DPA Fusao

Mestrado Integrado
em Engenharia do Ambiente

Integrated Masters Degree
in Environmental Engineering

Direito e Polticas de Ambiente

Environmental Policy and Law
Francisco Nunes Correia
Ano Lectivo 2016/2017 - 2 Semestre
Academic year 2016/2017 2nd Semester
2012
Fourth global earth summit
RIO +20
Rio de Janeiro
Rio de Janeiro Joanesburgo
Stocholm
1972 1992 2002 2012

Paris Conference
Sustainable on Climate Change
Access to water Development
2016
and sanitation as Goals
2015
Human rights
2010
How did we
get here?
Brief history
of environmental public policies
1972
Stockholm Conference
The need for na environmental

public policy and administration
Alarm with growing pollution !
The need to safeguard

public health !
Main Topics
The Nature of Exponen0al Growth
The Limits of Exponen0al Growth
The Growth in the World System
Technology and the Limits to Growth

Main Topics
Planning and Management of Human Settlements for Environmental Quality
Environmental aspects of Natural Resources Management
Identification and Control of Pollutants of Broad International Significance

Pollution Generally
Marine Pollution
Educational, Informational, Social and Cultural Aspects of Environmental Issues
Development and Environment

Evolution after the UN Stockholm Conference
Pollution is simply a symptom, not the cause
It is not enough to understand the symptoms and

the causes: it is necessary to understand the context
It is necessary a global vision instead of
a fragmented vision
An increasing interaction between experts and citizens
is required
The role of non-governmental organizations is
increasingly recognized
The attention given by politicians as grown throughout
the years
1992
The Rios Conference
The need for all public policies

to take account of environmental issues
The problems we face are not
only pollution problems !
It is necessary to question
the functioning of society
and the model of development !
Agenda 21
Chapter 1 Preamble
Section I. Social and Economic Dimensions
Chapter 2 International Cooperation for Sustainable

Development
Chapter 3 Combating Poverty
Chapter 4 Changing Consumption Patterns
Chapter 5 Demographic Dynamics & Sustainability
Chapter 6 Human Health
Chapter 7 Human Settlements
Chapter 8 Decision Making
Section II. Conservation and Management of
Resources for Development
Chapter 9 Protection of the Atmosphere

Chapter 10 Land Resources
Chapter 11 Deforestation
Chapter 12 Desertification & Drought
Chapter 13 Sustainable Mountain Development
Chapter 14 Sustainable Agriculture & Rural
Development
Chapter 15 Conservation of Biodiversity
Chapter 16 Biotechnology
Chapter 17 Protection of the Oceans
Chapter 18 Freshwater Resources
Chapter 19 Toxic Chemicals - Management
Chapter 20 Hazardous Wastes - Management
Chapter 21 Solid Wastes - Management
Chapter 22 Radioactive Wastes - Management
Section III. Strengthening The Role Of Major Groups
Chapter 23 Preamble Major Groups

Chapter 24 Women
Chapter 25 Children & Youth
Chapter 26 Indigenous People
Chapter 27 Non-Governmental Organizations
Chapter 28 Local Authorities
Chapter 29 Trade Unions
Chapter 30 Business & Industry
Chapter 31 Scientific & Technological Community
Chapter 32 Role of Farmers
Section IV. Means of Implementation
Chapter 33 Financial Resources

Chapter 34 Technology Transfer
Chapter 35 Science for Sustainable Development
Chapter 36 Education, Public Awareness & Training
Chapter 37 Capacity Building in Developing Countries
Chapter 38 International Institutions
Chapter 39 International Legal Instruments
Chapter 40 Information for Decision-making
Evolution aftre the Rios Conference
A closer relationship between environment and development:

the environment at the core of the economy
A growing concern with environment gloibal problems
A growing relevance of social and institutional dimensions
A stronger public opinion and a growing rtole of NGOs
A growing importance of political and geostrategic dimensions

2002
1972 1987 1992 Johannesburg
Stocholm Our Common Rios Conference
Conference Future Conference
Prevailing
Values
Environment
Deep Sustainable
Ecology Development
Natural
Resources
Management
Environmental
Safeguards
Simple economi
growth
Economic
Growth
Historical
Period
60s 70s 80s 90s
Sustainable Development
Meet the needs of present generation
without compromising the ability
of future generations to meet
their own needs

A Multi-Dimensional
Concept
The3Three
The AxisAxes of SustainableDevelopment
of Sustainable Development
3
SD
DS ==EE3
Ecology
Environment
Economy
Economy
Ethics
Ethics
2002
Johannesburg Conference
The imperative of action !
The need to define priorities!

Major Goals of the Johannesburg Summit:
1. Poverty eradication (Millennium Declaration)
2. Change unsustainable patterns of production

and consumption
3. Protect and manage natural resources as the basis

for social and economic development
Document that decisively influenced the
Johannesburg Conference
Millennium Declaration
Main Documents Approved in Johannesburg:
Political Declaration on Sustainable Development
Implementation Plan
Five reasons that have made previous efforts partially fail
1. Lack of resources in developing countries
2. Lack of coherence and consistency in several areas of public policy
3. Many actions confined to national efforts (many probllems

have a transboundary nature and the economy is gloibal)
4. Endless debates and scientific disputes undervalue the

risks of a non-sustainable development
5. The nature of Sustainable Development determines that all segments

of society must participate in the decision-making process
2012
This year took place the fourth
great summit of the earth
RIO +20
Rio de Janeiro
Rio de Janeiro Johannnesburg
Stocholm
1972 1992 2002 2012

Resolution 64/236 adopted by the General Assembly
The General Assembly,
Decides to organize, in 2012, the United Nations

Conference on Sustainable Development at the
highest possible level, including Heads of State and
Government or other representatives,
Decides that the objective of the Conference will be to

secure renewed political commitment for sustainable
development, assessing the progress to date and the
remaining gaps.
Themes of the United Nations Conference on
Sustainable Development:
1. A green economy in the context of sustainable

development and poverty eradication
2. Institutional framework for sustainable development
http://www.uncsd2012.org/rio20/index.php?menu=62
2015

United Nations

Sustainable Development Summit

UN Headquarters, New York
On 25 September 2015, the 193 countries of the UN General

Assembly adopted the 2030 Development Agenda 0tled
Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable
Development.
The Agenda for Sustainable Development has 17 Sustainable

Development Goals, 169 associated targets, and 304 indicators.
0 50% 100%
2015

Agenda for 2030

0 50% 100%
2015

Agenda for 2030

Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs):

1.Poverty - End poverty in all its forms everywhere.
2.Food - End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutri0on
and promote sustainable agriculture.
3.Health - Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all
ages.
4.Educa0on - Ensure inclusive and equitable quality educa0on and
promote lifelong learning opportuni0es for all.
5.Women - Achieve gender equality and empower all women and
girls.
6.Water - Ensure availability and sustainable management of water
0 50% 100%
and sanita0on for all.
2015

Agenda for 2030

9. Infrastructure - Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive
and sustainable industrializa0on and foster innova0on.
10.Inequality - Reduce inequality within and among countries.
11.Habita0on - Make ci0es and human seblements inclusive, safe,
resilient and sustainable.
12.Consump0on - Ensure sustainable consump0on and produc0on
paberns.
13.Climate - Take urgent ac0on to combat climate change and its
impacts.
14.Marine systems - Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas
and marine resources for sustainable development.
15.Ecosystems - Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of
terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage
0
forests,
50%
combat 100%
deser0ca0on, and halt and reverse land degrada0on and halt
2015

Agenda for 2030

Sustainable Development Goals
0 50% 100%
Departamento de Engenharia Civil,

Arquitetura e Georrecursos

The End
Mestrado Integrado
em Engenharia do Ambiente

Integrated Masters Degree
in Environmental Engineering

Direito e Polticas de Ambiente

Environmental Policy and Law
Ano Lectivo 2016/2017 - 2 Semestre
Academic year 2016/2017 2nd Semester
CONCEPTS AND PRINCIPLES
OF ENVIRONMENTAL
POLICIES
What is the Environment ?
The environment is everything
that isnt me.
Albert Einstein
ENVIRONMENT
The combination of physical, chemical,

biological systems and their relations,
and economic, social and cultural factors
with direct or indirect, mediate or
immediate effect on living organisms and
on the quality of life of humanity (total
world population).
ENVIRONMENTAL DAMAGE
Environmental damage is any impairment

caused by human activities to people,
animals, plants and other natural
resources (water, air and soil) and things,
directly or indirectly, which results in a
measurable adverse change in the
natural resources or any measurable loss
of services of natural resources
USES OF THE ENVIRONMENT
The socio-economic activities use the

environment and natural resources in
many different forms, which can add
the following types:
provision of goods and services;
support activities;
waste receiving means.
NATURAL RESOURCES
Natural resources are natural assets

(materials) that occur in nature, which
can be used for economic production or
consumption.
CARRYING CAPACITY
The carrying capacity of a biological species in an
environment is the maximum population size of the
species that the environment can sustain indefinitely,
given the food, habitat, water, and other necessities
available in the environment.
The environment has the capacity to support the
socioeconomic infrastructures required by human
activities provided that the physical, chemical and
biological processes are not significantly impaired in
such a way that subsequent uses of the environment
and natural resources are affected.
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
Classic definition
"... pathways of economic, social and political

progress capable of meeting the needs of the
present without compromising the ability of
future generations to meet their needs.
(Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development
United Nations, 1987 - Brundtland Report)
In other words:
"Do not eat the seeds today that you need for
sowing tomorrow"
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
Therefore, renewable resources should not be used in

excess of their natural regeneration;
Non-renewable resources should be used prudently
and efficiently with care that the same function is
available to future generations, say by technological
development or shift to use of renewable resources;
Sink functions should not be used beyond their
assimilative capacities;
Activities which cause deterioration in service
functions should be avoided or at least minimized.
THE PREVENTION PRINCIPLE
This principle states that action should be taken to
protect the environment at an early stage.
It is now not only a question of repairing damages after
they have occurred, but to prevent those damages
from occurring at all.
It means in short terms: it is better to prevent than to
repair.
THE PREVENTION PRINCIPLE
Rational:
Inability to remove the damage (irreversibility)
The reconstitution of the conditions existing prior to
the occurrence of the damage is too costly.
As a rule, it is more expensive to repair the damages
than to prevent them.
THE PRINCIPLE OF CORRECTION
AT THE SOURCE
The actions that damage the environment should be corrected at
the source
Who? - The correction of environmental damage at source results
in the imposition on the polluter the duty to modify its
conduct by purging it from the damaging actions of the
environment or, where this is not possible or is not required,
by rectifying it order to minimize the damage to the
environment.
Where? - Harmful substances to the environment must be treated
at the site where they are produced.
When? - Take the necessary measures to prevent the production
of harmful substances, rather than adopt 'end of line
correction measures .
THE PRECAUTIONARY PRINCIPLE
Where there are threats of serious or irreversible
damage to the environment, lack of full scientific
certainty should not be used as a reason for
postponing cost-effective measures to prevent
environmental degradation.
The precautionary principle allow for a lower level of
proof of harm to be used in policy-making whenever
the consequences of waiting for higher levels of
proof may be very costly and/or irreversible.
The environment must have in its favor the benefit of
the doubt.
THE PRECAUTIONARY PRINCIPLE
Situations where the precautionary principle is
applied.
a) when there were no damages but there are
concerns that damages may arise, despite the
lack of scientific evidence about the cause-effect
relationship.
b) when there is already damage to the environment,
but there is no scientific knowledge of the cause
of the damage.
c) when there is already damage to the environment,
but there is no scientific evidence of causation.
THE POLLUTER PAYS PRINCIPLE
The polluter pays principle is enacted to make the
party responsible for producing pollution responsible
for paying for the damage done to the natural
environment.
Polluter pays is also known as extended producer
responsibility (EPR). EPR seeks to shift the
responsibility dealing with waste from governments
(and thus, taxpayers and society at large) to the
entities producing it.
In effect, it internalised the cost of waste disposal into
the cost of the product, theoretically meaning that the
producers will improve the waste profile of their
products, thus decreasing waste and increasing
possibilities for reuse and recycling.
THE PRINCIPLE OF SUBSTITUTION
Substances and products representing a hazard to

health or causing environmental damage should be
replaced by others that meet the same objectives but
that cause less damage.
THE PRINCIPLE OF INTEGRATION
Consideration of the environmental consequences of
various actions
The requirements of environmental protection must be
integrated into the definition and implementation of
other sectoral policies
THE PRINCIPLE OF PARTICIPATION
Transparency and public participation in the
functioning of the Public Administration
BEST AVAILABLE TECHNIQUES
"best available techniques" means the most
effective and advanced stage in the
development of activities and their methods of
operation which indicates the practical
suitability of particular techniques for
providing the basis for emission limit values
and other permit conditions designed to
prevent and, where that is not practicable, to
reduce emissions and the impact on the
environment as a whole.
BEST AVAILABLE TECHNIQUES
- "techniques" includes both the technology used and
the way in which the installation is designed, built,
maintained, operated and decommissioned;
- "available" means those developed on a scale which
allows implementation in the relevant industrial
sector, under economically and technically viable
conditions, taking into consideration the costs and
advantages, whether or not the techniques are
used or produced inside the State in question, as
long as they are reasonably accessible to the
operator;
- "best" means most effective in achieving a high
general level of protection of the environment as a
whole.
ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY STANDARD
An environmental quality standard is a limit for environmental
disturbances, in particular, from ambient concentration of
pollutants and wastes, that determines the maximum
allowable degradation of environmental media.
EMISSION LIMIT VALUE
Legally enforceable limit on the physical, chemical or
biological characteristics of a point source of emission to
water or air, normally expressed as a maximum permissible
concentration of a specified substance.
Departamento de Engenharia Civil,

Arquitetura e Georrecursos

The End
Evolution of Environmental Policies Part 1
EVOLUTION OF
ENVIRONMENT POLICIES
Antnio Gonalves Henriques
1968
The Biosphere Conference
UNESCO
The first world-wide meeting at the intergovernmental level to adopt a
series of recommendations concerning environmental problems and to
highlight their growing importance and their global nature.
Participation of 60 countries.
Declared that the utilization and the conservation of our land and water
resources should go hand in hand rather than in opposition, and that
interdisciplinary approaches should be promoted to achieve this aim.
Set up an international research programme on man and the biosphere,
the origins of the Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Programme

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UNESCO
The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
(UNESCO) is a specialized agency of the United Nations (UN).
Its purpose is to contribute to peace and security by promoting
international collaboration through education, science, and culture to
further universal respect for justice, the rule of law, and human rights
along with fundamental freedom proclaimed in the United Nations
Charter.
UNESCO headquarters are located Paris, France,
now called the World Heritage Centre.
1968
Apollo 8 mission
Apollo 8, was launched on December 1968,
and became the first manned spacecraft to
leave Earth orbit, reach the Earth's Moon,
orbit it and return safely to Earth.

2017-03-01 2
1968
Apollo 8 mission
Evolution of GDP in France, Germany, UK and USA
Source: The Maddison-Project,

http://www.ggdc.net/maddison/maddison-project/home.htm,
2013 version (USD 2005 PPP).

2017-03-01 3
Evolution of GDP in France, Germany, UK and USA

2013 version (USD 2005 PPP).
2013 version.
1969
Creation of the NGO
Friends of the Earth
Created by David Brower (19122000), an American environmental
activist, in San Francisco, California. Aggressive, skilled in using the
media, politically active, and drawn from a cross-section of the
community.
Founder of Friends of the Earth International in 1971 (with
organisations from France, Sweden and England.
Broad political aim: protecting the environment in its widest possible
sense.

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1969
US National Environment Policy Act
United States environmental law that promotes the enhancement of the
environment and established the President's Council on Environmental
Quality (CEQ). The law was enacted on January 1, 1970.
The bill was an early step towards the development of the United
States's environmental policy. It is referred to as the environmental
Magna Carta.
NEPA's most significant outcome was the requirement that all executive
federal agencies prepare environmental assessments (EAs) and
environmental impact statements (EISs). These reports state the
potential environmental effects of proposed federal agency actions.
Previous US environment laws:
Federal Water Pollution Control Act (1948) and Clean Water Act (1977)
Air Pollution Control Act (1955) and Clean Air Act (1963).
Wilderness Act (1964)
1970
Earth Day
On the 22nd of April, 20 million Americans took to the streets, parks,
and auditoriums to demonstrate for a healthy, sustainable environment
in massive coast-to-coast rallies. Thousands of colleges and universities
organized protests against the deterioration of the environment. Groups
that had been fighting against oil spills, polluting factories and power
plants, raw sewage, toxic dumps, pesticides, freeways, the loss of
wilderness, and the extinction of wildlife suddenly realized they shared
common values.
The Earth Day founder was Gaylord Nelson, then a U.S. Senator from
Wisconsin, inspired by the student anti-war movement, he realized that
if he could infuse that energy with an emerging public consciousness
about air and water pollution, it would force environmental protection
onto the national political agenda. Senator Nelson announced the idea
for a national teach-in on the environment to the national media.

2017-03-01 5
1970
Creation of the
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
Washington, DC, USA
The United States Environmental Protection Agency is an agency of the
U.S. federal government created for the purpose of protecting human
health and the environment by writing and enforcing regulations based
on laws passed by Congress.

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1972
Foundation of the NGO Greenpeace
Vancouver, Canada
Greenpeace states its goal is to ensure the ability of the Earth to nurture
life in all its diversity.
It focuses its campaigning on worldwide issues such as climate change,
deforestation, overfishing, commercial whaling, genetic engineering, and
anti-nuclear issues.
It uses direct action, lobbying, and research to achieve its goals.
Greenpeace is known for its direct actions and has been described as the
most visible environmental organization in the world.
Greenpeace has raised environmental issues to public knowledge, and
influenced both the private and the public sector.
1972
Vancouver, Canada
Greenpeace has also been a source of controversy; its motives and
methods (some of the latter being illegal) have received criticism and the
organization's direct actions have sparked legal actions against
Greenpeace activists, such as fines and suspended sentences
The global organization does not accept funding from governments,
corporations, or political parties, relying on 2.9 million individual
supporters and foundation grants.
Now the organisation has offices in over forty countries and an
international coordinating body in Amsterdam, the Netherlands.

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1972
Vancouver, Canada
The organisation was founded after the protests against the underground
nuclear weapon tests in the tectonically unstable island of Amchitka in
Alaska in 1971. They used a fishing boat that was renamed Greenpeace
1972
Polluter-Pays Principle
OECD
Environmental resources are in general limited and their use in
production and consumption activities may lead to their deterioration.
When the cost of this deterioration is not adequately taken into account
in the price system, the market fails to reflect the scarcity of such
resources both at the national and international levels.
The Polluter-Pays Principle means that the polluter should bear the costs
of pollution prevention and control measures, i.e., the measures
decided by public authorities to ensure that the environment is in an
acceptable state.
The principle to be used for allocating costs of pollution prevention and
control measures to encourage rational use of scarce environmental
resources and to avoid distortions in international trade and investment
is the so-called "Polluter-Pays Principle".

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OECD
The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) is
an international economic organisation of 34 countries, founded in 1961 to
stimulate economic progress and world trade. It is a forum of countries
describing themselves as committed to democracy and the market
economy, providing a platform to compare policy experiences, seeking
answers to common problems, identify good practices and coordinate
domestic and international policies of its members.
Founders: Austria, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Germany, Greece,
Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, The Netherlands, Norway, Portugal,
Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, United Kingdom, United States.
Japan, Finland, Australia, and New Zealand, Chile, Czech Republic,
Estonia, Hungary, Israel, Mexico, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia, South Korea.
Brazil, India. China, Indonesia and South Africa, are Key Partners of the
Organisation and contribute to its work in a sustained and comprehensive
manner. Together with them, the OECD brings around its table 39
countries that account for 80% of world trade and investment, giving it a
pivotal role in addressing the challenges facing the world economy.
OECD
The Organisation for European Economic Cooperation (OEEC) was
established in 1948 to run the US-financed Marshall Plan for
reconstruction of a continent ravaged by war. By making individual
governments recognise the interdependence of their economies, it paved
the way for a new era of cooperation that was to change the face of
Europe.
Encouraged by its success and the prospect of carrying its work forward
on a global stage, Canada and the US joined OEEC members in signing
the new OECD Convention on 14 December 1960.
The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)
was officially born on 30 September 1961, when the Convention entered
into force.

2017-03-01 9
1972
United Nations Conference on the Human
Environment
Stockholm, Sweden
The Conference was held in Stockholm, Sweden from
June 5 to June 16 in 1972
First major Inter-Governmental Environment
Conference, chaired by Maurice Strong, Secretary
General.
The conference was rooted in the regional pollution and
acid rain problems of northern Europe.
This eco-agenda was opposed by the Eastern bloc and
the Group of 77.
113 UN Member Sates represented.

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Group of the 77
The Group of the 77 is now composed by 134 countries

In 1972 the Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi brought forward the connection
between ecological management and poverty alleviation to support the UN
Conference on Human Environment.
Parliament building in Stockholm where some of the conference meetings were held

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1972
United Nations Conference on the Human
Environment
Adopted:
The Stockholm Declaration - Stockholm Principles
The Stockholm Action Plan
Resolution on prior information
The United Nations Environment Programme
(UNEP), was created.
Established the UN Environment Day, 5th June.

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Principles of the Stockholm Declaration

Principle 1
Man has the fundamental right to freedom, equality and adequate conditions of life, in an
environment of a quality that permits a life of dignity and well-being, and he bears a
solemn responsibility to protect and improve the environment for present and future
generations. In this respect, policies promoting or perpetuating apartheid, racial
segregation, discrimination, colonial and other forms of oppression and foreign
domination stand condemned and must be eliminated.
Principle 2
The natural resources of the earth, including the air, water, land, flora and fauna and
especially representative samples of natural ecosystems, must be safeguarded for the
benefit of present and future generations through careful planning or management, as
appropriate.
Principle 3
The capacity of the earth to produce vital renewable resources must be maintained and,
wherever practicable, restored or improved.

1. Human rights must be asserted, apartheid and colonialism condemned.
2. Natural resources must be safeguarded.
3. The Earths capacity to produce renewable resources must be maintained.
4. Wildlife must be safeguarded.
5. Non-renewable resources must be shared and not exhausted.
6. Pollution must not exceed the environments capacity to clean itself.
7. Damaging oceanic pollution must be prevented.
8. Development is needed to improve the environment.
9. Developing countries therefore need assistance.
10. Developing countries need reasonable prices for exports to carry out
environmental management.
11. Environment policy must not hamper development.
12. Developing countries need money to develop environmental safeguards.
13. Integrated development planning is needed.

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14. Rational planning should resolve conflicts between environment and
development
15. Human settlements must be planned to eliminate environmental problems
16. Governments should plan their own appropriate population policies
17. National institutions must plan development of states natural resources
18. Science and technology must be used to improve the environment
19. Environmental education is essential
20. Environmental research must be promoted, particularly in developing
countries
21. States may exploit their resources as they wish but must not endanger
others
22. Compensation is due to states thus endangered
23. Each nation must establish its own standards
24. There must be cooperation on international issues
25. International organizations should help to improve the environment
26. Weapons of mass destruction must be eliminated

Principle 4
Man has a special responsibility to safeguard and wisely manage the heritage of wildlife
and its habitat, which are now gravely imperilled by a combination of adverse factors.
Nature conservation, including wildlife, must therefore receive importance in planning for
economic development.
Principle 5
The non-renewable resources of the earth must be employed in such a way as to guard
against the danger of their future exhaustion and to ensure that benefits from such
employment are shared by all mankind.
Principle 6
The discharge of toxic substances or of other substances and the release of heat, in
such quantities or concentrations as to exceed the capacity of the environment to render
them harmless, must be halted in order to ensure that serious or irreversible damage is
not inflicted upon ecosystems. The just struggle of the peoples of ill countries against
pollution should be supported.

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Principle 7
States shall take all possible steps to prevent pollution of the seas by substances that
are liable to create hazards to human health, to harm living resources and marine life, to
damage amenities or to interfere with other legitimate uses of the sea.
Principle 8
Economic and social development is essential for ensuring a favorable living and
working environment for man and for creating conditions on earth that are necessary for
the improvement of the quality of life.
Principle 9
Environmental deficiencies generated by the conditions of under-development and

natural disasters pose grave problems and can best be remedied by accelerated
development through the transfer of substantial quantities of financial and technological
assistance as a supplement to the domestic effort of the developing countries and such
timely assistance as may be required.

Principle 10
For the developing countries, stability of prices and adequate earnings for primary
commodities and raw materials are essential to environmental management, since
economic factors as well as ecological processes must be taken into account.
Principle 11
The environmental policies of all States should enhance and not adversely affect the
present or future development potential of developing countries, nor should they hamper
the attainment of better living conditions for all, and appropriate steps should be taken
by States and international organizations with a view to reaching agreement on meeting
the possible national and international economic consequences resulting from the
application of environmental measures.
Principle 12
Resources should be made available to preserve and improve the environment, taking
into account the circumstances and particular requirements of developing countries and
any costs which may emanate- from their incorporating environmental safeguards into
their development planning and the need for making available to them, upon their
request, additional international technical and financial assistance for this purpose.

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Principle 13
In order to achieve a more rational management of resources and thus to improve the
environment, States should adopt an integrated and coordinated approach to their
development planning so as to ensure that development is compatible with the need to
protect and improve environment for the benefit of their population.
Principle 14
Rational planning constitutes an essential tool for reconciling any conflict between the
needs of development and the need to protect and improve the environment.
Principle 15
Planning must be applied to human settlements and urbanization with a view to avoiding
adverse effects on the environment and obtaining maximum social, economic and
environmental benefits for all. In this respect projects which arc designed for colonialist
and racist domination must be abandoned.

Principle 16
Demographic policies which are without prejudice to basic human rights and which are
deemed appropriate by Governments concerned should be applied in those regions
where the rate of population growth or excessive population concentrations are likely to
have adverse effects on the environment of the human environment and impede
development.
Principle 17
Appropriate national institutions must be entrusted with the task of planning, managing
or controlling the 9 environmental resources of States with a view to enhancing
environmental quality.
Principle 18
Science and technology, as part of their contribution to economic and social

development, must be applied to the identification, avoidance and control of
environmental risks and the solution of environmental problems and for the common
good of mankind.

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Principle 19
Education in environmental matters, for the younger generation as well as adults, giving
due consideration to the underprivileged, is essential in order to broaden the basis for an
enlightened opinion and responsible conduct by individuals, enterprises and
communities in protecting and improving the environment in its full human dimension. It
is also essential that mass media of communications avoid contributing to the
deterioration of the environment, but, on the contrary, disseminates information of an
educational nature on the need to project and improve the environment in order to
enable mal to develop in every respect.
Principle 20
Scientific research and development in the context of environmental problems, both

national and multinational, must be promoted in all countries, especially the developing
countries. In this connection, the free flow of up-to-date scientific information and
transfer of experience must be supported and assisted, to facilitate the solution of
environmental problems; environmental technologies should be made available to
developing countries on terms which would encourage their wide dissemination without
constituting an economic burden on the developing countries.

Principle 21
States have, in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations and the principles of
international law, the sovereign right to exploit their own resources pursuant to their own
environmental policies, and the responsibility to ensure that activities within their
jurisdiction or control do not cause damage to the environment of other States or of
areas beyond the limits of national jurisdiction.
Principle 22
States shall cooperate to develop further the international law regarding liability and
compensation for the victims of pollution and other environmental damage caused by
activities within the jurisdiction or control of such States to areas beyond their
jurisdiction.

2017-03-01 17

Principle 23
Without prejudice to such criteria as may be agreed upon by the international

community, or to standards which will have to be determined nationally, it will be
essential in all cases to consider the systems of values prevailing in each country, and
the extent of the applicability of standards which are valid for the most advanced
countries but which may be inappropriate and of unwarranted social cost for the
developing countries.
Principle 24
International matters concerning the protection and improvement of the environment

should be handled in a cooperative spirit by all countries, big and small, on an equal
footing.
Cooperation through multilateral or bilateral arrangements or other appropriate means is

essential to effectively control, prevent, reduce and eliminate adverse environmental
effects resulting from activities conducted in all spheres, in such a way that due account
is taken of the sovereignty and interests of all States.

Principle 25
States shall ensure that international organizations play a coordinated, efficient and
dynamic role for the protection and improvement of the environment.
Principle 26
Man and his environment must be spared the effects of nuclear weapons and all other
means of mass destruction. States must strive to reach prompt agreement, in the
relevant international organs, on the elimination and complete destruction of such
weapons.

2017-03-01 18
Stockholm Action Plan

The Plan has three components:
a) a proposed global environmental assessment programme, or
Earthwatch,
b) environmental management activities, and
c) measures to support national and international action of
assessment and management.
The recommendations are grouped into the following areas:
a) Recommendations for international action.
b) Identification and control of pollution of international
importance:
b.1) pollution in general
b.2) marine pollution
c) Educational aspects, informative, social and cultural
environmental issues.
Stockholm Resolution
It was also adopted Resolution 2995 (XXVII) that affirmed
implicitly a States obligation to provide prior information to other
States for the purpose of avoiding significant harm beyond
national jurisdiction and control.

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United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)

The United Nations Environment Programme(UNEP) is an agency of the United
Nations that coordinates its environmental activities, assisting developing
countries in implementing environmentally sound policies and practices. It was
founded by Maurice Strong, its first director, as a result of the United Nations
Conference on the Human Environment in June 1972 and has its headquarters
in Nairobi, Kenya. UNEP also has six regional offices and various country
offices.

2017-03-01 20
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)

Its activities cover a wide range of issues regarding the atmosphere, marine
and terrestrial ecosystems, environmental governance and green economy.
It has played a significant role in developing international environmental
conventions, promoting environmental science and information and illustrating
the way those can be implemented in conjunction with policy, working on the
development and implementation of policy with national governments, regional
institutions in conjunction with environmental non-governmental organizations
(NGOs).
UNEP has also been active in funding and implementing environment related
development projects.
For this, it works with numerous partners, including other UN agencies,
international organizations, organizations linked to national governments and
nongovernmental organizations.
World Environment Day

World Environment Day (WED) is celebrated every year on 5
June to raise global awareness to take positive environmental
action to protect nature and the planet Earth.

2017-03-01 21
1972
Publication of The Limits to Growth
The Club of Rome
The Limits to Growth is a 1972 book about the computer simulation of
exponential economic and population growth with finite resource supplies
Throws alert to the limits of natural resources, which do not carry the pace of
population growth.
1973
Environmental Policies of the
European Community
Creation of the Environmental and Consumer Protection Directorate, and
Launched the first Environmental Action Program.

2017-03-01 22
EVOLUTION OF
Part 2
1973
Oil Crisis - OPEC
The 1973 oil crisis began in October 1973 when the members
of the Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries
(OAPEC, consisting of the Arab members of the OPEC plus
Egypt, Syria) proclaimed an oil embargo. By the end of the
embargo in March 1974, the price of oil had risen from $3 per
barrel to nearly $12. The oil crisis had many short-term and
long-term effects on global politics and the global economy.
Saudi Arabia (1960)
Iran (1960)
Iraq (1960)
Kuwait (1960)
Venezuela (1960)
Qatar (1961)
Libya (1962)
Indonesia (1962-2009)
United Arab Emirates (1967)
Algeria (1969)
Nigeria (1971)
Ecuador (1973 to 1992 and from 2007)
Gabon (1975 to 1994)
Angola (2007)

2017-03-06 1
2017-03-06
Yom Kipur oil embargo
Iran Revolution
Iran-Iraq War
Evolution of crude oil prices
Gulf War
US dollars per barrel (adjusted for inflation)
OPEC quota increase

OPEC cuts
PDVSA Strike
Iraq War
Asian Growth
Financial Crisis
US production of shale oil
2
1973
CITES CONVENTION
Washington, DC
CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species
of Wild Fauna and Flora) is an international agreement between
governments. Its aim is to ensure that international trade in
specimens of wild animals and plants does not threaten their
survival.

2017-03-06 3
1973
CITES CONVENTION
Widespread information nowadays about the endangered status of many prominent
species, such as the tiger and elephants, might make the need for such a convention
seem obvious. But at the time when the ideas for CITES were first formed, in the 1960s,
international discussion of the regulation of wildlife trade for conservation purposes was
something relatively new.
International wildlife trade is estimated to be worth billions of dollars and to include
hundreds of millions of plant and animal specimens.
The trade is diverse, ranging from live animals and plants to a vast array of wildlife
products derived from them, including food products, exotic leather goods, wooden
musical instruments, timber, tourist curios and medicines.
Levels of exploitation of some animal and plant species are high and the trade in them,
together with other factors, such as habitat loss, is capable of heavily depleting their
populations and even bringing some species close to extinction.
Many wildlife species in trade are not endangered, but the existence of an agreement to
ensure the sustainability of the trade is important in order to safeguard these resources
for the future.
1973
CITES CONVENTION
Because the trade in wild animals and plants crosses borders between countries, the
effort to regulate it requires international cooperation to safeguard certain species from
over-exploitation. CITES was conceived in the spirit of such cooperation. Today, it
accords varying degrees of protection to more than 35,000 species of animals and
plants, whether they are traded as live specimens, fur coats or dried herbs.
The text of the Convention was agreed at a meeting of representatives of 80 countries
in Washington, D.C., the United States of America, on 3 March 1973, and CITES entered
in force on 1 July 1975.
CITES is an international agreement to which States (countries) adhere voluntarily.
States that have agreed to be bound by the Convention ('joined' CITES) are known as
Parties. Although CITES is legally binding on the Parties in other words they have to
implement the Convention it does not take the place of national laws. Rather it
provides a framework to be respected by each Party, which has to adopt its own
domestic legislation to ensure that CITES is implemented at the national level.
CITES has now 181 Parties.

2017-03-06 4
1973
CITES CONVENTION
Roughly 5,600 species of animals and 30,000 species of plants are protected by CITES
against over-exploitation through international trade. They are listed in the three CITES
Appendices.
CITES works by subjecting international trade in specimens of selected species to certain
controls. All import, export, re-export and introduction from the sea of species covered by
the Convention has to be authorized through a licensing system.
Appendix I lists species that are the most endangered. They are threatened with extinction
and CITES prohibits international trade in specimens of these species except when the
purpose of the import is not commercial, for instance for scientific research.
Appendix II lists species that are not necessarily now threatened with extinction but that
may become so unless trade is closely controlled. International trade in specimens of
Appendix-II species may be authorized by the granting of an export permit or re-export
certificate. Permits or certificates should only be granted if certain conditions are met,
above all that trade will not be detrimental to the survival of the species in the wild.
Appendix III is a list of species included at the request of a Party that already regulates trade
in the species and that needs the cooperation of other countries to prevent unsustainable
or illegal exploitation.
1973
CITES CONVENTION
Common name: Giant Panda Common name: Asian Elephant Common name: Wolf, Grey Wolf,
Scientific name: Scientific name: Timber Wolf
Ailuropoda melanoleuca Elephas maximus Scientific name: Canis lupus
Distribution: China Distribution: Distribution: Asia, Europe,
CITES listing: Appendix I South and Southeast Asia, China North America
CITES listing: Appendix I CITES listing: Appendix II

2017-03-06 5
1974
Warning that CFCs could cause serious harm
to Earth's protective ozone layer
Nature Journal
Sherry Rowland and Mario Molina, chemists at the University of
California, Irvine, published the first scientific paper warning that human-
generated chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) could cause serious harm to
Earth's protective ozone layer. They calculated that if CFC production
continued to increase at the going rate of 10%/year until 1990, then
remain steady, CFCs would cause a global 5-7% ozone loss by 1995 and
30-50% loss by 2050.
They warned that the loss of ozone would significantly increase the
amount of skin-damaging ultraviolet UV-B light reaching the surface,
greatly increasing skin cancer and cataracts. The loss of stratospheric
ozone could also significantly cool the stratosphere, potentially causing
destructive climate change. Although no stratospheric ozone loss had
been observed yet, in 1974, CFCs should be banned, they said.
1974
Warning that CFCs could cause serious
harm to Earth's protective ozone layer

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1974
At the time, the CFC industry was worth about 8 thousand million USD in
the U.S., employed over 600,000 people directly, and 1.4 million people
indirectly .
Critics and skeptics primarily industry spokespeople and scientists from
conservative think tanks immediately attacked the theory.
Despite the fact that Molina and Rowland's theory had wide support in
the scientific community, a handful of skeptics, their voices greatly
amplified by the public relations machines of powerful corporations and
politicians sympathetic to them, succeeded in delaying imposition of
controls on CFCs for many years.
1974

2017-03-06 7
1976
Catastrophe or New Society? A Latin
American World Model.
Fundacion Bariloche
Response of the 3rd World to "Limits to Growth
claims growth and equity for the 3rd World.
1976
Seveso Disaster, Italy
The Seveso disaster took place on the premises of ICMESA (Societ Industrie Chimiche
Azionaria Meda), a chemical plant owned by Roche.
An uncontrollable surge in temperature and
pressure caused the rupture of a safety valve,
resulting in release into the air of a mixture of
chemicals.
This toxic cloud containing TCDD (2,3,7,8-
tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin), then widely
believed to be one of the most toxic man-
made chemicals, contaminated a densely
populated area about six kilometres long and
one kilometre wide, lying downwind from the
site.

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1976
The Impact
This event became internationally known as the Seveso disaster, after the name of a
neighboring municipality that was most severely affected. The product spread over large
area on the Lombard plain, between Milan and Lake Como. More than 700 people were
evacuated, 2,000 treated for dioxin poisoning, and restrictions were applied to another
30,000. More than 25 km2 of land and vegetation were contaminated.
Seveso, with 17,000 inhabitants, located 21 km north of Milan was the most severely
affected.
Due to contamination, 3300 animals were
found dead (especially poultry and
rabbits), and more than 80 000 had to be
slaughtered to prevent the entry of dioxin
into the food chain.
Although no immediate fatalities were
reported, the full horror of the incident
slowly emerged over the following days,
months and years. More than 200 people
have been treated for dioxin poisoning.
1976
A monitoring program was initiated for environmental systems and media to determine
the level of exposure, the extent of contamination, and the behavior and fate of TCDD
released into the environment. Information about exposures was also obtained from
signs/symptoms. Blood samples were collected and analyzed for TCDD and blood
chemistry. The early screening of thousands of children revealed chloracne as the main
health effect.
The studies on long-term effects of mortality
and cancer incidence revealed an increased
occurrence of cardiovascular diseases that
might have been related to stressors caused
by the disaster. Results from the cancer
incidence study showed an increased risk of
hepatobiliary cancer particularly in those
residing for more than five years. Some men
had an increased risk of leukemia, and
women exhibited an increase in multiple
myeloma and myeloid leukemia.

2017-03-06 9
1976
The Lessons Learnt from the Disaster
At the time of the Seveso disaster, the complexity of communication problems under
conditions of severe uncertainty was recognized.
Before the gas release, no one outside the plant, neither residents nor political or health
authorities , had any idea that a hazard of such magnitude could be possible. The
explosion and release were greeted by incredulity, followed by alarm and dismay.
The firm's initial behavior led to subsequent suspicion about their motives; various
instructions for precautionary measures were issued almost immediately, but the firm
denied knowledge of the toxic substances involved. Ten days passed before the firm
confirmed that dioxin had been released. Only then did the governmental authorities
and the public learn that there was a grave risk.
Even so, it was impossible to assess the danger with any precision. There was an onset
of genuine dread, about illness in general and about malformed babies in particular. The
widespread illness and deaths of animals of many species was a threatening sign.
1976
The authorities had their own severe problems of decision-making under uncertainty,
including the definition of different polluted zones, programmes of evacuation of
endangered residents, and disposal of contaminated material.
From the very beginning of the disaster, situational uncertainty was salient; decisions
had to be taken, sometimes under conditions of great urgency' in the nearly complete
absence of information that might guide actions. Scientific uncertainty was crucial to the
local magistrates decision to close the site eight days after the accident.
Societal uncertainty was severe because there had been no previous institutional
preparation or consultation for the accident. Legal/moral uncertainty was also severe.

2017-03-06 10
1976
The Seveso Directive
Nations downstream from other nations will always be threatened by environmental
spills and accidents caused by upstream nations.
For this reason, international treaties and laws governing transboundary pollution are
crucial for preventing disasters. They are needed to resolve issues related to liability and
compensation. They are also needed to protect countries from domestic disasters
caused by the carelessness or exploitative activities of foreign companies.
Legislation aimed at the prevention and control of accidents involving dangerous
substances in the EU was significantly prompted by this particular disaster, among
others.
As a result, in 1982, the Seveso Directive (Council Directive 82/501/EEC) on the major
accident hazards of certain industrial activities was adopted, later amended in light of
two other major accidents.
In 1996, the Seveso Directive II (Council Directive 96/82/EC) replaced its predecessor,
and in 2012 the new Directive 2012/18/EU (Seveso-III) was adopted and Seveso
Directive II was repealed.
1976
The Seveso III Directive
The principles
The Seveso Directive aims at the prevention of major accidents involving dangerous
substances. However, as accidents may nevertheless occur, it also aims at limiting the
consequences of such accidents not only for human health but also for the
environment.
The Directive covers establishments where dangerous substances may be present (e.g.
during processing or storage) in quantities above a certain threshold. Excluded from the
Directive are certain industrial activities which are subject to other legislation providing
a similar level of protection (e.g. nuclear establishments or the transport of dangerous
substances).
Depending on the amount of dangerous substances present, establishments are
categorised in lower and upper tier establishments, the latter are subject to more
stringent requirements.

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1976
Main obligations for operators
Operators are obliged to take all necessary measures to prevent major accidents and to
limit their consequences for human health and the environment. The requirements
include:
Notification of all concerned establishments;
Deploying a major accident prevention policy;
Producing a safety report for upper-tier establishments;
Producing internal emergency plans for upper tier establishments;
Providing information in case of accidents.
1976
Main obligations for Member State authorities
Member States need to ensure that a number of requirements are fulfilled, those
include:
Producing external emergency plans for upper tier establishments ;
Deploying land-use planning for the siting of establishments ;
Making relevant information publically available ;
Ensuring that any necessary action is taken after an accident including emergency
measures, actions to ensure that the operator takes any necessary remedial
measures and informing the persons likely to be affected;
Reporting accidents to the Commission;
Prohibiting the unlawful use or operation of establishments;
Conducting inspections.
Member States may maintain or adopt stricter measures than those contained in the
Seveso Directive.

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1976
Citizens' rights
The public concerned has to be consulted and involved in the decision making for
specific individual projects;
Subject to the conditions outlined, Member State authorities need to make available
any information held pursuant to the Seveso Directive;
Access to justice needs to be granted in some specified cases.
1976
Habitat
Vancouver, Canada
Habitat I refers to the first United Nations Conference on Human Settlements, in
Vancouver, Canada, 1976, convened by the United Nations as governments began to
recognize the magnitude and consequences of rapid urbanization.
Following the Conference, the General Assembly adopted the Vancouver Declaration on
Human Settlements, which carried an action plan with 64 recommendations for National
Action.
A further outcome of the conference, was the establishment of the United Nations
Centre for Human Settlements - UNCHS (Habitat) with headquarters at Nairobi, Kenya.
It is mandated to
promote socially and
environmentally
sustainable towns and
cities with the goal of
providing adequate
shelter for all.

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1976
Habitat
Vancouver, Canada
Cities are facing unprecedented demographic, environmental, economic, social and
spatial challenges.
There has been an exceptional shift towards urbanization, with 6 out of every 10 people
in the world expected to reside in urban areas by 2030. Over 90 per cent of this growth
will take place in Africa, Asia, Latin America, and the Caribbean.
In the absence of effective urban planning, the consequences of this rapid urbanization
will be dramatic. In many places around the world, the effects can already be felt: lack of
proper housing and growth of slums, inadequate and out-dated infrastructure be it
roads, public transport, water, sanitation, or electricity escalating poverty and
unemployment, safety and crime problems, pollution and health issues, as well as poorly
managed natural or man-made disasters and other catastrophes due to the effects of
climate change.
Policies, and approaches towards urbanization need to change in order for the growth of
cities and urban areas to be turned into opportunities that will leave nobody behind.
1976
Habitat
Vancouver, Canada
Policies, and approaches towards urbanization need to change in order for the growth of
cities and urban areas to be turned into opportunities that will leave nobody behind.
UN-Habitat envisions well-planned, well-governed, and efficient cities and other human
settlements, with adequate housing, infrastructure, and universal access to employment
and basic services such as water, energy, and sanitation.

2017-03-06 14
1977
United Nations Conference on
Desertification
Desertification is land degradation in arid, semi-arid, and dry sub-humid areas
resulting from various factors, including climatic variations and human activities.
It remains potentially the most threatening ecosystem change impacting the socio-
economic conditions of millions of people living in the drylands, which account for a
significant proportion of the Earths land.
It is caused by complex interactions of a number of physical, biological, political, social,
cultural, and economic factors. Generally, it is a detrimental process that brings about a
gradual and an unnoticed reduction in the productive capacity of land over a period of
years .
Although desertification occurs in all regions, it has high concentrations in developing
countries, especially in Africa. For example, developing countries in Asia, Africa, and
South America have larger populations living in drylands. An estimated 40% of people in
Africa and Asia live in areas constantly threatened by desertification .
1977
Desertification
Achieving the core objectives of sustainable development will remain an impossible
mission for nearly two thousand million people living in the worlds drylands, whose
biological productivity is under serious threat from the intensifying trend of
desertification.
The global annual loss to desertification is in the order of 60,000 km2.
Due to desertification, the annual loss of income is estimated at USD 65 thousand
million, and this does not include the costs incurred in social and environmental aspects.
The costs of desertification are most often measured in terms of lost productivity, which
includes the reduced crop yields, grazing intensities, etc. Secondary costs are the loss of
ecosystem services and ecological functions that affect the very sustainability of the
planet.

2017-03-06 15
1977
Desertification
The international community has long recognized that land degradation/desertification
is a major economic, social and environmental problem of concern to many countries in
all regions of the world. In 1977, the United Nations Conference on Desertification
(UNCOD), in Nairobi, Kenya, adopted a Plan of Action to Combat Desertification (PACD).
The Conference was the first occasion on which the nations of the world turned their
concerted attention to the need for a comprehensive plan to halt and reverse
desertification.
The Conference concluded that both the causes of desertification and the technical
solutions to combating it are known. The key to combative measures is to be found in
proper land-use. If desertification is to be brought to a halt considerable financial
resources will, however, be necessary.
USDA US Department of Agriculture 'Global Desertification Vulnerability Map

http://soils.usda.gov/use/worldsoils/mapindex/desert.html

2017-03-06 16
1978
Amoco Cadiz accident
Coast of Brittany, France
Amoco Cadiz was a very large crude carrier (VLCC) under the Liberian flag of convenience
owned by Amoco.
On 16 March 1978, she ran aground on Portsall Rocks, 5 km from the coast of Brittany,
France due to severe weather conditions and to the failure of the hydraulic steering
mechanism.
Ultimately the crude carrier split in three and sank, releasing 1,604,500 barrels (219,797
tons) of light crude oil and 4,000 tons of fuel oil resulting in the largest oil spill of its kind
in history to that date.
Portsall Rocks
1978
A slick 18 miles wide and 80 miles long polluted approximately 350 km of Brittany
coastline.
Severe weather resulted in the complete break up of the ship before any oil could be
pumped out of the wreck.
Beaches of 76 different Breton communities were oiled. The isolated location of the
grounding and rough seas restricted cleanup efforts for the two weeks following the
incident.

2017-03-06 17
1978
At the time, the Amoco Cadiz incident resulted in the largest loss of marine life ever
recorded after an oil spill.
Mortalities of most animals occurred over the two-month period following the spill.
Two weeks after the accident, millions of dead molluscs, sea urchins, and other benthic
species washed ashore. Although small crustacean populations almost completely
disappeared from some areas, populations of many species had recovered within a year.
Diving birds constituted the majority of the nearly 20,000 dead birds that were
recovered.
Oyster cultivation in the estuaries was seriously affected and an estimated 9,000 tonnes
were destroyed because of contamination and to safeguard market confidence.
Other shell and fin fisheries (including seaweed gathering) were seriously affected in the
short-term, as was tourism.
Failure to remove oil from temporary oil collection pits on some soft sediment shorelines
before inundation by the incoming tide also resulted in longer-term contamination.
1978
In 1978, it was estimated to have caused 250 million USD in damage to fisheries and
tourist amenities. The French government presented claims totalling 2,000 million USD
to United States courts.
In subsequent legal proceedings in Chicago, United States, France was awarded
120 million USD from the American oil company Amoco in 1990.

2017-03-06 18
1979
Three Mile Island accident
Harrisburg, Pennsylvania
Three Mile Island accident, accident in 1979 at the Three Mile Island nuclear power
station that was the most serious in the history of the American nuclear power industry.
It had two pressurized water reactors. One PWR was of 800 MWe (775 MWe net) and
entered service in 1974. It remains one of the best-performing units in USA. Unit 2 was of
906 MWe (880 MWe net) and almost brand new.
1979

2017-03-06 19
1979
At 4:00 am on March 28, an automatically operated valve in the Unit 2 reactor mistakenly
closed, shutting off the water supply to the main feedwater system (the system that
transfers heat from the water actually circulating in the reactor core).
After shutting down the fission reaction, the TMI-2 reactor's fuel core became uncovered
and more than one third of the fuel melted.
Inadequate instrumentation and training programs at the time hampered operators'
ability to respond to the accident.
The accident was accompanied by communications problems that led to conflicting
information available to the public, contributing to the public's fears
A small amount of radiation was released from the plant. The releases were not serious
and were not health hazards. This was confirmed by thousands of environmental and
other samples and measurements taken during the accident.
The containment building worked as designed. Despite melting of about one-third of the
fuel core, the reactor vessel itself maintained its integrity and contained the damaged
fuel.
In the following days adequate coolant water circulation in the core was restored.
1979
A federal appeals court in December 2003 dismissed the consolidated cases of 2,000
plaintiffs seeking damages against the plants former owners for health problems they
alleged the accident caused. The court said the plaintiffs had failed to present evidence
they had received a radiation dose large enough to cause possible health effects.
Decades of research and scientific studies have shown no negative health effects on the
population surrounding the plant.
People who suffered financial losses as a result of the precautionary evacuation following
the incident were promptly paid.
In addition, businesses were compensated for loss of revenue, and the state and local
community were compensated for the expenses incurred during the response to the
threat.
The unharmed Unit 1 reactor at Three Mile Island did not resume operation until 1985.
The cleanup of Unit 2 continued until 1990; damage to the unit was so severe, however,
that it remained unusable.

2017-03-06 20
1979
The accident at Three Mile Island, though minuscule in its health consequences, had
widespread and profound effects on the American nuclear power industry.
It resulted in the immediate (though temporary) closing of seven operating reactors like
those at Three Mile Island.
A moratorium on the licensing of all new reactors was also temporarily imposed, and the
whole process of approval for new plants by the Nuclear Regulatory Commission was
significantly slowed for years after the accident. No new reactors were ordered by utility
companies in the United States from 1979 through the mid-1980s.
The accident increased public fears about the safety of nuclear reactors and strengthened
public opposition to the construction of new plants.
Applying the accident's lessons produced important, continuing improvement in the
performance of all nuclear power plants.
1979
Convention on Long-Range
Transboundary Air Pollution
UNECE, Geneva
The Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution was the first international
legally binding instrument to deal with problems of air pollution on a broad regional
basis.
Air pollution has significant impacts on our
health, environment and economy.
Pollutants in the air we breathe come from
multiple sources, including sectors such as
industry, transport and agriculture.
Every day, air pollution causes respiratory
and cardiovascular diseases. It also damages
vulnerable ecosystems and biodiversity and
leads to a decrease in agricultural crop and
commercial forest yields.
London March 2011
It is therefore paramount to take action
across sectors and national boundaries.

