flourmills,
engineering and metal works. Shanghai Is the most important port, handling the
bulk of International trade.
Whuhan Area
There are three important towns, Wuchang, Hanyang and Hankou which form
the Industrial complex of Wuhan area. Coal is found at Pingxiang (Pingsiang) and
iron ore is found at Tayeh. Important Industries of the region comprise
metallurgical and heavy industries Including machine tools, railway equipment,
shipbuilding and chemicals. The easy communication links are provided by river
Chang Jiang (Yangtze Kiang).
XI Jiang (SI Kiang)

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The Important industries developed in the region are Iron and steel,

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shipbuilding, textiles, chemicals, brewing, handicrafts and food processing.

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Guongzhou (Canton) is the chief port. The industrial development of the region
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has been stimulated because of Its proximity to Hong Kong. ka
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Sichuan (Szechwan)
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The region is rich in natural resources like coal, Iron ore. ferro alloys and
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agricultural raw materials. Important industries that have developed here are
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iron and steel, textiles, paper, machinery, cement and chemicals. Chongquin
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(Chungking) and Chengdu (Chengtu) are important centres.

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Other Industrial centres

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Some scattered industrial towns have developed based on local mineral

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resources, e.g., Anning and Kiuchuan having Iron and steel industry; Yumen and
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Hangzhou (Hangchow) having oil refineries: Lanzhou (Lanchow) having

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chemicals, textiles and mining equipments; and Kunming having chemicals,

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machinery and textiles.

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Other Asian Industrial Regions:

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The four Asian regions Hong Kong, Taiwan, South Korea and Singapore are
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notable for their industrial production.

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Hong Kong
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Industrial development in Hong Kong has a long history. Making boats and
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shipping related industries were the first to develop. More heavy industries
developed by European companies. In the early 20th century, Chinese merchants
established factories in Hong Kong, stimulating such industries as textile and the
manufacturing of rubber shoes and torches. By the time of Japanese occupation,
local industries had already made much progress. Industrial production was
almost halted during the occupation but revived quickly after the War. Shanghai
industrialists brought in capital and technical knowhow with them; large
numbers of refugees provided an immense pool of cheap labour; capitals moved
from trading to manufacturing under the impact of Korean War; the opening of
markets in the United States and Europe saw further progress in Hong Kongs
industrialization.
In the 1960s, Hong Kong was the export centre of manufactured products in East
Asia. The following decade saw the spread of Original Equipment Manufacturers
(OEM) as Hong Kong became the production base of many overseas brand
products. In the 1980s, labourintensive production processes were relocated to
the north. Small and medium sized enterprises moved the whole factory to
China; some of the larger and more energetic companies engaged in retail trade
and brand development. This led to ODM( Original Design Manufcaturers) and
OBM( original brand Manufacturers). This trend has continued into the 2000s.

Taiwan

It is one of the first Newly Industrialized Economies (NIEs) in East Asia. The
nation began its industrialization drive after Hong Kong and before South Korea
as a result of rising wage rates in Japan, and subsequently Hong Kong, and quota
restrictions imposed by the U.S. and subsequently Europe on textile exports. It

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has done exceptionally well despite relatively unfavorable resource endowment

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and population density. Over the last half century, real GNP and real GNP per

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capita have grown achieving rates of growth of more than 8% and 6% per
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annum respectively. Taiwan survived the East Asian currency crisis relatively
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unscathed, thanks to its large foreign exchange reserves and low external debt.
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South Korea is also considered as an important producer of industrial products

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not only for its own consumption but for export also. With the help from USA,
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Japan and some European countries, South Korea now has developed a strong
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industrial base. South Korea is having a large supply of labour which is cheap
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and skilled.
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Today, South Korea is having large steel plants, automobiles, aircraft, and
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shipbuilding industry and also produces consumer electronics, electrical goods

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and other types of machines. In recent years emphasis has also been given on
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machinery manufacture, to produce machines not only for export but to service
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the increasing local demands.

