The Earth is constantly changing through the years.

According to the Continental The Earth has three main layers: the crust or the outermost layer, the mantle or the
Drift Theory proposed by Alfred Wegener, the Earth was once a giant landmass middle layer, and the core or the innermost layer.
called Pangaea. This giant landmass was broken down into several continents The crust is composed of solid rocks and minerals. It holds all known life
because of the movement beneath the Earths surface. forms on Earth.

The mantle is made up of mostly solid rocks and minerals but have areas of
Shaping the Earths surface involves a geological process called semi-solid magma.
weathering. Weathering is the process of breaking down rocks into smaller pieces The core is made up of dense metal, specifically, nickel and iron. It is also
called sediments. considered as the center and the hottest part of the Earth.

Different Types of Weathering Mantle convection is the movement of the mantle as heat is transferred from the core
All rocks undergo weathering, and it takes a long period. There are three different to the crust. The temperature of the mantle varies depending whether it is near the
types of rock weathering: mechanical weathering, chemical weathering, and crust or near the boundary of the core. The principal contributors to the heat of the
biological weathering. core come from the decay of radioactive elements and from the heat of the molten

Mechanical weathering is a process wherein rocks are broken down outer core which solidifies near the inner core.
into smaller pieces without changing its chemical composition due to
different temperatures and water. Earths heat budget drives most of the geologic processes on Earth. This measures the

Chemical weathering is a process wherein rock materials are flow of thermal energy coming from the core, passing through the mantle, and up to the
changed into other substances that have different physical and atmosphere, which is mainly due to the mantle convection. This, however, is
chemical compositions. Some agents of chemical weathering include counteracted by the solar radiation.
water, strong acids, and oxygen.

Biological weathering is a process when living things, such as insects Magmatism

and roots of the trees, contribute to the disintegration of rock Magmatism is the activity or the motion of the magma. Rocks that are subjected to high
materials. temperature and pressure melt and become the magma. Magma is a semi-liquid molten
rock mixture that can be found in the lower portion of the crust and the upper part of
Erosion the mantle. Depending on the temperature, pressure, and formations in the crust and
Erosion is the transportation of weathered rocks. Agents like running water or the mantle, the magma can be formed in different ways.
rivers, wind, gravity, groundwater, wave currents, and glaciers contribute to
erosion. Plutonism
Types of Erosion On 1788, James Hutton developed the idea about plutonism. He stated that the

Water erosion is a type of erosion where the water carries the formation of intrusive igneous rocks or plutonic rocks came from the solidification of
sediments to different parts of the bodies of water such as rivers. magma beneath the Earths surface. These rocks will reach the Earths surface through

Wind erosion happens when light materials, such as small rocks and the process of uplifting - a force that pulls the crust apart and lets the rocks from the
pebbles, are carried by wind to different places. underground to be brought up.

Glacial erosion happens when the ice moves downhill and plucks out
chunks of rocks and causes scraping between the ice and the rock. When the hot molten magma does not solidify, it will be brought up to the Earths
Plucking and scraping can lead to the development of other surface through uplifting. When the magma reaches the surface, it becomes lava -
landforms if, for example, the glaciers hit a mountain and erode it. streams of molten rocks that cool and solidify to form extrusive igneous rocks.

Soil erosion happens when the top soil is removed and leaves the soil
infertile. This is caused by wind or flood in an area. Volcanism
Magma is being brought up to the surface through a volcano. Volcano is any opening in
Deposition the Earths crust that allows magma and gases to be released in the upper crust. This
Deposition is the laying down of sediments to its depositional environment or process of bringing up the magma is called volcanism.
final destination. The depositional environment can be continental, coastal, or
marine.

Continental includes streams, swamps, caves, and deserts. Igneous come from the Latin word ignis which means heat or fire. Igneous rocks are

Coastal includes lagoons, estuaries, and deltas. formed when the magma or lava cools and solidifies. It may happen below (plutonic) or

Marine includes slopes and bottom of the ocean or abyssal. above (volcanic) the Earths surface.

The types of igneous rocks depend on where they solidified and hardened. Some
Internal Heat of the Earth igneous rocks solidified before they were ejected and some igneous rocks are formed
after they reach the ground.