2017-03-06 21
UNECE
United Nations Economic Commission for Europe
The United Nations Economic Commission for Europe was established in 1947 to encourage
economic cooperation among its member states.
It is one of five regional commissions under the administrative direction of United Nations
headquarters.
The others are:
United Nations Economic Commission for
Africa (ECA)
United Nations Economic Commission for
Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC)
United Nations Economic and Social
Commission for Asia and the Pacific
(ESCAP)
United Nations Economic and Social
Commission for Western Asia (ESCWA)
It has 56 member states, and reports to the UN Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC).
Besides countries in Europe, it also includes the United States of America, Canada, the
Central Asian republics, and Israel.
The UNECE secretariat headquarters is in Geneva, Switzerland.
UNECE
United Nations Economic Commission for Europe
UNECE as a multilateral platform facilitates greater economic integration and cooperation
among its fifty-six member States and promotes sustainable development and economic
prosperity through:
policy dialogue,
negotiation of international legal instruments,
development of regulations and norms,
exchange and application of best practices as well as economic and technical expertise,
technical cooperation for countries with economies in transition.
The UNECE contributes to enhancing the effectiveness of the UN through the regional
implementation of outcomes of global UN Conferences and Summits.

2017-03-06 22
Air Pollution
Air Pollution

2017-03-06 23
Air Pollution
SMOG (ozone and PM)
Ground-Level Ozone:
- photochemical reaction between NOx and VOCs
- strong oxidant
- causes tissue damage, reduced growth rate
The first sign of ozone damage in vegetation is a purple or
black stippling between the veins in the tops of the leaves.
Ozone enters stomata with CO2, prompting stomata to close
which also blocks CO2, interfering with photosynthesis.
Particulate Matter (PM):
- primarily physical damage (tissue)
- inhalation causes respiratory and cardiac problems,
- premature death
much research focus on human health effects... speculate similar effects in wildlife.
secondary issues:
- acidic (sulphates, nitrates),
- toxic (Heavy metals, PAHs - Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon).
Air Pollution
Acid Deposition
Dry Deposition: direct deposition of acidic gasses (NOx, SO2, H2SO4) and acid particulate
(HNO3, (NH4)2SO4, H2SO4), to leaves, rocks, buildings.
Wet Deposition: acidic gasses react with water in the atmosphere to form liquid phase acids
(HNO3, (NH4)2SO4, H2SO4), which rain or fog out.

2017-03-06 24
Air Pollution
Acid Deposition
Dry Deposition: direct deposition of acidic gasses (NOx, SO2, H2SO4) and acid particulate
(HNO3, (NH4)2SO4, H2SO4), to leaves, rocks, buildings.
Wet Deposition: acidic gasses react with water in the atmosphere to form liquid phase acids
(HNO3, (NH4)2SO4, H2SO4), which rain or fog out.
Acids are strong oxidants causing physical damage to tissues

Deposition of H2SO4 can yield the following reactions in soils and water:
H2SO4(aq) 2H+ + SO42-
CaCO3(aq) Ca2+ + CO32-
2H+ + CO32- H2O + CO2
if the soil has high carbonate content, this reaction will buffer the acidity. However once
CaCO3 has been depleted by this reaction, buffering capacity is lost and the ecosystem will
become acidified.
Air Pollution
Biological Effects of Acidification
Fish:
corrodes gill material, attacks CaCO3 skeleton.
failure of females to spawn, and hatchlings or small fry unable to withstand acidity (thus
some lakes only have older fish leading to a false sense of ecosystem health for anglers
who catch good-sized fish)
uptake of HM pollutants
decreased growth rate, inability to self-regulate body chemistry, reduced egg deposition,
deformities, increased susceptibility to disease.
least tolerant: trout, salmon, smallmouth bass, walleye
most tolerant: yellow perch, rock bass, central mudminnow, largemouth bass
Birds:
reduced fish stocks -> loss of food source.
leaching of heavy metals (HMs) -> mercury (Hg) and lead (Pb)
bioaccumulate in food chain, reaching toxic levels in pisivores.
loss of calcium-rich foods required by some bird species.

2017-03-06 25
Air Pollution
Forests:
leeches out nutrients like Ca2+, Mg2+, K+ by combining with acids, leaving soil low in
nutrients and eventually acidifying soil.
acid rain, fog, and vapour damages the surfaces of leaves and needles.
reduces trees ability to withstand cold and disease.
Inhibits germination and reproduction.
leads to loss of habitat and food sources the effects move through the ecosystem.
Air Pollution
Eutrophication:
Deposition of NH4+ and NO3- contributes to acidification, but also fertilizes soils by
providing directly assimilable nitrogen.
The excess nutrients result in an over-fertilization and lead to eutrophication.
Eutrophication can result in an accumulation of algae in surface waters, suppressing the
supply of oxygen to deeper waters, altering the ecology of the lake or bay.

2017-03-06 26
Air Pollution
Hazardous Air Pollutants (HAPs):
POPs (Persistent Organic Pollutants):
bioaccumulative and persistent in ecosystem
chronically or acutely toxic
Pesticides - DDT, chlordane, toxaphene
carcinogens, mutagens, teratogens (abnormalities of physiological development ),
endocrine disrupters.
dioxins, furans, PCBs (Polychlorinated biphenyls) carcinogens
Heavy Metals (HMs) Hg, Cd, Pb, Al
usually carried on fine particulate (PM2.5)
loss of ecosystem health and biodiversity.
Mercury (Hg):
Hg is a neuro-poison, inhibiting neural transmission.
Initial effects are lethargy and reduction in interactive behaviour.
Hg impairs aquatic birds reproductive success, cause growth-related problems,
and death
Air Pollution
Biogeochemical Cycling of Hg
"Methylmercury: its chemical formula is CH3Hg+. As a positively charged ion it readily

combines with anions such as chloride (Cl), hydroxide (OH) and nitrate (NO3).
Methylmercury is formed from inorganic mercury by the action of anaerobic organisms
that live in aquatic systems (lakes, rivers, wetlands), sediments, soils and the open ocean.
This methylation process converts inorganic mercury to methylmercury in the natural
environment.

2017-03-06 27
Health Effects of Air Pollution

Air pollution is a significant risk factor for a number of health conditions including:
respiratory infections,
heart disease,
COPD, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease,
stroke and
lung cancer.
The health effects caused by air pollution may include:
difficulty in breathing,
wheezing,
coughing,
asthma and
worsening of existing respiratory and cardiac conditions.
It is estimated that some 3.7 million premature deaths may be attributed to ambient air
pollution.
India has the highest death rate due to air pollution.
It was estimated that air pollution kills some 600,000 in the European region and 500,000 in
China, each year.
This makes it more deadly than malaria, tuberculosis and AIDS combined, and by far the
worlds largest single environmental health risk and cause of death by cancer.

An air pollution episode in London in 2015. There were 9,416 early deaths caused by the
pollutants NO2 and PM2.5 in 2010, according to Kings College London. Photograph: Nick
Ansell/PA (source: The Guardian, Wednesday 15 July 2015).

2017-03-06 28

Volkswagens rigging of emissions tests for 11m cars means they may be responsible for
nearly 1m tonnes of air pollution every year, roughly the same as the UKs combined
emissions for all power stations, vehicles, industry and agriculture (source: The Guardian,
Wednesday 23 September 2015).
1979
UNECE, Geneva
Scientists demonstrated the interrelationship between sulphur emissions in continental
Europe and the acidification of Scandinavian lakes. Several studies confirmed the
hypothesis that air pollutants could travel several thousands of kilometres before
deposition and damage occurred. This implied that cooperation at the international level
was necessary to solve problems such as acidification.
The Convention was signed in 1979 by 34 Governments and the European Community
(EC) and entered into force in 1983. The Convention now has 51 Parties.
The Convention substantially contributed to the development of international
environmental law and has created the essential framework for controlling and reducing
the damage to human health and the environment caused by transboundary air
pollution.
Besides laying down the general principles of international cooperation for air pollution
abatement, the Convention sets up an institutional framework bringing together
research and policy. It has since been extended by eight specific protocols.

2017-03-06 29
1979
UNECE, Geneva
Article 1: DEFINITIONS
For the purposes of the present Convention:
(a) "Air Pollution" means the introduction by man, directly or indirectly, of substances or
energy into the air resulting in deleterious effects of such a nature as to endanger human
health, harm living resources and ecosystems and material property and impair or interfere
with amenities and other legitimate uses of the environment, and "air pollutants" shall be
construed accordingly;
(b) "Long-range transboundary air pollution" means air pollution whose physical origin is
situated wholly or in part within the area under the national jurisdiction of one State and
which has adverse effects in the area under the jurisdiction of another State at such a
distance that it is not generally possible to distinguish the contribution of individual
emission sources or groups of sources.
1979
UNECE, Geneva
Article 2: FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES
The Contracting Parties, taking due account of the facts and problems involved, are
determined to protect man and his environment against air pollution and shall endeavour
to limit and, as far as possible, gradually reduce and prevent air pollution including long-
range transboundary air pollution.
Articles 3, 4 and 5:
exchanges of information,
consultation,
research and monitoring,
developing policies and strategies for combating the discharge of air pollutants.
Article 6: AIR QUALITY MANAGEMENT
Article 7: RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
Article 8: EXCHANGE OF INFORMATION

2017-03-06 30
1979
UNECE, Geneva
Article 9: IMPLEMENTATION AND FURTHER DEVELOPMENT OF THE COOPERATIVE
PROGRAMME FOR THE MONITORING AND EVALUATION OF THE LONG-RANGE
TRANSMISSION OF AIR POLLUTANTS IN EUROPE (EMEP)
Article 10: EXECUTIVE BODY
Article 11: SECRETARIAT
Article 12: AMENDMENTS TO THE CONVENTION
Article 13: SETTLEMENT OF DISPUTES
Article 14: SIGNATURE
Article 15: RATIFICATION, ACCEPTANCE, APPROVAL AND ACCESSION
Article 16: ENTRY INTO FORCE
Article 17: WITHDRAWAL
Article 18: AUTHENTIC TEXTS
1979
UNECE, Geneva
1984 Geneva Protocol on Long-term Financing of the Cooperative Programme for
Monitoring and Evaluation of the Long-range Transmission of Air Pollutants in Europe
(EMEP).
1985 Helsinki Protocol on the Reduction of Sulphur Emissions or their Transboundary Fluxes
by at least 30 per cent.
1988 Sofia Protocol Concerning the Control of Emissions of Nitrogen Oxides or their
Transboundary Fluxes.
1991 Geneva Protocol Concerning the Control of Emissions of Volatile Organic Compounds
or their Transboundary Fluxes.
1994 Oslo Protocol on Further Reduction of Sulphur Emissions.
1998 Aarhus Protocol on Heavy Metals.
1998 Aarhus Protocol on Persistent Organic Pollutants.
1999 Gothenburg Protocol to Abate Acidification, Eutrophication and Ground-level Ozone
(Gothenburg Protocol).

2017-03-06 31
1979
UNECE, Geneva
The result of this collective effort has been spectacular: emissions of a series of harmful
substances have been reduced by 40 to 80% since 1990 in Europe.
1980
World Conservation Strategy
IUCN
Evolution in thinking within IUCN and growing acceptance of the fact that conservation
of nature by banning human presence no longer worked. The debate about the balance
between strict nature protection and conservation through sustainable development.
In the chapter on "sustainable development" the chief habitat destruction agents are
identified, which include poverty, population pressure, social inequity and trade. It calls
for a new international development strategy to achieve a world economy more stable
and dynamic, fighting poverty impacts.
The first actual attempt to define sustainable development:
"For development to be sustainable, it must take account of social and ecological
factors, as well as economic ones; of the living and non-living resource base; and of the
long-term as well as the short-term advantages and disadvantages of alternative
action"

2017-03-06 32
IUCN
International Union for Conservation of Nature
IUCN is an international organization working in the field of nature conservation and
sustainable use of natural resources.
It is involved in data gathering and analysis, research, field projects, advocacy, lobbying
and education.
IUCN's mission is to "influence, encourage and assist societies throughout the world to
conserve nature and to ensure that any use of natural resources is equitable and
ecologically sustainable".
IUCN was established in 1948, in Fontainebleau, France, when representatives of
governments and conservation organizations signed a formal act constituting the
International Union for Protection of Nature (IUPN).
IUCN runs field projects for
habitat and species conservation
around the world. It produces the
IUCN Red List of Threatened
Species and the IUCN Red List of
Ecosystems.
1982
United Nations Convention on Law of the
Sea (UNCLOS)
UNCLOS is the most comprehensive attempt at creating a unified regime for
governance of the rights of nations with respect to the world's oceans.
It was agreed in Montego Bay, Jamaica. As of January 2015, 166 countries and the
European Union have joined in the Convention.
UNCLOS came into force in 1994.

2017-03-06 33
1982
Sea (UNCLOS)
The treaty addresses a number of topics including navigational rights, economic rights,
pollution of the seas, conservation of marine life, scientific exploration, piracy, and
more.
The treaty, one of the longest in history, is comprised of 320 articles and 9 annexes,
representing the codification of customary international law and its progressive
development.
The UN has no direct operational role in the implementation of the Convention. This
role is played by:
the International Maritime Organization,
the International Whaling Commission, and
the International Seabed Authority (established by the Convention).
1982
Sea (UNCLOS)
Waters beyond a nation's EEZ are considered to be the high seas.
The high seas are still governed the "freedom of the seas" concept, no nation my lay
claim to any portion of the high seas.
The high seas are open to all States, whether coastal or land-locked.
On the high seas, nations are permitted freedom:
of navigation and overflight,
to lay submarine cables and pipelines,
to construct artificial islands,
of fishing, and
of scientific research.
Other provisions regarding the high seas
include a prohibition on the transport of
slaves, piracy, illegal drug trafficking, and
the suppression of unauthorized radio or
television broadcasting.

2017-03-06 34
1982
Sea (UNCLOS)
Environmental Considerations:
Although UNCLOS is not an environmental treaty, it frequently addresses environmental
concerns. In addition to having an entire section dedicated to the protection and
preservation of the marine environment (Part XII), the treaty also contains numerous
references to environmental duties and obligations throughout its many articles.
Part XII opens with Article 192: "States have an obligation to protect and preserve the
marine environment.
Article 193: "States have the sovereign right to exploit their natural resources pursuant
to their environmental policies". Nations are then subsequently charged with creating
national law to address various pollution issues and are supposed to employ "the best
practicable means at their disposal and in accordance with their capabilities.
Article 204 requires states to observe and evaluate the risks posed by pollution to the
marine environment. In particular, nations are required to monitor the effects of any
activities that they permit or that they are actually engaged in.
1982
Sea (UNCLOS)
Pollution Prevention
Article 195 requires nations to "prevent, reduce and control pollution in the marine
environment." Article 195 also prohibits nations from transferring pollution to another
nation, either directly or indirectly, or from turning one type of pollution into another.
Articles 197-201 encourages nations to participate in regional agreements related to the
environment and establishes duties of nations to their regional counterparts .
Some of the duties that nations owe to other regional nations include the duty to notify
of imminent danger to the marine environment from pollution or actual damage from
pollution.
Nations are encouraged to work together to adopt regional plans for the preservation of
the marine environment as well as to develop contingency plans for responding to
pollution incidents and coordinating with one another in data-sharing on regional
marine pollution and establishing scientific criteria for the promulgation of regulations
regarding marine pollution.

2017-03-06 35
1982
Sea (UNCLOS)
Dumping at Sea
Dumping is defined as "any deliberate disposal of wastes or other matter from vessels,
aircraft, platforms or other man-made structures at sea" or the disposal of the vessels,
aircraft, platforms, or structure themselves at sea. UNCLOS makes an exemption for the
disposal of wastes that are incidental to the normal operations of vessels, aircraft, etc.
Article 210 requires nations to enact their own legislation on the issue, requiring that
national laws and regulations be at least as effective as global rules and standards.
These global rules and standards are articulated in the 1972 London Convention on the
Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter.
Coastal nations are recognized as the only authority that can approve any dumping
activities within its territorial sea, its EEZ, or on its continental shelf. Nations are given
the exclusive authority to authorize or deny such activities. However, Nations who
authorize dumping activities are required to give consideration as to how other nations
may be adversely affected by dumping activities in areas governed the local nation.
1982
Sea (UNCLOS)
Fishing Rights
Many of UNCLOS's articles on fishing rights relate to who has the right to control and
exploit various fish stocks. While these articles are not primarily environmental in
nature, they do contain provisions on regulating overfishing, which is itself an
environmental concern.
In the EEZ, coastal nations have primary control over the fish stocks. As part of this
primary control, the coastal nation is required to maintain the existing stock and protect
it from over-exploitation. As a part of that responsibility, coastal nation get to determine
the maximum allowable catch for a given species.
While coastal nations are required to monitor and maintain fish stocks within their EEZ,
they are also required to provide for the maximum exploitation possible that will not
threaten the population in question. To that end, coastal nation are required to
determine not only how much of a specific species can be caught, but how much the
nation itself has the capacity to catch. In instances where the nation cannot catch the
full maximum allowable catch, the coastal nation is obliged to give other nations access
to the surplus.

2017-03-06 36
1982
Sea (UNCLOS)
Fishing Rights
Fish, however, do not recognize manmade boundaries. In recognition of this fact,
UNCLOS provides special rules for species that cross various types of boundaries.
When one species of fish migrate within the EEZ's of multiple coastal nation, those
nations are obligated to come to agreement on the conservation and development of
such stocks.
Some species are considered "highly migratory. Nations engaged in fishing for these
highly migratory species are required to cooperate with one another to maintain
appropriate levels of these stock and to make sure that they are not overfished.
Another consideration taken into account by UNCLOS are fish species that migrate
between internal waters and marine waters as part of their breeding cycle. Anadromous
species, those that spawn in fresh water and later migrate toward marine waters, are
primarily the responsibility of the nation in whose rivers the fish originate. The nation of
origin is allowed to determine the allowable catch for these species. For catadromous
species, those that live in fresh water and migrate to marine waters to spawn, are again
primarily the responsibility of the coastal nation.
1982
Sea (UNCLOS)
Fishing Rights
All nations have the right to fish on the high seas subject to their treaty obligations.
Along with this right, nations have a duty to take measures to ensure the conservation
of living resources on the high seas.
Nations who are fishing for the same species or different species within the same area
of the high seas are supposed to work together to conserve and protect the species
from over-exploitation.
In determining maximum allowable catch, nations are to take measures to maintain or
restore populations of harvested species at levels which can produce the maximum
sustainable yield and they are to take into consideration the effects on species either
associated with or dependent on the harvested species.

2017-03-06 37
1982
Sea (UNCLOS)
Marine Mammals
Coastal nations are allowed to pass laws more stringent than those for fishing regarding
the harvesting of marine mammals.
Biodiversity
Article 196 requires nations to "take all measures necessary" to prevent the intentional
or accidental introduction of non-native species to a new part of the marine
environment. Regarding the introduction of alien species the prohibition is on non-
native animals that "may cause significant and harmful changes [to the local
environment".
1982
Sea (UNCLOS)
Land Based Pollution
Article 207 requires nations to "adopt laws and regulations to prevent, reduce and
control pollution of the marine environment from land-based sources....". This Article
207 specifically calls upon nations to regulate pollution that comes into the ocean from
rivers, estuaries, pipelines, and outfall structures, which are the primary sources of land
based pollution in the marine environment.
Article 207 also encourages nations to harmonize their policies on a regional level.
Atmospheric Based Pollution

Article 212 requires nations to adopt laws and regulations to prevent atmospheric
pollution that will result in pollution to the marine environment. Article 222 compels
nations to enforce these measures once passed.

2017-03-06 38
1982
Sea (UNCLOS)
Pollution from Ships
Article 211 requires nations to pass laws and regulations governing pollution from ships
flying the nation's flag.
Article 211 also allows nations to pass laws and regulations aimed at preventing and
controlling pollution from ships that enter both their ports and their territorial seas. In
both cases, the nation must notify the international community and the regulations
cannot abridge the right of innocent passage.
Nations may also pass laws regulating pollution from ships in their EEZ, provided that
the regulations conform to international rules and standards.
Under certain circumstances nations may be permitted to enact more stringent rules or
regulations, provided that they can prove a need or special circumstance exists for
which international rules and standards are not sufficient.
1982
UN World Charter for Nature
The World Charter for Nature was adopted by United Nations on October 28, 1982.
It proclaims five "principles of conservation by which all human conduct affecting nature is to
be guided and judged."
Nature shall be respected and its essential processes shall not be impaired.
The genetic viability on the earth shall not be compromised; the population levels of all
life forms, wild and domesticated, must be at least sufficient for their survival, and to this
end necessary habitats shall be safeguarded.
All areas of the earth, both land and sea, shall be subject to these principles of
conservation; special protection shall be given to unique areas, to representative samples
of all the different types of ecosystems and to the habitats of rare or endangered species.
Ecosystems and organisms, as well as the land, marine and atmospheric resources that are
utilized by man, shall be managed to achieve and maintain optimum sustainable
productivity, but not in such a way as to endanger the integrity of those other ecosystems
or species with which they coexist.
Nature shall be secured against degradation caused by warfare or other hostile activities.

2017-03-06 39
1984
Bhopal disaster
Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, India
The Bhopal disaster was a gas leak incident in India, considered the world's worst industrial
disaster. It occurred on the night of 23 December 1984 at the Union Carbide India Limited
(UCIL) pesticide plant in Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh.
The UCIL factory was built in 1969 to produce the pesticide carbaryl (Sevin) using methyl
isocyanate (MIC, CH3NCO) as an intermediate.
In November 1984, most of the safety
systems were not functioning and many
valves and lines were in poor condition.
During the night of 23 December 1984,
water entered Tank E610, which contained
42 tons of MIC.
A runaway reaction started, which was
accelerated by contaminants, high
temperatures and other factors. The
reaction was sped up by the presence of iron
from corroding non-stainless steel pipelines.
1984
Bhopal disaster
The resulting exothermic reaction increased the temperature inside the tank to over 200 C
and raised the pressure. This forced the emergency venting of pressure from the MIC
holding tank, releasing a large volume of toxic gases. About 30 metric tons of MIC escaped
from the tank into the atmosphere in 45 to 60 minutes.
As the gas cloud was composed mainly of
materials denser than the surrounding air,
it stayed close to the ground and spread
outwards through the surrounding
community.
The gases were blown in a southeasterly
direction over Bhopal, into and around
the shanty towns located near the plant.
Over 500,000 people were exposed to
methyl isocyanate (MIC) gas and other
chemicals.

2017-03-06 40
1984
Bhopal disaster
Even now, 10-15 people are dying every month from exposure related diseases and their
complications.
Over 120,000 children, men and women continue to suffer acutely from a host of exposure
related illnesses and their complications. Damage to the respiratory system has led to the
prevalence of pulmonary tuberculosis which has been found to be more than three times
the national average.
In the years following the disaster, the stillbirth rate was three times, perinatal mortality
was two times and neonatal mortality was one and a half times more than the comparative
national figures.
40% of the women pregnant at the time of the disaster aborted. It was reported nearly five
times increase in the rate of spontaneous abortion as a result of the Union Carbide Disaster.
The government of Madhya Pradesh confirmed a total of 3,787 deaths related to the gas
release. A government declaration in 2006 stated that the leak caused near 560 thousand
injuries, including 38 thousand temporary partial injuries and approximately 3,900 severely
and permanently disabling injuries. Others estimate that 8,000 died within two weeks, and
another 8,000 or more have since died from gas-related diseases.
1984
Bhopal disaster
The causes of the disaster remain under debate.
The Indian government and local activists argue that slack management and deferred
maintenance created a situation where routine pipe maintenance caused a backflow of
water into a MIC tank triggering the disaster.
Union Carbide Corporation (UCC), that owned 51% of UCIL, contends water entered the
tank through an act of sabotage.
Anyway, safety standards and maintenance procedures at the plant had been deteriorating
and ignored for months. The following list gives a synopsis of the defects of the MIC unit:
Gauges measuring temperature and
pressure in the various parts of the unit,
including the crucial MIC storage tanks,
were so unreliable that workers
ignored early signs of trouble;
The refrigeration unit for keeping MIC at
low temperatures (and therefore less
likely to undergo overheating and
expansion) had been shut off for some
time;

2017-03-06 41
1984
Bhopal disaster
The gas scrubber, designed to neutralize any escaping MIC, had been shut off for
maintenance. Even had it been operative, post-disaster inquiries revealed, the maximum
pressure it could handle was only one-quarter that which was actually reached in the
accident;
The flare tower, designed to burn off MIC escaping from the scrubber, was also turned
off, waiting for replacement of a corroded piece of pipe. The tower, however, was
inadequately designed for its task, as it was capable of handling only a quarter of the
volume of gas released;
The water curtain, designed to neutralize any remaining gas, was too short to reach the
top of the flare tower, from where the MIC was billowing;
The lack of effective warning systems; the alarm on the storage tank failed to signal the
increase in temperature on the night of the disaster;
MIC storage tank number 610 was filled beyond recommended capacity;
A storage tank which was supposed to be held in reserve for excess MIC already
contained the MIC.
1984
Bhopal disaster
Those deemed responsible for this tragedy, to begin with Warren Anderson, at the time
Union Carbides CEO, have never been brought to court to explain why they shut down one
by one the devices which were to guarantee the safety of the plant.
Soon after the horrible disaster, the Indian Government filed suit for USD 3 billion in
damages. The case was settled out of court in 1989, with Union Carbide agreeing to pay
USD 470 million to settle litigation stemming from the disaster.
Of that amount, USD200 million was spent. As of today, the balance remains unspent.
Efforts by the numerous victims to bring the case to court have been unsuccessful, and 95 %
of the people who have been compensated received only USD 500 each.
Union Carbide disappeared in 1984, leaving
hundreds of tons of toxic effluents on the side
of its abandoned plant. This mass of poison
polluted each day a little more the groundwater
system that provides the water for the wells of
those who still live in the immediate vicinity of
the rusting metallic structure of the old Union
Carbide installation.

2017-03-06 42
1984
Bhopal disaster
The site cleaning operations ended in 1998. Human rights groups say that thousands of tons
of hazardous waste remain buried underground, and the government has conceded the
area is contaminated. There has, however, been no long-term epidemiological research
which conclusively proves that birth defects are directly related to the drinking of the
contaminated water.
Civil and criminal cases were filed in the District Court of Bhopal, involving UCC and Warren
Anderson, UCC CEO at the time of the disaster.
In June 2010, seven ex-employees, including the
former UCIL chairman, were convicted in Bhopal
of causing death by negligence and sentenced to
two years imprisonment and a fine of USD 2,000
each.
Anderson was named as an accused and later
declared an "absconder" by the court. He died in
Florida in 2014, never having faced trial in India.
An eighth former employee was also convicted,
but died before the judgement was passed.
1984
Bhopal disaster
The Bhopal accident marked a turning point in industrial safety. Efforts to advance the
understanding of corporate accountability received a new dimension after the tragedy.
Over the past 20 years, despite the lack of a definitive, rigorous assessment of chemical
safety in most part of the world, strides have been made in culture, practices, and attitudes
in the chemical-handling community, as well as in the regulatory environment that governs
the industry.
If Bhopal was a wake-up call, the call for ongoing improvement in chemical safety has been
answered in certain ways by the industry and other stakeholders in some countries.
Today various groups with diverse agendas are increasingly finding ways to work together in
a spirit of cooperation to reduce or prevent accidents, and to enhance the protection of
personnel and the public alike.
Perhaps the most important development in those efforts has been the widespread
adoption of a concept called process safety.
Process safety is a comprehensive, systematic approach encompassing the proactive
identification, evaluation, and mitigation or prevention of chemical releases that could
occur as a result of failures in process, procedures, or equipment.

2017-03-06 43
1984
Bhopal disaster
Industrys appreciation of the importance of safety and its impact on both the bottom line
and the sector's public image emerged after the disaster.
Communitys right to know about the nature of the chemicals being handled in the nearby
chemical manufacturing units, their preparedness for and their response to any chemical
emergency are now been considered to be important aspects in the field of environmental
risk management.
1984
Antarctic Ozone Hole discovered by
the British Antarctic Survey
Halley Bay, Antarctica
The Antarctic Ozone Hole was discovered by the British Antarctic Survey from data
obtained with a ground-based instrument from a measuring station at Halley Bay,
Antarctica, in the 1981-1983 period. British Antarctic Survey scientists, Joseph Farman ,
Brian Gardiner, and Jonathan Shanklin, discovered a recurring springtime Antarctic
ozone hole . Their paper was published in Nature , May 1985.
The study summarized data that had
been collected showing that ozone
levels had dropped to 10% below
normal January levels for Antarctica.
Satellite measurements then
confirmed that the springtime
ozone loss was a continent-wide
feature.

2017-03-06 44
1984
Average October ozone levels recorded by Maps generated from NASA satellite data show the
Farman's group at Halley Bay, Antarctica, growing hole in the ozone layer over Antarctica for each
from 1957 through 1984. October from 1979 to 1984. These correspond well with
Farman's measurements.
1984
International Conference
on Environment and Economics
OECD
Concludes that the environment and economics should be mutually reinforcing.
Continued environmental improvement and sustained economic growth are essential,
compatible and interrelated policy objectives for OECD Member countries. This means
that the environment and the economy, if properly managed, are mutually reinforcing;
and are supportive of and supported by technological innovation.
Helped to shape Our Common Future.

2017-03-06 45
1985
Responsible Care
Canada
Responsible Care is a global, voluntary initiative developed autonomously by the
chemical industry.
It was launched by the Chemistry Industry Association of Canada.
The signatory chemical companies agree to commit themselves to improve their
performances in the fields of environmental protection, occupational safety and health
protection, plant safety, product stewardship and logistics, as well as to continuously
improve dialog with their neighbors and the public, independent from legal
requirements.
Through the participation of around 60 national chemical manufacturing associations
and through them, thousands of chemical sites worldwide.
1985
UNEP/WMO/ICSU Conference on
Climate Change
Villach, Austria
In 1985 a joint UNEP/WMO/ICSU Conference was convened in Villach (Austria) on the
Assessment of the Role of Carbon Dioxide and of Other Greenhouse Gases in Climate
Variations and Associated Impacts. The conference concluded, that as a result of the
increasing greenhouse gases it is now believed that in the first half of the next century
(21st century) a rise of global mean temperature could occur which is greater than in
any mans history.

2017-03-06 46
1985
Vienna Convention for the Protection
of the Ozone Layer
The Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer is often called a
framework convention, because it served as a framework for efforts to protect the
globes ozone layer. The Vienna Convention was adopted in 1985 and entered into force
in 1988.
In 2009, the Vienna Convention became the first Convention of any kind to achieve
universal ratification.
The objectives of the Convention were for Parties to promote cooperation by means of
systematic observations, research and information exchange on the effects of human
activities on the ozone layer and to adopt legislative or administrative measures against
activities likely to have adverse effects on the ozone layer.
The Vienna Convention did not require countries to take concrete actions to control
ozone depleting substances. Instead, in accordance with the provisions of the
Convention, the countries of the world agreed the Montreal Protocol on Substances
that Deplete the Ozone Layer under the Convention to advance that goal.

2017-03-06 47
EVOLUTION OF
Part 3
1982
Sea (UNCLOS)
UNCLOS is the most comprehensive attempt at creating a unified regime for
governance of the rights of nations with respect to the world's oceans.
It was agreed in Montego Bay, Jamaica. As of January 2015, 166 countries and the
European Union have joined in the Convention.
UNCLOS came into force in 1994.

2017-03-08 1
1982
Sea (UNCLOS)
The treaty addresses a number of topics including navigational rights, economic rights,
pollution of the seas, conservation of marine life, scientific exploration, piracy, and
more.
The treaty, one of the longest in history, is comprised of 320 articles and 9 annexes,
representing the codification of customary international law and its progressive
development.
The UN has no direct operational role in the implementation of the Convention. This
role is played by:
the International Maritime Organization,
the International Whaling Commission, and
the International Seabed Authority (established by the Convention).
1982
Sea (UNCLOS)
One of the most powerful features of UNCLOS is that
it settled the question of the extent of national
sovereignty over the oceans and seabed.
The baseline is the boundary from which a nation may
begin measurements to determine the portion of the
adjacent oceans or continental shelf over which it may
exercise sovereignty. In general, the baseline is the
low-water line along the coast.
Internal waters are those that are contained on the
landward side of the baseline. These waters fall under
the exclusive sovereignty of the nation in which they
are contained.

2017-03-08 2
1982
Sea (UNCLOS)
Waters beyond a nation's EEZ are considered to be the high seas.
The high seas are still governed the "freedom of the seas" concept, no nation my lay
claim to any portion of the high seas.
The high seas are open to all States, whether coastal or land-locked.
On the high seas, nations are permitted freedom:
of navigation and overflight,
to lay submarine cables and pipelines,
to construct artificial islands,
of fishing, and
of scientific research.
Other provisions regarding the high seas
include a prohibition on the transport of
slaves, piracy, illegal drug trafficking, and
the suppression of unauthorized radio or
television broadcasting.
1982
Sea (UNCLOS)
Environmental Considerations:
Although UNCLOS is not an environmental treaty, it frequently addresses environmental
concerns. In addition to having an entire section dedicated to the protection and
preservation of the marine environment (Part XII), the treaty also contains numerous
references to environmental duties and obligations throughout its many articles.
Part XII opens with Article 192: "States have an obligation to protect and preserve the
marine environment.
Article 193: "States have the sovereign right to exploit their natural resources pursuant
to their environmental policies". Nations are then subsequently charged with creating
national law to address various pollution issues and are supposed to employ "the best
practicable means at their disposal and in accordance with their capabilities.
Article 204 requires states to observe and evaluate the risks posed by pollution to the
marine environment. In particular, nations are required to monitor the effects of any
activities that they permit or that they are actually engaged in.

2017-03-08 3
1982
Sea (UNCLOS)
Pollution Prevention
Article 195 requires nations to "prevent, reduce and control pollution in the marine
environment." Article 195 also prohibits nations from transferring pollution to another
nation, either directly or indirectly, or from turning one type of pollution into another.
Articles 197-201 encourages nations to participate in regional agreements related to the
environment and establishes duties of nations to their regional counterparts .
Some of the duties that nations owe to other regional nations include the duty to notify
of imminent danger to the marine environment from pollution or actual damage from
pollution.
Nations are encouraged to work together to adopt regional plans for the preservation of
the marine environment as well as to develop contingency plans for responding to
pollution incidents and coordinating with one another in data-sharing on regional
marine pollution and establishing scientific criteria for the promulgation of regulations
regarding marine pollution.
1982
Sea (UNCLOS)
Dumping at Sea
Dumping is defined as "any deliberate disposal of wastes or other matter from vessels,
aircraft, platforms or other man-made structures at sea" or the disposal of the vessels,
aircraft, platforms, or structure themselves at sea. UNCLOS makes an exemption for the
disposal of wastes that are incidental to the normal operations of vessels, aircraft, etc.
Article 210 requires nations to enact their own legislation on the issue, requiring that
national laws and regulations be at least as effective as global rules and standards.
These global rules and standards are articulated in the 1972 London Convention on the
Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter.
Coastal nations are recognized as the only authority that can approve any dumping
activities within its territorial sea, its EEZ, or on its continental shelf. Nations are given
the exclusive authority to authorize or deny such activities. However, Nations who
authorize dumping activities are required to give consideration as to how other nations
may be adversely affected by dumping activities in areas governed the local nation.

2017-03-08 4
1982
Sea (UNCLOS)
Fishing Rights
Many of UNCLOS's articles on fishing rights relate to who has the right to control and
exploit various fish stocks. While these articles are not primarily environmental in
nature, they do contain provisions on regulating overfishing, which is itself an
environmental concern.
In the EEZ, coastal nations have primary control over the fish stocks. As part of this
primary control, the coastal nation is required to maintain the existing stock and protect
it from over-exploitation. As a part of that responsibility, coastal nation get to determine
the maximum allowable catch for a given species.
While coastal nations are required to monitor and maintain fish stocks within their EEZ,
they are also required to provide for the maximum exploitation possible that will not
threaten the population in question. To that end, coastal nation are required to
determine not only how much of a specific species can be caught, but how much the
nation itself has the capacity to catch. In instances where the nation cannot catch the
full maximum allowable catch, the coastal nation is obliged to give other nations access
to the surplus.
1982
Sea (UNCLOS)
Fishing Rights
Fish, however, do not recognize manmade boundaries. In recognition of this fact,
UNCLOS provides special rules for species that cross various types of boundaries.
When one species of fish migrate within the EEZ's of multiple coastal nation, those
nations are obligated to come to agreement on the conservation and development of
such stocks.
Some species are considered "highly migratory. Nations engaged in fishing for these
highly migratory species are required to cooperate with one another to maintain
appropriate levels of these stock and to make sure that they are not overfished.
Another consideration taken into account by UNCLOS are fish species that migrate
between internal waters and marine waters as part of their breeding cycle. Anadromous
species, those that spawn in fresh water and later migrate toward marine waters, are
primarily the responsibility of the nation in whose rivers the fish originate. The nation of
origin is allowed to determine the allowable catch for these species. For catadromous
species, those that live in fresh water and migrate to marine waters to spawn, are again
primarily the responsibility of the coastal nation.

2017-03-08 5
1982
Sea (UNCLOS)
Fishing Rights
All nations have the right to fish on the high seas subject to their treaty obligations.
Along with this right, nations have a duty to take measures to ensure the conservation
of living resources on the high seas.
Nations who are fishing for the same species or different species within the same area
of the high seas are supposed to work together to conserve and protect the species
from over-exploitation.
In determining maximum allowable catch, nations are to take measures to maintain or
restore populations of harvested species at levels which can produce the maximum
sustainable yield and they are to take into consideration the effects on species either
associated with or dependent on the harvested species.
1982
Sea (UNCLOS)
Marine Mammals
Coastal nations are allowed to pass laws more stringent than those for fishing regarding
the harvesting of marine mammals.
Biodiversity
Article 196 requires nations to "take all measures necessary" to prevent the intentional
or accidental introduction of non-native species to a new part of the marine
environment. Regarding the introduction of alien species the prohibition is on non-
native animals that "may cause significant and harmful changes [to the local
environment".

2017-03-08 6
1982
Sea (UNCLOS)
Land Based Pollution
Article 207 requires nations to "adopt laws and regulations to prevent, reduce and
control pollution of the marine environment from land-based sources....". This Article
207 specifically calls upon nations to regulate pollution that comes into the ocean from
rivers, estuaries, pipelines, and outfall structures, which are the primary sources of land
based pollution in the marine environment.
Article 207 also encourages nations to harmonize their policies on a regional level.
Atmospheric Based Pollution

Article 212 requires nations to adopt laws and regulations to prevent atmospheric
pollution that will result in pollution to the marine environment. Article 222 compels
nations to enforce these measures once passed.
1982
Sea (UNCLOS)
Pollution from Ships
Article 211 requires nations to pass laws and regulations governing pollution from ships
flying the nation's flag.
Article 211 also allows nations to pass laws and regulations aimed at preventing and
controlling pollution from ships that enter both their ports and their territorial seas. In
both cases, the nation must notify the international community and the regulations
cannot abridge the right of innocent passage.
Nations may also pass laws regulating pollution from ships in their EEZ, provided that
the regulations conform to international rules and standards.
Under certain circumstances nations may be permitted to enact more stringent rules or
regulations, provided that they can prove a need or special circumstance exists for
which international rules and standards are not sufficient.

2017-03-08 7
1982
UN World Charter for Nature
The World Charter for Nature was adopted by United Nations on October 28, 1982.
It proclaims five "principles of conservation by which all human conduct affecting nature is to
be guided and judged."
Nature shall be respected and its essential processes shall not be impaired.
The genetic viability on the earth shall not be compromised; the population levels of all
life forms, wild and domesticated, must be at least sufficient for their survival, and to this
end necessary habitats shall be safeguarded.
All areas of the earth, both land and sea, shall be subject to these principles of
conservation; special protection shall be given to unique areas, to representative samples
of all the different types of ecosystems and to the habitats of rare or endangered species.
Ecosystems and organisms, as well as the land, marine and atmospheric resources that are
utilized by man, shall be managed to achieve and maintain optimum sustainable
productivity, but not in such a way as to endanger the integrity of those other ecosystems
or species with which they coexist.
Nature shall be secured against degradation caused by warfare or other hostile activities.
1984
Bhopal disaster
The Bhopal disaster was a gas leak incident in India, considered the world's worst industrial
disaster. It occurred on the night of 23 December 1984 at the Union Carbide India Limited
(UCIL) pesticide plant in Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh.
The UCIL factory was built in 1969 to produce the pesticide carbaryl (Sevin) using methyl
isocyanate (MIC, CH3NCO) as an intermediate.
In November 1984, most of the safety
systems were not functioning and many
valves and lines were in poor condition.
During the night of 23 December 1984,
water entered Tank E610, which contained
42 tons of MIC.
A runaway reaction started, which was
accelerated by contaminants, high
temperatures and other factors. The
reaction was sped up by the presence of iron
from corroding non-stainless steel pipelines.

2017-03-08 8
1984
Bhopal disaster
The resulting exothermic reaction increased the temperature inside the tank to over 200 C
and raised the pressure. This forced the emergency venting of pressure from the MIC
holding tank, releasing a large volume of toxic gases. About 30 metric tons of MIC escaped
from the tank into the atmosphere in 45 to 60 minutes.
As the gas cloud was composed mainly of
materials denser than the surrounding air,
it stayed close to the ground and spread
outwards through the surrounding
community.
The gases were blown in a southeasterly
direction over Bhopal, into and around
the shanty towns located near the plant.
Over 500,000 people were exposed to
methyl isocyanate (MIC) gas and other
chemicals.
1984
Bhopal disaster
Even now, 10-15 people are dying every month from exposure related diseases and their
complications.
Over 120,000 children, men and women continue to suffer acutely from a host of exposure
related illnesses and their complications. Damage to the respiratory system has led to the
prevalence of pulmonary tuberculosis which has been found to be more than three times
the national average.
In the years following the disaster, the stillbirth rate was three times, perinatal mortality
was two times and neonatal mortality was one and a half times more than the comparative
national figures.
40% of the women pregnant at the time of the disaster aborted. It was reported nearly five
times increase in the rate of spontaneous abortion as a result of the Union Carbide Disaster.
The government of Madhya Pradesh confirmed a total of 3,787 deaths related to the gas
release. A government declaration in 2006 stated that the leak caused near 560 thousand
injuries, including 38 thousand temporary partial injuries and approximately 3,900 severely
and permanently disabling injuries. Others estimate that 8,000 died within two weeks, and
another 8,000 or more have since died from gas-related diseases.

2017-03-08 9
1984
Bhopal disaster
The causes of the disaster remain under debate.
The Indian government and local activists argue that slack management and deferred
maintenance created a situation where routine pipe maintenance caused a backflow of
water into a MIC tank triggering the disaster.
Union Carbide Corporation (UCC), that owned 51% of UCIL, contends water entered the
tank through an act of sabotage.
Anyway, safety standards and maintenance procedures at the plant had been deteriorating
and ignored for months. The following list gives a synopsis of the defects of the MIC unit:
Gauges measuring temperature and
pressure in the various parts of the unit,
including the crucial MIC storage tanks,
were so unreliable that workers
ignored early signs of trouble;
The refrigeration unit for keeping MIC at
low temperatures (and therefore less
likely to undergo overheating and
expansion) had been shut off for some
time;
1984
Bhopal disaster
The gas scrubber, designed to neutralize any escaping MIC, had been shut off for
maintenance. Even had it been operative, post-disaster inquiries revealed, the maximum
pressure it could handle was only one-quarter that which was actually reached in the
accident;
The flare tower, designed to burn off MIC escaping from the scrubber, was also turned
off, waiting for replacement of a corroded piece of pipe. The tower, however, was
inadequately designed for its task, as it was capable of handling only a quarter of the
volume of gas released;
The water curtain, designed to neutralize any remaining gas, was too short to reach the
top of the flare tower, from where the MIC was billowing;
The lack of effective warning systems; the alarm on the storage tank failed to signal the
increase in temperature on the night of the disaster;
MIC storage tank number 610 was filled beyond recommended capacity;
A storage tank which was supposed to be held in reserve for excess MIC already
contained the MIC.

2017-03-08 10
1984
Bhopal disaster
Those deemed responsible for this tragedy, to begin with Warren Anderson, at the time
Union Carbides CEO, have never been brought to court to explain why they shut down one
by one the devices which were to guarantee the safety of the plant.
Soon after the horrible disaster, the Indian Government filed suit for USD 3 billion in
damages. The case was settled out of court in 1989, with Union Carbide agreeing to pay
USD 470 million to settle litigation stemming from the disaster.
Of that amount, USD200 million was spent. As of today, the balance remains unspent.
Efforts by the numerous victims to bring the case to court have been unsuccessful, and 95 %
of the people who have been compensated received only USD 500 each.
Union Carbide disappeared in 1984, leaving
hundreds of tons of toxic effluents on the side
of its abandoned plant. This mass of poison
polluted each day a little more the groundwater
system that provides the water for the wells of
those who still live in the immediate vicinity of
the rusting metallic structure of the old Union
Carbide installation.
1984
Bhopal disaster
The site cleaning operations ended in 1998. Human rights groups say that thousands of tons
of hazardous waste remain buried underground, and the government has conceded the
area is contaminated. There has, however, been no long-term epidemiological research
which conclusively proves that birth defects are directly related to the drinking of the
contaminated water.
Civil and criminal cases were filed in the District Court of Bhopal, involving UCC and Warren
Anderson, UCC CEO at the time of the disaster.
In June 2010, seven ex-employees, including the
former UCIL chairman, were convicted in Bhopal
of causing death by negligence and sentenced to
two years imprisonment and a fine of USD 2,000
each.
Anderson was named as an accused and later
declared an "absconder" by the court. He died in
Florida in 2014, never having faced trial in India.
An eighth former employee was also convicted,
but died before the judgement was passed.

2017-03-08 11
1984
Bhopal disaster
The Bhopal accident marked a turning point in industrial safety. Efforts to advance the
understanding of corporate accountability received a new dimension after the tragedy.
Over the past 20 years, despite the lack of a definitive, rigorous assessment of chemical
safety in most part of the world, strides have been made in culture, practices, and attitudes
in the chemical-handling community, as well as in the regulatory environment that governs
the industry.
If Bhopal was a wake-up call, the call for ongoing improvement in chemical safety has been
answered in certain ways by the industry and other stakeholders in some countries.
Today various groups with diverse agendas are increasingly finding ways to work together in
a spirit of cooperation to reduce or prevent accidents, and to enhance the protection of
personnel and the public alike.
Perhaps the most important development in those efforts has been the widespread
adoption of a concept called process safety.
Process safety is a comprehensive, systematic approach encompassing the proactive
identification, evaluation, and mitigation or prevention of chemical releases that could
occur as a result of failures in process, procedures, or equipment.
1984
Bhopal disaster
Industrys appreciation of the importance of safety and its impact on both the bottom line
and the sector's public image emerged after the disaster.
Communitys right to know about the nature of the chemicals being handled in the nearby
chemical manufacturing units, their preparedness for and their response to any chemical
emergency are now been considered to be important aspects in the field of environmental
risk management.

2017-03-08 12
1984
The Antarctic Ozone Hole was discovered by the British Antarctic Survey from data
obtained with a ground-based instrument from a measuring station at Halley Bay,
Antarctica, in the 1981-1983 period. British Antarctic Survey scientists, Joseph Farman ,
Brian Gardiner, and Jonathan Shanklin, discovered a recurring springtime Antarctic
ozone hole . Their paper was published in Nature , May 1985.
The study summarized data that had
been collected showing that ozone
levels had dropped to 10% below
normal January levels for Antarctica.
Satellite measurements then
confirmed that the springtime
ozone loss was a continent-wide
feature.
1984
Average October ozone levels recorded by Maps generated from NASA satellite data show the
Farman's group at Halley Bay, Antarctica, growing hole in the ozone layer over Antarctica for each
from 1957 through 1984. October from 1979 to 1984. These correspond well with
Farman's measurements.

2017-03-08 13
1984
International Conference
on Environment and Economics
OECD
Concludes that the environment and economics should be mutually reinforcing.
Continued environmental improvement and sustained economic growth are essential,
compatible and interrelated policy objectives for OECD Member countries. This means
that the environment and the economy, if properly managed, are mutually reinforcing;
and are supportive of and supported by technological innovation.
Helped to shape Our Common Future.
1985
Responsible Care
Canada
Responsible Care is a global, voluntary initiative developed autonomously by the
chemical industry.
It was launched by the Chemistry Industry Association of Canada.
The signatory chemical companies agree to commit themselves to improve their
performances in the fields of environmental protection, occupational safety and health
protection, plant safety, product stewardship and logistics, as well as to continuously
improve dialog with their neighbors and the public, independent from legal
requirements.
Through the participation of around 60 national chemical manufacturing associations
and through them, thousands of chemical sites worldwide.

2017-03-08 14
1985
UNEP/WMO/ICSU Conference on
Climate Change
Villach, Austria
In 1985 a joint UNEP/WMO/ICSU Conference was convened in Villach (Austria) on the
Assessment of the Role of Carbon Dioxide and of Other Greenhouse Gases in Climate
Variations and Associated Impacts. The conference concluded, that as a result of the
increasing greenhouse gases it is now believed that in the first half of the next century
(21st century) a rise of global mean temperature could occur which is greater than in
any mans history.
1985
Vienna Convention for the Protection
of the Ozone Layer
The Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer is often called a
framework convention, because it served as a framework for efforts to protect the
globes ozone layer. The Vienna Convention was adopted in 1985 and entered into force
in 1988.
In 2009, the Vienna Convention became the first Convention of any kind to achieve
universal ratification.
The objectives of the Convention were for Parties to promote cooperation by means of
systematic observations, research and information exchange on the effects of human
activities on the ozone layer and to adopt legislative or administrative measures against
activities likely to have adverse effects on the ozone layer.
The Vienna Convention did not require countries to take concrete actions to control
ozone depleting substances. Instead, in accordance with the provisions of the
Convention, the countries of the world agreed the Montreal Protocol on Substances
that Deplete the Ozone Layer under the Convention to advance that goal.

2017-03-08 15
1986
Chernobyl Nuclear Accident
Ukraine, Soviet Union
In 1986 the most serious accident in nuclear history changed the lives of many.
Massive amounts of radioactive
materials were released into the
environment resulting in a radioactive
cloud that spread over much of
Europe.
The Chernobyl (V.I. Lenin Nuclear
Power Station) is located in Ukraine,
20km south of the border with
Belarus.
At the time of the accident, the plant
had four working reactors, each
capable of producing 1,000 MW of
electric power (3.2 GW of thermal
power).
1986
The accident occurred in the early morning of 26 April 1986 when operators ran a test
on an electric control system of unit 4.
The accident happened because of a combination of basic engineering deficiencies in
the reactor and faulty actions of the operators. The safety systems had been switched
off, and the reactor was being operated under improper, unstable conditions, a
situation which allowed an uncontrollable power surge to occur. This power surge
caused the nuclear fuel to overheat and led to a series of steam explosions that severely
damaged the reactor building and completely destroyed the unit 4 reactor.
The explosions started numerous fires on the roofs of the reactor building and the
machine hall, which were extinguished by firefighters after a few hours.
Approximately 20 hours after the explosions, a large fire started as the material in the
reactor set fire to combustible gases. The large fire burned during 10 days.