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Singapore with a three million populations and expansion of just 600 sq km is

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specialised in electronic technology, hightech manufacturing and financial and

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research services.
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Also add India ( covered in India section )

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Industrial development in the southern continents:

1. South America
2. Africa
3. Australia.
Industrial development in the southern continent has been slowest, not only
because of their scanty endowment, but also because of late political
independence from colonial rule.

The sparse population and underdevelopment of many parts of the southern

continents have prevented target areas from being industrialized. However,
some countries, especially Australia, South Africa and Brazil, are increasingly
dependent upon industrial development.
1. South America:
Industrial development has been most marked in South America, perhaps the
best endowed of all the southern continents. It has had the advantage of a large
population, and several minerals are available in some countries. The industries
of South America are dotted in many centres, none of them very large, around
the coasts of the continent.
Brazil is the most industrialised of Latin American countries. The chief industrial
region is the southeast and the city of Sao Paulo has diverse industrial activities
including steel mills, chemical plants, motor vehicle assembly plants, and paper,
cement and beer industries.
Rio de Janeiro has similar industries with shipbuilding and aircraft engineering
in addition. Belo Horizonte is the major metallurgical centre with iron and steel
and other metal industries based on hydroelectric power and the rich mineral
resources of Minas Gerais.
In Argentina and Uruguay the main industrial region is along the shores of the

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Plate estuary extending inland as far as Rosario. The main industries are

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shipbuilding, at Buenos Aires, Rosario, Cordoba and General Pacheco. The La

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Plata urban districts have chemicals, textiles, aircraft engineering and steel
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industries. Meatpacking, dairying and flourmilling are the dominant industries
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of the Pampas lands.
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Chiles main industries are found in Santiago, Valparaiso and Concepcion.

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Elsewhere in South America, industries are concentrated in the capital cities of

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the various states, e.g., Lima, Caracas, and Bogota and in certain other large
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towns.
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2. Africa:
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Africa is the least developed of all the southern continents. The large spell of
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colonial rule, lack of capital and entrepreneurial skills and political instability as
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well as underdeveloped economic structure are the main causes of industrial

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backwardness in many countries of Africa.

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The main industries are those connected with either mining or agriculture, e.g.,
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smelting and refining of copper in Zambia and Zaire, and processing of rubber,
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oil palm fruits, etc., in West Africa. Nigeria also has petrochemicals industries.
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South Africa is, however, an industrially developed country.

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The main industrial region is the Witwatersrand where there is not only gold but
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coal, iron and a range of ferrous and nonferrous metal deposits, as the basis of
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iron and steel, engineering, locomotives, and other industries.

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Chemicals, textiles, cement and light industries are also fairly important.
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Elsewhere in Africa the main industrial development has been in capital cities
such as Salisbury, DaresSalaam, Nairobi, and so on. Such cities have cement,
brewing, food processing and light industries mainly geared to import
substitution.
3. Australia:
In Australia the main industrial area is the southeast where the concentration of
early settlement, the favourable climate, the presence of coalfields around
Sydney, and of iron ore resources, led to the establishment of the iron and steel
industry, especially at Newcastle and Port Kembla. There are also many
engineering industries, including the manufacture of cars, locomotives and
aircraft, cement works, chemicals and shipbuilding.
Melbourne has also developed many industries similar to those of Sydney, but
based on the Gippsland lignite deposits and the hydroelectric power from the
Snowy River Scheme. Melbourne has chemicals, shipbuilding, aircraft
engineering, railway equipment and motor vehicles industries. Adelaide, has
welldeveloped agricultural industries such as fruitcanning, flourmilling, dairy
industries and woolen textiles.
It also has iron and steel (at Whyalla) and engineering industries. Brisbane is the
major industrial city of Queensland and is located near the Ipswich coalfield.
Locomotives are made at Brisbane, Ipswich, Maryborough and Mackay. In
Western Australia, Perth is the main industrial city dealing with agricultural
products.

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For further reference :

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Human and Economic geography Leong and Morgan

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Economic Geography k. Siddhartha

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