Two Types of Igneous Rocks
Intrusive igneous rocks are formed when the magma hardens before
an eruption occurs. Crystallization occurs due to high temperature in
the mantle. Different rock materials allow the formation of intrusive
igneous rocks. The most common example is granite. Granite is used
in floor tiles and monuments.
Extrusive igneous rocks are formed when the lava cools and
solidifies on the Earths surface. The texture of these rocks is finer as
compared to the intrusive igneous rocks. Due to rapid cooling of the
lava, small or no crystals are formed on the rocks. The most common
example is basalt. Basalt is used for construction purposes such as
pavements, railroads, and road base.
Metamorphism of Rocks
When you expose igneous rocks to intense heat and pressure, they could undergo
metamorphism. Metamorphism is the process of change in the form and structure
of rocks due to intense heat and pressure. It comes from the Greek
word metamorphoun meaning transform or change shape. The rocks that
undergo metamorphism are converted tometamorphic rocks.
Types of Metamorphism
Contact metamorphism is the process where the country rock
adjacent to the igneous intrusions is altered by the high heat coming
from the intrusions. Country rocks are rocks surrounding the igneous
intrusions. Igneous intrusions form when molten magma moves and
seeps through fractures and in between crystals of rocks. The zone of
metamorphosis that surrounds the intrusions
called halo or aureole.
Dynamic metamorphism is the process where rocks along the fault
zones are altered due to high pressure. The rocks that are formed
with this type of metamorphism are called mylonites. Mylonites are
compact, fine-grained rocks with thin laminations or layers.
Regional metamorphism is the most common form of
metamorphism that occurs in broad areas. It is caused by high
temperature and pressure that resulted from the thickening of the
crust and plate tectonics.
Types of Stresses in the Earths Crust
Compression causes the rocks to push or to collide towards each
other. This can make the rocks come together or make the plates
rise. Mountains and hills could be formed when two plates collide.
Tension is the opposite of compression. The tension force pulls the
rocks away from each other. This force created continental drifts and
long mountain ranges. It moved the oceanic crust away from each
other that resulted in the rising of less dense rocks coming from the
mantle.
Shear force pushes some of the crust in different direction. Shearing
results to the breaking of the large parts of the crust into smaller
size. This force always happens along the plate boundaries. Plate
boundaries are the location where the two plates meet. When the
two plates rub each other and move to opposite directions, it creates
friction. This friction leads to the shaking of the Earths ground
or earthquake.
The Earth consists of three layers: core, mantle, and crust. The solid outer layer is
the crust. A semi-molten rock called magma lies in the mantle below the crust. Beneath
the mantle is the core. The outer core is a liquid mixture of nickel and iron while
the inner core is solid.
The Crust
The crust is a very thin layer that measures between 0 and 60 km. It has two layers and
is composed of two major kinds of rocks. The thick continental crust, about 32 km,
makes up the land surface of the Earth and is composed primarily of dense materials
such as granite. The thin oceanic crust has a depth of 510 km and is made up of basalt
which is less dense than granite. The crust can be broken down into plates which
produce earthquakes when they move along each other.
The Mantle
The mantle is below the crust. It is the thickest layer of the Earth, spanning almost 2900
km and making up 84% of the Earths volume. It contains magma. It is primarily solid but
behaves as a viscous liquid. This behavior is due to temperature differences towards the
lower mantle. As the depth becomes near the core, the temperature increases. This is
known as the geothermal gradient, the increase in temperature with depth. In the
upper mantle, the temperatures range from 600 to 900 C. In the lower mantle, the
temperature can reach over 4000 C.
Convection currents carry heat from the hot inner mantle to the cooler outer mantle. If
is the upper part of the mantle cools down, it becomes part of the crust. Also, this process
is responsible for earthquakes and other geological processes.
The crust and the upper part of the mantle make up the lithosphere, a zone of rigid,
brittle rock. The layer below it is called the asthenosphere. This part of the mantle is
solid in a plastic manner (flows very slowly), allowing the plates to move on top of it.
The Core
The core is at the center of the Earth. In this region, the temperature is hotter than the
mantle. It is divided into two parts: the outer core and the inner core.
The liquid outer core is 2300 km thick. It is composed primarily of iron and nickel. The
temperature here is around 40005700 C. Due to its high temperature, the outer core
undergoes convection and rotates faster than the planet.
The inner core is a solid ball with a radius of 1220 km. Like the outer core, the inner
core is made up of iron and nickel, but in solid form. The temperature is quite high at
around 7000 C.
The difference between the state of matter of the inner and outer core is due to the
very high pressure in the inner core, increasing the melting points of the metals.
Scientists believed that the inner core rotates opposite to the direction of the flow of
the outer core, creating an effect that influences the Earths magnetic field.