2017-03-08 16
1986
The radioactive materials from the damaged reactor were mainly released over a 10-day
period. An initial high release rate on the first day resulted from the explosions in the
reactor. There followed a five-day period of declining releases associated with the hot
air and fumes from the burning graphite core material.
In the next few days, the release rate increased until day 10, when the releases dropped
abruptly, thus ending the period of intense release.
1986
The next day, talks began for evacuating 1996 Chernobyl radiation map
people from the 10 km zone. Ten days
after the accident, the evacuation area
was expanded to 30 km. By 14 May, some
116,000 people had been evacuated and
later relocated. About 1000 of these
returned unofficially to live within the
contaminated zone.
In the years following the accident, a
further 220,000 people were resettled into
less contaminated areas, and the initial 30
km radius exclusion zone (2800 km2) was
modified and extended to cover 4300 km2.
This "exclusion zone" has remained ever
since, although its shape has changed and 40 Ci/m2 = 1480 kBq/m2
15 Ci/m2 = 555 kBq/m2
its size has been expanded. 5 Ci/m2 = 185 kBq/m2
1 Ci/m2 = 37 kBq/m2

2017-03-08 17
1986
Extent of the accident
Only on 28 April, after radiation levels set off alarms at the Forsmark Nuclear Power
Plant in Sweden, over 1,000 km from the Chernobyl Plant, did the Soviet Union publicly
admit that an accident had occurred. The accident was publicly known throughout the
Soviet Union after an announcement was read in the TV news program that evening.
The accident caused the largest uncontrolled radioactive release into the environment
ever recorded for any civilian operation, and large quantities of radioactive substances
were released into the air for about 10 days.
It is estimated that all of the xenon gas, about half of the iodine and caesium, and at
least 5% of the remaining radioactive material in the Chernobyl 4 reactor core (which
had 192 tonnes of fuel) was released in the accident.
The cloud from the burning reactor spread numerous types of radioactive materials,
especially iodine and caesium radionuclides, over much of Europe.
Effects of Radiation Exposure

The effects of radiation exposure fall into two main classes: deterministic effects and
stochastic effects.
Deterministic effects , where the effects are certain to occur under given conditions (e.g.
individuals exposed over a short period of time will definitely suffer Acute Radiation
Syndrome.
Stochastic effects, where the
effects may or may not occur
(e.g. an increase in radiation
exposure may or may not
induce a cancer in a particular
individual but if a sufficiently
large population receive a
radiation exposure above a
certain level, an increase in the
incidence of cancer may
become detectable in that
population.

2017-03-08 18
Effects of Radiation Exposure
International Nuclear Event Scale

The International Nuclear and Radiological Event Scale (INES) was introduced in 1990 by the
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) in order to enable prompt communication of
safety-significant information in case of nuclear accidents.
The scale is logarithmic, similar to the magnitude scale that is used to describe the
comparative magnitude of earthquakes. Each increasing level represents an accident
approximately ten times more severe than the previous level.
Compared to earthquakes, where the event intensity can be quantitatively evaluated, the
level of severity of a a nuclear accident, is more subject to interpretation.

2017-03-08 19

Level 7: Major accident
Major release of radioactive material with widespread health and environmental effects
requiring implementation of planned and extended countermeasures.
Level 6: Serious accident
Significant release of radioactive material likely to require implementation of planned
countermeasures.
Level 5: Accident with wider consequences
Limited release of radioactive material likely to require implementation of some planned
countermeasures.
Several deaths from radiation.
Impact on radiological barriers and control
Release of large quantities of radioactive material within an installation with a high
probability of significant public exposure. This could arise from a major criticality
accident or fire.
Level 4: Accident with local consequences
Minor release of radioactive material unlikely to result in implementation of planned
countermeasures other than local food controls.
At least one death from radiation.
Fuel melt or damage to fuel resulting in more than 0.1% release of core inventory.
Release of significant quantities of radioactive material within an installation with a high
probability of significant public exposure.

Level 3: Serious incident
Exposure in excess of ten times the statutory annual limit for workers.
Non-lethal deterministic health effect (e.g., burns) from radiation.
Exposure rates of more than 1 Sv/h in an operating area.
Severe contamination in an area not expected by design, with a low probability of
significant public exposure.
Near-accident at a nuclear power plant with no safety provisions remaining.
Lost or stolen highly radioactive sealed source.
Misdelivered highly radioactive sealed source without adequate procedures in place to
handle it.
Level 2: Incident
Exposure of a member of the public in excess of 10 mSv.
Exposure of a worker in excess of the statutory annual limits.
Radiation levels in an operating area of more than 50 mSv/h.
Significant contamination within the facility into an area not expected by design.
Significant failures in safety provisions but with no actual consequences.
Found highly radioactive sealed orphan source, device or transport package with safety
provisions intact.
Inadequate packaging of a highly radioactive sealed source.

2017-03-08 20

Level 1: Anomaly
Overexposure of a member of the public in excess of statutory annual limits.
Minor problems with safety components with significant defence-in-depth remaining.
Low activity lost or stolen radioactive source, device or transport package.
Level 0: Deviation
No safety significance.
1986
Surface ground deposition of

caesium-137 released in the Chernobyl accident

2017-03-08 21
Surface-ground deposition of 137Cs throughout Europe

as a result of the Chernobyl accident
Source: UN Chernobyl Forum 2006 Chernobyls Legacy:
Health, Environmental and Socio-economic Impacts
1986
Direct radiation exposure
The casualties included firefighters who attended the initial fires on the roof of the
turbine building. All these were put out in a few hours, but radiation doses on the first
day were estimated to range up to 20,000 millisieverts (mSv), causing 28 deaths six of
which were firemen by the end of July 1986.
The next task was cleaning up the radioactivity at the site so that the remaining three
reactors could be restarted, and the damaged reactor shielded more permanently. About
200,000 people ('liquidators') from all over the Soviet Union were involved in the
recovery and clean-up during 1986 and 1987. They received high doses of radiation.
Some 20,000 of them received about 250 mSv and a few received 500 mSv.
The highest doses were received by about 1000 emergency workers and on-site
personnel during the first day of the accident.

2017-03-08 22
1986
Direct radiation exposure
Average effective doses to those persons most affected by the accident were assessed to
be about 120 mSv for 530,000 recovery operation workers, 30 mSv for 115,000
evacuated persons and 9 mSv during the first two decades after the accident to those
who continued to reside in contaminated areas.
For comparison, the typical dose from a single computed tomography scan is 9 mSv.
The International Commission on Radiological Protection recommends the limit of
50 mSv in a single year with a maximum of 100 mSv in a consecutive five-year period,
and for the public to an average of 1 mSv (0.001 Sv) of effective dose per year, not
including medical and occupational exposures
Outside Belarus, the Russian Federation and Ukraine, other European countries were
affected by the accident. Average national doses there were less than 1 mSv in the first
year after the accident with progressively decreasing doses in subsequent years.
1986
Health Effects
The conclusions of the 2005 Chernobyl Forum study are the folowing:
Among the residents of Belarus, the Russian Federation and Ukraine, there had been up
to the year 2005 more than 6,000 cases of thyroid cancer reported in children and
adolescents who were exposed at the time of the accident, and more cases can be
expected during the next decades. Many of those cancers were most likely caused by
radiation exposures shortly after the accident.
Apart from thyroid cancer increase,
there is no evidence of a major
public health impact attributable to
radiation exposure 14 years after the
accident.
There is no scientific evidence of
increases in overall cancer incidence
or mortality or in non-malignant
disorders that could be related to
radiation exposure.

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1986
Health Effects
The clean-up workers where high doses may have been received remain at
increased risk of cancer in the long term.
People in the area have suffered a paralysing fatalism due to myths and misperceptions
about the threat of radiation, which has contributed to a culture of chronic dependency.
Relocations of people were very traumatic.
1986
Securing the Site
Chernobyl unit 4 is now
enclosed in a large concrete
shelter which was erected
quickly (by October 1986) to
allow continuing operation
of the other reactors at the
plant. However, the
structure is neither strong
nor durable.

2017-03-08 24
1986
In the early 1990s, some USD 400 million was spent on improvements to the remaining
reactors at Chernobyl, considerably enhancing their safety.
Energy shortages necessitated the continued operation of unit 3 until December 2000.
Unit 2 was shut down after a turbine hall fire in 1991, and unit 1 at the end of 1997.)
Almost 6000 people worked at the plant every day, and their radiation dose has been
within internationally accepted limits. Workers and their families now live in a new
town, Slavutich, 30 km from the plant. This was built following the evacuation of Pripyat.
Some major work on the unit 4 the shelter was carried out in 1998 and 1999. Some 200
tonnes of highly radioactive material remains deep within it, and this poses an
environmental hazard until it is better contained.
A New Safe Confinement (NSC) structure is due to be completed in 2017.
1986
Environmental effects
Environmental damage was widespread immediately following the accident, stretching
from fauna and vegetation to rivers and lakes and all the way down to the groundwater.
The extent of the damage led scientists and government officials to the conclusion that
the Chernobyl exclusion zone had been subjected to enough radioactive fallout to
severely alter the ecological balance of the region for decades. This initial assessment
could not be farther from the truth as wildlife abounds in even the most affected areas
of Chernobyl no more than 20 years after the disaster.
The Red Forest
The second major plume of radiation released by the Chernobyl nuclear accident was
carried directly over what is now called the Red Forest.
Radioactive particles settled on trees, killing near 400 ha
of pine forest. The Red Forest is now one of the most
contaminated terrestrial habitats on earth.
The highly radioactive plume killed most of the Scots
Pines Pinus sylvestris in the area, but Birch Betula spp.
and Aspen Populus tremula are more radio-resistant. Now
the pine trees are being replaced as the forest recovers.

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1986
Groundwaters
The integrity of the groundwater is another area of concern following the accident.
Initial contamination of the groundwater may have been introduced by method of
disposal used for the Red Forest.
Much of the Red Forest was bulldozed and buried in trenches that were covered. As the
trees decay radiation leaches into the groundwater.
Additional contamination via percolation of radioactive material through the soil is not
expected due to many of the radionuclides being short-lived, while the longer-lived
radiocaesium and radiostrontium were adsorbed to surface soils before they could
transfer to groundwaters.
1986
Fauna and vegetation
The fallout from the explosion had obvious adverse effects on life in the exclusion zone
and the four-kilometre red forest, but the current ecological stability seen in those same
regions that experienced deadly doses of radioactivity in 1986 is an unexpected result.
In the 20 years since the accident, the sum effect for the flora and fauna in the highly
radioactive, restricted zone has been overwhelmingly positive in favour of biodiversity
and abundance of individuals. For example, researchers have experienced numerous
sightings of elk (Alces alces), roe deer (Capreol capreolus), Russian wild boar (Sus scrofa),
foxes (Vulpes vulpes),
otters (Lutra lutra), and
hares (Lepus europaeus)
within the 10-km exclusion
zone; however, none of
these taxa were observed
outside the 30 km zone.

2017-03-08 26
1986
While exposure to high levels of radiation do have discernible, negative impacts on plant
and animal life, it is obvious that the benefit of excluding humans from this highly
contaminated ecosystem appears to outweigh significantly any negative cost associated
with Chernobyl radiation. The relocation of hundreds of thousands of Ukrainian citizens,
while painful and unfortunate given the circumstances, have allowed ecosystems to
flourish in the absence of human activity that is harmful to biodiversity.
Several proposed efforts to remediate the radioactivity in the Chernobyl environment
would have a negative impact on the regions thriving natural systems. One proposal
was circulated that would burn trees and vegetation from contaminated areas to collect
the radionuclides and create energy. If enacted, this project would cost 30 million USD
and would likely increase the man-dose when compared to no remediation action.
Burning vegetative biomass would only exacerbate the movement of significant
quantities of radionuclides from soils and sediments. There is a critical need for quality
scientific information concerning the environmental and health risks associated with
nuclear accidents before major decisions regarding remediation are made..
1986
The Chernobyl reactor had no features to prevent large-scale accidents and radioactive
releases and was unstable at low power levels.
Regulations on the safety of nuclear energy facilities should require extensive
emergency preparedness planning:
Stringent emergency preparedness plans. Even with the Chernobyl reactors poor
design, officials could have averted many radioactive exposures to the population
with an effective emergency response. Key personnel at power reactors should
work with surrounding populations on an ongoing basis to prepare for an orderly
and speedy evacuation in the unlikely event of an accident.
Alert and notification. Chernobyl plant operators concealed the accident from
authorities and the local population, and thus the government did not even begin
limited evacuations until about 36 hours after the accident. Nuclear power plant
operators are required to alert local authorities and make recommendations for
protecting the public within 15 minutes of identifying conditions that might lead to
a significant releaseeven if such a release does not occurred.

2017-03-08 27
1986
Protecting the food chain. Since authorities did not promptly disclose details of the
Chernobyl accident, many people unknowingly consumed contaminated milk and
food. The authorities should carefully monitor and test food and water supplies that
potentially could become contaminated, and quarantine and remove from public
consumption any unsafe food or water.
1986
The Chernobyl accident was a radiation event unique in human history.
In terms of human losses, it was a minor event as compared with many other man-made
catastrophes.
But, in political, economic, social and psychological terms, its impact was enormous.
This was the worst possible catastrophe of a badly constructed nuclear reactor; with a
complete meltdown of reactor core; followed by ten days of completely free emission of
radionuclides into the atmosphere. Nothing worse could happen.
The most tangible practical benefits that have resulted from the Chernobyl accident
concern reactor safety and crisis management of the nuclear industry.
The occupational death toll may not have been severe, but the catastrophe also
changed the view of people engaged in radiological protection on the paradigm on
which the present safety regulations are based.

2017-03-08 28
EVOLUTION OF
Part 4
1986
Sandoz chemical spill
Schweizerhalle, Basel-Landschaft, Switzerland
On 1 November 1986, a chemical warehouse of Sandoz, at
Schweizerhalle was destroyed by a fire.
20 tonnes of toxic red-coloured extinguishing foam was
dumped into the Rhine.
Aquatic life in the Rhine suffered catastrophic damage as a
result of inflows of toxic, red-coloured firefighting water.
Massive dying of fish was the result; virtually the entire eel
population was wiped out.
The readily apparent impacts on river biology images of
dead fish were transmitted worldwide led to major progress
in the areas of chemical water quality monitoring, legal
regulations and risk reduction measures in the chemical
industry.
The blaze at the Sandoz plant shattered public confidence in
the chemical industrys self-inspection regime.

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1986
Sandoz chemical spill
Action taken by the authorities as
a direct consequence of the
disaster included the enactment of
the major accidents legislation and
the establishment of chemical
inspectorates.
The anti-pollution efforts of the
International Commission for the
Protection of the Rhine (ICPR)
were substantially intensified.
Apart from the immediate damage
caused, it can now be concluded,
almost 30 years later, that the
accident had positive effects
overall from the viewpoint of
water protection.
1986
The Single European Act
European Economic Community
The Single European Act (SEA) revises the Treaties of Rome (1957) in order to add new
momentum to European integration and to complete the internal market. It amends the
rules governing the operation of the European institutions and expands Community
powers, notably in the field of research and development, the environment and
common foreign policy.
The act adds three new articles (Artices130R, 130S and 130T of the EEC Treaty) which
permit the Community "to preserve, protect and improve the quality of the environment,
to contribute towards protecting human health, and to ensure a prudent and rational
utilization of natural resources".
It specifies that the Community can only intervene in environmental matters when this
action can be attained better at Community level than at the level of the individual
Member States (subsidiarity).

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1986
The Single European Act
European Economic Community
1987
Brundtland Report
Our Common Future
World Commission on Environment and Development
The Brundtland Report, also called Our Common Future, was released
in 1987 by the World Commission on Environment and Development
(WCED), sponsored by the United Nations and chaired by Norwegian
Prime Minister Gro Harlem Brundtland.
WCED explored the causes of environmental degradation, attempted to
understand the interconnections between social equity, economic
growth, and environmental problems, and developed policy solutions
that integrated all three areas.
The report introduced the concept of sustainable development
and described how it could be achieved.
Sustainable development is the development that meets the needs of
the present without compromising the ability of future generations to
meet their own needs.

2017-03-13 3
Definitions of Sustainable Development

1980 IUCN World Conservation Strategy
For development to be sustainable, it must take account of social and ecological
factors, as well as economic ones, of the living and non-living resource base, and of
the long-term as well as the short-term advantages and disadvantages of
alternative action
A prerequisite for sustainable development is the conservation of living resources
to maintain essential ecological processes and life-support systems on which
human survival and development depend;
to preserve genetic diversity; and
to ensure the sustainable utilization of species and ecosystems.
1987 Brundtland Report Our Common Future

Sustainable development is the development that meets the needs of the present
without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
1987
Montreal Protocol on Substances that
Deplete the Ozone Layer
The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer (a protocol to the
Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer) is an international treaty
designed to protect the ozone layer by phasing out the production of numerous
substances that are responsible for ozone depletion.
It was agreed on 16 September 1987, and entered into force on 1 January 1989. The
Vienna Convention and the Protocol have been ratified by 197 parties, which includes
196 states and the European Union, making them the first universally ratified treaties in
United Nations history.
It has undergone eight revisions, in 1990 (London), 1991 (Nairobi), 1992 (Copenhagen),
1993 (Bangkok), 1995 (Vienna), 1997 (Montreal), 1998 (Australia), 1999 (Beijing) and
2007 (Montreal).
As a result of the international agreement, the ozone hole in Antarctica is slowly
recovering. Climate projections indicate that the ozone layer will return to 1980 levels
between 2050 and 2070.

2017-03-13 4
1987
Due to its widespread adoption and implementation it has been hailed as an example of
exceptional international co-operation.
Effective burden sharing and solution proposals mitigating regional conflicts of interest
have been among the success factors for the Ozone depletion challenge.
It is widely believed that without the protocol, ozone depletion would have risen to
around 50 per cent in the northern hemisphere and 70 per cent in the southern mid-
latitudes by 2050.
This would have resulted in twice as much UVB reaching the Earth in the northern mid-
latitudes and four times as much in the south.
The implications of this would have been horrendous: 19 million more cases of non
melanoma cancer, 1.5 million cases of melanoma cancer, and 130 million more cases of
eye cataracts.
1987
The Protocol can be summarized in seven key features:
1. It requires each of the 196 countries and the European Union that ratified the protocol
and its amendments to phase out production and consumption of nearly 100 chemicals
that have ozone depleting properties, in accordance with agreed timelines.
2. The protocol requires each of the Parties to report annually on their production, imports
and exports of each of the chemicals they have undertaken to phase out.
3. An Implementation Committee made up of ten Parties from different geographical
regions reviews data reports submitted by Parties, assesses their compliance status, and
makes recommendations to a meeting of the Parties regarding countries in non-
compliance.
4. The protocol includes trade provisions that prevent Parties from trading in ODS and
some products containing ODS with non-Parties, and also provisions for trade between
Parties.

2017-03-13 5
1987
5. The protocol includes an adjustment provision that enables Parties to respond to
developing science and accelerate the phase-out of agreed ODS without going through
the lengthy formal process of national ratification. It has been adjusted five times to
accelerate the phase-out schedule, which is in itself a remarkable achievement;
6. Developing countries are allowed a grace period of 10 to 16 years beyond the dates
established for industrialized countries to comply with the control provisions of the
protocol;
7. In 1990 the Parties established the Multilateral Fund for the Implementation of the
Montreal Protocol to help developing countries meet their compliance obligations under
the treaty.
1987
Summary of Montreal Protocol Control Measures
. Ozone Depleting Substances Developed Countries Developing Countries
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) Phased out end of 1995 a Total phase out by 2010
Halons Phased out end of 1993 Total phase out by 2010
Carbon tetrachloride Phased out end of 1995 a Total phase out by 2010
Methyl chloroform Phased out end of 1995 a Total phase out by 2015
Freeze from beginning of 1996
35% reduction by 2004
Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs)
65% reduction by 2010
90% reduction by 2015 Freeze in 2016 at 2015 base level
Total phase out by 2020 c Total phase out by 2040
Hydrobromofluorocarbons (HBFCs) Phased out end of 1995 Phased out end of 1995
Freeze in 1995 at 1991 base level d
25% reduction by 1999 Freeze in 2002 at
Methyl bromide 50% reduction by 2001 average1995-1998 base level
70% reduction by 2000 20% reduction by 2005
Total phase out by 2005 Total phase out by 2015
a With the exception of a very small number of internationally agreed essential uses that are considered critical to
human health and/or laboratory and analytical procedures.
b Based on 1989 HCFC consumption with an extra allowance (ODP weighted) equal to 2.8% of 1989 CFC consumption.
c Up to 0.5% of base level consumption can be used until 2030 for servicing existing equipment.
d All reductions include an exemption for pre-shipment and quarantine uses.

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1987
1987

2017-03-13 7
1987
Simulations of the Antarctic
ozone hole contrast the
expected future resulting
from curtailing chlorofluoro-
carbons and a world
avoided scenario in which
CFC use increases annually
by 3%. The equivalent
effective stratospheric
chlorine (EESC) accounts for
the influence of chlorine
and the more-destructive
bromine, both products of
anthropogenic gases.
By 2014 the EESC in the world avoided is almost twice that in the expected future, and
total ozone is about 80 Dobson units less. By 2060 the EESC is 17 times as high, Antarctic
total ozone is 260 DU less, and large ozone depletions cover the entire globe.
1988
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC)
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) was created in 1988.
It was set up by WMO and UNEP to prepare, based on available scientific information,
assessments on all aspects of climate change and its impacts, with a view of formulating
realistic response strategies.
At the end of 2007 the IPCC was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize.
The initial task for the IPCC was to prepare a comprehensive review and
recommendations with respect to the state of knowledge of the science of climate
change; the social and economic impact of climate change, and possible response
strategies and elements for inclusion in a possible future international convention on
climate.
Today the IPCC's role is ...to assess on a comprehensive, objective, open and
transparent basis the scientific, technical and socio-economic information relevant to
understanding the scientific basis of risk of human-induced climate change, its potential
impacts and options for adaptation and mitigation.

2017-03-13 8
1988
Change (IPCC)
IPCC reports should be neutral with respect to policy,
although they may need to deal objectively with
scientific, technical and socio-economic factors
relevant to the application of particular policies.
The scientific evidence brought up by the first IPCC
Assessment Report of 1990 underlined the importance
of climate change as a challenge requiring
international cooperation to tackle its consequences. It
therefore played a decisive role in leading to the
creation of the United Nations Framework Convention
on Climate Change (UNFCCC).
Since then the IPCC has delivered on a regular basis
the most comprehensive scientific reports about
climate change produced worldwide, the Assessment
Reports.
1988
Change (IPCC)
The IPCC Second Assessment
Report of 1995 provided important
material for the negotiations that
led to the adoption of the Kyoto
Protocol in 1997.
The Third Assessment Report came
out in 2001 and the Fourth in 2007.
The Fifth Assessment Report (AR5)
was released in four parts between
September 2013 and November
2014. AR5 provides a clear and up
to date view of the current state of
scientific knowledge relevant to
climate change.

2017-03-13 9
1989
Exxon Valdez Oil Spill
Bligh Reef, Prince Williams Sound, Alaska
On March 24, 1989, the tanker Exxon Valdez, en route from Valdez, Alaska to Los Angeles,
California, grounded on Bligh Reef in Alaska's Prince William Sound, rupturing its hull and
spilling nearly 262 thousand gallons (42 000 m3) of crude oil into a remote, scenic, and
biologically productive body of water.
The tanker was 301 metres long, 51 metres wide, 26 metres depth, with a deadweight of
218 000 tons.
1989

2017-03-13 10
1989
1989
Bligh Reef, Prince Williams Sound, Alaska
The oil would eventually impact over 2 000 km of non-continuous coastline in Alaska. It
was the largest single oil spill in U.S. coastal waters prior to 2010.
In the weeks and months that followed, the oil spread over a wide area in Prince William
Sound and beyond, resulting in a previously unprecedented response and cleanup.
Ecosystem response
Oil persisted beyond a decade in surprising amounts and in toxic forms. It was sufficiently
bioavailable to induce chronic biological exposures, and had long-term impacts at the
population level.
Three major pathways of long-term impacts emerge:
(1) chronic persistence of oil, biological exposures, and population impacts to species
closely associated with shallow sediments;
(2) delayed population impacts of sublethal doses compromising health, growth, and
reproduction; and
(3) indirect effects of trophic and interaction cascades, all of which transmit impacts well
beyond the acute-phase mortality.

2017-03-13 11
1989
1989

2017-03-13 12
1989
1989
Acute Mortality
Marine mammals and seabirds are at great risk from floating oil because they have routine
contact with the sea surface.
Oiling of fur or feathers causes loss of
insulating capacity and can lead to
death from hypothermia, smothering,
drowning, and ingestion of toxic
hydrocabons.
Scientists estimate mass mortalities of
1000 to 2800 sea otters, 302 harbor
seals, and 250 000 seabird in the
days immediately after the oil spill.
Mass mortality also occurred among
macroalgae and benthic invertebrates
on oiled shores from a combination of
chemical toxicity, smothering, and
physical displacement from the
habitat by pressurized wash-water
applied after the spill.

2017-03-13 13
1989
A Red Necked Grebe, covered in oil, found about 35 miles from the spill, on March 30, 1989
1989
One baby and five adult oil-soaked sea otters lie dead on Green Island beach on April 3, 1989

2017-03-13 14
1989
1989

2017-03-13 15
1989
1989

2017-03-13 16
1989
1989
On May 5, 2010, oil is shown seeping into a hole dug on a beach on Eleanor Island, Alaska

2017-03-13 17
1989
Long-term impacts
The persistent nature of oil in sediments produce chronic, long-term exposure risks from
some species. For example, chronic exposures for years after the spill to oil persisting in
sedimentary refuges were evident from biomarkers in fish, sea otters, and seaducks
intimately associated with sediments for egg laying or foraging. These chronic exposures
enhanced mortality for years.
1989

2017-03-13 18
1989
Lessons learned from the spill
1. Clean-up attempts can be more damaging than the oil itself, with impacts recurring as long
as clean-up (including both chemical and physical methods) continues. Because of the
pervasiveness of strong biological interactions in rocky intertidal and kelp forest
communities, cascades of delayed, indirect impacts (especially of trophic cascades and
biogenic habitat loss) expand the scope of injury well beyond the initial direct losses and
thereby also delay recoveries.
2. Oil that penetrates deeply into beaches can remain relatively fresh for years and can later
come back to the surface and affect nearby animals. In addition, oil degrades at varying
rates depending on environment, with subsurface sediments physically protected from
disturbance, oxygenation, and photolysis retaining contamination by only partially
weathered oil for years.
3. Rocky rubble shores should be of high priority for protection and cleanup because oil
tends to penetrate deep and weather very slowly in these habitats, prolonging the
harmful effects of the oil when it leaches out.
1989
Lessons learned from the spill
4. Oil effects to sea birds and mammals also are substantial (independent of means of
insulation) over the long-term through interactions between natural environmental
stressors and compromised health of exposed animals, through chronic toxic exposure
from ingesting contaminated prey or during foraging around persistent sedimentary pools
of oil, and through disruption of vital social functions (caregiving or reproduction) in
socially organized species.
5. Long-term exposure of fish embryos to weathered oil at parts per billion (ppb)
concentrations has population consequences through indirect effects on growth,
deformities, and behavior with long-term consequences on mortality and reproduction.
6. After the Exxon Valdez oil spill disaster in Alaska in 1989, the US Government required all
new oil tankers built for use between US ports to be equipped with a full double hull. It is
estimated that if the Exxon Valdez had had a double-hull structure, the amount of the spill
would have been reduced by more than half.

2017-03-13 19
1989
The US Oil Pollution Act of 1990
In the wake of the Exxon Valdez disaster, the US Congress adopted the Oil Pollution Act of
1990 that aims to mitigate and prevent civil liability from the future oil spills off the coast
of the United States.
The law stated that companies must have a "plan to prevent spills that may occur" and
have a "detailed containment and cleanup plan" for oil spills.
The law also includes a clause that prohibits any vessel that, after March 22, 1989, has
caused an oil spill of more than one million U.S. gallons (3 800 m) in any marine area,
from operating in Prince William Sound.
The act also banned single-hull tank vessels of 5 000 tons or more from U.S. waters from
2010 onward.
1989
The MARPOL Convention
In 1992, two years after the Oil Pollution Act, the International Convention for the
Prevention of Pollution from Ships (the MARPOL Convention) was amended to require all
newly built tankers have double hulls.
Single-hull tank vessels are banned between 2005 and 2015.
EU Regulation 1726/2003
Oil tankers of 20 000 tonnes deadweight or above
Category 1 phase-out up to 2005
Categories 2&3 phase-out up to 2010

2017-03-13 20
1990
World Summit for Children
United Nations New York City 2930 September
The summit had the heads of state and government to commit to a set of goals to
improve the well-being of children worldwide by the year 2000.
The main result of the World Summit was the joint signing of a World Declaration on the
Survival, Protection and Development of Children and a Plan of Action comprising a
detailed set of child-related human development goals for the year 2000.
It is recognized that each day, millions of children suffer from the scourges of poverty
and economic crisis - from hunger and homelessness, from epidemics and illiteracy,
from degradation of the environment.
The heads of state and government commit to apply common
measures for the protection of the environment, at all levels, so
that all children can enjoy a safer and healthier future.
1991
Collapse of the Atlantic northwest
cod fishery
Newfoundland Grand Banks, Canada
Only 2,700 tonnes of spawning biomass are left after a harvest of 190,000 tonnes.
The Northern Cod biomass fell to 1% of its earlier level.
Only 2,700 tonnes of spawning biomass
are left after a harvest of 190,000 tonnes.
The Northern Cod biomass fell to 1% of its
earlier level.
In 1992 the Canadian Federal Minister of
Fisheries and Oceans declared a
moratorium on the Northern Cod fishery,
which for the past 500 years had largely
shaped the lives and communities of
Canada's eastern coast.

2017-03-13 21
1991
cod fishery
1991
cod fishery
For centuries local fishermen used technology that limited the volume of their catch, the
area they fished, and let them target specific species and ages of fish.
A major factor that contributed to the depletion of the cod stocks included the
introduction and proliferation of equipment and technology that increased the volume
of landed fish.
From the 1950s onwards, as was
common in all industries at the time,
new technology was introduced that
allowed fishermen to trawl a larger
area, fish to a deeper depth and for a
longer time.
By the 1960s, powerful trawlers
equipped with radar, electronic
navigation systems and sonar allowed
crews to pursue fish with unparalleled
success, and Canadian catches peaked Capture of the Atlantic northwest cod stock in million tonnes,
in the late 1970s and early 1980s. apart from Canada

2017-03-13 22
1991
cod fishery
The new technologies adversely affected the northern cod population in two important
ways:
1. by increasing the area and depth that was fished, the cod were being depleted until
the surviving fish could not replenish the stock lost each year; and
2. secondly, the trawlers caught
enormous amounts of non-
commercial fish, which were
economically unimportant but
very important ecologically:
incidental catch undermines the
whole ecosystem, depleting
stocks of important predator and
prey species.
Global commercial capture of Atlantic and Pacific cod

in million tonnes reported by the FAO 19502010
1991
cod fishery
With the northern cod, significant amounts of capelin an important prey species for the
cod were caught as bycatch, further undermining the survival of the remaining cod stock.
In 1993 the moratorium, initially put in place for two years, was extended indefinitely and
is still in place.
The moratorium put 40,000 people out of work in 5 Canadian provinces, and required a
several thousand million dollar relief package to be disbursed to coastal communities.
Recovery efforts are hampered by the trawling for other species that still goes on in the
area, and which often leads to high levels of cod as bycatch.
The collapse of the cod fishery off Newfoundland, and the 1992 decision by Canada to
impose an indefinite moratorium on the Grand Banks, is a dramatic example of the
consequences of overfishing.

2017-03-13 23
1991
Kuwait Oil Fires
Persian Gulf War
The Kuwaiti oil fires were caused by Iraqi military forces setting fire to more than 600 oil
wells along with an unspecified number of oil filled low-lying areas, such as oil lakes and
fire trenches, as part of a scorched earth policy while retreating from Kuwait in 1991 due
to the advances of Coalition military forces in the Persian Gulf War.
The fires started in January and February 1991, and
the first well fires were extinguished in early April
1991, with the last well capped on November 6, 1991.
Kuwait contains about 9 percent of the world's total
proven oil reserves, and petroleum revenues account
for 95 percent of its export earnings.
Area: 17 820 km2 .
Population: 4 044 500 (2014 estimate).
1991
Kuwait Oil Fires
Persian Gulf War
One of the reasons for Iraq's invasion of Kuwait in 1990 was the dispute between Iraq and
Kuwait over alleged slant-drilling in the Rumaila oil field was. Rumaila is a super-giant oil
field located in southern Iraq, approximately 32 km from the Kuwaiti border.
In addition, Kuwait had been producing oil above treaty limits established by OPEC. By the
summer of 1990, Kuwaiti overproduction had become a serious point of contention with
Iraq.
The IraqKuwait dispute also involved Iraqi claims to Kuwait as Iraqi territory. The UK
drew the border between the two countries in 1922, making Iraq virtually landlocked.
In August 1990, Iraqi forces invaded and annexed Kuwait. The Iraqi Army's occupation of
Kuwait was met with international condemnation, and brought immediate economic
sanctions against Iraq by members of the U.N. Security Council.
After a series of failed diplomatic negotiations, the United States led a coalition to remove
the Iraqi forces from Kuwait, in what became known as the Gulf War. An array of nations
joined the coalition, the largest military alliance since World War II.
The great majority of the coalition's military forces were from the U.S., with Saudi Arabia,
the United Kingdom and Egypt as leading contributors.
On 26 February 1991, the coalition succeeded in driving out the Iraqi forces. As they
retreated, Iraqi forces carried out a scorched earth policy by setting oil wells on fire.

2017-03-13 24
1991
Kuwait Oil Fires
Persian Gulf War
1991
Kuwait Oil Fires
The Kuwait oil fires burned for more than eight months, consuming an estimated five to
six million barrels of crude oil and 70 to 100 million cubic meters of natural gas per day.
Between late February, when the first fires were ignited, and November 6, when the last
fire was extinguished, smoke plumes containing a hazardous mixture of gaseous
emissions and particulate matter engulfed a downwind area as large as 150 by 1000
kilometers.
The geography and climate of the Persian Gulf region affected the distribution of the oil
well plumes, as well as the severity of their effect on human populations and natural
ecosystems.
The region's strong prevailing northerly winds ensured that Kuwait bore the majority of
the fires' ill effects.
Uneven heating of the land and sea surfaces created local atmospheric inversions during
the summer months that trapped smoke in the lower atmosphere, and occasionally
caused the plumes to blanket the Kuwaiti land surface.
Violent sandstorms, driven by intense summer winds, mixed sand and dust with the
smoke plumes.

2017-03-13 25
1991
Kuwait Oil Fires
In general, smoke produced by burning unrefined petroleum
contains a mixture of gases and particulate matter including
carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO), sulfur dioxide (SO2),
nitrogen oxides (NOx), volatile organics (VOCs), polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons (PAHs), hydrogen sulfide (H2S), acidic aerosols, and
soot. Soot is composed of solid particles embedded in tar.
Non-toxic carbon dioxide accounted for approximately 96 percent
of the Kuwaiti crude oil smoke. The other chemical elements and
compounds in oil well smoke, however, can be toxic, carcinogenic,
and otherwise hazardous to human health, as well as ecologically
and climatically disruptive in relatively small concentrations.
Airborne measurements above the fires found that
particulate matter and gases made up equal parts of
the fires' non-carbonaceous emissions.
Satellite and space shuttle images showed the
plumes extending across the Arabian Peninsula and
Persian Gulf.
The smoke blocked the sunlight from large areas for
weeks
1991
Kuwait Oil Fires
In general, smoke produced by burning unrefined petroleum contains a mixture of gases
and particulate matter including carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO), sulfur
dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx), volatile organics (VOCs), polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons (PAHs), hydrogen sulfide (H2S), acidic aerosols, and soot. Soot is composed
of solid particles embedded in tar.
In general, smoke produced by
burning unrefined petroleum
contains a mixture of gases and
particulate matter including carbon
dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide
(CO), sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen
oxides (NOx), volatile organics
(VOCs), polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons (PAHs), hydrogen
sulfide (H2S), acidic aerosols, and
soot. Soot is composed of solid
particles embedded in tar.

2017-03-13 26
1991
Kuwait Oil Fires
Non-toxic carbon dioxide accounted for approximately 96 percent of the Kuwaiti crude oil
smoke. The other chemical elements and compounds in oil well smoke, can be toxic,
carcinogenic, and otherwise hazardous to human health, as well as ecologically and
climatically disruptive in relatively small concentrations.
The plumes degraded the air quality in the region for months and generated various
potentially hazardous gases. By November 1991 the residue of oil and soot stained the
desert immediately south of Kuwait City.
1991
Kuwait Oil Fires
In addition to the burning of the oil wells, approximately 11 million barrels of oil were
released into the Persian Gulf creating a devastating effect on the biological ecosystem of
the Gulf and the fisheries of the area.
Many people work for the oil industry in Kuwait; however fishing is one other major
industry that many make a profitable income through. The devastating effects on the
ecosystems of the Persian Gulf had intense effects on the fishing industry.
Prior to the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait the Gulf had yielded harvests of marine life of up to
120,000 tons of fish a year; after the oil spillage, these numbers significantly dropped.
In addition to this degradation to an economic activity, many people living on the Gulf
coast depend on fishing as purely a subsistence activity, and the oil spillage has disrupted
the spawning of shrimp and fish.

2017-03-13 27
1991
Kuwait Oil Fires
The polluted air also caused respiratory problems for many Kuwaiti citizens. Concerns of
lung cancer and birth defects were raised and the death rate was predicted to rise by as
much as 10% within a short amount of time.
Thousands were left without homes; oil lakes and smoke covered 5% of the land area of
Kuwait making many areas uninhabitable. Hundreds of miles of the Kuwaiti desert were
left uninhabitable, due to the accumulation of oil lakes and of soot from the burning wells.
Interestingly, environmentalists have recently raised concerns that 'normal' pollution in
the Gulf, caused by frequent spillages of oil and emissions of dirty ballast from passing
tankers, poses a greater environmental threat than any damage inflicted by the Kuwaiti oil
fires.
Official statistics indicate that the Gulf is polluted by 1.14 million tons of oil per year,
equivalent to 25,000 barrels of oil per day, which is dispersed by 40 percent of the more
than 6,000 oil tankers which transverse the Gulf each year.
ENMOD CONVENTION
The Environmental Modification Convention (ENMOD), formally the Convention on the
Prohibition of Military or Any Other Hostile Use of Environmental Modification
Techniques is an international treaty prohibiting the military or other hostile use of
environmental modification techniques having widespread, long-lasting or severe
effects. It entered into force on 5 October 1978.
As of June 2015, the Convention has 77 state parties.
PROTOCOL ADDITIONAL TO THE GENEVA CONVENTIONS OF 1949, AND

RELATING TO THE PROTECTION OF VICTIMS OF INTERNATIONAL ARMED
CONFLICTS, 1977.
Article 55 - Protection of the natural environment
1. Care shall be taken in warfare to protect the natural environment against widespread,
long-term and severe damage. This protection includes a prohibition of the use of
methods or means of warfare which are intended or may be expected to cause such
damage to the natural environment and thereby to prejudice the health or survival of
the population.
2. Attacks against the natural environment by way of reprisals are prohibited.

2017-03-13 28
1991
UNECE Convention on Environmental Impact
Assessment in a Transboundary Context
Espoo, Finland
Environmental threats do not respect national borders.
Governments have realized that to avert this danger they must notify and consult each
other on all major projects under consideration that might have adverse environmental
impact across borders.
The Espoo Convention is a key step to bringing together all stakeholders to prevent
environmental damage before it occurs.
The Convention sets out the obligations of Parties to assess the environmental impact of
certain activities at an early stage of planning. It also lays down the general obligation of
States to notify and consult each other on all major projects under consideration that
are likely to have a significant adverse environmental impact across boundaries.
The Convention entered into force in 1997.
1992
UNECE Convention on the Protection and
Use of Transboundary Watercourses and
International Lakes (Water Convention)
Helsinki
The Water Convention entered into force in 1996. It strengthens transboundary water
cooperation and measures for the ecologically-sound management and protection of
transboundary surface waters and groundwaters.
The Convention fosters the implementation of integrated water resources management,
in particular the basin approach.
The Water Convention requires Parties to prevent, control and reduce transboundary
impact, use transboundary waters in a reasonable and equitable way and ensure their
sustainable management.
Parties bordering the same transboundary waters have to cooperate by entering into
specific agreements and establishing joint bodies.
As a framework agreement, the Convention does not replace bilateral and multilateral
agreements for specific basins or aquifers; instead, it fosters their establishment and
implementation, as well as further development.

2017-03-13 29
Portuguese-Spanish River Basins
River Danube
Convention on cooperation for the protection and sustainable use of the river Danube
(Austria, Bulgaria, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Germany, Hungary, Moldova, Romania,
Slovakia, Slovenia and Ukraine)

2017-03-13 30
River Rhine
Convention on the Protection of the
Rhine (Switzerland, France, Germany,
Luxembourg, the Netherlands), 1999.
Lake Constance Bodensee
1992
UNECE Convention on the Transboundary
Effects of Industrial Accidents
Helsinki
The Convention aims at protecting human beings and the environment against industrial
accidents by preventing such accidents as far as possible, by reducing their frequency
and severity and by mitigating their effects.
It promotes active international cooperation between the contracting Parties, before,
during and after an industrial accident.
Industrial operations may involve substances that do not usually represent a great
threat to our health or our environment but are nevertheless potentially hazardous.
Even the safest plant is never totally risk-free. In Europe, the well-publicized industrial
accidents at Seveso in Italy in 1976 and Basel in Switzerland in 1986 have brought this
message to us. Both accidents caused large damage to the environment.
The aim of the Convention on the Transboundary Effects of Industrial Accidents is to
help its Parties to prevent industrial accidents that can have transboundary effects, to
prepare for them and to respond to them. The Convention also encourages its Parties to
help each other in the event of such an accident, to cooperate on research and
development, and to share information and technology.

2017-03-13 31
1992
Prevention
Since it is better to be safe than sorry, the Convention spells out what its Parties have to
do to reduce the risk and prevent industrial accidents to the extent possible.
First, they should identify the hazardous operations that take place within their borders
but could have an effect abroad if an accident were to occur.
Once the Parties have drawn up a list of these operations, they should inform all the
other Parties that could be affected and consult them. New projects should be sited in
areas where the risks are minimal and any decision to allow a project to go ahead
should take account of the Convention on Environmental Impact Assessment in a
Transboundary Context.
Past industrial accidents will be reported and analyzed so that lessons can be learnt
from them in order to be able to prevent similar accidents from happening in the future.
1992
Preparedness
Yet, no matter how stringent the safety standards, accidents will occur and countries
must be prepared to deal with their consequences.
The Convention outlines how Parties can maintain a high level of preparedness to
respond to an industrial accident, especially if its effects spill over into another country.
Hazardous operations must have on-site and off-site contingency plans. If several Parties
might be affected by a hazardous operation, they are expected to get together to try to
make their plans compatible or even draw up joint off-site contingency plans.
The local residents should be informed about what is going on. The public should also
have a say in the setting-up of prevention and preparedness measures and have access
to administrative and judicial proceedings if its views are disregarded.

2017-03-13 32
1992
Response
If an industrial accident does occur, the Convention expects the Parties to take effective
steps to minimize its effects, including those of a transboundary nature. If several
countries are affected by the accident, they should work together to ease its effects.
They should also help one another if asked to do so .
Notification
To respond effectively and in a coordinated way to an industrial accident, Parties must
be informed as soon as possible, since time is of the essence.
The Convention consequently calls on Parties to set up special notification systems .
The UNECE Industrial Accident Notification System (IAN) has been developed with this
aim. It includes forms for early warning, providing information and requesting
assistance.
This system makes it easier for a country where an industrial accident has taken place to
notify all the others that could be affected and to give them the information they need
to fight its possible effects.
1992
Competent authorities and points of contact
Each Party must designate authorities specifically to deal with industrial accidents,
following the Convention's entry into force.
According to the Convention, Parties must also designate points of contact, to whom
industrial accident notifications and requests for assistance must be addressed.
The network of points of contact now comprises 35 countries and the European Union.

2017-03-13 33
EVOLUTION OF
Part 5
1992
The Earth Summit
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
United Nations Conference on Environment and
Development (UNCED)
Twenty years after the first global environment conference, the UN sought to help
Governments rethink economic development and find ways to halt the destruction of
irreplaceable natural resources and pollution of the planet.
172 Governments participate, 108 at level of heads of State or Government.
The Conference Secretary-General was Maurice Strong, Canada.
The Summits message was transmitted by almost 10,000 on-site journalists and heard by
millions around the world.
The message reflected the complexity of the problems facing us: that poverty as well as
excessive consumption by affluent populations place damaging stress on the environment.

2017-03-15 1
1992
The Earth Summit
Development (UNCED)
1992
The Earth Summit
Development (UNCED)
Governments recognized the need to redirect international and national plans and policies
to ensure that all economic decisions fully took into account any environmental impact.
Eco-efficiency is a guiding principle for business and governments alike.
Patterns of production particularly the production of toxic components, such as
poisonous waste are being scrutinized in a systematic manner by the UN and
Governments alike.
Alternative sources of energy are being sought to replace the use of fossil fuels which are
linked to global climate change.
New reliance on public transportation systems is being emphasized in order to reduce
vehicle emissions, congestion in cities and the health problems caused by polluted air and
smog.
There is much greater awareness of and concern over the growing scarcity of water.

2017-03-15 2
1992
The Earth Summit
Development (UNCED)
The two-week Earth Summit was the climax of a process, begun in December 1989, of
planning, education and negotiations among all Member States of the United Nations,
leading to the adoption of Agenda 21, a wide-ranging blueprint for action to achieve
sustainable development worldwide.
At its close, Maurice Strong, the Conference Secretary-General, called the Summit a
historic moment for humanity.
The Earth Summit influenced all subsequent UN conferences, which have examined the
relationship between human rights, population, social development, women and human
settlements and the need for environmentally sustainable development.
1992
The Earth Summit
Development (UNCED)
The Earth Summit Agreements:
the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development a series of principles defining
the rights and responsibilities of States;
Agenda 21 a comprehensive programme of action for global action in all areas of
sustainable development;
the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, a legally binding
international law aimed at preventing global climate change;
the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity, a legally binding international law
aimed at preventing the eradication of the diversity of biological species, and
the Statement of Forest Principles a set of principles to underlie the sustainable
management of forests worldwide.

2017-03-15 3
Rio Declaration on Environment and Development

Recognizing the integral and interdependent nature of the Earth, our home, the nations meeting
at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro adopted a set of principles to guide future development.
These principles define the rights of people to development, and their responsibilities to
safeguard the common environment.
They build on ideas from the Stockholm Declaration at the 1972 United Nations Conference on
the Human Environment.
The Rio Declaration states that the only way to have long term economic progress is to link it
with environmental protection. This will only happen if nations establish a new and equitable
global partnership involving governments, their people and key sectors of societies.
They must build international agreements that protect the integrity of the global environmental
and the developmental system.

The Rio principles include the following ideas:
1. People are entitled to a healthy and productive life in harmony with nature.
2. Development today must not undermine the developmental and environmental needs of
present and future generations.
3. Nations have the sovereign right to exploit their own resources, but without causing
environmental damage beyond their borders.
4. Nations shall develop international laws to provide compensation for damage that activities
under their control cause to areas beyond their borders.
5. Nations shall use the precautionary approach to protect the environment. Where there are
threats of serious or irreversible damage, scientific uncertainty shall not be used to postpone
cost-effective measures to prevent environmental degradation.
6. In order to achieve sustainable development, environmental protection shall constitute an
integral part of the development process, and cannot be considered in isolation from it.
7. Eradicating poverty and reducing disparities in living standards in different parts of the world
are essential to achieve sustainable development and meet the needs of the majority of
people.

2017-03-15 4

8. Nations shall cooperate to conserve, protect and restore the health and integrity of the
Earths ecosystem.
The developed countries acknowledge the responsibility that they bear in the international
pursuit of sustainable development in view of the pressures their societies place on the
global environment and of the technologies and financial resources they command.
9. Nations should reduce and eliminate unsustainable patterns of production and
consumption, and promote appropriate demographic policies.
10. Environmental issues are best handled with the participation of all concerned citizens.
States shall facilitate and encourage public awareness and participation by making
environmental information widely available.
11. Nations shall enact effective environmental laws, and develop national law regarding liability
for the victims of pollution and other environmental damage.
Where they have authority, nations shall assess the environmental impact of proposed
activities that are likely to have a significant adverse impact.
12. Nations should cooperate to promote an open international economic system that will lead
to economic growth and sustainable development in all countries.
Environmental policies should not be used as an unjustifiable means of restricting
international trade.

13. The polluter should, in principle, bear the cost of pollution.
14. Nations shall warn one another of natural disasters or activities that may have harmful
transboundary impacts.
15. Sustainable development requires better scientific understanding of the problems.
Nations should share knowledge and innovative technologies to achieve the goal of
sustainability.
16. The full participation of women is essential to achieve sustainable development.
The creativity, ideals and courage of youth and the knowledge of indigenous people are
needed too.
Nations should recognize and support the identity, culture and interests of indigenous
people.
17. Warfare is inherently destructive of sustainable development, and Nations shall respect
international laws protecting environment in times of armed conflict, and shall cooperate in
their further establishment.
18. Peace, development and environmental protection are interdependent and indivisible.

2017-03-15 5
Agenda 21
Agenda 21
Agenda 21 explains that population, consumption and technology are the primary driving forces
of environmental change.
It lays out what needs to be done to reduce wasteful and inefficient consumption patterns in
some parts of the world while encouraging increased but sustainable development in others.
It offers policies and programmes to achieve a sustainable balance between consumption,
population and the Earths life-supporting capacity.
It describes some of technologies and techniques that need to be developed to provide for
human needs while carefully managing natural resources.
Agenda 21 provides options for combating degradation of the land, air and water, conserving
forests and the diversity of species of life.
It deals with poverty and excessive consumption, health and education, cities and farmers.
There are roles for everyone: governments, business people, trade unions, scientists,
teachers, indigenous people, women, youth and children.
Agenda 21 does not refuse business. It says that sustainable development is the way to
reverse both poverty and environmental destruction.

2017-03-15 6
Agenda 21
We currently measure the success of economic development mainly by the amount of money it
produces.
Accounting systems that measure the wealth of nations also need to count the full value of
natural resources and the full cost of environmental degradation.
The polluter should, in principle, bear the costs of pollution.
To reduce the risk of causing damage, environmental assessment should be carried out
before starting projects that carry the risk of adverse impacts.
Governments should reduce or eliminate subsidies that are not consistent with sustainable
development.
A major theme of Agenda 21 is the need to eradicate poverty by giving poor people more access
to the resources they need to live sustainably.
By adopting Agenda 21, industrialized countries recognized that they have a greater role in
cleaning up the environment than poor nations, who produce relatively less pollution.
The richer nations also promised more funding to help other nations develop in ways that
have lower environmental impacts.
Beyond funding, nations need help in building the expertise the capacity to plan and
carry out sustainable development decisions.
This will require the transfer of information and skills.
Agenda 21
Agenda 21 calls on governments to adopt national strategies for sustainable development.
These should be developed with wide participation, including non-government organizations
and the public.
Agenda 21 puts most of the responsibility for leading change on national governments, but
says they need to work in a broad series of partnerships with international organizations,
business, regional, state, provincial and local governments, non-governmental and citizens
groups.
As Agenda 21 says, only a global partnership will ensure that all nations will have a safer and
more prosperous future.

2017-03-15 7
Agenda 21
Chapter 1:Preamble
Section One: Social and Economic Dimensions
Chapter 2: International Cooperation
Chapter 3: Combating Poverty
Chapter 4: Changing Consumption Patterns
Chapter 5: Population and Sustainable Development
Chapter 6: Protecting and Promoting Human Health
Chapter 7: Sustainable Human Settlements
Chapter 8: Making Decisions for Sustainable Development
Agenda 21
Section Two: Conservation and Management of Resources
Chapter 9: Protecting the Atmosphere
Chapter 10: Managing Land Sustainably
Chapter 11: Combating Deforestation
Chapter 12: Combating Desertification and Drought
Chapter 13: Sustainable Mountain Development
Chapter 14: Sustainable Agriculture and Rural Development
Chapter 15: Conservation of Biological Diversity
Chapter 16: Environmentally Sound Management of Biotechnology
Chapter 17: Protecting and Managing the Oceans
Chapter 18: Protecting and Managing Fresh Water
Chapter 19: Safer Use of Toxic Chemicals
Chapter 20: Managing Hazardous Wastes
Chapter 21: Managing Solid Wastes and Sewage
Chapter 22: Managing Radioactive Wastes

2017-03-15 8
Agenda 21
Section Three: Strengthening the Role of Major Groups
Chapter 23: Preamble to Strengthening the Role of Major Groups
Chapter 24: Women in Sustainable Development
Chapter 25: Children and Youth in Sustainable Development
Chapter 26: Strengthening the Role of Indigenous People
Chapter 27: Partnerships with NGOs
Chapter 28: Local Authorities
Chapter 29: Workers and Trade Unions
Chapter 30: Business and Industry
Chapter 31: Scientists and Technologists
Agenda 21
Section Four: Means of Implementation
Chapter 32: Strengthening the Role of Farmers
Chapter 33: Financing Sustainable Development
Chapter 34: Technology Transfer
Chapter 35: Science for Sustainable Development
Chapter 36: Education, Training and Public Awareness
Chapter 37: Creating the Capacity for Sustainable Development
Chapter 38: Organizing for Sustainable Development
Chapter 39: International Law
Chapter 40: Information for Decision-Making

2017-03-15 9
1992
The 92 Global Forum
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 1-12 June
As the world leaders and their delegations met for the United Nations Conference on
the Environment and Development (UNCED), an unprecedented number of non-
governmental organizations (NGOs) convened in Rio for the 1992 Global Forum.
The 92 Global Forum, held in the Flamengo Park, provided an informal opportunity for
NGOs to express their views on environmental turned out for the Forum, which featured
speakers, exhibitions, and cultural events.
Dozens of tents were placed to serve as
gathering centers for different NGO sectors.
Indigenous peoples, environmental
educators, women, urban movements,
youth and many other sectors had their
own tents at the Global Forum. The place
was like a circus, with thousands of people,
publicity booths, exhibits, and hundreds of
different events going on at the same time.

2017-03-15 10
EVOLUTION OF
Part 6
1992
The Earth Council
San Jose, Costa Rica
The Earth Council is an international non-governmental organization formed shortly
after the Earth Summit by Maurice Strong to follow up and monitor implementation of
the Rio Agreements.
Its mission is to support and empower people in building a more secure, equitable and
sustainable future.
To achieve its mission, the Earth Council has developed strategic programs and
partnerships to operationalize sustainable development in collaboration with a variety
of partners and sponsors.

2017-03-20 1
1992
Changing Course
A Global Business Perspective on
Development and the Environment
Changing Course is a practical introduction to new and necessary methods of running
businesses so that the realities of business and the marketplace support the realities of
the environment and the needs of human development.
Gathering the expertise of more than 50 leaders of multinational
corporations and backed by an array of case studies showing
existing best practices, Changing Course provides an extensive
analysis of how the business community can adapt and contribute
to the crucial goal of sustainable developmentwhich combines
the objectives of environmental protection and economic growth.
All of its recommendations are linked by the belief that only by
allowing market forces to operate freely and integrating the
"polluter pays" principle into environmental and economic policy
can sustainable development be achieved.
1992
OSPAR Convention
Convention for the Protection of the Marine
Environment of the North-East Atlantic
Paris
OSPAR is the mechanism by which 15 Governments and the EU cooperate to protect the
marine environment of the North-East Atlantic (Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France,
Germany, Iceland, Ireland, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Spain,
Sweden, Switzerland, the United Kingdom and the European Community).
It combines and up-dates the 1972 Oslo Convention on dumping waste at sea and the
1974 Paris Convention on land-based sources of marine pollution.
Contained within the OSPAR Convention are a series of Annexes which deal with the
following specific areas:
Annex I: Prevention and elimination of pollution from land-based sources;
Annex II: Prevention and elimination of pollution by dumping or incineration;
Annex III: Prevention and elimination of pollution from offshore sources;
Annex IV: Assessment of the quality of the marine environment;
Annex V: On the protection and conservation of the ecosystems and biological diversity
of the maritime area.

2017-03-20 2
1992
OSPAR Convention
Ecosystem Approach
For the purpose of the OSPAR Convention, the ecosystem approach is defined as the
comprehensive integrated management of human activities based on the best available
scientific knowledge about the ecosystem and its dynamics, in order to identify and take
action on influences which are critical to the health of marine ecosystems, thereby
achieving sustainable use of ecosystem goods and services and maintenance of
ecosystem integrity.
The application of the ecosystem approach integrates conservation and management
approaches, such as marine protected areas or measures targeted on single species and
habitats, as well as other approaches carried out under existing national and
international policy and legal frameworks and helps to adapt the management of
human activities to the complex and dynamic nature of marine ecosystems.
The often limited or incomplete scientific knowledge in marine management requires
the application of the precautionary principle, which is central to the ecosystem
approach.
1992
OSPAR Convention
Precautionary Principle
By virtue of the precautionary principle, preventive measures are to be taken when
there are reasonable grounds for concern that human activities may bring about
hazards to human health, harm living resources and marine ecosystems, damage
amenities or interfere with other legitimate uses of the sea, even when there is no
conclusive evidence of a causal relationship.
A lack of full scientific evidence must not postpone action to protect the marine
environment. The principle anticipates that delaying action would in the longer term
prove more costly to society and nature and would compromise the needs of future
generations.

2017-03-20 3
1992
OSPAR Convention
Polluter Pays Principle
The polluter pays principle is one of the central guiding principles of the OSPAR
Convention and requires that the costs of pollution prevention, control and reduction
measures must be borne by the polluter.
The polluter pays principle is mainly implemented by means of command-and-control
approaches but can also be applied via market-based mechanisms, e.g. for the
development and introduction of environmentally sound technologies and products.
Best Available Techniques (BAT) and Best Environmental Practices (BEP)
The OSPAR Convention requires Contracting Parties to apply Best Available Techniques
(BAT) and Best Environmental Practice (BEP) including, where appropriate, clean
technology, in their efforts to prevent and eliminate marine pollution.
The OSPAR Convention BAT means the latest stage of development (state of the art) of
processes, of facilities or of methods of operation which indicate the practical suitability
of a particular measure for limiting discharges, emissions and waste.
BEP is defined as the application of the most appropriate combination of
environmental control measures and strategies.
1992
OSPAR Convention
Region I: Arctic Waters
Region II: Greater North
Sea
Region III: Celtic Seas
Region IV: Bay of Biscay
and Iberian Coast
Region V: Wider Atlantic
Belgium, Denmark, Finland,

France, Germany, Iceland,
Ireland, Luxembourg, the
Netherlands, Norway,
Portugal, Spain, Sweden,
Switzerland, the United
Kingdom and the European
Community

2017-03-20 4
1992
Convention on the Protection of the Marine
Environment of the Baltic Sea Area
Helsinki Convention
The aim of the Convention is to prevent and
eliminate pollution of the marine
environment of the Baltic Sea Area caused by
harmful substances from all sources,
including:
from land-based sources;
from ships;
from incineration and dumping;
from exploration and exploitation on the
seabed.
The Convention sets up a Baltic Marine
Environment Protection Commission
(HELCOM).
Denmark, Sweden, Finland, Russia, Estonia,
Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Germany and the
European Community
1995
Barcelona Convention
Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment
and the Coastal Region of the Mediterranean
The Convention is an amended version of the Barcelona Convention of 1976.
The Convention's main objectives are:
to assess and control marine pollution
to ensure sustainable management of natural marine and coastal resources;
to integrate the environment in social and economic development;
to protect the marine environment and coastal zones through prevention and reduction
of pollution, and as far as possible, elimination of pollution, whether land or sea-based;
to protect the natural and cultural heritage;
to strengthen solidarity among Mediterranean coastal States;
to contribute to improvement of the quality of life.

2017-03-20 5
1995
Barcelona Convention
Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment
and the Coastal Region of the Mediterranean
Spain, France, Monaco, Italy, Malta, Slovenia, Albania, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro,
Greece, Cyprus, Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco, European Union.
1992
Treaty of Maastricht on European Union
Maastricht, The Netherlands
The Treaty on European Union, known as Maastricht Treaty, was signed in February
1992, and entered into force in November 1993.
The treaty established a European Union (EU), replacing the European Economic
Community (EEC), with EU citizenship granted to every person who was a citizen of a
member state.
EU citizenship enabled people to vote and run for office in local and European
Parliament elections in the EU country in which they lived, regardless of their
nationality.
The treaty also provided for the introduction of:
a central banking system and a common currency (the euro),
committed members to implementing common foreign and security policies, and
called for greater cooperation on various other issues, including the environment,
policing, and social policy.

2017-03-20 6
1992
1992
The Maastricht Treaty of 1992 strengthened the Communitys commitment to
environmental protection by including, as one of its basic tasks, the promotion of
sustainable and non-inflationary growth respecting the environment (Article 2).
The Articles in the Environment Title were strengthened, so that policy was to aim at a
high level of protection, and be based on the precautionary principle in addition to
the principles set out in the 1986 Single European Act (preventive action, correction of
environmental damage at the source, and polluter pays).
The principle of integration was reinforced, such that Environmental protection
requirements must be integrated into the definition and implementation of other
Community policies. The Commission in its proposals and the Member States in
implementing the EU legislation take full account of their environmental impact and of
the principle of sustainable growth.

2017-03-20 7
1992
The Maastricht Treaty also strengthened the role of the European Parliament in
developing environment policy, by establishing the co-decision procedure in which it
has equal power to the Council, and extending the number of policy areas where the
Council could adopt environmental legislation using Qualified Majority Voting, rather
than unanimity.
Unanimity was still required in the Council in matters primarily of a fiscal nature, town
and country planning, land-use (with the exception of waste management and
measures of a general nature), the management of water resources and decisions
affecting a Member States choice of energy sources and structure of its energy supply.
1993
United Nations Commission on
Sustainable Development (CSD)
The United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD) was established by
the UN General Assembly in December 1992 to ensure effective follow-up of United
Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED).
The Commission is responsible for reviewing progress in the implementation of Agenda
21 and the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development at the local, national,
regional and international levels.
The CSD meets annually in New York, in two-year cycles, with each cycle focusing on
clusters of specific thematic and cross-sectoral issues, outlined in its multi-year
programme of work.

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1993
World Conference on Human Rights
14-25 June 1993, Vienna, Austria
Representatives of 171 States adopted by consensus the Vienna Declaration and
Programme of Action of the World Conference on Human Rights.
The Vienna Declaration stated that human rights education, training and public
information were essential for the promotion and achievement of stable and
harmonious relations among communities and for fostering mutual understanding,
tolerance and peace.
Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, adopted by the UN General
Assembly on 10 December 1948:
All human beings are born free and
equal in dignity and rights. They are
endowed with reason and conscience
and should act towards one another in
a spirit of brotherhood.
1993
5. All human rights are universal, indivisible and interdependent and interrelated.
The international community must treat human rights globally in a fair and equal
manner, on the same footing, and with the same emphasis.
While the significance of national and regional particularities and various historical,
cultural and religious backgrounds must be borne in mind, it is the duty of States,
regardless of their political, economic and cultural systems, to promote and protect all
human rights and fundamental freedoms.

2017-03-20 9
1993
11. The right to development should be fulfilled so as to meet equitably the developmental
and environmental needs of present and future generations.
The World Conference on Human Rights recognizes that illicit dumping of toxic and
dangerous substances and waste potentially constitutes a serious threat to the human
rights to life and health of everyone.
36. The World Conference on Human Rights urges the full and equal enjoyment by women
of all human rights and that this be a priority for Governments and for the United
Nations.
The World Conference on Human Rights also underlines the importance of the
integration and full participation of women as both agents and beneficiaries in the
development process, and reiterates the objectives established on global action for
women towards sustainable and equitable development set forth in the Rio Declaration
on Environment and Development and chapter 24 of Agenda 21, adopted by the United
Nations Conference on Environment and Development .
1994
Global Environment Facility (GEF)
Washington
GEF was established to help tackle the most pressing environmental problems.
GEF has provided over USD 14 thousand million in grants and mobilized in excess of
USD 70 thousand million in additional financing for more than 4,000 projects.
The GEF has become an international partnership of 183 countries, international
institutions, civil society organizations, and private sector to address global
environmental issues.
The GEF serves as financial mechanism for the following conventions:
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)
UN Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD)
Minamata Convention on Mercury
The GEF also supports implementation of the Montreal Protocol Protocol in
countries with economies in transition.

2017-03-20 10
1994
UN Convention to Combat Desertification
United Nations, Paris
Desertification, along with climate change and the loss of biodiversity,
were identified as the greatest challenges to sustainable development
during the 1992 Rio Earth Summit.
The Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) was established in 1994.
It is the sole legally binding international agreement linking environment and
development to sustainable land management.
The Convention addresses specifically the arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid areas,
known as the drylands, where some of the most vulnerable ecosystems and peoples can
be found.
In the 10-Year Strategy of the UNCCD (2008-2018) adopted in 2007, Parties to the
Convention further specified their goals:
to forge a global partnership to reverse and prevent desertification/land degradation
and to mitigate the effects of drought in affected areas in order to support poverty
reduction and environmental sustainability
1994

2017-03-20 11
1994
The issues of desertification, land degradation and drought are linked to many
development priorities, such as poverty reduction, food security, agriculture, water
access, rangeland production and renewable energy.
Addressing desertification, land degradation and drought requires a balanced ecosystem
approach, including considering energy sources, forestry and biodiversity in the broadest
sense. It also requires good governance, gender mainstreaming and analysis, and the
consideration of the roles and rights of indigenous peoples.
1994
The Conventions 195 parties work together to improve the living conditions for people in
drylands, to maintain and restore land and soil productivity, and to mitigate the effects of
drought.
The UNCCD is particularly committed to a bottom-up approach, encouraging the
participation of local people in combating desertification and land degradation.
The UNCCD secretariat facilitates cooperation between developed and developing
countries, particularly around knowledge and technology transfer for sustainable land
management.
As the dynamics of land, climate and biodiversity are intimately connected, the UNCCD
collaborates closely with the other two Rio Conventions; the Convention on Biological
Diversity (CBD) and the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC), to meet these complex challenges with an integrated approach and the best
possible use of natural resources.

2017-03-20 12
1995
World Trade Organization
Geneva
The World Trade Organization (WTO) is an intergovernmental organization which
regulates international trade.
The WTO officially commenced on 1 January 1995 under the Marrakesh Agreement,
signed by 123 nations on 15 April 1994, replacing the General Agreement on Tariffs and
Trade (GATT), which commenced in 1948.
The WTO deals with regulation of trade between participating countries by providing a
framework for negotiating trade agreements and a dispute resolution process aimed at
enforcing participants' adherence to WTO agreements, which are signed by
representatives of member governments
Most of the issues that the WTO focuses on derive from previous trade negotiations,
especially from the Uruguay Round (19861994).
WTO member states represented 96.4% of global trade and 96.7% of global GDP.
1995
Members Observers
Members, dually represented by the EU Non-members

2017-03-20 13
1995
The WTO establishes a framework for trade policies:
Non-discrimination. It has two major components: the most favoured nation (MFN) rule,
and the national treatment policy.
The MFN rule requires that a WTO member must apply the same conditions on all
trade with other WTO members, i.e. a WTO member has to grant the most
favorable conditions under which it allows trade in a certain product type to all
other WTO members.
Exceptions to the MFN principle allow for preferential treatment of developing
countries, regional free trade areas and customs unions.
National treatment means that imported goods should be treated no less favorably
than domestically produced goods.
Reciprocity.
Transparency.
1995
Safety valves. The WTO's agreements permit members to take measures to protect not
only the environment but also public health, animal health and plant health.
The conflict between free trade on industrial goods and services but retention of
protectionism on farm subsidies to domestic agricultural sector (requested by
developed countries) and the substantiation of fair trade on agricultural products
(requested by developing countries) remain the major obstacles.

2017-03-20 14
1995
Geneva
Sustainable development and the protection and preservation of the environment are
fundamental goals of the WTO, as recognized in the preamble to the Marrakesh
Agreement that established the organization.
The WTO promotes more open trade with a view to achieving sustainable development.
It also provides WTO members with the flexibility they need to pursue environmental
and health objectives.
The WTO makes a distinction between trade measures with a genuine environmental
goal and measures that are intended as disguised restrictions and applied in an
unjustifiable and arbitrary manner.
The main objective of the WTO is to foster international trade and open markets but
WTO rules permit members to take trade-restricting measures to protect their
environment under specific conditions.
1995
Geneva
The WTO rule book permits governments to restrict trade when the objective is to
protect the environment.
The legality of such restrictive measures depends on a number of conditions, including
whether they constitute justifiable discrimination. These measures should not constitute
disguised protectionism.

2017-03-20 15
1995
Geneva
WTO jurisprudence has regularly reaffirmed members' right to determine their own
environmental objectives. If there are potential conflicts between international trade
and the protection of the environment, WTO agreements permit exceptions to general
trade principles.
Every member is free to determine its appropriate level of protection but must do so in
a coherent manner. If a country bans the importing of asbestos from one country, for
example, it must ban asbestos imports from all countries, as well as banning domestic
sales.
Countries may also use technical environmental standards or sanitary and phytosanitary
measures when pursuing their environmental objectives. They may, for instance,
impose labelling requirements on a certain category of products.
These technical standards could constitute an unfair obstacle to trade if they are applied
in a discriminatory manner or if they create unnecessary obstacles to trade. The WTO
encourages governments to apply international standards where they exist.
1995
World Summit for Social Development
Copenhagen
At the World Summit for Social Development, Governments reached a new consensus on
the need to put people at the centre of development.
Governments adopted the Copenhagen Declaration, the Programme of Action and the Ten
Commitments:
Create an economic, political, social, cultural and legal environment that will enable
people to achieve social development;
Eradicate absolute poverty by a target date to be set by each country;
Support full employment as a basic policy goal;
Promote social integration based on the enhancement and protection of all human
rights;
Achieve equality and equity between women and men;
Attain universal and equitable access to education and primary health care;
Accelerate the development of Africa and the least developed countries;
Ensure that structural adjustment programmes include social development goals;
Increase resources allocated to social development;
Strengthen cooperation for social development through the UN.

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1995
Fourth World Conference on Women
Beijing
The 1995 Fourth World Conference on Women marked a significant turning point for the
global agenda for gender equality.
The Beijing Declaration and the Platform for Action, adopted unanimously by 189
countries, is an agenda for womens empowerment and considered the key global policy
document on gender equality.
It sets strategic objectives and actions for the advancement of women and the
achievement of gender equality in 12 critical areas of concern:
Women and poverty Women in power and decision-making
Education and training of women Institutional mechanism for the
Women and health advancement of women
Violence against women Human rights of women
Women and armed conflict Women and the media
Women and the economy Women and the environment
The girl-child
1995
Fourth World Conference on Women
Strategic objective 1.
Involve women actively in environmental decision-making at all levels.
Integrate gender concerns and perspectives in policies and programmes for sustainable
development.
Strengthen or establish mechanisms at the national, regional, and international levels to
assess the impact of development and environmental policies on women.

2017-03-20 17
1995
Global Programme of Action for the Protection of
the Marine Environment from Land-based Activities
Washington, D.C., USA
The Global Programme of Action (GPA) was created in 1995 when over 108 governments
declared their commitment to protect and preserve the marine environment from the
impacts of land-based activities, through the Washington Declaration.
80% of the pollution entering the marine environment is coming from land-based sources.
The goal of GPA is to promote sustained and effective action to deal with all land-based
impacts upon the marine environment, specifically those resulting from sewage, persistent
organic pollutants, radioactive substances, heavy metals, oils (hydrocarbons), nutrients,
sediment mobilization, litter, and physical alteration and destruction of habitat, addressing
the connectivity between terrestrial, freshwater, coastal and marine ecosystems.
GPA aims to be a source of conceptual and practical guidance to be drawn upon by national
and/or regional authorities for devising and implementing sustained action to prevent,
reduce, control and/or eliminate marine degradation from land-based activities.
Regional Seas Programmes

The Regional Seas Programme (RSP) covers 18 regions of the world, for the protection of
marine and coastal environments
Antarctic, Arctic, Baltic, Black Sea, Caspian, Eastern Africa, East Asian Seas,
Mediterranean, North-East Atlantic, North-East Pacific, North-West Pacific, Pacific, Red
Sea and Gulf of Aden, ROPME Sea Area, South Asian Seas, South-East Pacific, Western
Africa and the Wider Caribbean.
Most of the Regional Seas Programmes function through action plans, which are adopted
by member governments in order to establish a comprehensive strategy and framework
for protecting the environment and promote sustainable development.
An action plan outlines the strategy and substance of the programme, based on the
region's particular environmental challenges as well as its socio-economic and political
situation.
Fourteen of the Regional Seas Programmes have also adopted legally-binding conventions
that express the commitment and political will of governments to tackle their common
environmental issues through joint coordinated activities. Most conventions have added
protocols , legal agreements addressing specific issues such as protected areas or land-
based pollution.

2017-03-20 18

Arctic
The Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy (AEPS) was
adopted in 1991.
The biggest concerns are the effects from long-range air
and sea transport of contaminants and certain human
activities such as interference with ancient animal
migration routs, oil and chemical spills into the sea, and
the unforeseen impacts from the climate change
causing the melting of the ice cover.
Many of these impacts will take a very long time to
reverse: the low temperatures mean slow chemical
breakdown of contaminants, whereas populations of
large mammals can be slow to recover.
Canada, Denmark (including Greenland and Faroe Islands), Finland, Iceland, Norway, Russian
Federation, Sweden and the United States.

Black Sea
The Convention on the Protection of the Black Sea
against Pollution was adopted in 1992.
87% of the sea water is naturally anoxic.
The Black Sea is highly sensitive to anthropogenic
impacts due to the huge catchment area and almost
landlocked nature. Every year, about 350 km3 of river
water pours into the Black Sea.
This water brings a variety of products originated from
the activity of more than 170 million people, who live in
Bulgaria, Georgia, Romania, some of the most populated areas of the 17 different
Russian Federation, Turkey, countries along river banks.
Ukraine
The sea continues to suffer from a long list of ailments:
pollution by land-based sources;
losses of biodiversity as a consequence of pollution,
invasive species and the destruction of habitats;
overexploitation of marine living resources leading
to a collapse of fisheries, etc, having a significant
impact on the ecosystem health.

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Caspian Sea
The Caspian Sea is the largest enclosed body of
water on Earth. It is a remnant of the ancient ocean
Tethis, which around 50 million years ago
connected the Atlantic and Pacific, but today it has
no connection to these oceans and its waters are
only slightly saline.
The Caspian Sea suffers from an enormous burden
of pollution from oil extraction and refining,
offshore oil fields, radioactive wastes from nuclear
power plants and huge volumes of untreated
sewage and industrial waste introduced mainly by
the Volga River.
Concern over the threats of the sea's environmental
Azerbaijan, Iran, Kazakhstan, health lead to the establishment of the Caspian
Russian Federation, Turkmenistan Environment Programme (CEP) in 1999.
CEP aims to halt the deterioration of the
environmental conditions of the Caspian Sea and
promote sustainable development in the area.

Red Sea & Gulf of Aden - PERSGA
Regional Convention for the Conservation of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden Environment
(Jeddah Convention): adopted in 1982, entered into force in 1985.
Action Plan for the Conservation of the Marine Environment and Coastal Areas of the Red
Sea and the Gulf of Aden: entered into force in 1995.
The Red Sea and Gulf of Aden region ecosystem
supports a rich biological diversity with a distinct high
proportion of endemism. Several locations and
species have global conservation merit, e.g. Socotra
Archipelago and the coral reef in the northern and
central parts of the Red Sea.
Major threats to the environment and coastal/
marine resources include habitat destruction; non-
sustainable use of living marine resources; navigation
risks and risks from petroleum production and
transport; urban and industrial hotspots; and rapid
expansion of coastal tourism. Other concerns may
Djibouti, Egypt, Jordan, Palestine, include the illegal disposal of pollutants by transiting
Saudi Arabia, Somalia, Sudan, Yemen. vessels.

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ROPME Sea Area Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman
The ROPME Sea Area is endowed with valuable natural resources and a great biodiversity of
plant and animal species. The wetlands, waterfowl, mangroves, fish, marine mammals, turtles,
corals and other forms of life are treasures of the region.
The impacts of land-based activities on the coastal waters are significant:
The municipal sewage and industrial effluents from such industries as petroleum refineries,
power, desalination and petrochemical plants are major contributors to pollution loads.
Dredging and reclamation activities are also a
permanent feature in many coastal areas with
tremendous damaging effects on the marine
environment.
Operational and accidental oil pollution is another
major challenge in the region. The impacts on the
marine environment by offshore oil installations,
particularly water, are enormous.
The operational pollution from ships and dumping
of ballast water are also among the main causes of
Bahrain, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar,
chronic oil pollution in the region.
Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates.

ROPME Sea Area Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman
In 1978, the eight Governments of the Region adopted the Kuwait Regional Convention for
Cooperation on the Protection of the Marine Environment from Pollution (Kuwait
Convention) and Action Plan that entered into force in 1979.
The objectives of the Convention are to prevent, abate, and combat pollution of the marine
environment from various sources of pollution, such as pollution from ships, pollution
caused by dumping from ships and aircrafts, pollution from land-based sources, pollution
resulting from exploration and exploitation of the bed of the territorial sea and its subsoil
and the continental shelf, pollution from other human activities, co-operation in dealing
with pollution Emergencies.

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Wider Caribbean
Antigua & Barbuda, Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominica,
Dominican Republic, France, Grenada, Guatemala, Guyana, Haiti, Honduras, Jamaica, Mexico,
Netherlands Antilles, Nicaragua, Panama, St Kitts & Nevis, Saint Lucia, St. Vincent & the
Grenadines, Suriname, Trinidad and Tobago, United Kingdom, United States of America,
Venezuela, European Economic Community.

Wider Caribbean
The Wider Caribbean Region (WCR) comprises the insular and coastal States and Territories
with coasts on the Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico as well as waters of the Atlantic Ocean
adjacent to these States and Territories and includes 28 island and continental countries.
The Caribbean Environment Programme (CEP) identified a number of pressing issues:
Land-based sources of municipal, industrial and agricultural wastes and run-off;
Over-exploitation of resources such as fish, molluscs and crustaceans;
Increasing urbanization and coastal development as populations and economies
expand;
Unsustainable agricultural and forestry practices and a profound need to strengthen
government and institutional capacity to address environmental problems.
The Caribbean Action Plan was adopted in 1981.
The action plan led to the adoption of a legal framework in 1983 the Convention for the
Protection and Development of the Marine Environment of the Wider Caribbean Region
(Cartagena Convention). The Convention entered into force in 1986.
Associated protocols concern:
Oil spills (adopted 1983, in force 1986),
Specially Protected Areas and Wildlife (adopted 1990, in force 2000), and
Pollution from Land-Based Sources and activities (adopted 1999, not yet in force).

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North-East Pacific Antigua Convention
The Central American coastline of the North-East Pacific hosts a variety of tropical and
subtropical habitats including mangrove swamps, productive fishing grounds, and species-
rich forests that extend to the water's edge.
Over 70% of the population of Central
America live on this drier Pacific side, and
so it is here where the environmental
pressures are the greatest.
Millions of people depend on these
ecosystems and their resources for food,
construction materials and income from
tourism-related industries.
In 2002 the Convention for Cooperation
in the Protection and Sustainable
Development of the Marine and Coastal
Environment of the North-East Pacific
(The Antigua Convention) was signed.
Colombia, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala,
Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama.

West and Central Africa
The coastal waters within the convention area contain
highly productive ecosystems that support rich fisheries.
The coastal area also supports coastal tourism,
industries and numerous busy ports. These ecosystems
provide an important livelihood for many coastal
communities.
The region has seen serious conflicts resulting in
immense human suffering and poverty. In the last three
decades the rapid development, improper use of
resources and extensive pollution has impacted
negatively on the coastal ecosystems.
Coastal erosion and floods are key problems, likely to be
exacerbated by climate change. Destruction of critical
habitats is wide spread in the convention area.
Angola, Benin, Cameroon, Cape Verde, Democratic
Republic of Congo, Cte d'Ivoire, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon,
Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Liberia,
Mauritania, Namibia, Nigeria, Sao Tome e Principe, Senegal,
Sierra Leone, Togo, and South Africa.

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West and Central Africa
Convention for Co-operation in the protection and Development of the Marine and Coastal
Environment of the West and Central African Region (Abidjan Convention), adopted in
1981 and entered into force in 1984.
Action Plan for the protection and Development of the Marine Environment and Coastal
Areas of the West and Central African Region.
Protocol Concerning Co-operation in Combating Pollution in Cases of Emergency.

Western Indian Ocean Eastern African Region
The Nairobi Convention for the Protection,
Management and Development of the Marine and
Coastal Environment of the Eastern African Region
was signed in 1985 and came into force in 1996.
It was revised in 2010.
Comoros, France, Kenya, Madagascar,

Mauritius , Mozambique , Seychelles,
Somalia, South Africa, Tanzania

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South Asian Seas
The region has some of the largest and biologically rich marine ecosystems, such as the Gulf
of Mannar, Atolls of Maldives and Mangroves of Sundarbans. The presence of perennial
rivers such as the Brahmaputra, Ganges, Godavari, Indus, Kelani, Magna, etc. have
contributed to large networks of backwaters, estuaries, salt marshes and mangroves.
The SAS provides habitats for endangered species such as
marine turtles. Some of the largest coastal lagoons of the world
such as Chilka Lake in India and Puttalam lagoon in Sri Lanka
are located within the region. It has one of the world's finest
coral ecosystems, with atolls constituting the entire country of
Maldives.
The environmental problem the region faces are all too
mundane: expanding human populations, oil transport across
the Arabian Sea, heavy use of agricultural and industrial
chemicals, harmful fishing practices, and ill-planned land use.
Bangladesh, India, Maldives,

Pakistan, Sri Lanka.

South Asian Seas
The South Asian Seas Action Plan was adopted in 1995 and entered into force in 1997. The
SASAP identified four specific areas:
Integrated Coastal Zone Management;
Development and Implementation of National and Regional Oil Spill Contingency Plan;
Human Resources Development through Strengthening Regional Centres of Excellence; and
Protection of the Marine and Coastal Environment from Land Based Activities.

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East Asian Seas
The Action Plan for the Protection and
Development of the Marine and Coastal Areas of
the East Asian Region was approved in 1981 and
was initially sub-regional, involving only five
countries of ASEAN with five more welcomed in
1994.
East Asias astonishing variety of political, economic
and social systems is matched by its environment:
ship-crowded straits, island groups, wide gulfs,
shallow estuaries and some of the most heavily
populated countries in the world, where millions
rely on fish for much of their protein.
The threats to the region are just as varied,
including erosion and siltation from land
development, logging and mining, blast fishing in
coral reefs, conversion of mangroves, overfishing,
Australia, Cambodia, China, Indonesia, unimpeded coastal development and disposal of
Korea, Malaysia, Philippines, untreated wastes..
Singapore, Thailand, Vietnam.

Northwest Pacific
The Northwest Pacific Region is vast and features a large variety of marine and coastal
ecosystems, from cold and deep-water ecosystems in the north, to coral reefs in the south.
It has spectacular marine life and commercially important fishing and mariculture grounds
and rich offshore mineral resources such as oil.
Coastal development, industry, transport, oil production and activities such as land
reclamation and intensive mariculture take an ever-greater toll on coastal ecosystems.
Chemical and industrial wastes, untreated
municipal sewage, agricultural pesticides and
nutrients in run-off cause widespread damage
and stimulate eutrophication and harmful
algal blooms. Added to these are pollution
from land, accidental oil spills, atmospheric
pollution and marine and coastal litter..
The Action Plan for the Protection,
Management and Development of the Marine
and Coastal Environment of the Northwest
Peoples Republic of China, Republic of Korea, Pacific Region was adopted in 1994.
Japan, Russian Federation.

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South Pacific
Australia, Cook Islands, Fiji,
France, Kiribati, Marshall Islands ,
Federated States of Micronesia,
Nauru, New Zealand, Niue, Palau,
Papua New Guinea, Samoa,
Solomon Islands, Tonga, Tuvalu,
United States of America,
Vanuatu.
Territories: American Samoa
(US), Commonwealth of the
Northern Mariana Islands (US),
Guam (US), French Polynesia (F),
New Caledonia (F), Wallis and
Futuna (F), Tokelau (NZ)
..
Convention for the Protection of Natural Resources and Environment of the South Pacific
Region (Noumea Convention). Adopted in 1986, entered into force in 1990.
Protocol for the Prevention of Pollution of the South Pacific Region by Dumping.

South-East Pacific
The South-East Pacific region spans the entire length of the Pacific coast
of South America from Panama to Cape Horn, encompassing tropical,
sub-tropical, temperate and subantarctic systems.
In spite of this astounding diversity, the region's five countries find
themselves united by two overwhelming natural phenomena known as
Large Marine Ecosystems:
that dominated by the cold, nutrient-rich Humboldt Current-with
the largest upwelling system in the world supporting on e of the
world's most productive fishing grounds- and
that of the Eastern Equatorial Pacific.
However, the region is under threat from coastal and marine
degradation by land-based and marine-based sources of pollution and
other forms of environmental degradation.
Chile, Peru, Ecuador,

Colombia and Panama.

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South-East Pacific
In addition, the region is regularly disrupted by the El Nio-Southern Oscillation (ENSO)
phenomenon, which originates in the equatorial Pacific, producing dramatic upheavals in
local, and ultimately global, climatic conditions.
El Nio influences everything from the weather to marine ecosystems to human
livelihoods, and its enormous social and economic impacts are felt around the world.
The Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment and Coastal Zones of the
South-East Pacific (Lima Convention) and its associated protocols were adopted in 1981,
together with the South-East Pacific Action Plan.
The associated protocols concern:
1. Agreement on Regional Cooperation in Combating Pollution in the South East Pacific
by Hydrocarbons and other Harmful Substances in cases of Emergency;
2. Protocol for the Protection of the South East Pacific Against Pollution from Land-
Based Sources;
3. Protocol for the Conservation and Management of Protected Marine and Coastal
Areas of the South East Pacific; and
4. Protocol for the Protection of the South East Pacific from Radioactive Pollution .

Antarctic
Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine
Living Resources (CCAMLR) came into force in 1982.
Antarctica's resources have been harvested for about
200 years. In many cases the intense level of
exploitation resulted in the severe depletion of
harvested stocks, as was the case for fur and elephant
seals in the 19th century, and whales and finfish in the
20th century.
Concerns raised in the mid -1970s that an increase in
krill catches in the Southern Ocean could have a serious
effect on populations of krill and other marine life;
particularly on birds, seals and fish , which depend on
krill for food.
Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Brazil, Bulgaria, Canada, Chile, Finland, France, Germany ,
Greece, India, Italy, Japan, Korea, Republic of Namibia, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway,
Peru, Poland, Russian Federation, South Africa, Spain, Sweden, Ukraine, United Kingdom,
United States of America, Uruguay, Vanuatu and the European Community.

2017-03-20 28
1996
Summit of the Americas on
Santa Cruz de la Sierra, Bolivia
The objectives of the Summit were to establish a common vision for the future
according to the concepts of sustainable development.
The Summit resulted in 98 mandates focusing on Health and Education; Sustainable
Agriculture and Forestry; Sustainable Cities and Communities; Water Resources and
Coastal Areas; and Energy and Minerals.
The general consensus on the concept of including economic, social and environmental
elements within an understanding of sustainable development was the most important
achievement of the Summit.
Consensus was also reached on other issues such as a financial resources, technology
transfers, division of responsibilities, cooperation and Biodiversity.
1996
ISO 14001
ISO 14001 sets out the criteria for Environmental Management Systems (EMS).
ISO 14001, as with other ISO 14000 standards, is voluntary , with its main aim to assist
companies in continually improving their environmental performance, while complying
with any applicable legislation.
ISO 14001 does not state requirements for environmental performance, but maps out a
framework that a company or organization can follow to set up an effective EMS.
Organizations are responsible for setting their own targets and performance measures,
with the standard serving to assist them in meeting objectives and goals and in the
subsequent monitoring and measurement of these.
It can be used by any organization that wants to improve resource efficiency, reduce
waste, and drive down costs.
Using ISO 14001 can provide assurance to company management and employees as well
as external stakeholders that environmental impact is being measured and improved.
ISO 14001 can also be integrated with other management functions and assists
companies in meeting their environmental and economic goals.

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ISO
International Organization for
Standardization
ISO, the International Organization for Standardization, is an independent organization,
founded in 1947. Its members are the standards organization of the 164 member countries.
It is the world's largest developer of voluntary international standards and facilitates world
trade by providing common standards between nations. Nearly twenty thousand standards
have been set covering everything from manufactured products and technology to food
safety, agriculture and healthcare.
ISO member countries.

Correspondent members (countries
without a national standards body).
Subscriber members (countries with small
economies).
Non-member countries
1996
ISO 14001
The standard can be applied to a variety of levels in the business, from organizational
level, right down to the product and service level. Rather than focusing on exact
measures and goals of environmental performance, the standard highlights what an
organization needs to do to meet these goals .
ISO 14001 is known as a generic management system standard, meaning that it is
relevant to any organization seeking to improve and manage resources more effectively.
This includes:
single-site to large multi-national companies
high-risk companies to low-risk service organizations
manufacturing, process, and the service industries, including local governments
all industry sectors including public and private sectors
original equipment manufacturers and their suppliers.

2017-03-20 30
1996
ISO 14001
The basic principles for the implementation of ISO
14001 are based on the Plan-Do-Check-Act cycle:
Plan: establish objectives and processes required.
Prior to implementing ISO 14001, an initial review or
gap analysis of the organizations processes and
products is recommended, to assist in identifying all
elements of the current operation and, if possible,
future operations, that may interact with the
environment.
Environmental aspects can include both direct, such as
those used during manufacturing, and indirect, such as
raw materials.
This review assists the organization in establishing their
environmental objectives, goals, and targets, which
should ideally be measurable; helps with the
development of control and management procedures
and processes; and serves to highlight any relevant legal
requirement, which can then be built into the policy.
1996
ISO 14001
Do: implement the processes.
During this stage, the organization identifies the
resources required and works out those members of
the organization responsible for the EMS
implementation and control.
This includes establishing procedures and processes,
although only one documented procedure is specified
related to operational control.
Other procedures are required to foster better
management control over elements such as
documentation control, emergency preparedness and
response, and the education of employees, to ensure
that they can competently implement the necessary
processes and record results.
Communication and participation across all levels of the
organization, especially top management, is a vital part
of the implementation phase, with the effectiveness of
the EMS being dependent on active involvement from
all employees.

2017-03-20 31
1996
ISO 14001
Check: measure and monitor the processes and report

results.
During the 'check' stage, performance is monitored and
periodically measured to ensure that the organizations
environmental targets and objectives are being met.
In addition, internal audits are conducted at planned
intervals to ascertain whether the EMS meets the user's
expectations and whether the processes and
procedures are being adequately maintained and
monitored.
1996
ISO 14001
Act: take action to improve performance of EMS based

on results
After the checking stage, a management review is
conducted to ensure that the objectives of the EMS are
being met, the extent to which they are being met, and
that communications are being appropriately managed;
and to evaluate changing circumstances, such as legal
requirements, in order to make recommendations for
further improvement of the system.
These recommendations are incorporated through
continual improvement: plans are renewed or new
plans are made, and the EMS moves forward.

2017-03-20 32
1996
ISO 14001
Benefits
ISO 14001 was developed primarily to assist companies with a framework for better
management control that can result in reducing their environmental impacts.
In addition to improvements in performance, organizations can obtain a number of
economic benefits including higher conformance with legislative and regulatory
requirements.
By minimizing the risk of regulatory and environmental liability fines and improving an
organizations efficiency, benefits can include a reduction in waste, consumption of
resources, and operating costs.
Secondly, as an internationally recognized standard, businesses operating in multiple
locations across the globe can leverage their conformance to ISO 14001, eliminating the
need for multiple registrations or certifications.
Thirdly, there has been a push in the last decade by consumers for companies to adopt
better internal controls, making the incorporation of ISO 14001 a smart approach for the
long-term viability of businesses.
1996
ISO 14001
Benefits
The incorporation of ISO 14001 can provide companies with a competitive advantage
against companies that do not adopt the standard. This in turn can have a positive impact
on a companys asset value . It can lead to improved public perceptions of the business,
placing them in a better position to operate in the international marketplace (Potoki &
Prakash 1997; Sheldon 1997).
The use of ISO 14001 can demonstrate an innovative and forward-thinking approach to
customers and prospective employees. It can increase a businesss access to new customers
and business partners.
In some markets it can potentially reduce public liability insurance costs.
It can serve to reduce trade barriers between registered businesses.
There is growing interest in including certification to ISO 14001 in tenders for public-private
partnerships for infrastructure renewal.
Evidence of value in terms of environmental quality and benefit to the taxpayer has been
shown in highway projects in Canada.

2017-03-20 33
1996
ISO 14001
Conformity Assessment
ISO 14001 can be used in whole or in part to help an organization (for-profit or not-for-
profit) better manage its relationship with the environment. If all the elements of ISO 14001
are incorporated into the management process, the organization may opt to prove that it
has achieved full alignment or conformity with the international standard, ISO 14001, by
using one of four recognized options:
1. make a self-determination and self-declaration, or
2. seek confirmation of its conformance by parties having an interest in the organization,
such as customers, or
3. seek confirmation of its self-declaration by a party external to the organization, or
4. seek certification/registration of its EMS by an external organization.
ISO does not control conformity assessment; its mandate is to develop and maintain
standards. ISO has a neutral policy on conformity assessment. One option is not better than
the next. Each option serves different market needs. The adopting organization decides
which option is best for them, in conjunction with their market needs.
1996
ISO 14001
Conformity Assessment
Option 1 (make a self-determination and self-declaration) is sometimes incorrectly referred
to as "self-certify" or "self-certification". The user is responsible for making their own
determination.
Option 2 (seek confirmation of its conformance by parties having an interest in the
organization, such as customers) is often referred to as a customer or 2nd-party audit,
which is an acceptable market term.
Option 3 (seek confirmation of its self-declaration by a party external to the organization) is
an independent third-party process by an organization that is based on an engagement
activity and delivered by specially trained practitioners. This option is now based on an
international accounting standard.
Option 4 (seek certification/registration of its EMS by an external organization) is another
independent third-party process, which has been widely implemented by all types of
organizations. Certification is also known in some countries as registration. Service providers
of certification or registration are accredited by national accreditation services.

2017-03-20 34
1996
ISO 14001 EMAS
The Eco-Management and Audit Scheme (EMAS) is a voluntary environmental management
instrument developed in 1993 by the European Commission. It is a predecessor of
ISO14001. EMAS Regulation was revised in 2001 (EMAS II) and in 2010 (EMAS III).
It enables organizations to assess, manage and continuously improve their environmental
performance. The scheme is globally applicable and open to all types of private and public
organizations.
Currently, more than 4,600 organisations and more than 7,900 sites are EMAS registered.
All organisations listed in the EMAS-Register run an environmental management system
according to the EMAS requirements. Because ISO 14001 is an integral part of EMAS, these
organisations automatically comply with the requirements that the international standard
demands as well. However, EMAS registered organisations fulfil requirements that go
beyond the scope of ISO 14001.
1996
ISO 14001 EMAS
ISO 14001

2017-03-20 35
1996
ISO 14001 EMAS
EMAS registered organisations demonstrate:
1. Credibility: the proper implementation of EMAS is assessed by qualified and
independent environmental verifiers.
2. Transparency: by periodically reporting on their environmental performance. Those
reports include information on key performance indicators. The reports must be
validated by an environmental verifier.
3. Continuous improvement process: by committing themselves to continuous
improvement of their actual environmental performance. This performance is also
evaluated by an environmental verifier. ISO 14001 only requires improving the
environmental management system itself.
4. Compliance: by fully complying with applicable environmental legislation.
5. Stakeholder engagement: by involving employees and other stakeholders in order to
benefit from their commitment, ideas, skills and experiences.
1997
Treaty of Amsterdam on the
European Community
Strengthened the legal basis for greater environmental protection and the promotion of
sustainable development across the EU
Article 2 Sustainable Development
The Community shall have as its task, by establishing a common market and an
economic and monetary union and by implementing common policies or activities
referred to in Articles 3 and 4, to promote throughout the Community a harmonious,
balanced and sustainable development of economic activities, a high level of
employment and of social protection, equality between men and women, sustainable
and non-inflationary growth, a high degree of competitiveness and convergence of
economic performance, a high level of protection and improvement of the quality of the
environment, the raising of the standard of living and quality of life, and economic and
social cohesion and solidarity among Member States.
Article 3(1)(l) policy in sphere of environment

2017-03-20 36
1997
Treaty of Amsterdam on the
European Community
New Article 6 environmental protection requirements must be integrated into the
definition and implementation of other Community policies and activities , with a view
to promoting sustainable development
Articles 174, 175 and 176.
Aims of the European Community environmental policy are:
preserving, protecting and improving the quality of the environment;
protecting human health;
prudent and rational utilization of natural resources;
promoting measures at international level to deal with regional or worldwide
environmental problems.
1997
Rio + 5
Special Session of the General Assembly to
Review and Appraise the Implementation of
Agenda 21
United Nations, New York
Five years after the 1992 Rio Conference the United Nations General Assembly meeting
in special session reviewed the progress on the implementation of the decisions
adopted and took stock of how well countries, international organizations and sectors of
civil society have responded to the challenges of the 1992 Earth Summit.
It was recognized that the overall trends with respect to sustainable development were
worse in 1997 than they were in 1992. It was emphasized that the implementation of
Agenda 21 in a comprehensive manner remains vitally important and is more urgent
then than ever.
The Programme for the Further Implementation of Agenda 21 was adopted.

2017-03-20 37
1997
Rio + 5
Sustainable development strategies
Sustainable development strategies are important mechanisms for enhancing and linking
national capacity so as to bring together priorities in social, economic and environmental
policies.
Economic sectors, such as industry, agriculture, energy, transport and tourism, must take
responsibility for the impact of their activities on human well-being and the physical
environment. In the context of good governance, properly constructed strategies can
enhance prospects for economic growth and employment and at the same time protect
the environment. All sectors of society should be involved in their development and
implementation, as follows:
(a) By the year 2002, the formulation and elaboration of national strategies for sustainable
development that reflect the contributions and responsibilities of all interested parties
should be completed in all countries, with assistance provided, through international
cooperation, taking into account the special needs of the least developed countries.
1997
Rio + 5
Sustainable development strategies
(b) In integrating economic, social and environmental objectives, it is important that a
broad package of policy instruments, including regulation, economic instruments,
internalization of environmental costs in market prices, environmental and social impact
analysis, and information dissemination, be worked out in the light of country-specific
conditions to ensure that integrated approaches are effective and cost-efficient.
To this end, a transparent and participatory process should be promoted, with the
involvement of national legislative assemblies, as well as all actors of civil society.
(c) The implementation of policies aiming at sustainable development, including combating
poverty (chapter 3 of Agenda 21) and strengthening the role of workers and their trade
unions (chapter 29 of Agenda 21), may enhance the opportunities for job creation, thus
helping to achieve the fundamental goal of eradicating poverty.

2017-03-20 38
1997
Kyoto Protocol
Kyoto, Japan
The Kyoto Protocol is an international agreement linked to the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change, which commits its Parties by setting
internationally binding emission reduction targets.
Recognizing that developed countries are principally responsible for the current high
levels of GHG emissions in the atmosphere as a result of more than 150 years of
industrial activity, the Protocol places a heavier burden on developed nations under the
principle of "common but differentiated responsibilities."
The Kyoto Protocol entered into force in February 2005. The detailed rules for the
implementation of the Protocol were adopted at COP 7 in Marrakesh, Morocco, in 2001,
and are referred to as the Marrakesh Accords.
The first commitment period of the Protocol started in 2008 and ended in 2012.
1997
Convention on the Law of the Non-Navigational
Uses of International Watercourses
United Nations, New York
The Convention on the Law of Non-Navigational Uses of International Watercourses is an
international treaty pertaining to the uses and conservation of all waters that cross
international boundaries, including both surface and groundwater.
"Mindful of increasing demands for water and the impact of human behavior", the
Convention aims to help conserve and manage water resources for present and future
generations.
The Convention took more than 17 years to enter into force on 17 August 2014.
With the Convention having been ratified by just 36 states, the majority of countries,
especially the key ones, remain outside its scope (e.g. USA, Canada, Mexico, Brasil,
Argentina, Chile, Colombia, Venezuela, Poland, Russia, Israel, China, India, Paquistan).
The convention, however, is regarded as an important step in establishing international law
governing water (e.g. the Gabkovo-Nagymaros case).

2017-03-20 39
1997
Great Pacific Garbage Patch
Charles J. Moore, returning home through the North Pacific Gyre after competing in a
sailing race in 1999, came upon an enormous stretch of floating debris. Moore alerted the
oceanographer Curtis Ebbesmeyer, who subsequently dubbed the region the "Eastern
Garbage Patch. The patch is not easily visible, because it consists of very small pieces that
are almost invisible to the naked eye. Most of its contents are suspended beneath the
surface of the ocean, and the relatively low density of the plastic debris is 5.1 kg/km2 of
ocean area
The Great Pacific garbage patch,
also described as the Pacific
trash vortex, is a gyre of marine
debris particles in the central
North Pacific Ocean The patch
extends over an indeterminate
area, with estimates ranging
very widely depending on the
degree of plastic concentration
used to define the affected area.
1997
The patch is characterized by exceptionally high relative concentrations of pelagic
plastics, chemical sludge and other debris that have been trapped by the currents of the
North Pacific Gyre.
Despite its enormous size and density (4 particles per cubic meter), the patch is not
visible from satellite photography, nor is it necessarily detectable to casual boaters or
divers in the area, as it consists primarily of a small increase in suspended, often
microscopic particles in the upper water column.
Unlike organic debris, which biodegrades, the photodegraded plastic disintegrates into
ever smaller pieces while remaining a polymer.
This process continues down to the molecular level. As the plastic flotsam photodegrades
into smaller and smaller pieces, it concentrates in the upper water column.
As it disintegrates, the plastic ultimately becomes small enough to be ingested by aquatic
organisms that reside near the ocean's surface. In this way, plastic may become
concentrated in neuston, thereby entering the food chain.

2017-03-20 40
1997
Besides the particles' danger to wildlife, on the microscopic level the floating debris can
absorb organic pollutants from seawater, including PCBs, DDT, and PAHs.
Aside from toxic effects, when ingested, some of these are mistaken by the endocrine
system, causing hormone disruption in the affected animal.
These toxin-containing plastic pieces are also eaten by jellyfish, which are then eaten by
larger fish and marine mamals.
Many of these fish are then consumed by humans, resulting in their ingestion of toxic
chemicals.
Marine plastics also facilitate the spread of invasive species that attach to floating plastic
in one region and drift long distances to colonize other ecosystems.
On the macroscopic level, the physical size of the plastic kills whales, fish, birds and
turtles as the animals' digestion can not break down the plastic that is taking up space
inside their stomachs.
A second effect of the macroscopic plastic is to make it much more difficult for animals to
detect their normal sources of food. While eating their normal source of food, plastic
ingestion can be unavoidable.

2017-03-20 41

2017-03-20 42
EVOLUTION OF
Part 7
1989
Basel Convention on the Control of
Transboundary Movements of Hazardous
Wastes and Their Disposal
Basel, Switzerland
The Basel Convention was designed to reduce the movements of hazardous waste between
nations, and specifically to prevent transfer of hazardous waste from developed to less
developed countries (LDCs).
It does not address the movement of radioactive waste.
The Convention is also intended to minimize the amount and toxicity of wastes generated, to
ensure their environmentally sound management as closely as possible to the source of
generation, and to assist LDCs in environmentally sound management of the hazardous and
other wastes they generate.
The Convention entered into force in 1992.
186 states and the European Union are parties to the Convention.
Haiti and the United States have signed the Convention but did not ratify it.

2017-03-22 1
1991
Bamako Convention on the Ban on the Import
into Africa and the Control of Transboundary
Movement and Management of Hazardous Wastes
within Africa
Bamako, Mali
The Bamako Convention is a treaty of African nations prohibiting the import of any
hazardous (including radioactive) waste. The Convention came into force in 1998.
Impetus for the Bamako Convention arose from the failure of the Basel Convention to
prohibit trade of hazardous waste to less developed countries (LDCs), and from the
realization that many developed nations were exporting toxic wastes to Africa.
This impression was strengthened by several prominent cases.
One important case occurred in 1987, concerned the importation into Nigeria of 18,000
barrels (2,900 m3) of hazardous waste from the Italian companies Ecomar and Jelly Wax,
which had agreed to pay to a local farmer $100 per month for storage.
The barrels, found in storage in the port of Koko, contained toxic waste, including
polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and their eventual shipment back to Italy led to protests
closing three Italian ports.
1991
Bamako Convention on the Ban on the Import
into Africa and the Control of Transboundary
Movement and Management of Hazardous Wastes
within Africa
The Bamako Convention uses a format and language similar to that of the Basel Convention,
but is much stronger in prohibiting all imports of hazardous waste.
Additionally, it does not make exceptions on certain hazardous wastes (like those for
radioactive materials) made by the Basel Convention.

2017-03-22 2
1993
Toxics Action Aluminium Slag
Portugal / Switzerland
Setbal, Portugal
The aluminium slag was originally sent to Portugal from Switzerland to be recycled.
However the facilities were not available and 30 000 tons of hazardous waste were dumped
in the open unprotected since 1987.
The waste is endangering the environmental of the Portuguese City Setubal.
Already several times Portugal demanded the Swiss authorities to provide for the return of
the hazardous waste which Refonda, a subsidiary of Alu-Suisse, has transported illegaly to
Portugal.
But the Federal Office for the Environment fails to act and Refonda shirks its responsibility.
Greenpeace activists collected 10 tons of aluminium slag from a Portugese waste dump and
spent three days transporting it to the Swiss/French border (November 4th till 7th).
Greenpeace submit accusation against both of them.
1993
Toxics Action Aluminium Slag
Portugal / Switzerland
SWITZERLAND DEPOSITS THEIR WASTE

ILLEGALY IN PORTUGAL.
ALU-SUISSE RECYCLING IS FRAUD.
HAZARDOUS WASTE BACK TO SENDER!

2017-03-22 3
1998
Convention on the Prior Informed Consent (PIC)
Procedure for Certain Hazardous Chemicals and
Pesticides in International Trade
Rotherdam, The Netherlands
The Convention covers pesticides and industrial chemicals that have been banned or severely
restricted for health or environmental reasons by Parties and which have been notified by
Parties for inclusion in the PIC procedure.
Once a chemical is included in Annex III, a "decision guidance document" (DGD) containing
information concerning the chemical and the regulatory decisions to ban or severely restrict the
chemical for health or environmental reasons, is circulated to all Parties.
Parties have nine months to prepare a response concerning the future import of the chemical.
The response can consist of either a final decision (to allow import of the chemical, not to allow
import, or to allow import subject to specified conditions) or an interim response. Decisions by
an importing country must be trade neutral (that is, decisions must apply equally to domestic
production for domestic use as well as to imports from any source).
The import decisions are circulated and exporting country Parties are obligated to take
appropriate measure to ensure that exporters within its jurisdiction comply with the decisions.
1998
Convention on the Prior Informed Consent (PIC)
The Convention promotes the exchange of information through:
the requirement for a Party to inform other Parties of each national ban or severe restriction
of a chemical;
the possibility for Party which is a developing country or a country in transition to inform
other Parties that it is experiencing problems caused by a severely hazardous pesticide
formulation under conditions of use in its territory;
the requirement for a Party that plans to export a chemical that is banned or severely
restricted for use within its territory, to inform the importing Party that such export will take
place, before the first shipment and annually thereafter;
the requirement for an exporting Party, when exporting chemicals that are to be used for
occupational purposes, to ensure that an up-to-date safety data sheet is sent to the
importer; and
labeling requirements for exports of chemicals included in the PIC procedure, as well as for
other chemicals that are banned or severely restricted in the exporting country.

2017-03-22 4
1998
Convention on the Prior Informed Consent
The Convention promotes open exchange of information and calls on exporters of hazardous
chemicals to use proper labeling, include directions on safe handling, and inform purchasers of
any known restrictions or bans.
Signatory nations can decide whether to allow or ban the importation of chemicals listed in the
treaty, and exporting countries are obliged to make sure that producers within their jurisdiction
comply.
The Convention has 157 parties, which includes 156 states and the European Union. Non-
member states include the United States, Turkey, Iraq, and Angola.
1998
Convention on Access to Information, Public
Participation in Decision-making and Access to
Justice in Environmental Matters
UNECE, Aarhus, Denmark
The UNECE Convention on Access to Information, Public Participation in Decision-
making and Access to Justice in Environmental Matters, the Aarhus Convention, was
signed in 1998 and entered into force in 2001.
Today it has 47 parties - 46 states and the European Union.
The Aarhus Convention grants the public rights regarding access to information, public
participation and access to justice, in governmental decision-making processes on
matters concerning the local, national and transboundary environment. It focuses on
interactions between the public and public authorities on environmental democracy
that put Principle 10 of the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development in
practice.
The Aarhus Convention is a rights-based approach: the public, both in the present and in
future generations, have the right to know and to live in a healthy environment.

2017-03-22 5
1998
Aarhus Convention
A distinction is made between "the public", all the civil society's actors, and the "public
concerned" precisely, those persons or organisations affected or interested in
environmental decision-making (e.g. environmental NGOs).
"Public authorities" are the addressees of the convention, namely, governments,
international institutions, and privatized bodies that have public responsibilities or act
under the control of public bodies. The private sector, for which information disclosure
depends on voluntary, non- mandatory practices, and bodies acting in a judicial or
legislative capacity, are excluded.
Other significant provisions are the "non-discrimination" principle (all the information
has to be provided without taking account of the nationality or citizenship of the
applicant), the international nature of the convention, and the importance attributed to
the promotion of environmental education of the public.
1998
Aarhus Convention
The Three Pillars
Access to information: any citizen should have the right to get a wide and easy access to
environmental information. Public authorities must provide all the information required
and collect and disseminate them and in a timely and transparent manner. They can
refuse to do it only under particular situations (such as national defence, trade secret,
personal information );
Public participation in decision making: the public must be informed over all the
relevant projects and it has to have the chance to participate during the decision-making
and legislative process. Decision makers can take advantage from people's knowledge
and expertise; this contribution is a strong opportunity to improve the quality of the
environmental decisions, outcomes and to guarantee procedural legitimacy.
Access to justice: the public has the right to judicial or administrative recourse
procedures in case a Party violates or fails to adhere to environmental law and the
convention's principles.

2017-03-22 6
1998
Aarhus Convention
Protocol on Pollutant Release and Transfer Registers (PRTR).
The Protocol is the first legally binding international instrument on pollutant release and
transfer registers (PRTRs). PRTRs are inventories of pollution from industrial sites and other
sources.
Its objective is to enhance public access to information through the establishment of
coherent, nationwide pollutant release and transfer registers (PRTRs).
Although regulating information on pollution, rather than pollution directly, the Protocol is
expected to exert a significant downward pressure on levels of pollution, as no company will
want to be identified as among the biggest polluters.
1998
Aarhus Convention
Protocol on Pollutant Release and Transfer Registers (PRTR).
The Protocol requires each Party to establish a PRTR which is:
publicly accessible through Internet, free of charge
searchable according to separate parameters (facility, pollutant, location, medium,
etc.);
user-friendly in its structure and provide links to other relevant registers;
presents standardized, timely data on a structured, computerized database;
covers releases and transfers of at least 86 pollutants covered by the Protocol, such as
greenhouse gases, acid rain pollutants, ozone-depleting substances, heavy metals, and
certain carcinogens, such as dioxins;
covers releases and transfers from certain types of major point sources (e.g. thermal
power stations, mining and metallurgical industries, chemical plants, waste and waste-
water treatment plants, paper and timber industries);
accommodates available data on releases from diffuse sources (e.g. transport and
agriculture);
has limited confidentiality provisions; and
allows for public participation in its development and modification.

2017-03-22 7
1998
Controversy over genetically modified organisms
(GMO)
A genetically modified organism (GMO), or transgenic organism, is any organism whose
genetic material has been altered using genetic engineering techniques.
GMOs are the source of medicines and genetically modified foods and are also widely used
in scientific research and to produce other goods.
Genetically modified food controversies are disputes over the use of foods and other goods
derived from genetically modified crops instead of conventional crops, and other uses of
genetic engineering in food production. The dispute involves consumers, farmers,
biotechnology companies, governmental regulators, non-governmental organizations, and
scientists.
The key areas of controversy related to genetically modified food (GMO food) are whether
such food should be labeled, the role of government regulators, the objectivity of scientific
research and publication, the effect of genetically modified crops on health and the
environment, the effect on pesticide resistance, the impact of such crops for farmers, and
the role of the crops in feeding the world population.
1998
(GMO)
While there is concern among the public that eating genetically modified food may be
harmful, there is general scientific agreement that food on the market derived from these
crops poses no greater risk to human health than conventional food.
No reports of ill effects have been documented in the human population from genetically
modified food.
Scientists tend be more concerned about the potential for genetically modified organisms to
cause ecological damage.
Although labeling of genetically modified organism (GMO) products in the marketplace is
required in many countries, it is not required in the United States or Canada and no
distinction between marketed GMO and non-GMO foods is recognized by the U.S. Food and
Drug Administration.
Opponents of genetically modified food, such as Greenpeace, say risks have not been
adequately identified and managed, and they have questioned the objectivity of regulatory
authorities.

2017-03-22 8
1998
(GMO)
Some medical groups say there are unanswered questions regarding the potential long-term
impact on human health from food derived from GMOs, and propose mandatory labeling or
a moratorium on such products.
Concerns include mixing of genetically modified and non-genetically modified products in
the food supply, effects of GMOs on the environment, the rigor of the regulatory process,
and consolidation of control of the food supply in companies that make and sell GMOs.
In 2014, 64 countries required labeling of all GM foods: the European Union, Japan,
Australia, New Zealand, Russia, China and India.
1998
(GMO)
Litigation
In the 1990s a series of unrelated food crises in Europe created consumer apprehension
about food safety in general and eroded public trust in government oversight. A bovine
spongiform encephalopathy outbreak was the most publicized.
In 1998, a de facto moratorium led to the suspension of approvals of new GMOs in the EU
pending the adoption of revised rules.
In the mid-1990s, government approval of some GMO crops in the United States
precipitated public concern in Europe and led to a dramatic decrease in American exports to
Europe. Prior to 1997, corn exports to Europe represented about 4% of total US corn
exports, generating about $300 million in sales....For example, before 1997, the U.S. sold
about 1.75 million tons of corn annually to Spain and Portugal....But in the 199899 crop
year, Spain bought less than a tenth of the previous years amount and Portugal bought
none at all.

2017-03-22 9
1998
(GMO)
Litigation
In May 2003, the US filed a formal complaint with the World Trade Organization that the EU
was violating international trade agreements, by blocking imports of US farm products
through its ban on GM food.
It was argued that the EU's regulatory process was far too slow and its standards were
unreasonable given the scientific evidence showing that the crops were safe.
In response, in July 2003, the European Parliament agreed to new regulations requiring
labeling and traceability, as well as an opt-out provision for individual countries. The
approval of new GMOs resumed in May 2004.
While GMOs have been approved since then, approvals remain controversial and various
countries have utilized opt-out provisions. In 2006, the World Trade Organization ruled that
the pre-2004 restrictions had been violations, although the ruling had little immediate effect
since the moratorium had already been lifted.
20 out of 28 European Countries (including Switzerland) said No to GMOs until October
2015.
1998
Aznalcllar Disaster
The Aznalcollar Disaster, also known as the Doana Disaster or Guadiamar Disaster, was
an industrial accident in Andalusia, southern Spain.
On April 25, 1998, a tailings dam failure of the Los Frailes lead-zinc mine at Aznalcllar
near Seville, Spain, released 4 to 5 million cubic meters of toxic tailings slurries and liquid
into nearby River Agrio. The slurry wave covered several thousand hectares of farmland,
and it threatens the Doana National Park, a UN World Heritage Area.
The Los Frailes mine was owned by Boliden-Apirsa, the Spanish subsidiary of the
Swedish-Canadian Boliden, and produced about 125,000 tonnes of zinc and 2.9 million
ounces of silver per year.
The acidic tailings, which contained dangerous levels of several heavy metals, quickly
reached the nearby River Agrio, and then its affluent the River Guadiamar, travelling
about 40 kilometres along these waterways before they could be stopped.
The Guadiamar is the main water source for the Doana National Park, a UNESCO World
Heritage Site and one of the largest national parks in Europe.
Among the casualties were 37 tonnes of dead fish and a legacy of dangerously high
quantities of heavy metals in the liver and muscle tissue of species throughout the food
chain.

2017-03-22 10
1998
Aznalcllar Disaster
Litigation
The cleanup operation took three years, at a cost of 276 million.
In 2002, the Council of Ministers imposed a penalty of 45 million Euros on Boliden, the
highest ever by environmental damages in Spanish history. Nevertheless, the fine covers
only about one sixth of the cleanup cost of 276 million Euros spent by the
administrations so far.
The regional government of Andalusia now has decided to demand from Boliden
recovery of 89.9 million euros in damages by the administrative route.
Boliden announced it is not willing to pay a single cent.
The case is still pending a decision of the court.
In July 2013, the regional government announced it wants the Aznalcllar mine to
reopen. The government plans to issue an international invitation to tender.
In 2015 the Andalusian company Magtel and Grupo Mxico won the tender for
reopening the Los Frailes mine.
1998
Aznalcllar Disaster

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1998
Aznalcllar Disaster
1998
Aznalcllar Disaster

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1999
Protocol on Water and Health
Nowadays, most Europeans take clean drinking water for granted.
Yet, in the pan-European region alone, about 19 million people still do not have access
to improved water sources and 67 million people lack access to improved sanitation
facilities. About 100 million people do not have access to sanitation facilities at home,
which makes them vulnerable to water-related diseases, such as cholera, bacillary
dysentery, coli infections, viral hepatitis A and typhoid.
Cleaner water and better sanitation could prevent up to 30 million cases of water-
related disease each year in the region.
The main aim of the Protocol is to protect human health and well being by better water
management, including the protection of water ecosystems, and by preventing,
controlling and reducing water-related diseases.
The Protocol was adopted in 1999 and entered into force in 2005
1999
Protocol on Water and Health
The Protocol is the first international agreement of its kind adopted specifically to attain
an adequate supply of safe drinking water and adequate sanitation for everyone, and
effectively protect water used as a source of drinking water.
To meet these goals, its Parties are required to establish national and local targets for
the quality of drinking water and the quality of discharges, as well as for the
performance of water supply and waste-water treatment. They are also required to
reduce outbreaks and the incidence of water-related diseases.
This Protocol introduces a social component into cooperation on water management.
Water resources management should link social and economic development to the
protection of natural ecosystems. Moreover, improving the water supply and sanitation
is fundamental in breaking the vicious cycle of poverty..

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1999
Our Forests...Our Future
World Commission on Forests and
Over the last two decades of the 20th century, rapid deforestation has taken its toll: some
15 million hectares of forests are lost annually, largely in the tropics. It is also clear that the
structural integrity of much of the forest cover that remains has deteriorated.
We are drawing on the worlds natural capital far more rapidly than it is regenerating.
Rather than living on the interest of the natural capital, we are
borrowing from poorer communities and from future generations.
In the report Our Forests...Our Future, the World Commission on
Forests and Sustainable Development proposes a plan for how the
worlds forests can be used without being abused, and outlines
what it takes in terms of policies and institutions for such a plan to
be implemented.
Forest distribution 8000 years ago
Current forest distribution

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1999
The highest current estimate of the worlds remaining forested areas is about 3.6 x109
hectares from an originally forested area of more than 6.0x109 hectares.
Primary forests have undergone the greatest transition.
Forests have virtually disappeared in 25 countries; 18 have lost more than 95% of their
forests and another 11 have lost 90%.
About 14 million hectares of tropical forests have been lost each year since 1980 as a result
of changes in land-use from forest to agriculture.
Forest decline threatens the genetic
diversity of the worlds plants and animals.
The World Conservation Union recently
calculated that about 12.5% of the worlds
270,000 species of plants, and about 75% of
the worlds mammals are threatened by
forest decline.
Species threatened by the decline of forests
and other natural habitat.
Source: IUCN,1996; IUCN, 1997
1999
Countries with the most temperate and boreal forests.

Source: FAO, 1997

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1999
Countries with the most tropical forests.

Source: FAO, 1997
1999
Forces Causing Forest Decline
1. Missing markets: Much of the real value of forests is not reflected in the calculations
governing investment and management decisions about forests. Typically, the main
economic value assigned to forests is the value of the timber produced. Market mechanisms
do not value the environmental and ecological services which forests provide to maintain a
stable landscape and atmosphere.
2. Timber concession Policies: Timber concession policies represent the classic case of how a
few private interests can benefit from a profligate use of public resources. Government
timber concession terms routinely set stumpage prices and other concession fees at
unrealistically low levels. The revenues foregone are often several times higher than the
actual fees charged.
3. Perverse subsidies that cause forest decline: Subsidies occasionally play a crucial role in
helping development become more sustainable. But many of subsidies in the forestry,
agriculture, transportation and resource sectors encourage practices that are economically
perverse, trade-distorting, ecologically destructive or socially inequitable.

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1999
4. Land ownership and tenure: Clearly defined, secure and enforceable property rights are a
fundamental requirement for encouraging sustainable use of forests. Recent studies in Africa
indicate a positive relationship between secure tenure and tree planting on farmland.
5. Governance failure: The co-existence of a high incidence of poverty with large endowments
of forest capital in some countries is indefensible. The custodial services of indigenous and
local communities are recognized by the Convention on Biological Diversity. Yet there is no
evidence of national governments involving such communities in the decision-making and
benefit sharing from forest resources. It is equally a governance issue that so many
communities are displaced by timber companies and other powerful interests.
6. Gender inequity: While women normally have multiple, often disproportionate
responsibilities, they have little ownership or control over productive resources. This
imbalance places women in a subordinate and disempowered position. They are forever
dependent and run a greater risk of being excluded from their homes and livelihoods..
1999
7. Ethical Failure: The scale of corruption in the forest industry is one of the most intractable
problems which societies have to face. Illegal practices jeopardize the financial capacities of
governments and societies to sustain both forests and development.
Illegal Logging: logging timber species protected by national or international law; logging
outside concession boundaries; contracting with local forest owners to harvest in their land
but then cutting trees from neighbouring public lands instead; logging in protected areas
such as forest reserves; logging in prohibited areas such as steep slopes, river banks and
water catchment areas; removing under/oversized trees; extracting more timber than
authorized; logging without authorization; obtaining timber concessions illegally.
Timber smuggling: export/import of tree species banned under national or international
law; illegal log export/import in contravention of national bans; obtaining declarations of
lower volume exported.
Transfer pricing and other corrupt accounting practices: declaring selling forest products at
prices below prevailing market prices to reduce declared profits and corporate and income
taxes.

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1999
Recommendations:
1. Stop the destruction of the earth's forests: their material products and ecological services
are severely threatened.
2. Use the world's rich forest resources to improve life for poor people and for the benefit of
forest-dependent communities.
3. Put the public interest first and involve people in decisions about forest use.
4. Get the price of forests right, to reflect their full ecological and social values, and to stop
harmful subsidies.
5. Apply sustainable forest management approaches so we may use forests without abusing
them.
6. Develop new measures of forest capital so we know whether the situation is improving or
worsening.
7. Plan for the use and protection of whole landscapes, not the forest in isolation.
1999
Recommendations:
8. Make better use of knowledge about forests, and greatly expand this information base.
9. Accelerate research and training so sustainable forest management can become a reality
quickly.
10. Take bold political decisions and develop new civil society institutions to improve
governance and accountability regarding forest use.

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1999
Timber certification :
Timber certification is a process which results in a written statement (a certificate) attesting
to the origin of wood raw material and its status and/or qualifications, often following
validation by an independent third party.
Certification is designed to allow participants to measure their forest management practices
against standards and to demonstrate compliance with those standards. It may also be used
to validate any type of environmental claim made by a producer, or to provide objectively
stated facts about the timber products and their forest of origin.
Timber certification typically includes two main components: certification of sustainability of
forest management; and product certification.
Certification of forest management takes place in the country of origin. It covers forest
inventory, management planning, harvesting, road construction and other related activities,
as well as the environmental, economic and social impacts of forest activities.
Product certification, roundwood and processed timber products are traced through the
successive phases of the supply chain. It covers the supply chain of domestic and export
markets.
1999
Dow Jones Sustainability World Index
The Dow Jones Sustainability Indices (DJSI) launched in 1999, are a family of indices
evaluating the sustainability performance of the largest 2,500 companies listed on the Dow
Jones Global Total Stock Market Index.
The DJSI is based on an analysis of corporate economic, environmental and social
performance, assessing issues such as corporate governance, risk management, branding,
climate change mitigation, supply chain standards and labor practices.
The trend is to reject companies that do not operate in a sustainable and ethical manner. It
includes general as well as industry-specific sustainability criteria for 58 sectors defined
according to the Industry Classification Benchmark (ICB).
To be incorporated in the DJSI, companies are assessed and selected based on their long-
term economic, social and environmental asset management plans.
Selection criteria evolve each year and companies must continue to make improvements to
their long-term sustainability plans in order to remain on the Index.
Indexes are updated yearly and companies are monitored throughout the year..

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1999
Dow Jones Sustainability World Index
EDP - Energias de Portugal SA Electric Utilities

Portugal Telecom SGPS SA
Banco Comercial Portugues SA
Galp Energia SGPS SA
1999
WTO Ministerial Conference of 1999
Seattle, Washington, USA
The WTO Ministerial Conference of 1999 was a meeting convened in Seattle, Washington,
USA, over the course of three days, beginning November 30, 1999.
A week before the meeting, delegates admitted failure to agree on the agenda and the
presence of deep disagreements with developing countries. Intended as the launch of a new
round of multilateral trade negotiations, "The Millennium Round".
Developing country representatives became resentful and uncooperative on being excluded
from talks as the United States and the European Union attempted to cement a mutual deal
on agriculture.
The negotiations were quickly overshadowed by massive and controversial street protests
outside the hotels and the Convention Center, in what became the antiglobalization
movement in the United States. The scale of the demonstrations estimates ranged from
50,000 to 100,000 protestors dwarfed any previous demonstration in the United States
against a world meeting. The negotiations collapsed.
Anti-globalization activists made headlines around the world in 1999, when they forced the
Seattle WTO Ministerial Conference of 1999 to end early with direct action tactics.

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1999
WTO Ministerial Conference of 1999
1999
Erika Accident
Off the coast of Brittany, France

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1999
Erika Accident
Off the coast of Brittany, France
As she entered the Bay of Biscay, the Erika ran into a heavy storm, she
broke in two and sank, releasing about 19,000 tones of the 30,000 tones of
heavy fuel it was carrying were spilled. About 400 kilometres of coastline
were polluted, causing serious damage to marine and bird life, fisheries and
tourism. In 2000, these damages were valued at 400 million.
On 2008, Total SA, the ship-owner, the handler and RINA (the expert
company) were sentenced in solidum to pay indemnities of 192 million
($280 million USD), plus individual penalties. The judgement, while
recognizing the risks inherent to oceangoing vessels, reckons Total SA was
"guilty of imprudence", from the fact that Total SA did not take into account
"the age of the ship", (nearly 25 years), and "the discontinuity of its
technical handling and maintenance".
In 2010, Total SA lost their appeal to overturn the court's decision.
EU Erika legislative packages

This accident prompted the EU to pass several measures addressing maritime safety.
These regulations entered into force in 2003.
Erika I
Port state control: Ships older than 15 years that have been detained more than twice in
the previous two years are denied entry to any EU port.
Classification societies: more strictly monitoring the classification societies that inspect
ship quality on behalf of EU member states
Double-hull oil tankers: speed up the replacement of single-hull oil tankers with double-
hull designs, which are less likely to leak. As of 1 January 2010, single-hull crude oil tankers
of 20,000 tons deadweight, or product carriers of 30,000 tons deadweight, are banned
from the ports and internal waters of EU member states.
Erika II
Maritime traffic monitoring and control: a maritime-vessel monitoring, control, and
information system was established.
COPE Fund: a compensation fund for victims of oil spills in European waters.
European Maritime Safety Agency: to ensure a high, uniform and effective level of
maritime safety and prevention of pollution by ships in the Community. It is
headquartered in Lisbon.

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2000
2nd World Water Forum
The Hague, Netherlands
The 2nd World Water Forum generated much debate on the World Water Vision and the
associated Framework for Action, dealing with the state and ownership of water resources,
their development potential, management and financing models, and their impact on
poverty, social, cultural and economic development and the environment.
The Ministerial Declaration identified the following key challenges:
meeting basic water needs,
securing food supply,
protecting ecosystems,
sharing water resources,
managing risks,
valuing water and governing water wisely.
15,000 people were involved in the Vision related discussions
5,700 participants attended the Forum, 114 ministers and officials from 130 countries.
2000
2nd World Water Forum
World Water Vision
Industrial and private water demands have grown to exceed natural supplies in many parts
of the world. Without dramatic changes in water management, this local scarcity will soon
extend to regional or global proportion.
The Water Vision is designed to build a consensus among professionals and stakeholders to
design management plans that avert further water crises.
The Vision includes a world where all people have access to enough safe water to meet
their needs including agricultural needs within management plans that maintain the
integrity of freshwater ecosystems.
Responsible stewardship to safeguard the world's freshwater resources will require
integrated management at all levels, from the individual to the international, to preserve
the Earth while supporting the endeavors of humankind effectively, efficiently, equitably.
A participatory process makes the World Water Vision unique. Within two years, over
15,000 women and men at local, national, regional and international levels shared their
aspirations and developed strategies for practical action towards the sustainable use and
management of water resources.

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2000
Millennium Summit
United Nations Headquarters, New York
The Millennium Summit was a meeting among many world leaders in September 2000 at
the United Nations headquarters in New York City.
Its purpose was to discuss the role of the United Nations at the turn of the 21st century.
At this meeting, world leaders ratified the United Nations Millennium Declaration, setting
time-bound and measurable goals for combating poverty, hunger, disease, illiteracy,
environmental degradation, and discrimination against women.
The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) are the eight international development goals
that were established following the adoption of the United Nations Millennium Declaration.
2000
Millennium Development Goals
All 189 United Nations member states at the time (there are 193 currently), and at least 23
international organizations, committed to help achieve the following Millennium
Development Goals by 2015:
To eradicate extreme poverty and hunger
To achieve universal primary education
To promote gender equality
To reduce child mortality
To improve maternal health
To combat HIV/AIDS, malaria, and other diseases
To ensure environmental sustainability
To develop a global partnership for development

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2000
Goal 1: Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger
Target 1A: Halve, between 1990 and 2015, the proportion of people living on less than
$1.25 a day
Target 1B: Achieve Decent Employment for Women, Men, and Young People
Target 1C: Halve, between 1990 and 2015, the proportion of people who suffer from
hunger
Goal 2: Achieve universal primary education
Target 2A: By 2015, all children can complete a full course of primary schooling, girls
and boys
Goal 3: Promote gender equality and empower women
Target 3A: Eliminate gender disparity in primary and secondary education preferably by
2005, and at all levels by 2015
Goal 4: Reduce child mortality rates
Target 4A: Reduce by two-thirds, between 1990 and 2015, the under-five mortality rate
2000
Goal 5: Improve maternal health
Target 5A: Reduce by three quarters, between 1990 and 2015, the maternal mortality
ratio.
Target 5B: Achieve, by 2015, universal access to reproductive health.
Goal 6: Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria, and other diseases
Target 6A: Have halted by 2015 and begun to reverse the spread of HIV/AIDS.
Target 6B: Achieve, by 2010, universal access to treatment for HIV/AIDS for all those
who need it.
Target 6C: Have halted by 2015 and begun to reverse the incidence of malaria and
other major diseases.

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2000
Goal 7: Ensure environmental sustainability
Target 7A: Integrate the principles of sustainable development into country policies and
programs; reverse loss of environmental resources
Target 7B: Reduce biodiversity loss, achieving, by 2010, a significant reduction in the
rate of loss
Target 7C: Halve, by 2015, the proportion of the population without sustainable access
to safe drinking water and basic sanitation
Target 7D: By 2020, to have achieved a significant improvement in the lives of at least
100 million slum-dwellers
2000
Goal 8: Develop a global partnership for development
Target 8A: Develop further an open, rule-based, predictable, non-discriminatory trading
and financial system
Target 8B: Address the Special Needs of the Least Developed Countries (LDCs)
Target 8C: Address the special needs of landlocked developing countries and small
island developing States
Target 8D: Deal comprehensively with the debt problems of developing countries
through national and international measures in order to make debt sustainable in the
long term
Target 8E: In co-operation with pharmaceutical companies, provide access to
affordable, essential drugs in developing countries
Target 8F: In co-operation with the private sector, make available the benefits of new
technologies, especially information and communications

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2000
Baia Mare Cyanide Spill, Romania
On the night of January 30, 2000, a dam holding contaminated waters burst at a mining
works in Bozinta Mare, Romania, and 100,000 cubic meters of cyanide-contaminated water
(containing an estimated 100 tonnes of cyanide) spilled over some farmland and then into
the Some River.
The gold mining company, Aurul, was a joint venture of Australian company Esmeralda
Exploration and the Romanian government.
The polluted waters eventually reached
the Tisza and then the Danube, killing
large quantities of fish in Hungary and
Serbia.
The spill has been called the worst
environmental disaster in Europe since
Chernobyl.
HUN GRIA
ROMNIA
SRVIA
1 30 January - cyanide spill at Baia Mare, Romania.

2 1 February - the pollutant plume crosses the border between Romania and Hungary.
3 5 February - cyanide in water samples records in Tiszalk.
4 9 February - the plume of pollutants reaches Szolnok.
5 11 February - the pollutant plume crosses the border between Hungary and Serbia.
6 13 February - the pollutant plume reaches Belgrade, Serbia.
7 15 February - the pollutant plume enters again in Romania, in Ram.
8 17 February - cyanide is detected in water samples taken from the Danube at the Iron Gates.
9 25-28 February - the pollutant plume reaches the Danube Delta..

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2000
Causes of Baia Mare Environmental Disaster
The spill was the result of poor dam design and unusual weather conditions.
The amount of precipitation during the winter of 1999 to 2000 was unusually high, which
caused unexpectedly large amounts of water to accumulate in the pools.
In addition to this, the days before the actual disaster were sunny and warm, resulting in
snow and ice melting.
These high amounts of water subsequently applied great pressure to the poorly built dam,
and on the night of January 30, 2000, the dam experienced a fissure.
Cyanide in the Environment
Cyanide is produced naturally in the environment by various bacteria, algae, fungi and
numerous species of plants including beans, fruits, almond and cashew nuts, vegetables of
the cabbage family, etc.
Incomplete combustion during forest fires is believed to be a major environmental source of
cyanide, and incomplete combustion of articles containing nylon also produces cyanide.
Once released in the environment, the reactivity of cyanide provides numerous pathways for
its degradation and attenuation.
There is no reported biomagnification of cyanide in the food chain and therefore cyanide has
a low chronic toxicity, although chronic cyanide intoxication exists.
2000
Use of Cyanide in Gold Extraction
The use of cyanide allows the extraction of gold from sources that would otherwise be
completely uneconomical since they contain only faint traces of gold.
Specifically, cyanide bonds extremely well with gold and forms a soluble complex. Although
this process is highly risky, mining companies that use the process argue that it is safe, and
that the safeguards they set in place such as dams that hold back water are infallible.
Therefore, mining companies are not prepared for the worst-case scenario and once
disasters take place, companies cannot mitigate the effects properly.
The chemical reaction for the dissolution of gold, the "Elsner Equation", follows:
4 Au + 8 NaCN + O2 + 2H2O 4 Na[Au(CN)2] + 4 NaOH

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2000
Effects of Cyanide on Wildlife
Although cyanide reacts readily in the environment and degrades or forms complexes and
salts of varying stabilities, it is toxic to many living organisms even at very low concentrations.
Aquatic Organisms: Fish and aquatic invertebrates are particularly sensitive to cyanide
exposure and that sensitivity is highly species specific. Toxicity of cyanides is also affected by
water, pH, temperature and oxygen content as well as the life stage and condition of the
organism. Adverse effects include reduced swimming performance, inhibited reproduction,
delayed mortality, pathology, susceptibility to predation, disrupted respiration,
osmoregulatory disturbances, altered growth patterns, and the death of many species. Algae,
macrophytes, and aquatic plants can tolerate much higher environmental concentrations of
free cyanide than fish and invertebrates.
Birds: Symptoms including panting, eye blinking, salivation, and lethargy appear within one-
half to five minutes after ingestion in more sensitive species, and up to ten minutes after
ingestion by more resistant species. Exposures to high doses resulted in deep, labored
breathing followed by gasping and shallow intermittent breathing in all species, whereas
mortality typically occurred in 15 to 30 minutes.
Mammals: Symptoms of acute poisoning usually occur within ten minutes of ingestion, and
include initial excitability with muscle tremors, salivation, lacrimation, defecation, urination,
and labored breathing, followed by gasping and convulsions.
2000
Consequences of the Baia Mare Disaster
More than 1,400 tons of fish have died as a result of this devastating environmental accident
that destroyed the life basis for some hundred fishermen along the Tisza in Hungary. In some
Rumanian and Hungarian towns the drinking water supply had to be shut down for some
days. In Romania the village Bozinta Mare near the dam was most affected, with completely
poisoned drinking water and soil.

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2000
The Aurul company, now Transgold, restarted the operation some months after the accident.
Though Transgold has improved its safety standards, it is still under heavy criticism from
environmentalists, especially because it continued to use cyanide.
Transgold still has not paid compensation except for some compensation for the directly
affected village of Bozinta Mare.
As there have been no additional accidents in recent years, the river Tisza could slowly
recover.
Some fish survived the cyanide spill in river tributaries. Today the number of fish is close to
the number before the accident, but there are still fewer species and commercial fishing is
not possible.
2000
Extinction of a species of Primates
Miss Waldron's red colobus monkey (Piliocolobus badius waldronae)
has been declared extinct. Scientists have published it officially in the
October issue of Conservation Biology in 2000.
The extinction Miss Waldron's red colobus monkey, because of hunting
by humans, is the first documented extinction of an anthropoid (ape or
monkey) primate since 1800.
The disappearance of the Miss Waldron's red colobus monkey may be
the first obvious sign that an extinction wave will soon wipe out other
large mammals.

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2001
Stockholm Convention on Persistent
Organic Pollutants (POP)
Stockholm, Sweden
The Stockholm Convention is a global treaty to protect human health and the environment
from chemicals that remain intact in the environment for long periods, become widely
distributed geographically, accumulate in the fatty tissue of humans and wildlife, and have
harmful impacts on human health or on the environment.
Exposure to Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) can lead to serious health effects including
certain cancers, birth defects, dysfunctional immune and reproductive systems, greater
susceptibility to disease and damages to the central and peripheral nervous systems.
Given their long range transport, no one government acting alone can protect its citizens or
its environment from POPs.
In response to this global problem, the Stockholm Convention was adopted in 2001 and
entered into force in 2004. It requires its parties to take measures to eliminate or reduce the
release of POPs into the environment.
There are 179 parties to the Convention, (178 states and the European Union). Notable non-
ratifying states include the United States, Israel, Malaysia, and Iraq.
2001
The main provisions of the Convention require each party to:
Prohibit and/or eliminate the production and use, as well as the import and export, of the
intentionally produced POPs that are listed in Annex A.
Restrict the production and use, as well as the import and export, of the intentionally
produced POPs that are listed in Annex B.
Reduce or eliminate releases from unintentionally produced POPs that are listed in Annex C.
The Convention promotes the use of best available techniques and best environmental
practices for preventing releases of POPs into the environment.
Ensure that stockpiles and wastes consisting of, containing or contaminated with POPs are
managed safely and in an environmentally sound manner.
The Convention requires that such stockpiles and wastes be identified and managed to
reduce or eliminate POPs releases from these sources. The Convention also requires that
wastes containing POPs are transported across international boundaries taking into account
relevant international rules, standards and guidelines.

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2001
Annex A (Elimination)
Aldrin Chlordane Chlordecone
Dieldrin Endrin Heptachlor
Hexabromobiphenyl Hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD) Hexabromodiphenyl ether and
heptabromodiphenyl ether
Hexachlorobenzene (HCB) Alpha hexachlorocyclohexane Beta hexachlorocyclohexane
Lindane Mirex Pentachlorobenzene
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) Technical endosulfan and its Tetrabromodiphenyl ether and
related isomers pentabromodiphenyl ether
Toxaphene
Annex B (Restriction)
DDT Perfluorooctane sulfonic acid, its salts and perfluorooctane sulfonyl fluoride
Annex C (Unintentional production)

Hexachlorobenzene (HCB) Pentachlorobenzene Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB)
Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins Polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDF)
(PCDD)
2001
Other provisions of the Convention relate to the development of implementation plans,
information exchange, public information, awareness and education, research, development
and monitoring, technical assistance, financial resources and mechanisms , reporting,
effectiveness evaluation and non-compliance.

2017-03-22 32
2001
Terrorist attack against the
World Trade Center, New York City
On September 11, 2001, 19 militants
associated with the Islamic extremist group al-
Qaeda hijacked four airliners and carried out
suicide attacks against targets in the United
States.
Two of the planes were flown into the towers
of the World Trade Center in New York City, a
third plane hit the Pentagon just outside
Washington, D.C., and the fourth plane
crashed in a field in Pennsylvania.
Often referred to as 9/11, the attacks resulted
in extensive death and destruction, triggering
major U.S. initiatives to combat terrorism.
Over 3,000 people were killed during the
attacks in New York City and Washington,
D.C., including more than 400 police officers
and firefighters.
2001
Flight paths of the four hijacked planes used in the terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001:
1. American Airlines Flight 11, a Boeing 767, departs Logan
Airport bound for Los Angeles with 81 passengers and
crew of 11.
2. United Airlines Flight 175, a Boeing 767, also departs
Boston for Los Angeles with 56 passengers and crew of
nine. 7:59 a.m.
3. American Airlines Flight 77, a Boeing 757, departs 8:14 a.m.
Washington's Dulles Airport for Los Angeles with 58
passengers and crew of six.
8:42 a.m. 8:46 a.m.
4. United Airlines Flight 93, a Boeing 757, leaves Newark
for San Francisco with 37 passengers and crew of seven. 9:03 a.m.
5. American Airlines Flight 11 crashes into the North Tower
of the World Trade Center. 10:03 a.m.
8:20 a.m.
6. United Airlines Flight 175 crashes into the South Tower 9:37 a.m.
of the World Trade Center.
7. American Airlines Flight 77 crashes into the West side of
the Pentagon.
8. United Airlines Flight 93 crashes in Shanksville,
Pennsylvania, 80 miles southeast of Pittsburgh.

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2001
The impact into the twin towers initially sparked fire damage, leading to rescue crews
rushing into the building. The south tower collapsed in less than an hour after impact; the
north tower in just under two, killing more than 2,700 people within the two towers.
Almost 3,000 people were killed in the four plane crashes, including the 19 terrorists
involved.
2001

2017-03-22 34
2001
At 9 p.m., President George W. Bush delivered a televised address from the Oval Office,
declaring, Terrorist attacks can shake the foundations of our biggest buildings, but they
cannot touch the foundation of America.
The tragic events of 9/11 provided the required justification to wage war on Afghanistan on
humanitarian grounds, with the full support of World public opinion and the endorsement
of the international community.
Several prominent progressive intellectuals made a case for retaliation against terrorism,
on moral and ethical grounds. The just cause military doctrine (jus ad bellum) was
accepted and upheld at face value as a legitimate response to 9/11.
Operation Enduring Freedom, the American-led international effort to oust the Taliban
regime in Afghanistan and destroy Osama bin Ladens terrorist network based there, began
on October 7.
Within two months, U.S. forces had effectively removed the Taliban from operational power,
but the war continued, as U.S. and coalition forces attempted to defeat a Taliban insurgency
campaign based in neighboring Pakistan.
2001
In March 2003 US led the invasion of Iraq, claiming that Saddam Hussein, the President of
Iraq and an Al Qaeda affiliated organization had joined hands in the production of deadly
chemical, biological and radiological weapons in Northern Iraq and that the Hussein
government was a state sponsor of terrorism.
In the wake of the Iraq invasion, the same alleged state sponsorship of terrorism
accusations emerged in relation to Iran.
In December 2011, the Islamic Republic of Iran was condemned by a Manhattan court, for its
alleged role in supporting Al Qaeda in the 9/11 attacks.
The withdrawal of U.S. military forces from Iraq began in December 2007 and was completed
by December 2011.
Osama bin Laden was finally tracked down and killed by U.S. forces at a hideout in
Abbottabad, Pakistan.
In June 2011, President Barack Obama announced the beginning of large-scale troop
withdrawals from Afghanistan, with a final withdrawal of U.S. forces scheduled for 2014.

2017-03-22 35
2001
Had the world responded to his 9/11 attack on America with moderation Osama bin Laden
would probably have disappeared, expelled from Afghanistan or killed by his Tajik enemies.
Even the Taliban were known to have been shocked by 9/11, when almost the entire Muslim
world came out in sympathy with America (including the PLO in Palestine).
It was a brief moment of American moral supremacy. Yet by launching armed aggression,
first against Afghanistan and then against Iraq, America wholly squandered this gain.
The aggression led to a tide of anti-Americanism and surge of support for fanatical Islamism
across the Muslim world. America was again the great Satan.
The wars cost tens of thousands of lives and caused mass destruction.
The billions of dollars expended on them was financed largely from borrowing, which in turn
has destabilised the world economy.
All this was out of all proportion to the attacks on 9/11.
Civil liberties were curbed and governments reverted to cold war paranoia. The peace
dividend so eagerly awaited at the end of the 20th century evaporated as the security
industry exploited counter-terrorism and seized every chance of profit and risk aversion.
The decade since 9/11 must rank among the most inept and counterproductive eras in the
story of modern statesmanship.
2001
The grounding of almost all air traffic in the United States in the days after the 9/11 attacks created an
unusual moment for climate researchers, who could suddenly make some calculations about how planes'
contrails affect the temperature and weather.
A 2002 study suggested that during the
three days without air travel, daily
temperature variability increased by 1.1
degrees Celsius each day, suggesting that
contrails play a role in daily temperature.
More recent research has found that
contrails have a more immediate warming
effect on Earth's surface than carbon
dioxide and other greenhouse gases
expelled by airplanes.
Of course, greenhouse gases persist longer
and so affect climate more in the long-
term.

2017-03-22 36
2001
Fourth Ministerial Conference of the World
Trade Organization
Doha, Quatar
The Doha Ministerial Declaration mandate for agriculture calls for comprehensive
negotiations aimed at substantial improvements in market access; reductions of all forms of
export subsidies, with a view to phasing out these subsidies, and substantial reductions in
trade-distorting domestic support.
These topics domestic support, export subsidies, and market access have become
known as the three pillars of the agricultural negotiations.
The Declaration also provides that special and differential treatment for developing
countries would be an integral part of all elements of the negotiations.
2001
Trade Organization
The Doha Declaration on Public Health sought to alleviate developing country dissatisfaction
with aspects of the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights
(TRIPS) regime.
It delayed the implementation of patent system provisions for pharmaceutical products for
least developed countries (LDCs) until 2016.
The declaration committed member states to interpret and implement the agreement to
support public health and to promote access to medicines for all.
The Declaration recognized certain flexibilities in the TRIPS agreement to allow each
member to grant compulsory licenses for pharmaceuticals and to determine what
constitutes a national emergency, expressly including public health emergencies such as
HIV/AIDS, malaria, and tuberculosis or other epidemics.
The conference also approved the accession of China to the WTO.

2017-03-22 37
2001
Marrakech Accords
7th Conference of the Parties (COP7) to
the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
Marrakech, Morroco
The negotiators wrapped up the work on the Plan of Action, finalizing most of the
operational details and setting the stage for nations to ratify the Kyoto Protocol.
The completed package of decisions is known as the Marrakech Accords.
2002
United Nations International Conference
on Financing for Development
Monterrey, Mexico
The Monterrey Consensus was the outcome of the 2002 Monterrey Conference.
The Monterrey Consensus embraces six areas of Financing for Development:
1. Mobilizing domestic financial resources for development.
2. Mobilizing international resources for development: foreign direct investment and
other private flows.
3. International Trade as an engine for development.
4. Increasing international financial and technical cooperation for development.
5. External Debt.
6. Addressing systemic issues: enhancing the coherence and consistency of the
international monetary, financial and trading systems in support of development.

2017-03-22 38
2002
The outcome of the Conference reflected a landmark global agreement between
developed and developing countries, in which both recognized their responsibilities in
key areas such as trade, aid, debt relief and institution building.
Developing countries committed themselves to introduce sound economic and social
policies, improve governance, eradicate corruption and create a domestic regulatory
environment aimed at the development of the private business sector.
On the other hand, industrialised countries pledged to take measures to provide the
financial resources that might be required, in addition to the mobilisation of domestic
resources in developing countries, to meet the MDGs.
2002
These measures included
1. a pledge to strive to provide official development assistance equal to at least 0.7%
of each developed countrys gross domestic product;
2. to improve market access for developing country exports;
3. to complete the development dimension of the Doha round of the WTO;
4. to provide debt relief in order to prevent debt service from becoming an obstacle
to development;
5. to facilitate the impact of foreign direct investment on development through
greater technology transfer; and
6. to improve the international financial architecture in order to predict and prevent
financial crises.

2017-03-22 39
2002
World Summit on Sustainable
Development, WSSD
Johannesburg, South Africa
The World Summit on Sustainable Development was convened to discuss sustainable
development by the United Nations. WSSD gathered a number of leaders from nations,
business and non-governmental organizations.
A broader agenda than the Rio Summit in 1992, the summit in Johannesburg included
various key issues were addressed, including:
1. Poverty
2. Water quality and availability
3. Cleaner energy
4. Health
5. Good governance
6. Technology
7. Production and Consumption
8. Oceans and Fisheries
9. Tourism.
2002
Development, WSSD
At the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD), sustainable development
was reaffirmed as a central component of the international agenda.
A wide range of targets and concrete commitments for action to implement sustainable
development objectives were agreed and reaffirmed by governments.
The five priority sectoral issues were Water, Energy, Health, Agriculture and Biodiversity,
The WEHAB initiative.
The major outcomes of the WSSD include a negotiated Plan of Implementation, a Political
Declaration and a number of implementation partnerships and initiatives.

2017-03-22 40
2002
Development, WSSD
Johannesburg Declaration on Sustainable Development
One hundred Heads of State and Government who attended the WSSD agreed the political
declaration. A few notable references include the following:
Recognition that the deep fault line that divides human society between rich and poor
poses a major threat to global security and stability;
Recognition that globalisation has added a new dimension to the challenges of sustainable
development, with the benefits and costs of globalisation unevenly distributed;
-Recognition that a lack of action to fundamentally change the lives of those who suffer the
consequences of global disparities may lead the poor of the world to lose confidence in
democratic systems;
A call on developed countries that have not done so to make concrete efforts towards the
internationally agreed ODA targets (0.7% of GNP for ODA);
Support for the emergence of stronger regional groupings and alliances, such as the New
Partnership for Africas Development (NEPAD) to promote sustainable development;
2002
Development, WSSD
Recognition of the private sectors duty to contribute to the evolution of equitable and
sustainable communities and societies; and the need for private sector corporations to
enforce corporate accountability within a transparent and stable regulatory environment;
Recognition of the need for strengthened and improved governance at all levels, for the
effective implementation of Agenda 21, the Millennium Development Goals and the
Johannesburg Plan of Implementation;
Recognition of the need for more effective, democratic and accountable international and
multilateral institutions;
A commitment to monitor progress at regular intervals towards the achievement of
sustainable development goals and objectives.

2017-03-22 41
2002
World Summit on Sustainable Development, WSSD
Key commitments set out in the Johannesburg Plan of Implementation.
Poverty Eradication
Halve, by the year 2015, the proportion of the worlds people whose income is less than
US$1 a day and the proportion of people who suffer from hunger (reaffirmation of MDGs).
By 2020, achieve a significant improvement in the lives of at least 100 million slum dwellers,
as proposed in the Cities without slums initiative (reaffirmation of MDGs).
Establish a world solidarity fund to eradicate poverty and to promote social and human
development in the developing countries.
Water and Sanitation
Halve, by the year 2015, the proportion of people without access to safe drinking water
(reaffirmation of MDGs).
Halve, by the year 2015, the proportion of people who do not have access to basic
sanitation.
Sustainable Production and Consumption
Encourage and promote the development of a 10-year framework of programmes to
accelerate the shift towards sustainable consumption and production.
2002
Energy
Renewable energy
Diversify energy supply and substantially increase the global share of renewable energy
sources in order to increase its contribution to total energy supply.
Access to Energy
Improve access to reliable, affordable, economically viable, socially acceptable and
environmentally sound energy services and resources, sufficient to achieve the MDGs,
including the goal of halving the proportion of people in poverty by 2015.
Energy Markets
Remove market distortions including the restructuring of taxes and the phasing out of
harmful subsidies.
Support efforts to improve the functioning, transparency and information about energy
markets with respect to both supply and demand, with the aim of achieving greater stability
and to ensure consumer access to energy services.
Energy efficiency
Establish domestic programmes for energy efficiency with the support of the international
community. Accelerate the development and dissemination of energy efficiency and energy
conservation technologies, including the promotion of research and development.

2017-03-22 42
2002
Chemicals
Aim, by 2020, to use and produce chemicals in ways that do not lead to significant adverse
effects on human health and the environment.
Renew the commitment to the sound management of chemicals and of hazardous wastes
throughout their life cycle.
Promote the ratification and implementation of relevant international instruments on
chemicals and hazardous waste, including the Rotterdam Convention so that it can enter
into force by 2003 and the Stockholm Convention so that it can enter into force by 2004.
Further develop a strategic approach to international chemicals management, based on the
Bahia Declaration and Priorities for Action beyond 2000, by 2005.
Encourage countries to implement the new globally harmonized system for the classification
and labelling of chemicals as soon as possible, with a view to having the system fully
operational by 2008.
2002
Management of the natural resource base
Water
Develop integrated water resources management and water efficiency plans by 2005.
Oceans and fisheries
Encourage the application by 2010 of the ecosystem approach for the sustainable
development of the oceans.
By 2015, maintain or restore depleted fish stocks to levels that can produce the maximum
sustainable yield.
Put into effect the FAO international plans of action : for the management of fishing
capacity by 2005; to prevent, deter and eliminate illegal, unreported and unregulated
fishing by 2004.
Develop and facilitate the use of diverse approaches and tools, including the ecosystem
approach, the elimination of destructive fishing practices, the establishment of marine
protected areas consistent with international law and based on scientific information,
including representative networks by 2012 .
Establish by 2004 a regular process under the United Nations for global reporting and
assessment of the state of the marine environment.
Eliminate subsidies that contribute to illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing and to
over-capacity.

2017-03-22 43
2002
Atmosphere
Facilitate implementation of the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone
Layer by ensuring adequate replenishment of its fund by 2003/2005.
Improve access by developing countries to alternatives to ozone-depleting substances by
2010, and assist them in complying with the phase-out schedule under the Montreal
Protocol.
Biodiversity
Achieve by 2010 a significant reduction in the current rate of loss of biological diversity.
Forests
Accelerate implementation of the Intergovernmental Panel on Forests (IPF) and its
successor, the Intergovernmental Forum on Forests (IFF) proposals for action by countries
and by the Collaborative Partnership on Forests, and intensify efforts on reporting to the
United Nations Forum on Forests, to contribute to an assessment of progress in 2005.
2002
Corporate responsibility
Actively promote corporate responsibility and accountability, including through the full
development and effective implementation of intergovernmental agreements and
measures, international initiatives and public-private partnerships, and appropriate national
regulations.
Health
Enhance health education with the objective of achieving improved health literacy on a
global basis by 2010.
Reduce, by 2015, mortality rates for infants and children under 5 by two thirds, and
maternal mortality rates by three quarters, of the prevailing rate in 2000 (reaffirmation of
MDGs).
Reduce HIV prevalence among young men and women aged 15-24 by 25 per cent in the
most affected countries by 2005 and globally by 2010, as well as combat malaria,
tuberculosis and other diseases (reaffirmation of General Assembly resolution).

2017-03-22 44
2002
Sustainable development of small island developing States
Undertake initiatives by 2004 aimed at implementing the Global Programme of Action for
the Protection of the Marine Environment from Land-based Activities to reduce, prevent
and control waste and pollution and their health-related impacts.
Develop community-based initiatives on sustainable tourism by 2004.
Support the availability of adequate, affordable and environmentally sound energy services
for the sustainable development of Small Island Developing States, including through
strengthening efforts on energy supply and services by 2004.
Review implementation of the Barbados Programme of Action for the Sustainable
Development of Small Island Developing States in 2004.
2002
Sustainable development for Africa
Improve sustainable agricultural productivity and food security in accordance with the
Millennium Development Goals, in particular to halve by 2015 the proportion of people who
suffer from hunger.
Support African countries in developing and implementing food security strategies by
2005.
Support Africas efforts to implement NEPAD objectives on energy, which seek to secure
access for at least 35 per cent of the African population within 20 years, especially in rural
areas.

2017-03-22 45
2002
Means of implementation
Ensure that, by 2015, all children will be able to complete a full course of primary schooling
and that girls and boys will have equal access to all levels of education relevant to national
needs (reaffirmation of MDGs).
Eliminate gender disparity in primary and secondary education by 2005 (reaffirmation of
Dakar Framework for Action on Education for All).
Recommend to the UN General Assembly that it consider adopting a decade of education
for sustainable development, starting in 2005.
2002
Institutional Framework for sustainable development
Adopt new measures to strengthen institutional arrangements for sustainable development
at international, regional and national levels.
Enhance the role of the Commission on Sustainable Development, including through
reviewing and monitoring progress in the implementation of Agenda 21 and fostering
coherence of implementation, initiatives and partnerships.
Facilitate and promote the integration of the environmental, social and economic
dimensions of sustainable development into the work programs UN regional commissions.
Establish an effective, transparent and regular inter-agency coordination mechanism on
ocean and coastal issues within the United Nations system.
Take immediate steps to make progress in the formulation and elaboration of national
strategies for sustainable development and begin their implementation by 2005.

2017-03-22 46
EVOLUTION OF
Part 8
2001
On September 11, 2001, 19 militants
associated with the Islamic extremist group al-
Qaeda hijacked four airliners and carried out
suicide attacks against targets in the United
States.
Two of the planes were flown into the towers
of the World Trade Center in New York City, a
third plane hit the Pentagon just outside
Washington, D.C., and the fourth plane
crashed in a field in Pennsylvania.
Often referred to as 9/11, the attacks resulted
in extensive death and destruction, triggering
major U.S. initiatives to combat terrorism.
Over 3,000 people were killed during the
attacks in New York City and Washington,
D.C., including more than 400 police officers
and firefighters.

2017-03-27 1
2001
Flight paths of the four hijacked planes used in the terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001:
1. American Airlines Flight 11, a Boeing 767, departs Logan
Airport bound for Los Angeles with 81 passengers and
crew of 11.
2. United Airlines Flight 175, a Boeing 767, also departs
Boston for Los Angeles with 56 passengers and crew of
nine.
3. American Airlines Flight 77, a Boeing 757, departs
Washington's Dulles Airport for Los Angeles with 58
passengers and crew of six.
4. United Airlines Flight 93, a Boeing 757, leaves Newark
for San Francisco with 37 passengers and crew of seven.
5. American Airlines Flight 11 crashes into the North Tower
6. United Airlines Flight 175 crashes into the South Tower
7. American Airlines Flight 77 crashes into the West side of
the Pentagon.
8. United Airlines Flight 93 crashes in Shanksville,
Pennsylvania, 80 miles southeast of Pittsburgh.
2001
The impact into the twin towers initially sparked fire damage, leading to rescue crews
rushing into the building. The south tower collapsed in less than an hour after impact; the
north tower in just under two, killing more than 2,700 people within the two towers.
Almost 3,000 people were killed in the four plane crashes, including the 19 terrorists
involved.

2017-03-27 2
2001
2001
At 9 p.m., President George W. Bush delivered a televised address from the Oval Office,
declaring, Terrorist attacks can shake the foundations of our biggest buildings, but they
cannot touch the foundation of America.
The tragic events of 9/11 provided the required justification to wage war on Afghanistan on
humanitarian grounds, with the full support of World public opinion and the endorsement
of the international community.
Several prominent progressive intellectuals made a case for retaliation against terrorism,
on moral and ethical grounds. The just cause military doctrine (jus ad bellum) was
accepted and upheld at face value as a legitimate response to 9/11.
Operation Enduring Freedom, the American-led international effort to oust the Taliban
regime in Afghanistan and destroy Osama bin Ladens terrorist network based there, began
on October 7.
Within two months, U.S. forces had effectively removed the Taliban from operational power,
but the war continued, as U.S. and coalition forces attempted to defeat a Taliban insurgency
campaign based in neighboring Pakistan.

2017-03-27 3
2001
In March 2003 US led the invasion of Iraq, claiming that Saddam Hussein, the President of
Iraq and an Al Qaeda affiliated organization had joined hands in the production of deadly
chemical, biological and radiological weapons in Northern Iraq and that the Hussein
government was a state sponsor of terrorism.
In the wake of the Iraq invasion, the same alleged state sponsorship of terrorism
accusations emerged in relation to Iran.
In December 2011, the Islamic Republic of Iran was condemned by a Manhattan court, for its
alleged role in supporting Al Qaeda in the 9/11 attacks.
The withdrawal of U.S. military forces from Iraq began in December 2007 and was completed
by December 2011.
Osama bin Laden was finally tracked down and killed by U.S. forces at a hideout in
Abbottabad, Pakistan.
In June 2011, President Barack Obama announced the beginning of large-scale troop
withdrawals from Afghanistan, with a final withdrawal of U.S. forces scheduled for 2014. The
withdrawal was completed in December 2016 leaving behind 8400 troops.
2001
Had the world responded to his 9/11 attack on America with moderation Osama bin Laden
would probably have disappeared, expelled from Afghanistan or killed by his Tajik enemies.
Even the Taliban were known to have been shocked by 9/11, when almost the entire Muslim
world came out in sympathy with America (including the PLO in Palestine).
It was a brief moment of American moral supremacy. Yet by launching armed aggression,
first against Afghanistan and then against Iraq, America wholly squandered this gain.
The aggression led to a tide of anti-Americanism and surge of support for fanatical Islamism
across the Muslim world. America was again the great Satan.
The wars cost tens of thousands of lives and caused mass destruction.
The billions of dollars expended on them was financed largely from borrowing, which in turn
has destabilised the world economy.
All this was out of all proportion to the attacks on 9/11.
Civil liberties were curbed and governments reverted to cold war paranoia. The peace
dividend so eagerly awaited at the end of the 20th century evaporated as the security
industry exploited counter-terrorism and seized every chance of profit and risk aversion.
The decade since 9/11 must rank among the most inept and counterproductive eras in the
story of modern statesmanship.

2017-03-27 4
2001
The grounding of almost all air traffic in the United States in the days after the 9/11 attacks created an
unusual moment for climate researchers, who could suddenly make some calculations about how planes'
contrails affect the temperature and weather.
A 2002 study suggested that during the
three days without air travel, daily
temperature variability increased by 1.1
degrees Celsius each day, suggesting that
contrails play a role in daily temperature.
More recent research has found that
contrails have a more immediate warming
effect on Earth's surface than carbon
dioxide and other greenhouse gases
expelled by airplanes.
Of course, greenhouse gases persist longer
and so affect climate more in the long-
term.
2001
Trade Organization
Doha, Quatar
The Doha Ministerial Declaration mandate for agriculture calls for comprehensive
negotiations aimed at substantial improvements in market access; reductions of all forms of
export subsidies, with a view to phasing out these subsidies, and substantial reductions in
trade-distorting domestic support.
These topics domestic support, export subsidies, and market access have become
known as the three pillars of the agricultural negotiations.
The Declaration also provides that special and differential treatment for developing
countries would be an integral part of all elements of the negotiations.

2017-03-27 5
2001
Trade Organization
The Doha Declaration on Public Health sought to alleviate developing country dissatisfaction
with aspects of the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights
(TRIPS) regime.
It delayed the implementation of patent system provisions for pharmaceutical products for
least developed countries (LDCs) until 2016.
The declaration committed member states to interpret and implement the agreement to
support public health and to promote access to medicines for all.
The Declaration recognized certain flexibilities in the TRIPS agreement to allow each
member to grant compulsory licenses for pharmaceuticals and to determine what
constitutes a national emergency, expressly including public health emergencies such as
HIV/AIDS, malaria, and tuberculosis or other epidemics.
The conference also approved the accession of China to the WTO.
2001
Marrakech Accords
7th Conference of the Parties (COP7) to
the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
Marrakech, Morroco
The negotiators wrapped up the work on the Plan of Action, finalizing most of the
operational details and setting the stage for nations to ratify the Kyoto Protocol.
The completed package of decisions is known as the Marrakech Accords.

2017-03-27 6
2002
Monterrey, Mexico
The Monterrey Consensus was the outcome of the 2002 Monterrey Conference.
The Monterrey Consensus embraces six areas of Financing for Development:
1. Mobilizing domestic financial resources for development.
2. Mobilizing international resources for development: foreign direct investment and
other private flows.
3. International Trade as an engine for development.
4. Increasing international financial and technical cooperation for development.
5. External Debt.
6. Addressing systemic issues: enhancing the coherence and consistency of the
international monetary, financial and trading systems in support of development.
2002
The outcome of the Conference reflected a landmark global agreement between
developed and developing countries, in which both recognized their responsibilities in
key areas such as trade, aid, debt relief and institution building.
Developing countries committed themselves to introduce sound economic and social
policies, improve governance, eradicate corruption and create a domestic regulatory
environment aimed at the development of the private business sector.
On the other hand, industrialised countries pledged to take measures to provide the
financial resources that might be required, in addition to the mobilisation of domestic
resources in developing countries, to meet the MDGs.

2017-03-27 7
2002
These measures included
1. a pledge to strive to provide official development assistance equal to at least 0.7%
of each developed countrys gross domestic product;
2. to improve market access for developing country exports;
3. to complete the development dimension of the Doha round of the WTO;
4. to provide debt relief in order to prevent debt service from becoming an obstacle
to development;
5. to facilitate the impact of foreign direct investment on development through
greater technology transfer; and
6. to improve the international financial architecture in order to predict and prevent
financial crises.
2002
Development, WSSD
Johannesburg, South Africa
The World Summit on Sustainable Development was convened to discuss sustainable
development by the United Nations. WSSD gathered a number of leaders from nations,
business and non-governmental organizations.
A broader agenda than the Rio Summit in 1992, the summit in Johannesburg included
various key issues were addressed, including:
1. Poverty
2. Water quality and availability
3. Cleaner energy
4. Health
5. Good governance
6. Technology
7. Production and Consumption
8. Oceans and Fisheries
9. Tourism.

2017-03-27 8
2002
Development, WSSD
At the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD), sustainable development
was reaffirmed as a central component of the international agenda.
A wide range of targets and concrete commitments for action to implement sustainable
development objectives were agreed and reaffirmed by governments.
The five priority sectoral issues were Water, Energy, Health, Agriculture and Biodiversity,
The WEHAB initiative.
The major outcomes of the WSSD include a negotiated Plan of Implementation, a Political
Declaration and a number of implementation partnerships and initiatives.
2002
Development, WSSD
One hundred Heads of State and Government who attended the WSSD agreed the political
declaration. A few notable references include the following:
Recognition that the deep fault line that divides human society between rich and poor
poses a major threat to global security and stability;
Recognition that globalisation has added a new dimension to the challenges of sustainable
development, with the benefits and costs of globalisation unevenly distributed;
-Recognition that a lack of action to fundamentally change the lives of those who suffer the
consequences of global disparities may lead the poor of the world to lose confidence in
democratic systems;
A call on developed countries that have not done so to make concrete efforts towards the
internationally agreed ODA targets (0.7% of GNP for ODA);
Support for the emergence of stronger regional groupings and alliances, such as the New
Partnership for Africas Development (NEPAD) to promote sustainable development;

2017-03-27 9
2002
Development, WSSD
Recognition of the private sectors duty to contribute to the evolution of equitable and
sustainable communities and societies; and the need for private sector corporations to
enforce corporate accountability within a transparent and stable regulatory environment;
Recognition of the need for strengthened and improved governance at all levels, for the
effective implementation of Agenda 21, the Millennium Development Goals and the
Johannesburg Plan of Implementation;
Recognition of the need for more effective, democratic and accountable international and
multilateral institutions;
A commitment to monitor progress at regular intervals towards the achievement of
sustainable development goals and objectives.
2002
Poverty Eradication
Halve, by the year 2015, the proportion of the worlds people whose income is less than
US$1 a day and the proportion of people who suffer from hunger (reaffirmation of MDGs).
By 2020, achieve a significant improvement in the lives of at least 100 million slum dwellers,
as proposed in the Cities without slums initiative (reaffirmation of MDGs).
Establish a world solidarity fund to eradicate poverty and to promote social and human
development in the developing countries.
Water and Sanitation
Halve, by the year 2015, the proportion of people without access to safe drinking water
(reaffirmation of MDGs).
Halve, by the year 2015, the proportion of people who do not have access to basic
sanitation.
Sustainable Production and Consumption
Encourage and promote the development of a 10-year framework of programmes to
accelerate the shift towards sustainable consumption and production.

2017-03-27 10
2002
Energy
Renewable energy
Diversify energy supply and substantially increase the global share of renewable energy
sources in order to increase its contribution to total energy supply.
Access to Energy
Improve access to reliable, affordable, economically viable, socially acceptable and
environmentally sound energy services and resources, sufficient to achieve the MDGs,
including the goal of halving the proportion of people in poverty by 2015.
Energy Markets
Remove market distortions including the restructuring of taxes and the phasing out of
harmful subsidies.
Support efforts to improve the functioning, transparency and information about energy
markets with respect to both supply and demand, with the aim of achieving greater stability
and to ensure consumer access to energy services.
Energy efficiency
Establish domestic programmes for energy efficiency with the support of the international
community. Accelerate the development and dissemination of energy efficiency and energy
conservation technologies, including the promotion of research and development.
2002
Chemicals
Aim, by 2020, to use and produce chemicals in ways that do not lead to significant adverse
effects on human health and the environment.
Renew the commitment to the sound management of chemicals and of hazardous wastes
throughout their life cycle.
Promote the ratification and implementation of relevant international instruments on
chemicals and hazardous waste, including the Rotterdam Convention so that it can enter
into force by 2003 and the Stockholm Convention so that it can enter into force by 2004.
Further develop a strategic approach to international chemicals management, based on the
Bahia Declaration and Priorities for Action beyond 2000, by 2005.
Encourage countries to implement the new globally harmonized system for the classification
and labelling of chemicals as soon as possible, with a view to having the system fully
operational by 2008.

2017-03-27 11
2002
Water
Develop integrated water resources management and water efficiency plans by 2005.
Oceans and fisheries
Encourage the application by 2010 of the ecosystem approach for the sustainable
development of the oceans.
By 2015, maintain or restore depleted fish stocks to levels that can produce the maximum
sustainable yield.
Put into effect the FAO international plans of action : for the management of fishing
capacity by 2005; to prevent, deter and eliminate illegal, unreported and unregulated
fishing by 2004.
Develop and facilitate the use of diverse approaches and tools, including the ecosystem
approach, the elimination of destructive fishing practices, the establishment of marine
protected areas consistent with international law and based on scientific information,
including representative networks by 2012 .
Establish by 2004 a regular process under the United Nations for global reporting and
assessment of the state of the marine environment.
Eliminate subsidies that contribute to illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing and to
over-capacity.
2002
Atmosphere
Facilitate implementation of the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone
Layer by ensuring adequate replenishment of its fund by 2003/2005.
Improve access by developing countries to alternatives to ozone-depleting substances by
2010, and assist them in complying with the phase-out schedule under the Montreal
Protocol.
Biodiversity
Achieve by 2010 a significant reduction in the current rate of loss of biological diversity.
Forests
Accelerate implementation of the Intergovernmental Panel on Forests (IPF) and its
successor, the Intergovernmental Forum on Forests (IFF) proposals for action by countries
and by the Collaborative Partnership on Forests, and intensify efforts on reporting to the
United Nations Forum on Forests, to contribute to an assessment of progress in 2005.

2017-03-27 12
2002
Corporate responsibility
Actively promote corporate responsibility and accountability, including through the full
development and effective implementation of intergovernmental agreements and
measures, international initiatives and public-private partnerships, and appropriate national
regulations.
Health
Enhance health education with the objective of achieving improved health literacy on a
global basis by 2010.
Reduce, by 2015, mortality rates for infants and children under 5 by two thirds, and
maternal mortality rates by three quarters, of the prevailing rate in 2000 (reaffirmation of
MDGs).
Reduce HIV prevalence among young men and women aged 15-24 by 25 per cent in the
most affected countries by 2005 and globally by 2010, as well as combat malaria,
tuberculosis and other diseases (reaffirmation of General Assembly resolution).
2002
Sustainable development of small island developing States
Undertake initiatives by 2004 aimed at implementing the Global Programme of Action for
the Protection of the Marine Environment from Land-based Activities to reduce, prevent
and control waste and pollution and their health-related impacts.
Develop community-based initiatives on sustainable tourism by 2004.
Support the availability of adequate, affordable and environmentally sound energy services
for the sustainable development of Small Island Developing States, including through
strengthening efforts on energy supply and services by 2004.
Review implementation of the Barbados Programme of Action for the Sustainable
Development of Small Island Developing States in 2004.

2017-03-27 13
2002
Sustainable development for Africa
Improve sustainable agricultural productivity and food security in accordance with the
Millennium Development Goals, in particular to halve by 2015 the proportion of people who
suffer from hunger.
Support African countries in developing and implementing food security strategies by
2005.
Support Africas efforts to implement NEPAD objectives on energy, which seek to secure
access for at least 35 per cent of the African population within 20 years, especially in rural
areas.
2002
Means of implementation
Ensure that, by 2015, all children will be able to complete a full course of primary schooling
and that girls and boys will have equal access to all levels of education relevant to national
needs (reaffirmation of MDGs).
Eliminate gender disparity in primary and secondary education by 2005 (reaffirmation of
Dakar Framework for Action on Education for All).
Recommend to the UN General Assembly that it consider adopting a decade of education
for sustainable development, starting in 2005.

2017-03-27 14
2002
Institutional Framework for sustainable development
Adopt new measures to strengthen institutional arrangements for sustainable development
at international, regional and national levels.
Enhance the role of the Commission on Sustainable Development, including through
reviewing and monitoring progress in the implementation of Agenda 21 and fostering
coherence of implementation, initiatives and partnerships.
Facilitate and promote the integration of the environmental, social and economic
dimensions of sustainable development into the work programs UN regional commissions.
Establish an effective, transparent and regular inter-agency coordination mechanism on
ocean and coastal issues within the United Nations system.
Take immediate steps to make progress in the formulation and elaboration of national
strategies for sustainable development and begin their implementation by 2005.
2002
Prestige oil spill
Galicia, Spain
The Prestige oil spill was largest
environmental disaster in Spain's
history.
The Prestige was an oil tanker that
ruptured a tank on November 13,
2002 off the Galician coast and then
broke a part on November 19, 2002.
The spill polluted thousands of
kilometers of coastline and more
than one thousand beaches on the
Spanish and French coast, as well as
causing great damage to the local
fishing industry.
The spill released over 77,000 tones
of oil.
Clean up costs were estimated at
over 12 thousand million USD.

2017-03-27 15
2002
Prestige oil spill
On November 13, 2002, one of its twelve tanks burst during a storm off Galicia, in
northwestern Spain.
Fearing that the ship would sink, the captain called for help from Spanish rescue workers,
with the expectation that the vessel would be brought into harbor.
However, pressure from local authorities forced the captain to steer the embattled ship away
from the coast and head northwest.
After pressure from the French government,
the vessel was once again forced to change its
course and head south into Portuguese
waters in order to avoid endangering France's
southern coast.
Fearing for its own shore, the Portuguese
authorities promptly ordered its navy to
intercept the ailing vessel and prevent it from
approaching further.
With the French, Spanish and Portuguese
governments refusing to allow the ship to
dock in their ports, the integrity of the single-
hulled oil tanker was quickly deteriorating.
2002
Prestige oil spill
At around 8:00 a.m. on November 19, the ship split
in half. It sank the same afternoon, releasing over
76 000 m3 of oil into the sea.
The oil tanker was reported to be about 250
kilometers from the Spanish coast at that time.
After the sinking, the wreck continued leaking oil.
It leaked approximately 125 tons of oil a day,
polluting the seabed and contaminating the
coastline, especially along the territory of Galicia.
The affected area is not only a very important
ecological region, supporting coral reefs and many
species of sharks and birds, but it also supports the
fishing industry.
The heavy coastal pollution forced the region's
government to suspend offshore fishing for six
months.

2017-03-27 16
2002
Prestige oil spill
Damage to fishing and related economic sectors,
tourism, and the natural heritage along 3,000km of
coastline polluted by the spill may last for over a
decade and cost approximately 5 billion, with
society at large paying 97.5 percent of it.
Around 30,000 people in the fishery and shellfish
sectors have been directly affected. After the
fisheries were reopened some local fishermen's
organizations have reported an 80 percent drop of
their normal catch.
The large quantity of oil that sank onto the bed of
shallower coastal waters raises serious risks of
contamination by toxic pollutants.
Contaminants on the sea bed can enter the food
chain through organisms that ingest sediments,
and eventually end up in products of commercial
value, such as sea bass, octopus, crab, and shrimp.
2002
Prestige oil spill
662 beaches affected of 1064 in Spain (437 in Galicia, 119 in Asturias, 51 in Cantbria, 44
Euskadi and 21 in the Islas Atlnticas National Park). In France at least 18.
More than 25 km of floating barriers have been placed. In France more than 12 km have
been used.
16 special ships and hundreds of small ones, thousand of volunteers&soldiers working on
the cleaning tasks in Spain.
Cleaned more than 40 000 tons in the Spanish beaches and more than 20 000 m in the sea.
Fishing not allowed along 798 km (the galician coast has 1121 km).
16 140 fishermen, and 6619 boats of the Galician fishing fleet remained inactive.
On the first anniversary of the Prestige disaster, 100,000 people take to the streets of the
Galician capital, Santiago de Compestela, organized by a new environmental movement
called Nunca Mais ("never again") in Gallego.
Five years later after the cleaning activities, a study found that people participating in the
cleaning activities, many of them volunteers, suffered several health problems, such as
pulmonary, cardiovascular, and chromosomal diseases. This was found among a study of 800
involved Spanish Navy personnel.
On 13th November 2013 the Spanish court dismissed the compensation claims by the
French and Spanish States for damages valued at around 4 thousand million, because it
could not formally establish any criminal responsibility.

2017-03-27 17
2005
Decade of Education for Sustainable
Development (DESD) - UNESCO
The Decade of Education for Sustainable Development (DESD)
was adopted in 2002 by the United Nations General Assembly
for 2005 to 2014.
UNESCO has the task of promoting the Decade, which aims to
promote sustainable skills and behaviour, inspired by creative
and critical ways of thinking, in order to encourage the
resolution and management of problems that stand in the way
of sustainable development.
The four priority areas of action for the Decade of Education for
Sustainable Development aim to:
Promote basic education.
Reorient and revise education programs.
Develop public understanding and awareness.
Provide practical training.
2005
The 2005 World Summit
In the 2005 World Summit, 150 Heads of State and Government, proclaimed:
We reaffirm our faith in the United Nations and our commitment to the purposes and
principles of the Charter and international law.
We believe that today, more than ever before, we live in a global and interdependent world.
No State can stand wholly alone.
The outcome document expressed strong and unambiguous commitment by all governments, in
donor and developing nations alike, to achieve the Millennium Development Goals by 2015.
Some other highlights of the outcome document:
Environment recognition of the serious challenge posed by climate change and a
commitment to take action through the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change.
International Health scaling up responses to HIV/AIDS, TB, and malaria. Support for the
Global Outbreak Alert and Response Network of the World Health Organization (WHO).
Humanitarian Assistance Improving the Central Emergency Revolving Fund.

2017-03-27 18
2005
Hurricane Katrina
US Gulf Coast, New Orleans
Hurricane Katrina was the costliest natural disaster, as well as one of the five deadliest
hurricanes, in the history of the United States.
When the storm made landfall it brought sustained winds of 160230 km/h (maximum
1-minute sustained: 280 km/h) and stretched some 650 km across.
The storm itself did a great deal of damage, but its aftermath was catastrophic. Levee
breaches led to massive flooding, and many people charged that the federal government
was slow to meet the needs of the people affected by the storm. Hundreds of thousands of
people in Louisiana, Mississippi and Alabama were displaced from their homes.
Overall, at least 1 245 people died in the hurricane and subsequent floods, making it the
deadliest United States hurricane since the 1928 Okeechobee hurricane.
Total property damage was estimated at 108 thousand million (2005 USD).
2005
Hurricane Katrina
The tropical depression that became Hurricane Katrina formed over the Bahamas on
August 23, 2005, and meteorologists were soon able to warn people in the Gulf Coast
states that a major storm was on its way. By August 28, evacuations were underway
across the region. That day, the National Weather Service predicted that after the storm
hit, most of the [Gulf Coast] area will be uninhabitable for weeksperhaps longer.
Hurricane Katrina at peak strength on

August 28, 2005

2017-03-27 19
2005
Hurricane Katrina
SaffirSimpson hurricane wind scale
Atmospheric
Wind speeds Rising sea level pressure at
sea level
(km/h) (m) (hPa)
TS 56117 - -
1 119153 1,21,6 > 980
2 154177 1,72,5 965979
3 178210 2,63,8 945964
4 211249 3,95,5 920944
5 > 249 > 5,5 < 920
SaffirSimpson hurricane scale

Sustained Rising sea
Atmospheric
pressure at
2005 Types of Damage due to Hurricane Winds
wind speeds level
sea level
TS
(km/h)
56117
(m)
-
Furaco Katrina
(hPa)
-
-
Very dangerous winds will produce some damage: Well-constructed frame homes could
have damage to roof, shingles, vinyl siding and gutters. Large branches of trees will snap
1 119153 1,21,6 > 980
and shallowly rooted trees may be toppled. Extensive damage to power lines and poles
likely will result in power outages that could last a few to several days.
Extremely dangerous winds will cause extensive damage: Well-constructed frame

homes could sustain major roof and siding damage. Many shallowly rooted trees will be
2 154177 1,72,5 965979
snapped or uprooted and block numerous roads. Near-total power loss is expected with
outages that could last from several days to weeks.
Devastating damage will occur: Well-built framed homes may incur major damage or
removal of roof decking and gable ends. Many trees will be snapped or uprooted,
3 178210 2,63,8 945964
blocking numerous roads. Electricity and water will be unavailable for several days to
weeks after the storm passes.
Catastrophic damage will occur: Well-built framed homes can sustain severe damage
with loss of most of the roof structure and/or some exterior walls. Most trees will be
4 211249 3,95,5 920944 snapped or uprooted and power poles downed. Fallen trees and power poles will isolate
residential areas. Power outages will last weeks to possibly months. Most of the area will
be uninhabitable for weeks or months.
Catastrophic damage will occur: A high percentage of framed homes will be destroyed,
with total roof failure and wall collapse. Fallen trees and power poles will isolate
5 > 249 > 5,5 < 920
residential areas. Power outages will last for weeks to possibly months. Most of the area
will be uninhabitable for weeks or months.

2017-03-27 20
2005
Hurricane Katrina
2005
Hurricane Katrina
New Orleans was at particular risk.
Though about half the city actually lies above sea level, its average elevation is about six
feet below sea leveland it is completely surrounded by water.
Over the course of the 20th century, the Army Corps of Engineers had built a system of
levees and seawalls to keep the city from flooding. The levees along the Mississippi River
were strong and sturdy, but the ones built to hold back Lake Pontchartrain, Lake Borgne and
the waterlogged swamps and marshes to the citys east and west were much less reliable.
Even before the storm, officials worried that those levees, jerry-built atop sandy, porous,
erodible soil, might not withstand a massive storm surge.
Neighborhoods that sat below sea level, many of which housed the citys poorest and most
vulnerable people, were at great risk of flooding.

2017-03-27 21
2005
Hurricane Katrina
2005
Hurricane Katrina
Storm impact
As Katrina made landfall, its front-right quadrant, which held the strongest winds, slammed
into Gulfport and Biloxi, Mississippi, devastating both cities. A large storm surge ranging
from 3 to 8 m devastated coastal areas across southeastern Louisiana and coastal
Mississippi.
The surge and battering waves smashed into levees, which collapsed, causing extensive
flooding throughout the New Orleans region. Ultimately, 80 percent of New Orleans and
large portions of nearby parishes became flooded, and the floodwaters did not recede for
weeks.
The National Guard was called in to help with evacuations. Thousands sought refuge in the
New Orleans Convention Center and the Superdome, which were overwhelmed.
It was one of the largest displacements of a population since the Great Depression,
according to the NOAA. According to The Data Center, an independent research
organization in New Orleans, the storm displaced more than 1 million people in the Gulf
Coast region.

2017-03-27 22
2005
Hurricane Katrina
2005
Hurricane Katrina

2017-03-27 23
2005
Hurricane Katrina
2005
Hurricane Katrina

2017-03-27 24
2005
Hurricane Katrina
2005
Hurricane Katrina

2017-03-27 25
2005
Hurricane Katrina
2005
Hurricane Katrina

2017-03-27 26
2005
Hurricane Katrina
THE AFTERMATH
Many people acted heroically in the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina.
The Coast Guard, for instance, rescued some 34 000 people in New Orleans alone, and
many ordinary citizens commandeered boats, offered food and shelter, and did whatever
else they could to help their neighbors.
Yet the government, particularly the federal government, seemed unprepared for the
disaster. The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) took days to establish
operations in New Orleans, and even then did not seem to have a sound plan of action.
Officials, even including President George W. Bush, seemed unaware of just how bad things
were in New Orleans and elsewhere: how many people were stranded or missing; how
many homes and businesses had been damaged; how much food, water and aid was
needed.
Katrina had left in her wake what one reporter called a total disaster zone where people
were getting absolutely desperate.
2005
Hurricane Katrina
The political storm
The rescue and recovery efforts following Katrina became highly politicized, with federal,
state and local officials pointing fingers at one another.
Critics blamed an aging and neglected federal levee system and a slow state and local
response following the disaster for the high loss of life and damage.
Many residents did not heed initial warnings to evacuate, putting a severe strain on rescue
operations.
After initially receiving praise from then-president George W. Bush, Michael D. Brown, the
director of the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), was forced to resign, as
was New Orleans Police Department Superintendent Eddie Compass.
Louisiana Gov. Kathleen Blanco and New Orleans Mayor Ray Nagin came under severe
scrutiny for not ordering mandatory evacuations sooner.
Blanco did not seek re-election in 2007.
Nagin left office in 2010. In 2014, he was convicted of bribery, fraud and money laundering
committed while in office before and after Katrina and is now serving a 10-year sentence.

2017-03-27 27
2005
Hurricane Katrina
Katrina had a profound impact on the environment.
The storm surge caused substantial beach erosion, in some cases completely devastating
coastal areas.
In Dauphin Island (a barrier island), approximately 140 km to the east of the point where the
hurricane made landfall, the sand that comprised the island was transported across the
island into the Mississippi Sound, pushing the island towards land.
The storm surge and waves from Katrina
also severely damaged the Chandeleur
Islands, which had been affected by
Hurricane Ivan the previous year.
The US Geological Survey has estimated
560 km2 of land was transformed to water
by the hurricanes Katrina and Rita.
The Chandeleur Islands, before Katrina (left) and after

(right), showing the impact of the storm along coastal areas.
2005
Hurricane Katrina
The lands that were lost were breeding grounds for marine mammals, brown pelicans,
turtles, and fish, as well as migratory species such as redhead ducks.
Overall, about 20% of the local marshes were permanently overrun by water as a result of
the storm.
The damage from Katrina forced the closure of 16 National Wildlife Refuges. Breton
National Wildlife Refuge lost half its area in the storm. As a result, the hurricane affected
the habitats of sea turtles, Mississippi sandhill cranes, Red-cockaded woodpeckers and
Alabama Beach mice.

2017-03-27 28
2005
Jilin chemical plant explosions
Jilin, China
The Jilin chemical plant explosions were a series of explosions which occurred on November
13, 2005, in the Petrochemical Plant in Jilin City, Jilin Province, China, over the period of an
hour. The explosions killed six, injured dozens, and caused the evacuation of tens of
thousands of residents.
The blasts created an 80 km long toxic
slick in the Songhua River, a tributary of
the Amur. The slick, predominantly made
up of benzene and nitrobenzene, passed
through the Amur River over subsequent
weeks.
The explosion severely polluted the
Songhua River, with an estimated 100
tons of pollutants containing benzene
and nitrobenzene entering into the river.
2005
Jilin chemical plant explosions
Exposure to benzene reduces white blood cell count and is linked to leukemia.
An 80 km long toxic slick drifted down the Amur River, and the benzene level recorded was
at one point 108 times above national safety levels.
The slick passed first on the Songhua River through several counties and cities of Jilin
province, including Songyuan; it then entered the province of Heilongjiang, with Harbin,
capital of Heilongjiang province and one of China's largest cities, being one of the first places
to be affected.
Harbin, the capital of Heilongjiang, one of China's biggest cities with nearly ten million urban
residents, is also dependent on the Songhua River for its water supply.
On November 21, the city government of Harbin announced that water supplies would be
shut off at noon November 22 for four days for maintenance, mentioning, later, that the
Jilin explosions were the reason for the shutoff.
The slick itself reached Harbin before dawn on November 24. On that day, the nitrobenzene
level at Harbin was recorded at 16.87 times above the national safety level, while the
benzene level was increasing, but had not yet exceeded national safety level.
Water supply in Harbin was resumed in the evening of November 27.

2017-03-27 29
2007
Low Arctic Sea Ice
The Arctic ice pack is the ice cover of the
Arctic Ocean and its vicinity.
The Arctic ice pack undergoes a regular
seasonal cycle in which ice melts in spring
and summer, reaches a minimum around
mid-September, then increases during fall
and winter.
Summer ice cover in the Arctic is about
50% of winter cover.
The September minimum ice extent
trend for 19792011 declined by 12.0%
per decade during 32 years.
In 2007 the minimum extent fell by more
than a million square kilometers, the
biggest decline since accurate satellite
data has been available, to 4,140,000
km2.
Record Low Arctic Sea Ice in 2007,
showing the Northwest passage open
2009
SayanoShushenskaya hydroelectric power
station accident, Russia
Largest hydroelectric power station in Russia and 6th largest in the

worldl: 6400 MW installed power.
Dam height: 242 m.
Reservoir volume: 31,3 km3
Khakassia Republic, Russia

2017-03-27 30
2009
10 turbines with 640 MW
each.
Mean annual power
production: 23,5 TWh.
Hydropower in Portugal:
5239 MW.
Electricity consumption in
Portugal: 36,5 TWh.
2009
The accident occurred on 17 August
2009, when turbine 2 of the
hydroelectric power station broke apart
violently.
The turbine hall and engine room were
flooded, the ceiling of the turbine hall
collapsed, 9 of 10 turbines were
damaged or destroyed, and 75 people
were killed.
The entire plant output was lost, leading
to widespread power failure in the local
area, and forcing major users to switch to
diesel generators.
The accident caused an oil spill, releasing
at least 40 tonnes of transformer oil
which spread over 80 km downstream of
Yenisei, killing 400 tonnes of cultivated
trout in two riverside fisheries, and
severe impact on wildlife.

2017-03-27 31
2010
Explosion of Deepwater Horizon drilling rig
Deepwater Horizon was an ultra-deepwater, dynamically positioned, semi-

submersible offshore drilling rig built in 2001 in South Korea by Hyundai Heavy
Industries.
The rig was leased to BP from 2001 until September 2013. In September 2009,
the rig drilled the deepest oil well in history at a vertical depth of 10 683 m.
2010
On 20 April 2010, while drilling, an uncontrollable blowout caused an explosion on

the rig that killed 11 crewmen wounded 17, and ignited a fireball visible from 65
km) away. The fire was inextinguishable and, two days later the Horizon sank,
leaving the well gushing at the seabed and causing the largest oil spill in U.S. waters.
Volume of oil spill: 4,9 million barrels, 780 000 m3 during 87 dias (9900 m3/day)
10%.
Afected area: 180 000 km2, 1728 km of coastline, including braches, barier islands
and wet zones.

2017-03-27 32
2010
2010

2017-03-27 33
2010
The greatest impact was on marine species.
The area of the spill is home to 8 333 species, including more than 1,200
species of fish, 200 of birds, 1400 of mollusks, 1500 of crustaceans, four
of sea turtles and 29 of marine mammals.
14 protected and 39 threatened species, including whale sharks, were
affected.
Damage to the seabed has affected several endangered species, notably
the batfish of the Louisiana, whose habitats are entirely confined to the
affected area.
The spilled oil contains about 40% of methane in mass, compared with
about 5% found in typical petroleum deposits. Methane can potentially
create lifeless, anoxic zones.
2010
A causal link has been established between the oil spill and the death of a
coral community.
In January 2013 a shortage of marine life was recorded within a radius of 50
to 80 km around the site of the rugged oil platform.
The mixture of oil and dispersants, containing several dangerous
substances, including PAH, penetrated the trophic chain through
zooplankton.
The application of dispersants determined that the introduction and the
percolation of the oil in the sands of the beaches and in the groundwater
masses was faster and reached greater depths. Due to the lack of sunlight,
PAH degradation is delayed.
Populations of some species of arachnids and insects have become much
less numerous.

2017-03-27 34
2010
Migratory birds transported the hazardous substances from the spill and
subsequent fighting to the northern regions of the United States.
In the summer of 2010, submerged oil plumes were registered in an area of
210 km2 around the site of the accident.
Dispersants and PAHs from oil are believed to have caused alarming
numbers of fish and other species (crustaceans) with mutations, possibly
reaching 50% of the population.
Dolphin and whale mortality doubled.
2010
"The greatest public health crisis caused by chemical poisoning in US
history," according to Mike Robicheux, a Louisiana physician.
Blood concentrations of volatile organic compounds 5 to 10 times greater
than the 95th percentile revealed blood tests performed in July on
residents of the affected area and on persons involved in cleaning work in
Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, and Florida. The presence of these
chemicals in the blood indicates the exposure. Possible long-term health
consequences.

2017-03-27 35
2010
In 2012 studies of public health effects revealed "chronic adverse health
effects including cancers, liver and kidney diseases, skin diseases, cough,
migraines, mental health disorders (anxiety, depression, posttraumatic
stress), malformations in newborns and developmental disorders among
the most vulnerable and most heavily exposed populations. "
Two years after the stroke, the biomarkers found in the body of the
workers who participated in the cleaning operations correspond to the oil
from the spill.
Research into the health effects of Louisiana and Florida children living
within 16 km of the coast revealed that more than one-third of them
show evidence of physical or mental health, including ear and nose
bleeds and early onset of menses between the girls.
2010
The accident had a strong economic impact on BP and on various sectors of

the economy in the Gulf Coast region, such as offshore oil exploration and
extraction, fishing and tourism.
In March 2012, BP estimated that the total costs incurred by the company
directly related to the accident were $ 37.2 billion, including costs of spill
response actions, containment, subsidies paid to the Gulf States , Federal
claims and costs, including fines and penalties.
It is estimated that, including future costs and penalties, the total costs to
BP will reach $ 90 billion.
In November 2012, EPA announced that BP will be temporarily banned from
making new contracts with the US government.

2017-03-27 36
2010
Due to the loss of market value, BP fell from second to fourth among oil
companies.
During the crisis, BP gas stations in the United States reported sales losses
of 10-40% due to the reaction against the company.
Local authorities in Louisiana expressed concern that the moratorium on
deep offshore drilling imposed in response to the accident would hurt the
economies of coastal communities because the oil industry employs some
58,000 Louisiana residents and created an additional 260,000 jobs,
accounting for about 17 percent of Louisiana's total employment.
The Federal Administration has banned commercial fishing in an area of
225,290 km2, or about 36 percent of federal waters in the Gulf of Mexico,
costing the fishing industry $2.5 billion.
The Association of US Tourism Agencies estimates that the economic impact
of the oil spill on tourism across the Gulf Coast over a three-year period
could exceed about $23 billion in a region with more than 400,000 jobs In
the tourism industry generating $34 billion in annual revenue..
2010
BP guilty of 11 homicides, two misdemeanors, and one crime for

lying to Congress.
BP was subject to government monitoring of safety and ethical
practices,
New contracts with the US government have been temporarily
banned.
Payment of $ 4 525 million in fines and other charges.
On 2 July 2015, BP, the U.S. Justice Department and five gulf
states announced that the company agreed to pay a record
settlement of $18.7 billion.
To date BPs cost for the clean-up, environmental and economic
damages and penalties has reached $54 billion.

2017-03-27 37
EVOLUTION OF
Part 9
2011
Thoku earthquake
The 2011 earthquake off the Pacific coast of Thoku, Japan, was a magnitude 9.09.1
(Mw) undersea megathrust earthquake with the epicentre approximately 70 km east of
the Oshika Peninsula of Thoku and the hypocenter at an underwater depth of
approximately 29 km. It was the most powerful earthquake ever
recorded to have hit Japan, and the fourth
most powerful earthquake in the world
since modern record-keeping began in
1900.
The earthquake triggered powerful
tsunami waves that reached heights of up
to 40.5 m in Miyako, and which, in the
Sendai area, traveled up to 10 km inland.
The earthquake moved Honshu (the main
island of Japan) 2.4 m east, shifted the
Earth on its axis by estimates of between
10 cm and 25 cm, and generated
infrasound waves detected in
perturbations of the low-orbiting GOCE
satellite.

2017-03-29 1
2011
Thoku earthquake
2011
Thoku earthquake
A Japanese National Police Agency report confirmed 15 894 deaths, 6 152 injured, and
2 562 people missing, as well as 228 863 people living away from their home in either
temporary housing or due to permanent relocation.
An official report listed 127 290 buildings totally collapsed, with a further 272 788
buildings "half collapsed", and another 747 989 buildings partially damaged.
The earthquake and tsunami also caused extensive and severe structural damage in
north-eastern Japan, including heavy damage to roads and railways as well as fires in
many areas, and a dam collapse.
Around 4.4 million households in northeastern Japan were left without electricity and
1.5 million without water.

2017-03-29 2
2011
Thoku earthquake
A Japanese National Police Agency report confirmed 15 894 deaths, 6 152 injured, and
2 562 people missing, as well as 228 863 people living away from their home in either
temporary housing or due to permanent relocation.
An official report listed 127 290 buildings totally collapsed, with a further 272 788
buildings "half collapsed", and another 747 989 buildings partially damaged.
The earthquake and tsunami also caused extensive and severe structural damage in
north-eastern Japan, including heavy damage to roads and railways as well as fires in
many areas, and a dam collapse.
Around 4.4 million households in northeastern Japan were left without electricity and
1.5 million without water.
The tsunami caused nuclear accidents, primarily the level 7 meltdowns at three
reactors in the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant complex, and the associated
evacuation zones affecting hundreds of thousands of residents.
2011
Thoku earthquake
The tsunami caused nuclear accidents, primarily the level 7 meltdowns at three
reactors in the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant complex, and the associated
evacuation zones affecting hundreds of thousands of residents.
Many electrical generators were taken down, and at least three nuclear reactors
suffered explosions due to hydrogen gas that had built up within their outer
containment buildings after cooling system failure resulting from the loss of electrical
power. Residents within a 20 km radius of the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant
and a 10 km radius of the Fukushima Daini Nuclear Power Plant were evacuated.
Early estimates placed insured losses from the earthquake alone at US$14.5 to $34.6
billion.

2017-03-29 3
2011
Thoku earthquake
2011
Thoku earthquake

2017-03-29 4
2011
Thoku earthquake
2011
Thoku earthquake

2017-03-29 5
2011
Thoku earthquake
2011
Thoku earthquake

2017-03-29 6
2011
Thoku earthquake
Map of aftershocks
11 de March
12 de March
13 de March
14 de March
2011
Fukushima nuclear disaster

2017-03-29 7
2011
The height of the tsunami that struck the station approximately 50 minutes after
the earthquake.
A: Power station buildings
B: peak height of tsunami
C: ground level of site
D: average sea level
E: sea wall to block waves.
2011

2017-03-29 8
2012
United Nations Conference on Sustainable
Development, Rio+20, Earth Summit 2012 (UNCSD)
Third International Conference on sustainable development designed to

reconcile the economic and environmental objectives of the global community,
in the 20th anniversary of the Rio Summit (UNCED) of 1992 and the 10th
anniversary of the Johannesburg Summit of 2002 (WSSD).
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, June 13-22, 2012.
0 50% 100%
2012
Development (UNCSD)
The decision to hold the conference was adopted by the UN General Assembly resolution
A / RES / 64/236 of 24 December 2009.
It was intended to be a high-level conference, including heads of state and government or
other representatives, resulting in a policy document focused on guiding global
environmental policy ..
It was organized by the United Nations Economic and Social Council.
About 50 000 participants, including delegates and representatives of 192 United Nations
member states - including 57 heads of state and 31 heads of government -, environmental
activists from NGOs, business leaders and indigenous groups.
Some G20 leaders, notably US President Barack Obama, German Chancellor Angela
Merkel, and UK Prime Minister David Cameron, did not attend the conference and
apologized for discussions on the European debt crisis. This collective absence was seen
as a reflection of the failure of their administrations to prioritize issues of sustainability.
The summit culminated in a three-day high-level UN conference.
0 50% 100%

2017-03-29 9
2012
Development (UNCSD)
Demonstration on the streets of Rio de Janeiro, with the image of the President of Brazil, Dilma Roussef.
0 50% 100%
2012
Development (UNCSD)
Environment NGO members unfurl a giant note of a trillion dollars on Copacabana Beach, urging world
leaders at Rio + 20 Summit to end subsidies to fossil fuels and invest them in clean energy and sustainable
development . 0 50% 100%

2017-03-29 10
2012
Development (UNCSD)
Around 1500 people used Flamengo

Beach in Rio de Janeiro as a giant screen
on June 19, 2012. With their bodies
formed the lines of an image promoting
the importance of rivers with free flow
(without dams), truly clean energy
sources, like solar energy, including
indigenous knowledge as part of the solution to climate issues. The activity was conducted by many
indigenous peoples of Brazil, organized under the aegis of the Coordination of Indigenous
Organizations of the Brazilian Amazon (COAIB).
50% 100%
2012
Development (UNCSD)
The conference had three objectives:
Ensure renewed political commitment to sustainable development.
Assess progress and implementation gaps in meeting previous commitments.
Facing new and emerging challenges.
The official discussions were organized in two main themes:

How to build a green economy to achieve sustainable development and lift people out
of poverty, including helping developing countries to find a green path to development.
How to improve international coordination for sustainable development by building an
institutional framework.
The primary result of the conference was the nonbinding document, "The Future We
Want, a 49 page work paper.
In it, the representatives of the 192 governments in attendance renewed their political
commitment to sustainable development and declared their commitment to the promotion
of a sustainable future.
The document largely reaffirms previous action plans like Agenda 21 and the Johannesburg
Plan of Implementation. 0 50% 100%

2017-03-29 11
2012
Development (UNCSD)
Some important outcomes include the following:
The support to the development of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), a set of
measurable targets aimed at promoting sustainable development globally.
It is thought that the SDGs will pick up where the Millennium Development Goals leave
off and address criticism that the original Goals fail to address the role of the
environment in development.
The attempt to shore up the UN Environment Programme (UNEP) in order to make it the
leading global environmental authority, by setting forth eight key recommendations
including, strengthening its governance through universal membership, increasing its
financial resources and strengthening its engagement in key UN coordination bodies.
Nations agreed to explore alternatives to GDP as a measure of wealth that take
environmental and social factors into account in an effort to assess and pay for
environmental services provided by nature, such as carbon sequestration and habitat
protection.
0 50% 100%
2012
Development (UNCSD)
Recognition that "fundamental changes in the way societies consume and produce are
indispensable for achieving global sustainable development. EU officials suggest it could
lead to a shift of taxes so workers pay less and polluters and landfill operators pay more.
The document calls the need to return ocean stocks to sustainable levels urgent and
calls on countries to develop and implement science based management plans.
All nations reaffirmed commitments to phase out fossil fuel subsidies.
In addition to the outcome text, there were over 400 voluntary commitments for
sustainable development made by Member States.
0 50% 100%

2017-03-29 12
2012
Development (UNCSD)
Green Economy
The green economy in the context of sustainable development and poverty
eradication is an important tool for achieving sustainable development and for
formulating policy options, and should not be a rigid set of rules.
The green economy should contribute to poverty eradication, as well as sustained
economic growth, enhancing social inclusion, improving human welfare and
creating opportunities for employment and decent work for all, maintaining the
healthy functioning of ecosystems of the Earth.
0 50% 100%
2012
Development (UNCSD)
Green Economy
Green economy policies should:
a) be consistent with international law;
b) respect each country's national sovereignty over its natural resources, taking
into account national specificities, objectives, responsibilities, priorities and
policy space in relation to the three dimensions of sustainable development;
c) be supported by an enabling environment and good functioning of institutions
at all levels, with a leading role for governments and the participation of all
stakeholders, including civil society;
d) promote sustained and inclusive economic growth, promote innovation and
provide opportunities, benefits and empowerment for all and respect for all
human rights;
e) take into account the needs of developing countries, in particular those with
special situations;
0 50% 100%

2017-03-29 13
2012
Development (UNCSD)
f) strengthen international cooperation, including the provision of financial
resources, capacity-building and technology transfer to developing countries;
g) avoid unjustified constraints on public assistance and financing for
development;
h) do not create arbitrary or unjustifiable discrimination or disguised restriction
on international trade, avoid unilateral actions to deal with environmental
challenges outside the jurisdiction of the importing country, and ensure that
measures to address cross-border or international environmental issues are
based on consensus Countries;
i) contribute to bridging technological gaps between developed and developing
countries and reduce technological dependence on developing countries,
using all appropriate measures;
0 50% 100%
2012
Development (UNCSD)
j) improve the well-being of indigenous peoples and their communities, local
and traditional communities and ethnic minorities, by recognizing and
supporting their identity, culture and interests, and protecting their cultural
heritage, traditional practices and knowledge, preserving and respecting non-
market approaches that contribute to the eradication of poverty;
k) improve the well-being of women, children, young people, people with
disabilities, smallholder and subsistence farmers, fishermen and those
working in small and medium-sized enterprises, and improving living
conditions and empowerment of vulnerable poor groups, particularly in
developing countries;
l) mobilize the potential of societies and ensure the equal contribution of men
and women;
0 50% 100%

2017-03-29 14
2012
Development (UNCSD)
m) promote productive activities in developing countries that contribute to the
eradication of poverty;
n) tackling situations of inequality and promoting social inclusion, including
social protection systems;
o) promote sustainable consumption and production;
p) continue efforts to promote equitable development, including approaches to
overcoming poverty and inequality.
0 50% 100%
2012
Development (UNCSD)
Green economy in the context of sustainable development and poverty
eradication will improve our ability to manage natural resources sustainably with
less negative environmental impacts, increase the efficiency of resource use and
reduce waste.
Urgent action to eliminate unsustainable patterns of production and consumption
remains critical in addressing environmental sustainability and promoting the
conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity and ecosystems, the regeneration
of natural resources and the promotion of sustained global growth, Inclusive and
equitable.
0 50% 100%

2017-03-29 15
2012
Further reduction of the Arctic ice area
September 13, 2012
From 2008 to 2011, the minimum ice cover in

the Arctic was higher than in 2007, but was
always lower than in previous years.
In 2012, however, the minimum recorded, of
3.4 million km2, was lower than that of 2007
in 710 thousand km2. This figure is about 50%
lower than the average of the minimum
extensions recorded for the period 1979 to
September 14, 1984 2000, represented by the 1984 situation.
It is estimated a reduction of approximately
10.5% per decade.
Concentration of ice in the sea

0 50% 100%
2013
Minamata Convention on Mercury
The Minamata Convention on Mercury is a
global treaty to protect human health and the
environment from the adverse effects of
mercury. It was adopted on 10 October 2013 at
a Diplomatic Conference, held in Kumamoto,
Japan.
The Convention draws attention to a global and
ubiquitous metal that, while naturally occurring,
has broad uses in everyday objects and is
released to the atmosphere, soil and water from
a variety of sources.
Controlling the anthropogenic releases of mercury throughout its lifecycle has been a key factor
in shaping the obligations under the Convention.
Major highlights of the Minamata Convention include a ban on new mercury mines, the phase-out
of existing ones, the phase out and phase down of mercury use in a number of products and
processes, control measures on emissions to air and on releases to land and water, and the
regulation of the informal sector of artisanal and small-scale gold mining.
The Convention also addresses interim storage of mercury and its disposal once it becomes
waste, sites contaminated by mercury as well as health issues.
0 50% 100%

2017-03-29 16
2013
Minamata disease
Minamata disease, sometimes referred to as Chisso-Minamata disease, is a
neurological syndrome caused by severe mercury poisoning. Symptoms include
ataxia, numbness in the hands and feet, general muscle weakness, narrowing of the
field of vision and damage to hearing and speech.
Elemental and methylmercury (CH3Hg+) are toxic to the central and peripheral nervous
systems. The inhalation of mercury vapour can produce harmful effects on the
nervous, digestive and immune systems, lungs and kidneys, and may be fatal.
Minamata disease was first discovered in Minamata city in Japan, in 1956. It was
caused by the release of methylmercury in the industrial wastewater from the Chisso
Corporation's chemical factory, which continued from 1932 to 1968. This highly toxic
chemical bioaccumulated in shellfish and fish in Minamata Bay and the Shiranui Sea,
which, when eaten by the local population, resulted in mercury poisoning. While cat,
dog, pig, and human deaths continued for 36 years, the government and company did
little to prevent the pollution.
0 50% 100%
2013
Minamata disease
As of March 2001, 2 265 victims had been
officially recognised as having Minamata
disease (1 784 of whom had died) and over 10
000 had received financial compensation from
Chisso. By 2004, Chisso Corporation had paid
$86 million in compensation, and in the same
year was ordered to clean up its
contamination. On March 29, 2010, a
settlement was reached to compensate as-yet
uncertified victims.
A second outbreak of Minamata disease

occurred in Niigata Prefecture in 1965. The
original Minamata disease and Niigata
Minamata disease are considered two of the
four big pollution diseases of Japan.
0 50% 100%

2017-03-29 17
2013
Harbin, China, Air Pollution Red Alert
Schools closed, flights were
suspended, the highways were
closed and the visibility was
minimal.
Harbin, with 11 million
inhabitants, located in northeast
China, registered on 21 October a
concentration of particles in the
air over than 1000 g /m3, well
above the limit of 300 g /m3
considered dangerous and the
daily limit recommended by the
World Health Organization (WHO)
Heilongjiang of 20 g /m3.
The problem was caused by
gaseous emissions associated with
heating systems that began
operating in cold weather.
0 50% 100%
2015
United Nations Sustainable Development Summit
On 25 September 2015, the 193 countries of the UN General Assembly adopted the 2030
Development Agenda titled Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable
Development.
The Agenda for Sustainable Development has 92 paragraphs, with 17 Sustainable Development
Goals and 169 associated targets.
0 50% 100%

2017-03-29 18
2015
0 50% 100%
2015
Sustainable development goals:

1. Poverty - End poverty in all its forms everywhere.
2. Food - End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote sustainable
agriculture.
3. Health - Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages.
4. Education - Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning
opportunities for all.
5. Women - Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls.
6. Water - Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all.
7. Energy - Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all.
8. Economy - Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and
productive employment and decent work for all.
9. Infrastructure - Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable
industrialization and foster innovation.
0 50% 100%

2017-03-29 19
2015
Sustainable development goals:

10. Inequality - Reduce inequality within and among countries.
11. Habitation - Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable.
12. Consumption - Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns.
13. Climate - Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts.
14. Marine systems - Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for
sustainable development.
15. Ecosystems - Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems,
sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, and halt and reverse land degradation
and halt biodiversity loss.
16. Institutions - Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development, provide
access to justice for all and build effective, accountable and inclusive institutions at all levels.
17. Sustainability - Strengthen the means of implementation and revitalize the global
partnership for sustainable development.
As of August 2015, there were 169 proposed targets for these goals and 304 proposed indicators
to show compliance. 0 50% 100%
2015
Beijing, China, Air Pollution Red Alert
Schools in Beijing were closed and
outdoor construction halted as the
Chinese capital's first ever
pollution "red alert" came into
effect.
The alert, the highest possible
warning level, was issued on 7
December.
Limits have been placed on car
use and some factories have been
ordered to stop operations.
It comes as China, the world's
worst polluter, takes part in talks
on carbon emissions in Paris.
It is the first time China has
declared a red alert under the
four-tier alert system, which was
adopted a little over two years
ago, although pollution levels
0 were far from50% the city's worst.
100%

2017-03-29 20
2015
United Nations Climate Change Conference
Paris
The 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference was held in Paris, from
30 November to 12 December 2015. It was the 21st yearly session of the
Conference of the Parties to the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention
on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the 11th session of the Meeting of the
Parties to the 1997 Kyoto Protocol.
The conference reached its objective, to achieve a global agreement on
reduction of climate change in the Paris Agreement, which was adopted with
acclamation by nearly all states.
The agreement will become legally binding if at least 55 countries that represent at least 55
percent of global greenhouse emissions become a party to it through signature followed by
ratification, acceptance, approval or through accession in New York between 22 April 2016 to 21
April 2017. It is expected to take effect in 2020.
The expected key result was to limit the global warming, by 2100, compared to pre-industrial to
below 2 C.
The goal to limit temperature increase to 2 C was supplemented in the adopted version of the
Paris Agreement, with the statement that parties "pursue to" limit the temperature increase to
1.5 C. This goal will require a zero level in emissions sometimes
0 between
50%2030 and 2050.
100%
2015
Aim
The aim of the convention is described in Article 2, "enhancing the implementation" of the
UNFCCC through:
"(a) Holding the increase in the global average temperature to well below 2 C above pre-
industrial levels and to pursue efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 C above pre-
industrial levels, recognizing that this would significantly reduce the risks and impacts of
climate change;
(b) Increasing the ability to adapt to the adverse impacts of climate change and foster climate
resilience and low greenhouse gas emissions development, in a manner that does not
threaten food production;
(c) Making finance flows consistent with a pathway towards low greenhouse gas emissions and
climate-resilient development."
Countries furthermore aim to reach "global peaking of greenhouse gas emissions as soon as
possible".
0 50% 100%

2017-03-29 21
2015
Nationally determined contributions
The contribution that each individual country should make in order to achieve the worldwide
goal are determined by all countries individually and called "nationally determined
contributions".
The Agreement requires them to be "ambitious" and set "with the view to achieving the
purpose of this Agreement".
The contributions should be reported every five years and are to be registered by the UNFCCC
Secretariat. Each further ambition should be more ambitious than then previous one. Countries
can cooperate and pool their nationally determined contributions.
Prior to the conference, 146 national climate panels publicly presented draft national climate
contributions (so-called Intended Nationally Determined Contributions, INDCs). These suggested
commitments were estimated to limit global warming to 2.7 C by 2100. For example, the EU
suggested INDC is a commitment to a 40 percent reduction in emissions by 2030 compared to
1990.
The INDCs pledged during the 2015 Climate Change Conference serves -unless provided
otherwise- as the initial Nationally Determined Contribution.
However, no detailed timeplan or country-specific goals for emissions were stated in the final
version of the Paris Agreement - as opposed to the previous Kyoto protocol. A zero level should
0 50% 100%
be reached during the second half of the century according to the agreement.
2015
Global Stock take
The implementation of the agreement by all member countries together will be evaluated every
5 years, with the first evaluation in 2023. The outcome is to be used as input for new Nationally
determined contributions of member states.
Support to Developing Nations
The Paris Agreement underwrites adequate support to developing nations and establishes a
global goal to significantly strengthen adaptation to climate change through support and
international cooperation.
The already broad and ambitious efforts of developing countries to build their own clean,
climate-resilient futures will be supported by scaled-up finance from developed countries and
voluntary contributions from other countries.
Governments decided that they will work to define a clear roadmap on ratcheting up climate
finance to USD 100 thousand million by 2020 while also before 2025 setting a new goal on the
provision of finance from the USD 100 thousand million floor.
International cooperation on climate-safe technologies and building capacity in the developing
world to address climate change are also significantly strengthened under the new agreement.
0 50% 100%

2017-03-29 22
United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change
United Nations Framework Convention
on Climate Change
In 1992, countries joined the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC):
to cooperatively consider what they could do to limit average
global temperature increases and the resulting climate
change, and
to cope with whatever impacts were inevitable.
The ultimate aim of the UNFCCC is preventing dangerous
human interference with the climate system.
The UNFCCC entered into force on 21 March 1994. Today, it has
near-universal membership. The 195 countries that have ratified
the Convention are called Parties to the Convention.
Source: www.co2.earth/global-warming-update
Global average abundances of the major, well-mixed, long-lived greenhouse gases from the NOAA global air
sampling network. These five gases account for about 96% of the direct radiative forcing by long-lived
greenhouse gases since 1750. The remaining 4% is contributed by an assortment of 15 minor halogenated
gases. www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/aggi/
Expressions for Calculating Radiative Forcing
Simplified Expression
Trace Gas Constant
Radiative Forcing, F (Wm-2)
CO2 F = ln(C/Co) = 5.35
CH4 F = (M - Mo) - [f(M,No) - f(Mo,No)] = 0.036
N2O F = (N - No) - [f(Mo,N) - f(Mo,No)] = 0.12
CFC-11 F = (X - Xo) = 0.25
CFC-12 F = (X - Xo) = 0.32
The subscript "o" denotes the unperturbed (1750) abundance
f(M,N) = 0.47ln[1 + 2.01x10-5 (MN)0.75 + 5.31x10-15M(MN)1.52]
C is CO2 in ppm, M is CH4 in ppb
N is N2O in ppb, X is CFC in ppb
Co = 278 ppm, Mo = 722 ppb, No = 270 ppb, Xo = 0
Source: Butler, J.H.; Montzka, S.A. 2016. The NOAA Annual Greenhouse Gas Index (AGGI),
NOAA Earth System Research Laboratory, R/GMD, Boulder, CO USA.
Radiative forcing, relative to 1750, of all the long-lived greenhouse gases. The NOAA Annual
Greenhouse Gas Index (AGGI), which is indexed to 1 for the year 1990, is shown on the right
axis. www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/aggi/
Carbon dioxide (CO2) - Fossil fuel use is the
primary source of CO2.
CO2 can also be emitted from direct human-
induced impacts on forestry and other land
use, such as through deforestation, land
clearing for agriculture, and degradation of
soils.
Likewise, land can also remove CO2 from the
atmosphere through reforestation,
improvement of soils, and other activities.
Methane (CH4) - Agricultural activities, waste
management, energy use, and biomass
burning all contribute to CH4 emissions.
Nitrous oxide (N2O) - Agricultural activities,
such as fertilizer use, are the primary source of
N2O emissions.
Biomass burning also generates N2O.
Fluorinated gases (F-gases) - Industrial
processes, refrigeration, and the use of a
Source: IPCC (2014) based on global emissions variety of consumer products contribute to
from 2010. emissions of F-gases, which include
hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons
(PFCs), and sulfur hexafluoride (SF6).
http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Features/CarbonCycle/
Source: Global Carbon Budget 2016
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 8, 605649, 2016
www.earth-syst-sci-data.net/8/605/2016/
Source: Global Carbon Budget 2016
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 8, 605649, 2016
www.earth-syst-sci-data.net/8/605/2016/
CO2 emissions per capita from fossil-fuel use and cement production in the top 5 emitting
countries and European Union
Source: Trends in global CO2 emissions: 2016 Report.

PBL Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency, The Hague, PBL publication number: 2315
European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Directorate Energy, Transport & Climate
JRC Science for Policy Report: 103428
Global CO2 emissions per region from fossil-fuel use and cement production
Other OECD countries G20: Australia, Canada, Mexico, South Korea and Turkey.
Other G20 countries: Argentina, Brazil, Indonesia, Saudi Arabia and South Africa.
Other large countries: Egypt, Iran, Kazakhstan, Malaysia, Nigeria, Taiwan, Thailand and the Ukraine.
Source: Trends in global CO2 emissions: 2016 Report.
PBL Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency, The Hague, PBL publication number: 2315
European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Directorate Energy, Transport & Climate
JRC Science for Policy Report: 103428
2011 Global CO2 Emissions from Fossil Fuel Combustion and
Some Industrial Processes
Source: Boden, T.A., Marland, G., and Andres, R.J. (2015). National CO2 Emissions from Fossil-
Fuel Burning, Cement Manufacture, and Gas Flaring: 1751-2011, Carbon Dioxide Information
Analysis Center, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, U.S. Department of Energy
Global Greenhouse Gas Emissions by Economic Sector
Electricity and Heat Production - The burning
of coal, natural gas, and oil for electricity and
heat is the largest single source of global
greenhouse gas emissions.
Industry Greenhouse gas emissions from
industry primarily involve fossil fuels burned
on-site at facilities for energy. This sector also
includes emissions from chemical,
metallurgical, and mineral transformation
processes not associated with energy
consumption and emissions from waste
management activities.
Agriculture, Forestry, and Other Land Use -
Greenhouse gas emissions from this sector
come mostly from agriculture (cultivation of
crops and livestock) and deforestation. This
estimate does not include the CO2 that
Source: Boden, T.A., Marland, G., and Andres, R.J. (2015). ecosystems remove from the atmosphere by
National CO2 Emissions from Fossil-Fuel Burning, Cement sequestering carbon in biomass, dead organic
Manufacture, and Gas Flaring: 1751-2011, Carbon Dioxide matter and soils, which offset approximately
Information Analysis Center, Oak Ridge National Laboratory,
U.S. Department of Energy
20% of emissions from this sector.
Global Greenhouse Gas Emissions by Economic Sector
Transportation - Greenhouse gas emissions
from this sector primarily involve fossil fuels
burned for road, rail, air, and marine
transportation. Almost all (95%) of the world's
transportation energy comes from petroleum-
based fuels, largely gasoline and diesel.
Buildings - Greenhouse gas emissions from this
sector arise from on-site energy generation
and burning fuels for heat in buildings or
cooking in homes.
Other Energy - This source of greenhouse gas
emissions refers to all emissions from the
energy sector which are not directly associated
with electricity or heat production, such as fuel
extraction, refining, processing, and
transportation.
Source: Boden, T.A., Marland, G., and Andres, R.J. (2015).

National CO2 Emissions from Fossil-Fuel Burning, Cement
Manufacture, and Gas Flaring: 1751-2011, Carbon Dioxide
Information Analysis Center, Oak Ridge National Laboratory,
U.S. Department of Energy
2011 Global CO2 Emissions from Fossil Fuel Combustion and
Some Industrial Processes
Emissions and sinks related to changes in
land use are not included in these
estimates.
However, changes in land use can be
important: estimates indicate that net
global greenhouse gas emissions from
agriculture, forestry, and other land use
were over 8x109 metric tons of CO2
equivalent, or about 24% of total global
greenhouse gas emissions.
In areas such as the United States and
Europe, changes in land use associated
with human activities have the net effect
of absorbing CO2, partially offsetting the
emissions from deforestation in other
regions.
Source: Boden, T.A., Marland, G., and Andres, R.J. (2015). National
CO2 Emissions from Fossil-Fuel Burning, Cement Manufacture, and
Gas Flaring: 1751-2011, Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis
Center, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, U.S. Department of Energy
Fossil Fuels Emissions per Capita in 2013
tCO/person
Global export of CO2
Industrialised countries are 'outsourcing' carbon emissions to countries like China, one quarter
of whose CO2 emissions are from exports
on Climate Change
The Convention recognized that there was a problem.
This was remarkable for its time. In 1994, when the UNFCCC took
effect, there was less scientific evidence than there is now. It bound
member states to act in the interests of human safety even in the
face of scientific uncertainty.
The Convention sets a lofty but specific goal.
The ultimate objective of the Convention is to stabilize greenhouse
gas concentrations at a level that would prevent dangerous
anthropogenic interference with the climate system. It states that
such a level should be achieved within a time-frame sufficient to
allow ecosystems to adapt naturally to climate change, to ensure
that food production is not threatened, and to enable economic
development to proceed in a sustainable manner.
on Climate Change
What is dangerous interference with the climate system?
Unacceptable impacts on the climate system, food production,
ecosystems or sustainable economic development.
In the late 1980s, the World Meteorological Organization (WMO)
and the UN Environment Programme (UNEP) identified two main
temperature indicators or thresholds with different levels of risk.
Based on the available knowledge at the time a 20C increase was
determined to be an upper limit beyond which the risks of grave
damage to ecosystems, and of non-linear responses, are expected
to increase rapidly. This early work also identified the rate of
change to be of importance to determining the level of risk, a
conclusion that has subsequently been confirmed qualitatively
(IPCC 2007).
on Climate Change
What is dangerous interference with the climate system?
In 2001 the IPCC identified five broad categories of reasons for
concern that are relevant:
(1) Risks to unique and threatened systems,
(2) risks from extreme climatic events,
(3) regional distribution of impacts,
(4) aggregate impacts, and
(5) risks from large-scale discontinuities.
In 2005, the EU Council agreed that with a view to achieving the
ultimate objective of the Convention the global annual mean
surface temperature increase should not exceed 2C above pre-
industrial levels.
on Climate Change
Climate change mitigation scenarios.
projected global ghg emissions, projected changes in atmospheric projected global mean temperature,
years 2000 to 2100 ghg concentrations, years 2000 to 2100
years 2000 to 2100
on Climate Change
Projected global warming in 2100 for a range of emission scenarios
on Climate Change
The Convention puts the onus on developed countries to lead the way.
As they are the source of most past and current greenhouse gas emissions,
industrialized countries are expected to do the most to cut emissions on
home ground. They are called Annex I countries and belong to the
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) and 14
countries with "economies in transition" from Central and Eastern Europe.
Annex I countries were expected by the year 2000 to reduce emissions to
1990 levels.
Annex I countries
Australia, Austria, Belarus, Belgium, Bulgaria, Canada, Croatia, Cyprus,
Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, European Union, Finland. France,
Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Italy , Japan, Latvia,
Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Monaco, Netherlands, New
Zealand, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russian Federation, Slovakia,
Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, Ukraine, United Kingdom,
United States of America.
Parties to the UNFCCC
Annex I and II parties
Annex I parties
Non-annex parties
Observer states
Parties to the UNFCCC are classified as:

Annex I: There are 43 Parties to the UNFCCC listed in Annex I of the Convention, including the European
Union. These Parties are classified as industrialized (developed) countries and "economies in transition"
(EITs). The 14 EITs are the former centrally-planned (Soviet) economies of Russia and Eastern Europe.
Annex II: There are 24 Parties to the UNFCCC listed in Annex II of the Convention, including the European
Union. These Parties are made up of members of OECD. Annex II Parties are required to provide financial
and technical support to the EITs and developing countries to assist them in reducing their greenhouse gas
emissions (climate change mitigation) and manage the impacts of climate change (climate change
adaptation).
Non-Annex I: Parties to the UNFCCC not listed in Annex I of the Convention are mostly low-income
developing countries. Developing countries may volunteer to become Annex I countries when they are
sufficiently developed.
on Climate Change
The Convention directs new funds to climate change activities in
developing countries.
Industrialized nations agreed under the Convention to support climate
change activities in developing countries by providing financial support
for action on climate change-- above and beyond any financial assistance
they already provide to these countries. A system of grants and loans
has been set up through the Convention and is managed by the Global
Environment Facility. Industrialized countries also agree to share
technology with less-advanced nations.
on Climate Change
Industrialized countries (Annex I) have to report regularly on their
climate change policies and measures.
They must also submit an annual inventory of their greenhouse gas
emissions, including data for their base year (1990) and all the years
since.
Developing countries (Non-Annex I Parties) report in more general terms
on their actions both to address climate change and to adapt to its
impacts - but less regularly than Annex I Parties do, and their reporting
is contingent on their getting funding for the preparation of the reports,
particularly in the case of the Least Developed Countries.
on Climate Change
Economic development is particularly vital to the world's poorer
countries. Such progress is difficult to achieve even without the
complications added by climate change.
The Convention takes this into consideration by accepting that the share
of greenhouse gas emissions produced by developing nations will grow
in the coming years.
Nonetheless, in the interests of fulfilling its ultimate goal, it seeks to help
such countries limit emissions in ways that will not hinder their
economic progress.
One such win-win solution was to emerge later, when the Kyoto Protocol
to the Convention was conceived (The Clean Development Mechanism).
on Climate Change
The Convention acknowledges the vulnerability of all countries to the
effects of climate change and calls for special efforts to ease the
consequences, especially in developing countries which lack the
resources to do so on their own.
In 2001 adaptation gained traction, and Parties agreed on a process to
address adverse effects and to establish funding arrangements for
adaptation.
Kyoto Protocol
The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto, Japan, in 1997. It entered into
force on 16 February 2005.
The Kyoto Protocol operationalizes the Convention. It commits
industrialized countries to stabilize greenhouse gas emissions based on
the principles of the Convention. The Convention itself only encourages
countries to do so.
The Kyoto Protocol sets binding emission reduction targets for 37
industrialized countries and the European community in its first
commitment period.
Overall, these targets add up to an average five per cent emissions
reduction compared to 1990 levels over the five-year period 2008 to
2012 (the first commitment period).
Kyoto Protocol
Annex B parties with binding targets in the second period

Annex B parties with binding targets in the first period but not the second
non-Annex B parties without binding targets
Annex B parties with binding targets in the first period but which withdrew from the Protocol
Signatories to the Protocol that have not ratified
Other UN member states and observers that are not party to the Protocol
Kyoto Protocol
The targets for the first commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol cover emissions of the
six main greenhouse gases: Carbon dioxide (CO2); Methane (CH4); Nitrous oxide (N2O);
Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs); Perfluorocarbons (PFCs); and Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6).
Global-warming potential (GWP) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse

gas traps in the atmosphere. It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass
of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide.
Kyoto Protocol
The excess carbon is first diluted by
the carbon cycle as it mixes into the
oceans and biosphere (e.g. plants)
over a period of a few hundred
years, and then it is slowly removed
over hundreds of thousands of
years as it is gradually incorporated
into carbonate rocks.
Kyoto Protocol
The targets for the first commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol cover emissions of the
six main greenhouse gases: Carbon dioxide (CO2); Methane (CH4); Nitrous oxide (N2O);
Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs); Perfluorocarbons (PFCs); and Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6).
Chemical Lifetime Global Warming Potential

Species
formula (years) (Time Horizon)
20 years 100 years 500 years
CO2 CO2 variable 1 1 1
Methane * CH4 123 56 21 6.5
Nitrous oxide N2O 120 280 310 170
Sulphur
SF6 3200 16300 23900 34900
hexafluoride
Global-warming potential (GWP) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse

gas traps in the atmosphere. It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass
of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide.
Chemical Lifetime Global Warming Potential
Species
formula (years) (Time Horizon)
20 years 100 years 500 years
HFC-23 CHF3 264 9100 11700 9800
HFC-32 CH2F2 5.6 2100 650 200
HFC-41 CH3F 3.7 490 150 45
HFC-43-10mee C5H2F10 17.1 3000 1300 400
HFC-125 C2HF5 32.6 4600 2800 920
HFC-134 C2H2F4 10.6 2900 1000 310
HFC-134a CH2FCF3 14.6 3400 1300 420
HFC-152a C2H4F2 1.5 460 140 42
HFC-143 C2H3F3 3.8 1000 300 94
HFC-143a C2H3F3 48.3 5000 3800 1400
HFC-227ea C3HF7 36.5 4300 2900 950
HFC-236fa C3H2F6 209 5100 6300 4700
HFC-245ca C3H3F5 6.6 1800 560 170
Perfluoromethane CF4 50000 4400 6500 10000
Perfluoroethane C2F6 10000 6200 9200 14000
Perfluoropropane C3F8 2600 4800 7000 10100
Perfluorobutane C4F10 2600 4800 7000 10100
Perfluorocyclobutane c-C4F8 3200 6000 8700 12700
Perfluoropentane C5F12 4100 5100 7500 11000
Perfluorohexane C6F14 3200 5000 7400 10700
Kyoto Protocol
The GWP values were changed in 2007. The values in the Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change (IPCC) Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) in 2007 where refined from the
IPCC Second Assessment Report (SAR) values used previously
Greenhouse Gas Formula 100-year GWP (AR4)

Carbon dioxide CO2 1
Methane CH4 25
Nitrous oxide N2O 298
Sulphur hexafluoride SF6 22 800
Hydrofluorocarbon-23 CHF3 14 800
Hydrofluorocarbon-32 CH2F2 675
Perfluoromethane CF4 7 390
Perfluoroethane C2F6 12 200
Perfluoropropane C3F8 8 830
Perfluorobutane C4F10 8 860
Perfluorocyclobutane c-C4F8 10 300
Perfluoropentane C5F12 13 300
Perfluorohexane C6F14 9 300
Kyoto Protocol
Country Target
(1990** - 2008/2012)
EU-15*, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Estonia, Latvia, Liechtenstein,
-8%
Lithuania, Monaco, Romania,Slovakia,Slovenia, Switzerland
US*** -7%
Canada,**** Hungary, Japan, Poland -6%
Croatia -5%
New Zealand, Russian Federation, Ukraine 0
Norway +1%
Australia +8%
Iceland +10%
* The 15 States who were EU members in 1997 when the Kyoto Protocol was adopted, took on that 8%
target that will be redistributed among themselves, taking advantage of a scheme under the Protocol
known as a bubble, whereby countries have different individual targets, but which combined make an
overall target for that group of countries.
** Some EITs have a baseline other than 1990.
*** The US has indicated its intention not to ratify the Kyoto Protocol.
**** On 15 December 2011, the Depositary received written notification of Canada's withdrawal from the
Kyoto Protocol. This action became effective for Canada on 15 December 2012.
Kyoto Protocol
EU-15 target for 2008-2012
(change from base year)
EU-15 -8%
Austria -13%
Belgium -7.5%
Denmark -21%
Finland 0%
France 0%
Germany -21%
Greece +25%
Ireland +13%
Italy -6.5%
Luxembourg -28%
Netherlands -6%
Portugal +27%
Spain +15%
Sweden +4%
United Kingdom -12.5%
Kyoto Protocol
The architecture of the Kyoto Protocol regime:
Reporting and verification procedures;
Flexible market-based mechanisms, which in turn have their own
governance procedures; and
A compliance system.
The first is binding emissions reduction commitments for developed
country parties.
The space to pollute was limited, and what is scarce and essential
commands a price. Greenhouse gas emissions most prevalently
carbon dioxide became a new commodity.
The Kyoto Protocol began to internalise what was now recognised as an
unpriced externality.
Kyoto Protocol
The flexible market mechanisms of the Kyoto Protocol are based on the
trade of emissions permits.
Kyoto Protocol countries bound to targets have to meet them largely
through domestic action that is, to reduce their emissions onshore.
But they can meet part of their targets through three "market-based
mechanisms" that ideally encourage GHG abatement to start where it is
most cost-effective-- for example, in the developing world. Quite simply,
it does not matter where emissions are reduced, as long as they are
removed from the planet's atmosphere. This has the parallel benefits of
stimulating green investment in developing countries and of including
the private sector in this endeavour to cut and hold steady GHG
emissions at a safe level.
It also makes "leap-frogging" more economical-- that is, the possibility to
skip older, dirtier technology for newer, cleaner infrastructure and
systems, with obvious longer-term benefits.
Kyoto Protocol
The flexible market mechanisms of the Kyoto Protocol are:
The Clean Development Mechanism allows emission-reduction projects
in developing countries to earn certified emission reduction (CER)
credits, each equivalent to one tonne of CO2. CERs can be traded, sold,
and used by industrialized countries to a meet a part of their emission
reduction targets under the Kyoto Protocol.
Joint Implementation allows industrialized countries with targets under
the Kyoto Protocol to carry out emission-reduction projects in other
industrialized country for credits. These are Emission Reduction Units,
also equivalent to 1 tonne of CO2.
Kyoto Protocol
The Kyoto Protocol has prompted governments to put in place
legislation and policies to meet their commitments, businesses to make
climate-friendly investment decisions, and the formation of a carbon
market.
The Kyoto Protocol compliance mechanism is designed to strengthen the
Protocol's environmental integrity, support the carbon market's
credibility and ensure transparency of accounting by Parties. Its
objective is to facilitate, promote and enforce compliance with the
commitments under the Protocol. It is among the most comprehensive
and rigorous systems of compliance for a multilateral environmental
agreement. A strong and effective compliance mechanism is key to the
success of the implementation of the Protocol.
Kyoto Protocol
Total emissions including LULUCF/LUCF
Aggregate_GHGs, Gg CO2 eq., change, Base Year to 2012
Country Recd Target Country Recd Target Country Recd Target

1 Latvia -120,8% -8% 16 United -26,2% -12,5% 30 Switzerland -1,4% -8%
2 Lithuania -69,5% -8% Kingdom 31 Liechtenstein -0,5% -8%
3 Ukraine -57,1% 0 17 Germany -23,5% -21% 32 Australia 2,4% 8%
4 Romania -56,0% -8% 18 European -21,0% 33 United States 2,7% -7%
5 Russian -50,3% 0% Union (28) of America
Federation 19 Croatia -19,7% -5% 34 Ireland 4,6% 13%
6 Estonia -45,8% -8% 20 Belgium -19,0% -7,5% 35 Greece 5,2% 25%
7 Slovakia -45,8% -8% 21 European -16,8% -8% 36 Japan 8,6% -6%
8 Bulgaria -44,9% -8% Union (15) 37 Iceland 9,8% 10%
9 Belarus -42,3% 22 Poland -16,7% -6% 38 Austria 11,8% -13%
10 Hungary -39,8% -6% 23 Monaco -15,5% -8% 39 Spain 18,0% 15%
11 Finland -38,0% 0% 24 France -15,0% 0% 40 Canada 42,2% -6%
12 Czech -35,5% -8% 25 Slovenia -14,2% -8% 41 Cyprus 55,3%
Republic 26 Italy -14,1% -6,5% 42 Malta 57,7%
13 Norway -35,3% 1% 27 Luxembourg -13,9% -28% 43 New Zealand 111,4% 0
14 Sweden -34,8% 4% 28 Netherlands -9,2% -6%
15 Denmark -30,6% -21% 29 Portugal -4,5% 27%
Kyoto Protocol
Total emissions including LULUCF/LUCF
Aggregate_GHGs, Gg CO2 eq., change, Base Year to 2012
Commited acording to the Kyoto Protocol

Registered total emissions
Was Kyoto Protocol a Success?
Under the treaty, 38 developed countries signed up to reduce their mean annual greenhouse
gas emissions from 2008 to 2012 by an average of 5 per cent relative to 1990 levels. In
practice, this meant their collective emissions had to be lower by 1 gigatonne (Gt) of carbon
dioxide per year than 1990 levels.
Although overall global emissions rose, the 38 countries collectively reduced their output by
2 GtCO2 per year from 2008 to 2012 compared with 1990 levels. That makes the treaty
sound like a success.
But the emissions of former Soviet states had plummeted before the deal was even signed,
meaning a reduction of 2.2 GtCO2 per year cannot be attributed to the protocol. Discount
that, and the 38 failed to meet their target.
The US and Canada, however, signed the deal but did not stick with it. If they are excluded,
the remaining 36 apparently met their target of a reduction of 0.5 GtCO2 per year, even if the
2.2 Gt cited above are excluded.
However, 10 countries achieved their targets only by buying carbon credits. This means that
0.3 GtCO2 per year of the claimed reductions were not true cuts.
Whats more, emissions in developed countries fell by 1 to 2 GtCO2 per year because of the
financial crisis so without it, the 36 countries might not even have come close to meeting
their collective target.
That is not all. Some of the reductions may be due to carbon leakage: emissions shifting to
developing countries such as China rather than ceasing altogether. Nor does the protocol
include the fast-rising emissions from aviation or shipping. And many would argue that the
targets were far too modest in the first place.
Despite all this, some have seized on the fact that the numbers show the 36 countries met
their targets on paper to claim Kyoto was a success. The fact that countries have fully
complied is highly significant, and it helps to raise expectations for full adherence to the Paris
Agreement.
Agreements after the Kyoto Protocol
2007 IPCC's Fourth Assessment Report released. Climate science entered
into popular consciousness. At COP13, Parties agreed on the Bali Road Map,
which charted the way towards a post-2012 outcome in two work streams: the
Ad Hoc Working Group on Further Commitments for Annex I Parties under the
Kyoto Protocol (AWG-KP), and the Ad-Hoc Working Group on Long-Term
Cooperative Action Under the Convention.
2010 Main Cancun Agreements:
Green Climate Fund: The fund will support projects, programmes, policies and
other activities in developing country Parties using thematic funding windows.
Technology Mechanism: to facilitate enhanced action on technology
development and transfer to support action on mitigation and adaptation.
Cancun Adaptation Framework: To enhance action on adaptation, including
through international cooperation and coherent consideration of matters
relating to adaptation. Ultimately enhanced action on adaptation seeks to
reduce vulnerability and build resilience in developing country Parties, taking
into account the urgent and immediate needs of those developing countries
that are particularly vulnerable.
2011 The Durban Platform for Enhanced Action: Turning point in the climate
change negotiations. Governments clearly recognized the need to draw up the
blueprint for a fresh universal, legal agreement to deal with climate change
beyond 2020.
1) Second commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol: The continuation of the
current international legal system through a second commitment period of
the Kyoto Protocol, under which developed countries commit to
greenhouse gas cuts and which enshrines existing accounting rules and
models of international cooperation that may inform future efforts.
2) The launch of a new platform of negotiations under the Convention to
deliver a new and universal greenhouse gas reduction protocol, legal
instrument with legal force by 2015 for the period beyond 2020. This new
negotiation critically includes finding ways to further raise the existing level
of national and international action and stated ambition to bring
greenhouse gas emissions down.
3) Global Review: To scope out and then conduct a fresh global review of the
emerging climate challenge, based on the best available science and data,
first to ensure whether a maximum 2C rise is enough or whether an even
lower 1.5C rise is required, and then to ensure that collective action is
adequate to prevent the average global temperature rising beyond the
agreed limit.
2012 - The Doha Climate Gateway:
Set out a timetable to adopt a universal climate agreement by 2015,
which will come into effect in 2020.
Streamlined the negotiations towards a 2015 agreement under a
single negotiating stream.
Emphasize the need to increase the ambition to cut greenhouse gases
and to help vulnerable countries to adapt.
Launch a new commitment period under the Kyoto Protocol, thereby
ensuring that this treaty's important legal and accounting models
remain in place and underlining the principle that developed countries
lead mandated action to cut greenhouse gas emissions.
Made further progress towards establishing the financial and
technology support and new institutions to enable clean energy
investments and sustainable growth in developing countries.
2012 - The Doha Amendment to the Kyoto Protocol establishes the second commitment
period of the Kyoto Protocol. As of April 2017, 76 states have accepted the Doha
Amendment, while entry into force requires the acceptances of 144 states.
According to the Doha Amendment, 37 countries have binding targets:
Australia (99,5% relative to 1990),
the European Union (and its 28 member states) (80%),
Belarus (88%),
Iceland (80%),
Kazakhstan (95%),
Liechtenstein (84%),
Norway (84%),
Switzerland (84,2%), and
Ukraine (76%).
Belarus, Kazakhstan and Ukraine have stated that they may withdraw from the Protocol
or not put into legal force the Amendment with second round targets.
Japan, New Zealand and Russia have participated in Kyoto's first-round but have not
taken on new targets in the second commitment period.
Other developed countries without second-round targets are Canada (which withdrew
from the Kyoto Protocol in 2012) and the United States (which has not ratified the
Protocol).
EU Member State greenhouse gas emission limits in 2020 compared to
2005 greenhouse gas emissions levels
2013 - Key decisions adopted at COP19/CMP9 include decisions on
further advancing the Durban Platform, the Green Climate Fund and
Long-Term Finance, the Warsaw Framework
Governments took further essential decisions to stay on track towards
securing a universal climate change agreement in 2015. The objective of
the 2015 agreement is:
To bind nations together into an effective global effort to reduce
emissions rapidly enough to chart humanity's longer-term path out of
the danger zone of climate change, while building adaptation
capacity.
To stimulate faster and broader action.
2015
Paris
The 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference was held in Paris, from
30 November to 12 December 2015. It was the 21st yearly session of the
Conference of the Parties to the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention
on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the 11th session of the Meeting of the
Parties to the 1997 Kyoto Protocol.
The conference reached its objective, to achieve a global agreement on
reduction of climate change in the Paris Agreement, which was adopted with
acclamation by nearly all states.
The agreement will become legally binding if at least 55 countries that represent at least 55
percent of global greenhouse emissions become a party to it through signature followed by
ratification, acceptance, approval or through accession in New York between 22 April 2016 to 21
April 2017. It is expected to take effect in 2020.
The expected key result was to limit the global warming, by 2100, compared to pre-industrial, to
below 2 C.
The goal to limit temperature increase to 2 C was supplemented in the adopted version of the
Paris Agreement, with the statement that parties "pursue to" limit the temperature increase to
1.5 C. This goal will require a zero level in emissions sometimes between 2030 and 2050.
2015
Paris
Parties Signatories
2015
Paris
Aim
The aim of the convention is described in Article 2, "enhancing the implementation" of the
UNFCCC through:
"(a) Holding the increase in the global average temperature to well below 2 C above pre-
industrial levels and to pursue efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 C above pre-
industrial levels, recognizing that this would significantly reduce the risks and impacts of
climate change;
(b) Increasing the ability to adapt to the adverse impacts of climate change and foster climate
resilience and low greenhouse gas emissions development, in a manner that does not
threaten food production;
(c) Making finance flows consistent with a pathway towards low greenhouse gas emissions and
climate-resilient development."
Countries furthermore aim to reach "global peaking of greenhouse gas emissions as soon as
possible".
2015
Nationally determined contributions
The contribution that each individual country should make in order to achieve the worldwide
goal are determined by all countries individually and called "nationally determined
contributions".
The Agreement requires them to be "ambitious" and set "with the view to achieving the
purpose of this Agreement".
The contributions should be reported every five years and are to be registered by the UNFCCC
Secretariat. Each further ambition should be more ambitious than then previous one. Countries
can cooperate and pool their nationally determined contributions.
Prior to the conference, 146 national climate panels publicly presented draft national climate
contributions (so-called Intended Nationally Determined Contributions, INDCs). These suggested
commitments were estimated to limit global warming to 2.7 C by 2100. For example, the EU
suggested INDC is a commitment to a 40 percent reduction in emissions by 2030 compared to
1990.
The INDCs pledged during the 2015 Climate Change Conference serves -unless provided
otherwise- as the initial Nationally Determined Contribution.
However, no detailed timeplan or country-specific goals for emissions were stated in the final
version of the Paris Agreement - as opposed to the previous Kyoto protocol. A zero level should
be reached during the second half of the century according to the agreement.
COP-21 INDCs Compared With Carbon Budgets to achieve warming limits
2015
EU Effort Sharing: 2030 target compared to 2005
40%
35%
30%
25%
20%
15%
10%
5%
0%
LU SE DK FI DE FR UK NL AT BE IT IE ES CY MT PT EL SI CZ EE SK LT PL HR HU LV RO BG
2015
2015
The temperatures on the CAT thermometer

are median warming estimates in 2100. It
means that there is a 50% chance that the
calculated temperature would be exceeded if
the given emissions pathway were followed.
For example, our emissions pathway in the

pledge scenario (that incorporates NDCs until
01 November 2016) gives a 50% chance of
warming being 2.8C or higher in 2100.
2015
Global Stock take
The implementation of the agreement by all member countries together will be evaluated every
5 years, with the first evaluation in 2023. The outcome is to be used as input for new Nationally
Determined Contributions of member states.
Support to Developing Nations
The Paris Agreement underwrites adequate support to developing nations and establishes a
global goal to significantly strengthen adaptation to climate change through support and
international cooperation.
The already broad and ambitious efforts of developing countries to build their own clean,
climate-resilient futures will be supported by scaled-up finance from developed countries and
voluntary contributions from other countries.
Governments decided that they will work to define a clear roadmap on ratcheting up climate
finance to USD 100 thousand million by 2020 while also before 2025 setting a new goal on the
provision of finance from the USD 100 thousand million floor.
International cooperation on climate-safe technologies and building capacity in the developing
world to address climate change are also significantly strengthened under the new agreement.
ENVIRONMENTAL POLICIES 17/04/2017
History of the Convention
1993
June-Received
1992 168 signatures
May-Its work
culminated with December The
1991 convention
the Nairobi
entered into
Intergovernment Conference for force
1989 al Negotiating the Adoption of
Committee. the Agreed Text
Ad Hoc Working
1988 Group of of the
Technical and Convention on
Ad Hoc Working Biological
Legal Experts
Group of Experts
Diversity
on Biological
Diversity June- The
Convention was
opened for
signatures at Rio
UN Conference
Antnio Gonalves Henriques 1

Objective
The Convention on Biological Diversity was inspired by the world
community's growing commitment to sustainable development.
3 main objectives:
1. The conservation of biological diversity.
2. The sustainable use of the components of biological diversity.
3. The fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the
utilization of genetic resources.
Biodiversity-The Web of Life

Biological diversity - or biodiversity - is the term given to the variety of life on
Earth and the natural patterns it forms
This diversity is often understood in terms of:

wide variety of plants, animals and microorganisms
genetic differences within each species - for example, between varieties
of crops and breeds of livestock. Chromosomes, genes, and DNA-the
building blocks of life-determine the uniqueness of each individual and
each species.
variety of ecosystems such as those that occur in deserts, forests,
wetlands, mountains, lakes, rivers, and agricultural landscapes, interacting
with one another and with the air, water, and soil around them.

Discovered and predicted total number of

species on land and in the oceans
Mora C, Tittensor DP, Adl S, Simpson AGB, Worm B (2011) How Many Species Are There on Earth and in the Ocean? PLoS Biol 9(8)
The value of biodiversity

Biological resources are the pillars upon which we build civilizations.
Nature's products support such diverse industries as agriculture, cosmetics,
pharmaceuticals, pulp and paper, horticulture, construction and waste
treatment.

Goods and Services

Provision of food, fuel and fiber.
Provision of shelter and building materials.
Purification of air and water.
Detoxification and decomposition of wastes.
Stabilization and moderation of the Earth's climate.
Moderation of floods, droughts, temperature extremes and the forces of wind.
Generation and renewal of soil fertility, including nutrient cycling.
Pollination of plants, including many crops.
Control of pests and diseases.
Maintenance of genetic resources as key inputs to crop varieties and livestock
breeds, medicines, and other products.
Cultural and aesthetic benefits.
Ability to adapt to change .
Relationship between biodiversity,

ecosystem services, human well-
being, and poverty.
The illustration shows where
conservation action, strategies and
plans can influence the drivers of
the current biodiversity crisis at
local, regional, to global scales.
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment,

2005. Ecosystems and Human Well-
being: Biodiversity Synthesis. World
Resources Institute, Washington,
DC. - Millennium Ecosystem
Assessment

We are changing life on Earth

By consuming more of nature's resources, we have gained more
abundant food and better shelter, sanitation, and health care, at the
cost of environmental degradation that may be followed by declines in
local economies and the societies they supported.
World population.
Change in settlement patterns - More than half the world's people live in
towns and cities.
The loss of biodiversity threatens our food supplies, opportunities for
recreation and tourism, and sources of wood, medicines and energy. It
also interferes with essential ecological functions.
Threats to Biodiversity
Species have been disappearing at 50-100 times the natural rate, and this is
predicted to rise dramatically. Based on current trends, an estimated 34,000 plant
and 5,200 animal species - including one in eight of the world's bird species - face
extinction
1. Habitat destruction,
2. Introduced and invasive species
3. Genetic pollution
4. Overexploitation,
5. Climate change
6. Human overpopulation

Species have been disappearing at 50-100 times the natural rate, and this is
predicted to rise dramatically. Based on current trends, an estimated 34,000 plant
and 5,200 animal species - including one in eight of the world's bird species - face
extinction
1. Habitat destruction
Habitat destruction has played a
key role in extinctions, especially
related to tropical forest
destruction.
Factors contributing to habitat loss
are: overconsumption,
overpopulation, land use change,
deforestation, pollution (air
pollution, water pollution, soil
contamination) and climate
change.
Barriers such as large rivers, seas, oceans, mountains and deserts encourage diversity by
enabling independent evolution on either side of the barrier.
The term invasive species is applied to species that breach the natural barriers that would
normally keep them constrained. Without barriers, such species occupy new territory,
often supplanting native species by occupying their niches, or by using resources that
would normally sustain native species.
The number of species invasions has been on the
rise at least since the beginning of the 1900s.
Species are increasingly being moved by humans
(on purpose and accidentally).
In some cases the invaders are causing drastic
changes and damage to their new habitats (e.g.:
red swamp crayfish in rivers and lakes in Portugal
and Spain).
Some evidence suggests that invasive species are
competitive in their new habitats because they are
subject to less pathogen disturbance.
Red swamp crayfish, Procambarus clarkii

In 1551, King Joo III of

Portugal gave Archduke
Maximilian of Austria an
unusual wedding present:
an elephant
Male Blue Peafowl, Pavo cristatus
3. Genetic pollution
Hybridisation
Endemic species can be threatened with extinction through (genetic Genetic
introgression
the process of genetic pollution, i.e. uncontrolled amalgamation)
hybridization, introgression and genetic swamping.

Genetic pollution leads to homogenization or replacement of
local genomes.
Hybridization and introgression are side-effects of introduction
and invasion. These phenomena can be especially
detrimental to rare species that come into contact with more
abundant ones. The abundant species can interbreed with
Genetic swamping is the
the rare species, swamping its gene pool. This problem is not process that occurs when two
always apparent from morphological (outward appearance) genetically isolated
observations alone. Some degree of gene flow is normal populations come into
contact and the genes from a
adaptation, and not all gene and genotype constellations
larger population dominate
can be preserved. over the genes in the small
Hybridization or introgression may threaten a rare species' population, reducing the
genetic diversity in the small
existence. population.

4. Overexploitation
Overexploitation occurs when a
resource is consumed at an
unsustainable rate.
This occurs on land in the form of
overhunting, excessive logging, poor
soil conservation in agriculture and
the illegal wildlife trade.
About 25% of world fisheries are now
overfished to the point where their
current biomass is less than the level
that maximizes their sustainable yield.
Atlantic cod stocks were severely overexploited in the 1970s and

1980s, leading to their abrupt collapse in 1992
5. Climate change
Global warming is a major potential threat to global biodiversity in the future. For
example, coral reefs - which are biodiversity hotspots - will be lost within the century if
global warming continues at the current trend.
As temperature rise, mass bleaching,
and infectious disease outbreaks are
likely to become more frequent.
Additionally, carbon dioxide (CO2)
absorbed into the ocean from the
atmosphere has already begun to
reduce calcification rates in reef-
building and reef-associated
organisms by altering sea water
chemistry through decreases in pH
(ocean acidification).
Coral reef in Beqa Lagoon, Pacific Harbor in Fiji

(www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-2548150/Bit-chilly-
snorkelling-Living-coral-reef-discovered-coast-
GREENLAND.html#ixzz3rhP1xu1w

5. Climate change
Increasing atmospheric carbon
dioxide affects plant morphology
and is acidifying oceans.
Temperature affects species ranges,
phenology (date of emergence of
leaves and flowers, the first flight of
butterflies and the first appearance
of migratory birds, the date of leaf
colouring and fall in deciduous trees,
the dates of egg-laying of birds and
amphibia, or the timing of the
developmental cycles of temperate-
zone honey bee colonies).
It is estimated that 10 percent of
species would become extinct by
2050 because of global warming. Polar bears on the sea ice of the Arctic Ocean, near the North Pole.
Climate change has started affecting bear populations.
6. Human overpopulation
Overpopulation has substantially adversely impacted the environment of Earth starting at
least as early as the 20th century.
During a remarkably short period of
time, we have lost a quarter of the
world's topsoil and a fifth of its
agricultural land, altered the
composition of the atmosphere
profoundly, and destroyed a major
proportion of our forests and other
natural habitats without replacing
them. Worst of all, we have driven the
rate of biological extinction, the
permanent loss of species, up several
hundred times beyond its historical
levels, and are threatened with the
loss of a majority of all species by the
Traffic jam in Beijing.
end of the 21st century.

An agreement of action
Main issues dealt with under the Convention :
Measures and incentives for the conservation and sustainable use of
biological diversity.
Regulated access to genetic resources.
Access to and transfer of technology, including biotechnology.
Technical and scientific cooperation.
Impact assessment.
Education and public awareness.
Provision of financial resources.
National reporting on efforts to implement treaty commitments.
National Action
The Convention on Biological Diversity, as an international treaty, identifies a
common problem, sets overall goals and policies and general obligations, and
organizes technical and financial cooperation.
However, the responsibility for achieving its goals rests largely with the countries
themselves.
Under the Convention, governments undertake to conserve and sustainably use
biodiversity. It needs to provide the critical role of leadership, particularly by
setting rules that guide the use of natural resources, and by protecting
biodiversity where they have direct control over the land and water.
They are required to develop national biodiversity strategies and action plans,
and to integrate these into broader national plans for environment and
development.

National Action
Identifying and monitoring the important components of biological diversity
that need to be conserved and used sustainably.
Establishing protected areas to conserve biological diversity while promoting
environmentally sound development around these areas.
Rehabilitating and restoring degraded ecosystems and promoting the
recovery of threatened species in collaboration with local residents.
Respecting, preserving and maintaining traditional knowledge of the
sustainable use of biological diversity with the involvement of indigenous
peoples and local communities.
National Action
Preventing the introduction of, controlling, and eradicating alien species that
could threaten ecosystems, habitats or species.
Controlling the risks posed by organisms modified by biotechnology.
Promoting public participation, particularly when it comes to assessing the
environmental impacts of development projects that threaten biological
diversity.
Educating people and raising awareness about the importance of biological
diversity and the need to conserve it.
Reporting on how each country is meeting its biodiversity goals

Instruments for the implementation

In situ: conserving genes,
Under the Convention, species, and ecosystems
the "ecosystem in their natural
approach to the surroundings, by:
conservation and establishing protected
sustainable use of areas,
biodiversity" is being used rehabilitating
as a framework for degraded ecosystems,
action, in which all the and
goods and services adopting legislation to
provided by the protect threatened
surveys to find out: biodiversity in ecosystems
what biodiversity exists, species.
are considered.
its value and
importance, and In-situ conservation
what is endangered.
Strategies
Survey Targets Ex-situ conservation
Programs
Ex-situ conservation uses
zoos, botanical gardens
and gene banks to
conserve species.
Reporting
Each government that joins the Convention is to report on
what it has done to implement the accord, and
how effective this is in meeting the objectives of the Convention.
These reports are submitted to the Conference of the Parties (COP which can
be viewed by the citizens of all nations.
The Convention secretariat works with governments to help
strengthen reporting and to
make the reports of various countries more consistent and comparable,
so that the world community can get a clearer picture of the big trends.
Part of that work involves developing indicators for measuring trends in
biodiversity, particularly the effects of human actions and decisions on the
conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity. The national reports, particularly
when seen together, are one of the key tools for tracking progress in meeting the
Convention's objectives.

International Action
The Convention's ultimate authority is the Conference of the Parties (COP)
This governing body reviews progress under the Convention, identifies new
priorities, and sets work plans for members. The COP can also make
amendments to the Convention, create expert advisory bodies, review
progress reports by member nations, and collaborate with other international
organizations and agreements.
Subsidiary Body on Scientific,

Technical and Technological
Advice (SBSTTA
COP
Clearing House Mechanism
The Secretariat
Thematic Programs and cross cutting issues

7 Thematic Programs Cross cutting Issues
1. Agricultural Biodiversity Aichi Biodiversity Targets Gender and Biodiversity
Access to Genetic resource Global Strategy for Plant
2. Dry and Sub humid lands and Benefit sharing Conservation
3. Forest Biological and Cultural Global Taxonomy Initiative
Diversity
4.Inland water Impact Assessment
Biodiversity for
5.Island Identification, Monitoring,
development
Indicators and Assessment
6. Marine and Coastal Climate change and
Invasive Alien Species
Biodiversity
7. Mountain Liability and Redress
Communication, education
and public awareness Traditional Knowledge,
Innovations and Practices
Economics, Trade and
incentive measures Technology transfer and
Cooperation
Ecosystem Approach
Ecosystem Restoration

Financial and Technical support

Financial and technical assistance to achieve global biodiversity benefits.
Bilateral and multilateral support for capacity building and for investing in
projects and programmes
Convention-related activities by developing countries are eligible for
support from the financial mechanism of the Convention: the Global
Environment Facility (GEF). GEF projects, supported by the United Nations
Environment Programme (UNEP), the United Nations Development
Programme (UNDP) and the World Bank, help forge international
cooperation and finance actions

The Biosafety Protocol

Living Modified Organisms (LMOs) -- often known as genetically modified organisms (GMOs)
-- are becoming part of an increasing number of products, including foods and food
additives, beverages, drugs, adhesives, and fuels.
Agricultural and pharmaceutical LMOs have rapidly become a multi-billion-dollar global
industry.
Biotechnology is being promoted as a better way to grow crops and produce medicines
but it has raised concerns about potential side effects on human health and the
environment, including risks to biological diversity.
In response to these concerns, governments negotiated a subsidiary agreement to the
Convention, the Cartagena Protocol, to address the potential risks posed by cross-border
trade and accidental releases of LMOs.
The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to the Convention on Biological Diversity aims to
ensure the safe handling, transport and use of living modified organisms (LMOs) resulting
from modern biotechnology that may have adverse effects on biological diversity, taking
also into account risks to human health.
It was adopted in 2000 and entered into force in 2003.
The Biosafety Protocol

the Cartagena Protocol allows governments to signal whether or not they are willing to
accept imports of agricultural commodities that include LMOs by communicating their
decision to the world community via a Biosafety Clearing House.
In addition, commodities that may contain LMOs are to be clearly labeled as such when
being exported.
Stricter Advanced Informed Agreement procedures will apply to seeds, live fish, and other
LMOs that are to be intentionally introduced into the environment.
The aim is to ensure that recipient countries have both the opportunity and the capacity to
assess risks involving the products of modern biotechnology.

Protocol on Liability and Redress

The Nagoya Kuala Lumpur Supplementary Protocol on Liability and Redress to the
Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety, adopted in 2010, provides international rules and
procedures on liability and redress for damage to biodiversity resulting from living modified
organisms (LMO).
For the purposes of the Supplementary Protocol, a party bringing a claim for liability or
redress must demonstrate that:
1) there has been an adverse effect on conservation or sustainable use of biological
diversity or risks to human health;
2) the effect is measurable or observable for the purposes of attribution of impacts; and
3) the adverse effect is significant.
Where there is a damage claim ripe for adjudication, claimants may be entitled
to
response measures, including measures to revent, minimize, contain, mitigate, or
p
otherwise avoid damage as well as actions to restore biological diversity either to the
condition that existed before the damage occurred or its nearest equivalent. When in situ
restoration is impossible, operators are expected to replace biological diversity with species
and genetic material that is functionally similar either at the place where the damage
occurred or as appropriate, at an alternative location.
Sharing the benefits of genetic resources

Biodiversity is considered a resource for fueling economic and social
development.
Often, the products would be sold and protected by patents or other intellectual
property rights, without fair benefits to the source countries.
The treaty recognizes national sovereignty over all genetic resources, and
provides that access to valuable biological resources be carried out on
"mutually agreed terms" and subject to the "prior informed consent" of the
country of origin, including the right to benefit.
Such benefits can include:
financial resources,
samples of what is collected,
the participation or training of national researchers,
the transfer of biotechnology equipment and know-how, and
shares of any profits from the use of the resources.

The Nagoya Protocol

The Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing
of Benefits Arising from their Utilization (ABS) is a supplementary agreement to the
Convention on Biological Diversity.
It provides a transparent legal framework for the effective implementation of one of the
three objectives of the CBD: the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising out of the
utilization of genetic resources.
The Nagoya Protocol was adopted on 29 October 2010 in Nagoya, Japan and entered
into force in 2014.
The Nagoya Protocol creates greater legal certainty and transparency for both providers
and users of genetic resources by:
Establishing more predictable conditions for access to genetic resources.
Helping to ensure benefit-sharing when genetic resources leave the country providing
the genetic resources
By helping to ensure benefit-sharing, the Nagoya Protocol creates incentives to conserve
and sustainably use genetic resources, and therefore enhances the contribution of
biodiversity to development and human well-being.
Sharing the benefits of genetic resources

Biodiversity is considered a resource for fueling economic and social
development.
Often, the products would be sold and protected by patents or other intellectual
property rights, without fair benefits to the source countries.
The Protocol recognizes national sovereignty over all genetic resources, and
provides that access to valuable biological resources be carried out on
"mutually agreed terms" and subject to the "prior informed consent" of the
country of origin, including the right to benefit.
Such benefits can include:
financial resources,
samples of what is collected,
the participation or training of national researchers,
the transfer of biotechnology equipment and know-how, and
shares of any profits from the use of the resources.

Traditional Knowledge
The Convention also recognizes the close and traditional dependence of
indigenous and local communities on biological resources and
The need to ensure that these communities share in the benefits arising from the
use of their traditional knowledge and practices relating to the conservation
and sustainable use of biodiversity.
Member governments have
undertaken "to respect, preserve
and maintain" such knowledge and
practices, to promote their wider
application with the approval and
involvement of the communities
concerned, and to encourage the
equitable sharing of the benefits
derived from their utilization.
Vitality of the Worlds Languages
What are the next steps

Economic development is essential to meeting human needs and to
eliminating the poverty that affects so many people around the world.
The sustainable use of nature is essential for the long-term success of
development strategies.
A major challenge for the 21st century will be making the conservation
and sustainable use of biodiversity a compelling basis for development
policies, business decisions, and consumer desires.

Challenges to the implementation of the Convention

Economic growth without adequate environmental safeguards is still the rule
rather than the exception.
Meeting the increasing demand for biological resources caused by population
growth and increased consumption, while considering the long-term
consequences of those actions
Increasing the capacity to document and understand biodiversity, its value, and
threats to it.
Building adequate expertise and experience in biodiversity planning.
Improving policies, legislation, guidelines, and fiscal measures for regulating the
use of biodiversity.
Adopting incentives to promote more sustainable forms of biodiversity use.
Promoting trade rules and practices that foster sustainable use of biodiversity.
Strengthening coordination within governments, and between governments and
stakeholders.
Challenges to the implementation of the Convention

Securing adequate financial resources for conservation and sustainable use, from
both national and international sources.
Making better use of technology.
Building political support for the changes necessary to ensure biodiversity
conservation and sustainable use.
Improving education and public awareness about the value of biodiversity.
The Convention on Biological Diversity and its underlying concepts can be
difficult to communicate to politicians and to the general public.
Truly sustainable development requires countries to redefine their policies on land
use, food, water, energy, employment, development, conservation, economics,
and trade.
The challenge facing governments, businesses, and citizens is to forge transition
strategies leading to long-term sustainable development. It means negotiating
trade-offs even as people are clamoring for more land and businesses are
pressing for concessions to expand their harvests. The longer we wait, the fewer
options we will have.

Information, education and training

The transition to sustainable development requires a shift in public attitudes
as to what is an acceptable use of nature.
It can only happen if people have the right information, skills, and
organizations for understanding and dealing with biodiversity issues.
Governments and the business community need to invest in staff and
training, and they need to support organizations, including scientific
bodies, that can deal with and advise on biodiversity issues.
A long-term process of public education is needed to bring about
changes in behaviour and lifestyles, and to prepare societies for the
changes needed for sustainability.
Better biodiversity education would meet one of the goals set out in the
Convention.
What can you do about Biodiversity?

While governments should play a leadership role, other sectors of society need
to be actively involved.
Have business willingly involved in environmental protection and the sustainable
use of nature.
Local communities play a key role since they are the true "managers" of the
ecosystems in which they live and, thus, have a major impact on them.
The individual citizen-small choices that individuals make add up to a large
impact because it is personal consumption that drives development, which in
turn uses and pollutes nature.

Strategic Plan for Biodiversity
the 10tn meeting of the Conference of the Parties, held in October 2010,
in Nagoya, Aichi Prefecture, Japan, adopted a revised and updated
Strategic Plan for Biodiversity for the 2011-2020 period,
including the 20 Aichi Biodiversity Targets.
This plan provides an overarching framework on biodiversity, not only for the
biodiversity-related conventions, but for the entire United Nations system and all
other partners engaged in biodiversity management and policy development.

Strategic Goal A:
Address the underlying causes of biodiversity loss by mainstreaming biodiversity across
government and society
Target 1
By 2020, at the latest, people are aware of the values of biodiversity and the steps they can take to conserve
and use it sustainably.
Target 2
By 2020, at the latest, people are aware of the values of biodiversity and the steps they can take to conserve
and use it sustainably.
Target 3
By 2020, at the latest, incentives, including subsidies, harmful to biodiversity are eliminated, phased out or
reformed in order to minimize or avoid negative impacts, and positive incentives for the conservation and
sustainable use of biodiversity are developed and applied, consistent and in harmony with the Convention and
other relevant international obligations, taking into account national socio economic conditions.
Target 4
By 2020, at the latest, Governments, business and stakeholders at all levels have taken steps to achieve or have
implemented plans for sustainable production and consumption and have kept the impacts of use of natural
resources well within safe ecological limits.


Strategic Goal B:
Reduce the direct pressures on biodiversity and promote sustainable use
Target 5
By 2020, the rate of loss of all natural habitats, including forests, is at least halved and where feasible brought
close to zero, and degradation and fragmentation is significantly reduced..
Target 6
By 2020 all fish and invertebrate stocks and aquatic plants are managed and harvested sustainably, legally and
applying ecosystem based approaches, so that overfishing is avoided, recovery plans and measures are in
place for all depleted species, fisheries have no significant adverse impacts on threatened species and
vulnerable ecosystems and the impacts of fisheries on stocks, species and ecosystems are within safe ecological
limits.
Target 7
By 2020 areas under agriculture, aquaculture and forestry are managed sustainably, ensuring conservation of
biodiversity.
Target 8
By 2020, pollution, including from excess nutrients, has been brought to levels that are not detrimental to
ecosystem function and biodiversity.
Target 9
By 2020, invasive alien species and pathways are identified and prioritized, priority species are controlled or
eradicated, and measures are in place to manage pathways to prevent their introduction and establishment.
Target 10
By 2015, the multiple anthropogenic pressures on coral reefs, and other vulnerable ecosystems impacted by
climate change or ocean acidification are minimized, so as to maintain their integrity and functioning.



Strategic Goal C:
To improve the status of biodiversity by safeguarding ecosystems, species and genetic
diversity.
Target 11
By 2020, at least 17 per cent of terrestrial and inland water, and 10 per cent of coastal and marine areas,
especially areas of particular importance for biodiversity and ecosystem services, are conserved through
effectively and equitably managed, ecologically representative and well connected systems of protected
areas and other effective area-based conservation measures, and integrated into the wider landscapes and
seascapes.
Target 12
By 2020 the extinction of known threatened species has been prevented and their conservation status,
particularly of those most in decline, has been improved and sustained.
Target 13
By 2020, the genetic diversity of cultivated plants and farmed and domesticated animals and of wild relatives,
including other socio-economically as well as culturally valuable species, is maintained, and strategies have
been developed and implemented for minimizing genetic erosion and safeguarding their genetic diversity.


Strategic Goal D:
Enhance the benefits to all from biodiversity and ecosystem services.
Target 14
By 2020, ecosystems that provide essential services, including services related to water, and contribute to health,
livelihoods and well-being, are restored and safeguarded, taking into account the needs of women, indigenous
and local communities, and the poor and vulnerable.
Target 15
By 2020, ecosystem resilience and the contribution of biodiversity to carbon stocks has been enhanced, through
conservation and restoration, including restoration of at least 15 per cent of degraded ecosystems, thereby
contributing to climate change mitigation and adaptation and to combating desertification.
Target 16
By 2015, the Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits
Arising from their Utilization is in force and operational, consistent with national legislation.

Strategic Goal E:
Enhance the benefits to all from biodiversity and ecosystem services.
Target 17
By 2015 each Party has developed, adopted as a policy instrument, and has commenced implementing an
effective, participatory and updated national biodiversity strategy and action plan.
Target 18
By 2020, the traditional knowledge, innovations and practices of indigenous and local communities relevant for
the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity, and their customary use of biological resources, are
respected, subject to national legislation and relevant international obligations, and fully integrated and
reflected in the implementation of the Convention with the full and effective participation of indigenous and
local communities, at all relevant levels.
Target 19
By 2020, knowledge, the science base and technologies relating to biodiversity, its values, functioning, status and
trends, and the consequences of its loss, are improved, widely shared and transferred, and applied.
Target 20
By 2020, at the latest, the mobilization of financial resources for effectively implementing the Strategic Plan for
Biodiversity 2011-2020 from all sources, and in accordance with the consolidated and agreed process in the
Strategy for Resource Mobilization, should increase substantially from the current levels. This target will be subject
to changes contingent to resource needs assessments to be developed and reported by Parties.


Direito'e'Polticas'de'Ambiente
Civil, Arquitetura'e'Georrecursos
Departamento'de'Engenharia
Environmental'Policy and Law
Main Environamental Starategic Documents

in'the European Union
Francisco)Nunes)Correia
IST,'2016/2017
Strategic'Documents
Cardiff Strategy (1998):
Integration of environmental issues in sectorial policies
Lisbon Strategy (2000)

... the European Union will become the most dynamic and
competitive space in the world, based on knowledge and able
of guaranteeing a sustainable economic growth, with more
and better employment and more social cohesion.
European Strategy for Sustainable Development (2001

Revised in 2006 and 2009): Environmental dimensions at the
same level of importance of the economic and social
dimensions.
Europe 2020 (2010)

Strategy for a smart, sustainable and inclusive growth
http://eurQlex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=COM:2010:2020:FIN:EN:PDF
http://ec.europa.eu/eu2020/pdf/1_PT_ACT_part1_v1.pdf
Seven Flagship Initiatives
Seven flagship initiatives
.'.'.'
.'.'.'
Strategic EU'Document
on
http://edz.bib.uniQmannheim.de/daten/edzQ http://eurQ
bn/gdu/01/susdevstra.pdf lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=COM:20
01:0264:FIN:EN:PDF
EU'Strategy'for'Sustainable'Developme
(2002,'revised'in'2006'and'2009)
Four'priority'areas:
LimitHclimateHchangeHandHincreaseHtheHuseHofHcleanHenergy,
AddressHthreatsHtoHpublicHhealth,
ManageHnaturalHresourcesHmoreHresponsibly,
ImproveHtheHtransportHsystemHandHlandLuseHmanagement.
Limit'climate'change'and'increase'the'use'of'clean'energy:
Address'threats'to'public'health:
Manage'natural'resources'more'responsibly:
Improve'the'transport'system'and'landQuse'management:
2006'Revision
http://ec.europa.eu/sustainable/docs/renewed_eu_sds_pt.pdf
4'Key Objectives
10'Policy Guiding Principles
Directly related to)the environment:
2009'Revision
http://eurQlex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=COM:2009:0400:FIN:en:PDF
More'than'a'review,'it'is'a'report'on'the'implementation'until'then
There'was'an'effort'to'include'the'sustainability'dimension'into'several'agendas
And'other'strategic'documents'of'the'EU,'namely:
Better'regulation'agenda'
Social'Agenda'
Employment'guidelines'
Corporate'Social'Responsibility
External'policies'
It'reports'on'the'progress'made'in'the'following'areas:
Climate'change'and'clean'energy'
Sustainable'transport'
Sustainable'consumption'and'production'
Conservation'and'management'of'natural'resources'
Public'health'
Social'inclusion,'demography'and'migration'
Global'poverty'and'sustainable'development'challenges'
Education'and'training'
Research'and'development'
Financing'and'economic'instruments'
http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/
productsQstatisticalQbooks/Q/KSQGTQ15Q001
Overall Assessment
http://ec.europa.eu/europeaid/sites/devco/files/swdQkeyQeuropeanQ
actionsQ2030QagendaQsdgsQ390Q20161122_en.pdf
https://ec.europa.eu/europeaid/sites/devco/files/communicationQnextQ
stepsQsustainableQeuropeQ20161122_en.pdf
National'Strategies
for'Sustainable'
Development
in'the'EU
http://www.sdQnetwork.eu/?k=country%20profiles
in'the EU
http://ec.europa.eu/environment/sustainableQdevelopment/index_en.htm
The$End
Direito'e'Pol+cas'de'Ambiente'
Civil,'Arquitetura'e'Georrecursos'
Departamento'de'Engenharia'
Environmental'Policy'and'Law'
The'European'Union'
7th'Environmental'Ac+on'Programme'
Francisco)Nunes)Correia)
IST,'2016/2017'
DECISION'No'1386/2013/EU'
OF'THE'EUROPEAN'PARLIAMENT'AND'OF'THE'COUNCIL'of'20'November'2013'
'20'November'2013'!
hTp://ec.europa.eu/environment/newprg/index.htm''
Vision:'
MAIN'AREAS'OF'CONCERN!
1.'Natural'capital''
The! rst! ac+on! area! is! linked! to! natural! capital! from! fer+le! soil! and! produc+ve! land!
and!seas!to!fresh!water!and!clean!air!!as!well!as!the!biodiversity!that!supports!it.!!
!
The!Union!has!made!commitments!to!halt!biodiversity!loss!and!achieve!good!status!for!
Europes! waters! and! marine! environment.! Moreover,! it! has! put! in! place! the! means! to!
achieve!this,!with!legallyDbinding!commitments!including!the!Water!Framework!Direc+ve,!
the! Air! Quality! Direc+ve,! and! the! Habitats! and! Birds! Direc+ves,! together! with! nancial!
and!technical!support.!!
!
To! get! there,! the! EAP! expresses! the! commitment! of! the! EU,! na+onal! authori+es! and!
stakeholders!to!speed!up!the!delivery!of!the!objec+ves!of!the!2020'Biodiversity'Strategy'
and!the!Blueprint'to'Safeguard'Europes'Water'Resources.!There!are!also!topics!which!
need!further!ac+on!at!EU!and!na+onal!level,!such!as!soil!protec+on!and!sustainable!use!of!
land,! as! well! as! forest! resources.! The! programme! sets! out! the! need! for! more! eec+ve!
ac+on!to!protect!oceans!and!seas,!safeguard!sh!stocks!and!reduce!marine!liPer.!!
!
!
hTp://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/info/pubs/docs/
brochures/2020%20Biod%20brochure%20nal%20lowres.pdf'
'
hTp://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/info/pubs/docs/
brochures/2020%20Biod%20brochure%20nal%20lowres.pdf'
'
2.!Resourceêcient'economy'!
Transform!the!EU!into!a!resourceDecient,!lowDcarbon!economy.!This!requires:!!
full! delivery! of! the! climate! and! energy! package! to! achieve! the! 20D20D20! targets!
and!agreement!on!the!next!steps!for!climate!policy!beyond!2020;!!
signicant! improvements! to! the! environmental! performance! of! products! over!
their!life!cycle;!!
reduc+ons!in!the!environmental!impact!of!consump+on,!including!issues!such!as!
cuWng!food!waste!and!using!biomass!in!a!sustainable!way.!!
!
There!is!a!special!focus!on!turning!waste!into!a!resource,!with!more!preven+on,!reD
use!and!recycling,!and!phasing!out!wasteful!and!damaging!prac+ces!like!landlling.!
Water! stress! is! increasingly! aec+ng! more! parts! of! Europe! ! not! least! because! of!
climate! change! ! and! the! need! for! further! ac+on! towards! more! ecient! use! of!
water!is!highlighted.!!
!
The!EAP!calls!for!indicators!and!targets!for!resource!eciency!to!be!established,!to!
guide!public!and!private!decisionDmakers.!!
3.!Healthy'environment'for'healthy'people!
Face! challenges! to! human! health! and! wellbeing,! such! as! air! and! water! pollu+on,!
excessive!noise,!and!toxic!chemicals.!
!
According!to!the!World!Health!Organisa+on,!environmental!factors!could!be!responsible!
for!up!to!20!%!of!all!deaths!in!Europe.!Europe!already!has!high!standards!for!air!quality,!
but! in! many! ci+es,! pollu+on! remains! above! acceptable! levels.! The! EAP! sets! out!
commitments! to! improve! implementa+on! of! exis+ng! legisla+on,! and! to! secure! further!
reduc+ons!in!air!and!noise!pollu+on.!
!
The! EAP! also! sets! out! a! longDterm! vision! of! a! nonDtoxic! environment! and! proposes! to!
address! risks! associated! with! the! use! of! chemicals! in! products! and! chemical! mixtures,!
especially!those!that!interfere!with!the!endocrine!system.!In!parallel,!a!more!predictable!
framework! combined! with! more! investment! in! knowledge! is! intended! to! encourage!
innova+on!and!the!development!of!more!sustainable!solu+ons.!!
!
!
ENABLING'FRAMEWORK'!
4.!BePer!implementa+on'of!legisla+on!!
BePer! implementa+on! of! exis+ng! legisla+on! will! bring! numerous! benets.! A! study!
prepared!for!the!Commission!in!2012!es+mated!that!full!implementa+on!of!EU!waste!
legisla+on!would!save!72!billion!a!year,!increase!the!annual!turnover!of!the!EU!waste!
management!and!recycling!sector!by!42!billion!and!create!over!400,000!new!jobs!by!
2020.!
!
The! EAP! recognises! the! importance! of! much! greater! public! access! to! informa+on! in!
improving!public!understanding!of!environmental!issues!and!in!helping!people!secure!
improvements! to! their! own! environment.! It! recognises! the! need! for! an! enhanced!
system! of! inspec+ons! and! surveillance,! as! well! as! bePer! access! to! jus+ce! in!
environmental!maPers.!!
5.!BePer!informa+on'by!improving!the!knowledge!base!!
Scien+c!research,!monitoring!and!repor+ng!environmental!developments!mean!that!
our! understanding! of! the! environment! is! constantly! increasing.! This! knowledge! base!
should! be! made! more! accessible! to! ci+zens! and! policymakers! to! ensure! policy!
con+nues!to!draw!on!a!sound!understanding!of!the!state!of!the!environment.!At!the!
same! +me,! the! precau+onary! principle! will! con+nue! to! guide! the! EUs! approach! to!
policyDmaking!in!this!eld.!
!
Our!current!knowledge!tells!us!we!need!immediate!ac+on!in!areas!like!climate!change,!
species!loss,!environmental!thresholds!and!ecological!+pping!points,!but!the!issues!are!
complex! and! we! need! to! rene! our! understanding! if! we! are! to! develop! the! most!
eec+ve!approaches.!
!
The! EAP! aims! to! address! these! challenges! by! improving! the! way! data! and! other!
informa+on!is!collected,!managed!and!used!across!the!EU,!inves+ng!in!research!to!ll!
knowledge! gaps,! and! developing! a! more! systema+c! approach! to! new! and! emerging!
risks.!!
!
6.'More'and'wiser'investment'for'environment'and'climate'policy''
Adequate!investments!and!innova+on!in!products,!services!and!public!policies!will!be!
needed!from!public!and!private!sources,!in!order!to!achieve!the!objec+ves!set!out!in!
the!programme.!
!
This!can!only!happen!if!impacts!on!the!environment!are!properly!accounted!for!and!if!
market! signals! also! reect! the! true! costs! to! the! environment.! This! involves! applying!
the!polluterDpays!principle!more!systema+cally,!phasing!out!environmentally!harmful!
subsidies,!shieing!taxa+on!from!labour!towards!pollu+on,!and!expanding!markets!for!
environmental!goods!and!services.!
!
As! a! concrete! example,! the! EAP! calls! for! a! minimum! 20! %! share! of! the! EU! budget!
2014D2020! to! be! devoted! to! climate! change! mi+ga+on! and! adapta+on.! Companies!
increasingly! see! advantages! in! expanding! ecoDinnova+on! and! taking! up! new!
technologies,! in! measuring! the! environmental! impact! of! their! businesses! and!
disclosing!to!their!investors!and!customers!environmental!informa+on!in!their!annual!
repor+ng.!
7.'Full'integra+on'of'environmental'requirements'and'considera+ons'into'other'policies''
Promote!a!bePer!integra+on!of!environmental!concerns!into!other!policy!areas,!such!
as!regional!policy,!agriculture,!sheries,!energy!and!transport.!
!
Systema+cally! assessing! the! environmental,! social! and! economic! impacts! of! policy!
ini+a+ves!and!full!implementa+on!of!Environmental!Impact!Assessment!legisla+on!will!
ensure! bePer! decisionDmaking! and! coherent! policy! approaches! that! deliver! mul+ple!
benets.!!
THE'PROGRAMME'S'FINAL'TWO'PRIORITY'OBJECTIVES'
8.'Sustainable'ci+es'!
Help!ci+es!become!more!sustainable.!Europe!is!densely!populated!and!80!%!of!its!ci+zens!
are! likely! to! live! in! or! near! a! city! by! 2020.! Ci+es! oeen! share! a! common! set! of! problems!
such!as!poor!air!quality,!high!levels!of!noise,!greenhouse!gas!emissions,!water!scarcity,!and!
waste.!Addressing!these!problems!means!working!together.!
!
This!is!why!the!EAP!!
aims!to!promote!and!expand!ini+a+ves!that!support!innova+on!and!best!prac+ce!sharing!
in!ci+es.!The!aim!is!to!ensure!that!by!2020,!most!ci+es!in!the!EU!are!implemen+ng!policies!
for!sustainable!urban!planning!and!design,!and!are!using!the!EU!funding!available!for!this!
purpose.!!
!
9.'Tackling'interna+onal'challenges'(environmental'and'climate)''
Many! of! the! priority! objec+ves! in! the! EAP! can! only! be! achieved! in! coopera+on! with!
partner!countries!or!as!part!of!a!global!approach.!
!
The!EU!and!its!Member!States!
are!commiPed!to!engage!more!eec+vely!in!working!with!interna+onal!partners!towards!
the!adop+on!of!Sustainable!Development!Goals!as!a!followDup!to!the!Rio+20!conference.!
The!EAP!also!proposes!to!explore!further!steps!that!could!be!taken!to!reduce!impacts!on!
the! environment! beyond! EU! borders.! Living! well,! within! the! limits! of! our! planet! is! a!
global!aim.!!
The End
ENVIRONMENT)POLICIES)
EVOLUTION
Part 13
The$European$Union
6 9 10 12
Founders 1957: Enlargement in51973:5 Enlargement in51980:5 Enlargement in51986:5

France,(West(Germany,( United(Kingdom,( Greece Portugal(and Spain
Italy,(Netherlands,( Denmark and Ireland
Belgium,(Luxemburg
12 15 25 27 28
Enlargement in51990:5 Enlargement in 1995:5 Enlargement in52004:5 Enlargement in52007:5

Reunification of Germany Austria,(Finland,(Sweden Cyprus,(Czech Republic,( Bulgria(e(Romnia
(West(and East Germany) Slovakia,(Slovenia,(
Estonia,(Hungary,(Latvia,(
now$28
Lithuania,(Malta(and Croatia
Poland. since$1$July$$2013
Until$when$???
Brexit
The$process$started$.$.$.
.$.$.$and$is$practically$irreversible$!
Will$they$regret$?
The)three)main)institutions)of)the)EU
European Parliament,
represents the voice of the citizens
Antonio Tajani,
President of the European Parliament
European Council,
represents the voice of member-states
Donal Tusk,
President of the European Council
European Commission,
promotes the common interest
Ioannes Cladius Junker,
President of the European Commission
.).).)and)also:
https://europa.eu/european@union/about@eu/institutions@bodies_en
Brexit'29/3
European
Comunity of EURATOM Treaty of Treaty of Treaty of
Coal and And Treaty of Maastricht$ Amsterdam$ Lisbon
Steel Rome(EEC) (EC) (EC) (EU)
?
2019
Main Treaty Establishing
the European Union$
Lisbon Treaty
Approved$during$the$Portuguese$Presidency$of$the$2nd semester$of$2007
Voted by the European Council in$13$December 2007

Last ratification (Czech Republic)$in$3$November 2009
In$force$since 1$December 2009
A$sort of$Constitutional Treaty
It$basically introduces changes in$two previous treaties:
1 Treaty of the European Union

(Maastricht$with several updates)
The$Maastricht$Treaty was the most relevant
for$the European Environmental$Policy
2 Treaty that creates

the European Economic Comunity
Y Treaty of Rome Y
(that becomes known as
Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union)
Founding$Document$of$the$European$Economic$Community$(EEC)
Treaty$of$Rome$(1957)
The Europena Economic Commission will adopt

measures aiming at progessively establishing the
internal market
a space without internal frontiers in which the free

circulation of goods, people, services and capital is assured
in accordance with this treaty dispositions
The Comunity has the mission of promoting a common

market and a harmonious development of the economic
activities
Until$the$Treaty$of$Maastricht$(1992)
There was no$explicit legal$support for$a

Common$Environmental$Policy
All initiatives related to the environment

were based in:
Free competition and Common$Market$policies
Safeguard of public health

Some$intiatives were considered
simply as$intergovernmental
1st$Directive$on$environmental$matters$(1967)
Directive 67/548/EEC
on$classification,$packaging$and$
labelling$of$dangerous$
substances
1972$
Stockholm
Conference
Spectrum
of$values
Environment
Deep Sustainable
Ecology Development
Natural
Resources
Management
Environmental
Safeguards
Simple$Economic
Growth
Economic
Growth
Historical
Period
60s 70s 80s 90s
Declaration$on$the$Environment$(1972)
Economic growth is not an end in itself; its first

objective should be to reduce disparities in living
conditions of people.
It should take place with the participation of all
social partners and it should be not only the result of
an impprovement in the level of living but also in the
quality of life.
Heads of State and Government underlined the
importance of an Environment Community Policy.
With this objective, they invite the Community
Institutions to establish before 31 July 1973 a
Programme of Action together with a well defined
calendar of implementation
1st Generation$of$Directives
Very$precarious$legal$basis:
Concerned with competition
in the single market,
or environmental protection?
Proteco$da$Sade$Pblica:
In any case, aiming at avoiding human
contact with dangerous substances
Quality required of surface water intended for the
abstraction of drinking water
Quality of water intended for human consumption
Pollution caused by dangerous substances
and doughter Directives
Assessment of the environmental effects of public and
private projects with significant effects on the
environment (EIA)
1987
1972$
Stockholm Our$Common
Conference Future
Spectrum
of$values
Environment
Deep Sustainable
Ecology Development
Natural
Resources
Management
Environmental
Safeguards
Simple$Economic
Growth
Economic
Growth
Historical
Period
60s 70s 80s 90s
1987
Brundtland
Report
World Commission
on
Environment and
Development
European$Single$Act$(1987)
Article$130$Y R
1. The action in what concerns the environment

has the following objectives:
- preserve, protect and improve the
quality of the environment,
- contribute to the protection of the health
of people,
- assure a prudent and rational use of the
natural resources.
Treaty$of$Maastricht$(1992)
Article$2
The Community shall have as its task, by establishing a
common market and an economic and monetary union
and by implementing the common policies or activities ...
to promote throughout the Community a harmonious and
balanced development of economic activities, sustainable
and non-inflationary growth respecting the
environment, a high degree of convergence of economic
performance, a high level of employment and of social
protection, the raising of the standard of living and
quality of life, and economic and social cohesion and
solidarity among Member States
Article$3
For the purposes set out in Article 2, the activities

of the Community shall include:
...
k) a policy in the sphere of the environment;
o) a contribution to the attainment of a high level of

health protection;
Artigo$130$Y R
1. Community policy on the environmmt shall

contribute to pursuit of the following objectives:
- preserving, protecting and improving the quality of
the environment;
- protecting human health;
- prudent and rational utilization of natural
resources
- promoting measures at the international level to
deal with regional or worldwide environmental
problems.
2. Community policy on the environment shall aim at

a high level of protection taking into account the
diversity of situations in the various regions of the
Community. It shall be based on the precautionary
principle and on the principles that preventive action
should be taken, that environmental damage should
as a priority be rectified at source and that the
polluter should pay. Environmental protection
requirements must be integrated into the definition
and implementation of other Community policies
2nd Generation$of$Directives
Targeted$at$specific$sectors
More$importance$given
to$economic$issues
Directive$91/271/EEC
Urban$Wastewater$Treatment
Directive$91/676/EEC
Protection$of$waters$against$pollution$caused$by$nitrates$
from$agricultural$sources
1987 1992
1972$
Stockholm Our$Common Rio
Spectrum
of$values
Environment
Deep Sustainable
Ecology Development
Natural
Resources
Management
Environmental
Safeguards
Simple$Economic
Growth
Economic
Growth
Historical
Period
60s 70s 80s 90s
3rd Generation$of$Directives
An$integrated$and$holistic$view
of$environmental$issues
Directive$96/61/EC
Integrated$Pollution$Prevention$and$Control
Directive$2000/60/EC
Framework$for$Community$action$in$the$field$of$water$policy
Assessment$of$the$effects$of$certain$plans$and$programmes
on$the$environment (SEA)
1997
Treaty$of$Amsterdam$on$the$European$Community
Improves$the$formulation$of$the$Treaty$of$Mastricht
and$makes$explicit$the$concept$of$sustainable$development
The Community shall have as its task, by establishing a common
market and an economic and monetary union and by
implementing common policies or activities referred to in Articles
3 and 4, to promote throughout the Community a harmonious,
balanced and sustainable development of economic activities, a
high level of employment and of social protection, equality
between men and women, sustainable and non-inflationary
growth, a high degree of competitiveness and convergence of
economic performance, a high level of protection and
improvement of the quality of the environment, the raising of the
standard of living and quality of life, and economic and social
cohesion and solidarity among Member States.
1997
New Article 6
Environmental protection requirements must be
integrated into the definition and implementation of other
Community policies and activities , with a view to
promoting sustainable development
1987 1992
1972$
Stockholm Our$Common Rio
Spectrum
of$values
Environment
Deep Sustainable
Ecology Development
Natural
Resources
Management
Environmental
Safeguards
Simple$Economic
Growth
Economic
Growth
Historical
Period
60s 70s 80s 90s
1992$UN$ 2015$UN
European UN$
Rios 2000$UN$ SustainY
Comunity of EURATOM Stockhom Treaty of Millennium Treaty of able
Coal and And Treaty of Conference Conference
Amsterdam$ Development Lisbon DevelopY
Steel Rome(EEC) 1972
(EC) Goals (EU) Ment
Goals
Treaty of
Maastricht$
(EC)
2019
3rd Generation$of$Directives
An$integrated$and$holistic$view
of$environmental$issues
Directive$96/61/EC
Integrated$Pollution$Prevention$and$Control
Framework$for$Community$action$in$the$field$of$water$policy
Assessment$of$the$effects$of$certain$plans$and$programmes
on$the$environment (SEA)
1997
The Community shall have as its task, by establishing a common
market and an economic and monetary union and by
implementing common policies or activities referred to in Articles
3 and 4, to promote throughout the Community a harmonious,
balanced and sustainable development of economic activities, a
high level of employment and of social protection, equality
between men and women, sustainable and non-inflationary
growth, a high degree of competitiveness and convergence of
economic performance, a high level of protection and
improvement of the quality of the environment, the raising of the
standard of living and quality of life, and economic and social
cohesion and solidarity among Member States.
1997
New Article 6
Environmental protection requirements must be
integrated into the definition and implementation of other
Community policies and activities , with a view to
promoting sustainable development
A$sort$of$Constitutional$Treaty
It$basically$introduces$changes$in$two$previous$treaties:
1 Treaty$of$the$European$Union
(Maastricht$with$several$updates)
The$Maastricht$Treaty$was$the$most$relevant
for$the$European$Environmental$Policy
2 Treaty$that$creates
the$European$Economic$Comunity
Y Treaty$of$Rome$Y
(that$becomes$known$as
Treaty$on$the$Functioning$of$the$European$Union)
Treaty5of5the5European5Union5(2007)
(A5component5of5the5Lisbon5Treaty)
Article535 Objectives5of5the5European5Union
3. The Union shall establish an internal market. It shall work

for the sustainable development of Europe based on balanced
economic growth and price stability, a highly competitive
social market economy, aiming at full employment and social
progress, and a high level of protection and improvement of
the quality of the environment. It shall promote scientific and
technological advance.
Article535 Objectives5of5the5European5Union5(continuation)
It shall combat social exclusion and discrimination, and shall

promote social justice and protection, equality between women
and men, solidarity between generations and protection of the
rights of the child.
It shall promote economic, social and territorial cohesion, and
solidarity among Member States.
It shall respect its rich cultural and linguistic diversity, and shall
ensure that Europe's cultural heritage is safeguarded and
enhanced.
Treaty5on5the5Functioning5of5the5EU
Article545 Shared5competences
2. Shared competences between the Union and the Member@

States applies ino the following principal areas: a) Internal
market; b) Social policy, for the aspects defined in this Treaty;
c) Economic, social, and territorial cohesion; d) Agriculture and
fisheries, excluding the conservation of marine biological
resources; e) Environment; f) Consummer protection; g)
Transport; h) Trans@European networks; i) Energy; j) Area of
freedom, security and justice; k) Common safety concerns in
public health matters, for the aspects defined in this Treaty.
Article5115 Environment5integration
Environmental protection requirements must

be integrated into the definition and
implementation of the Union's policies and
activities, in particular with a view to
promoting sustainable development.
Title5XX5 The5Environment
Article51915 Objectives5of5the5Environmental5Policy
2. Community policy on the environment shall aim at a high

level of protection taking into account the diversity of
situations in the various regions of the Community. It shall be
based on the precautionary principle and on the principles
that preventive action should be taken, that environmental
damage should as a priority be rectified at source and that the
polluter should pay. Environmental protection requirements
must be integrated into the definition and implementation of
other Community policies.
Article$192$ Ways$of$deliberation
1. The European Parliament and the Council, acting in

accordance with the ordinary legislative procedure
and after consulting the Economic and Social
Committee and the Committee of the Regions, shall
decide what action is to be taken by the Union in order
to achieve the objectives referred to in Article 191.
Article$192$ Ways$of$deliberation$(continuation)
2. By way of derogation from the decisionYmaking procedure

provided for in paragraph 1 and without prejudice to Article 114, the
Council acting unanimously in accordance with a special legislative
procedure and after consulting the European Parliament, the
Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions,
shall adopt:
(a) provisions primarily of a fiscal naturel
(b) measures affecting:
Y town and country planning,
Y quantitative management of water resources or affecting,
directly or indirectly, the availability of those resources,
Y land use, with the exception of waste managementl
Article$192$ Ways$of$deliberation$(continuation)
(c) measures significantly affecting a Member State's choice

between different energy sources and the general structure of its
energy supply.
The Council, acting unanimously on a proposal from the

Commission and after consulting the European Parliament, the
Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions,
may make the ordinary legislative procedure applicable to the
matters referred to in the first subparagraph.
Declaration$on$the$Environment$(1972)
Economic growth is not an end in itself; its first

objective should be to reduce disparities in living
conditions of people.
It should take place with the participation of all
social partners and it should be not only the result of
an impprovement in the level of living but also in the
quality of life.
Heads of State and Government underlined the
importance of an Environment Community Policy.
With this objective, they invite the Community
Institutions to establish before 31 July 1973 a
Programme of Action together with a well defined
calendar of implementation
Environmental$Programmes$in$the$European$Union
Stockholm$Conference$1972
Declaration$on$Environment$1972
1st Environmental$Programme 1973$Y 1976
2nd Environmental$Programme 1977$Y 1981
3rd Environmental$Programme 1982$Y 1986
Our$Common$Future$1987
European$Single$Act1986
4th Environmental$Programme 1987$Y 1992

Rios$Conference$1992
Treaty$of$Maastricht$1992
Millennium$Development$goals$2000
Gothenburg$Strategy$2001
Most5relevant5concepts
in5EU5environmental5policies:
Integration5in5Sectoral5Policies
Target@sectors
Prevention
Precaution
Correction5at5the5source
Diversification5of5instruments
Environmental5responsibility
Other5concepts5that5reflect
current5concerns:
Green5economy
Green5jobs
Decarbonization5of5the5economy
Ecosystem5services
(etc.)
The$End
.=.=.=for=today=!
The'European'Union'
Three'Important'Direc+ves'
IST,'2016/2017'
1'
Strategic'Environmental'Assessment'
...)broad)an1cipa1ve)assessment)of)plans)and)programmes,)
not)projects)(at)this)stage))
The'SEA'Direc+ve'applies'to'a'wide'range'
of'public'plans'and'programmes'
'
The'SEA'Direc+ve'does'not'refer'to'policies'
Plans&and&programmes&in&the&sense&of&the&SEA&Direc7ve&must&be&prepared&or&adopted&by&
an&authority&(at&na7onal,&regional&or&local&level)&and&be&required&by&legisla7ve,&regulatory&
or&administra7ve&provisions.&
An&SEA&is&mandatory&for&plans/programmes&which&:&
are&prepared&for&agriculture,&forestry,&sheries,&energy,&industry,&transport,&waste&and&
water&management,&telecommunica7ons,&tourism,&town&and&country&planning&or&land&
use&and&which&set'the'framework'for'future'development'consent'of'projects'listed'in'
the'EIA'Direc+ve.'
&
or&
&
have&been&determined&to&require&an&assessment&under&the&Habitats'Direc+ve'
The& Member& States& have& to& carry& out& a& screening' procedure'based& on& criteria& set& out& in&
Annex' II' to& determine& whether& the& plans/programmes& are& likely& to& have& signicant&
environmental&eects.&If&there&are&signicant&eects,&an&SEA&is&needed&
The'SEA'procedure'can'be'summarized'as'follows:'
an& environmental' report' is' prepared' in& which& the& likely& signicant& eects& on& the&
environment&and&the&reasonable'alterna+ves&of&the&proposed&plan&or&programme&are&
iden7ed&(according&to&Annex'I)&
The&public'and'the'environmental'authori+es'are'informed'and'consulted'on&the&draJ&
plan&or&programme&and&the&environmental&report&prepared&
As& regards& plans& and& programmes& which& are& likely& to& have& signicant' eects' on' the'
environment'in'another'Member'State,&the&Member&State&in&whose&territory&the&plan&
or&programme&is&being&prepared&must&consult'the'other'Member'State(s)&
The& environmental& report& and& the& results& of& the& consulta7ons& are& taken' into' account'
before'adop+on'
Once&the&plan&or&programme&is&adopted,&the&environmental&authori+es'and'the'public'
are'informed&and&relevant'informa+on'is'made'available'to'them'
In& order& to& iden7fy& unforeseen& adverse& eects& at& an& early& stage,& signicant'
environmental'eects'of'the'plan'or'programme'are'to'be'monitored&
The'SEA'and'EIA'procedures'are'very'similar,'but'there'are'some&dierences:&
the&SEA&requires&the&environmental'authori+es&to&be&consulted&at&the&screening&stage;&
scoping'(i.e.&the&stage&of&the&SEA&process&that&determines&the&content&and&extent&of&the&
maNers&to&be&covered&in&the&SEA&report&to&be&submiNed&to&a&competent&authority)&is&
obligatory&under&the&SEA;&
the&SEA&requires&an&assessment&of&reasonable&alterna+ves&(under&the&EIA&the&developer&
chooses&the&alterna7ves&to&be&studied);&
under&the&SEA&Member&States&must&monitor&the&signicant&environmental&eects&of&the&
implementa7on&of&plans/programmes&in&order&to&iden7fy&unforeseen&adverse&eects&
and&undertake&appropriate&remedial&ac7on.&
the&SEA&obliges&Member&States&to&ensure&that&environmental&reports&are&of&a&sucient&
quality&
2'
Environmental'Impact'Assessment'
Environmental& assessment& is& a& procedure& that& ensures& that& the& environmental'
implica+ons'of'decisions&are&taken&into&account&before&the&decisions&are&made.&
&
Environmental& impact& assessment& is& undertaken& for& individual' projects,& such& as& a& dam,&
motorway,&airport&or&factory&(known&as&Environmental&Impact&Assessment'&&EIA&Direc7ve)&
&
It&is&dis7nct&from&the&assessment&of&possible&environmental&consequences&of&public'plans'
or'programmes&(known&as&'Strategic&Environmental&Assessment'&&SEA&Direc7ve).&
&
The& common& principle& is& to& ensure& that& plans,& programmes& and& projects& likely& to& have&
signicant&eects&on&the&environment&are&made&subject&to&an&environmental&assessment,&
prior& to& their& approval& or& authorisa7on.& Consulta7on& with& the& public& is& a& key& feature& of&
environmental&assessment&procedures.&
&
The& ini7al& EIA& Direc7ve& of& 1985& and& its& three& amendments& have& been& codied& by&
Direc7ve&2011/92/EU&of&13&December&2011&
Direc7ve&2011/92/EU&has&been&amended&in&2014&by&Direc+ve'2014/52/EU'
&
Member'States'have'to'apply'this'later'version'as'from'16'May'2017'at'the'latest.'
The&EIA&Direc7ve&is&in&force&since&1985&(85/337/EEC)&and&applies&to&a&wide&range&of&
dened&public'and'private'projects,&which&are&dened&in&Annexes'I'and'II.&
Mandatory' EIA:& all& projects& listed& in& Annex' I& are& considered& as& having& signicant&
eects& on& the& environment& and& require& an& EIA& (e.g.& long_distance& railway& lines,&
motorways& and& express& roads,& airports& with& a& basic& runway& length& & 2100& m,&
installa7ons&for&the&disposal&of&hazardous&waste,&installa7ons&for&the&disposal&of&non_
hazardous&waste&>&100&tonnes/day,&waste&water&treatment&plants&>&150.000&p.e.).&
Discre+on'of'Member'States'(screening):&for&projects&listed&in&Annex'II,&the&na7onal&
authori7es&have&to&decide&whether&an&EIA&is&needed.&This&is&done&by&the&"screening'
procedure",& which& determines& the& eects& of& projects& on& the& basis& of& thresholds/
criteria&or&a&case&by&case&examina7on.&However,&the&na7onal&authori7es&must&take&
into&account&the&criteria&laid&down&in&Annex'III.&&
The'EIA'procedure'can'be'summarized'as'follows:'
The&developer'may'request'the&competent&authority&to&say&what'should'be'covered'
by&the&EIA&informa7on&to&be&provided&by&the&developer&(scoping'stage);&
The&developer'must'provide'informa+on'on&the&environmental&impact&(EIA&report&&
Annex'IV);&
The&environmental&authori7es&and&the&public&(and&aected&Member&States)&must&be&
informed'and'consulted;&
The& competent' authority' decides,& taken& into& considera7on& the& results& of&
consulta7ons.&&
The& public' is' informed' of' the' decision' aJerwards& and& can& challenge& the& decision&
before&the&courts'
3'
Integrated'Pollu+on'Preven+on'and'Control'
Industrial'produc+on'processes'account'for'a'considerable'share'of'the'overall'pollu+on'
in' Europe,' namely' for' emissions' of' greenhouse' gases' and' acidifying' substances,'
wastewater'emissions'and'waste).'
&
The& EU& has& adopted& in& 1996& a& set& of& common& rules& for& permifng& and& controlling&
industrial&installa7ons&in&the&&
IPPC& Direc7ve& (Direc7ve& 96/61/EC).& The& IPPC& Direc7ve& has& recently& been& codied&
(Direc7ve&2008/1/EC).&
In&essence,&the&IPPC&Direc7ve&is&about&minimising'pollu+on'from'various'industrial'sources'
throughout&the&European&Union.&
&
Operators& of& industrial& installa7ons& opera7ng& ac7vi7es& covered& by& Annex' I' of& the& IPPC&
Direc7ve& are& required& to& obtain& an' environmental' permit' from& the& authori7es& in& the& EU&
countries.&About&52.000&installa7ons&are&covered&by&the&IPPC&Direc7ve.&
&
New' installa+ons,& and& exis7ng& installa7ons& which& are& subject' to' "substan+al' changes",&
have&been&required&to&meet&the&requirements&of&the&IPPC&Direc7ve&since&30&October&1999.&
Other& exis7ng& installa7ons& had& to& be& brought& into& compliance& by& 30' October' 2007.& This&
was&the&key'deadline'for'the'full'implementa+on'of&the&Direc7ve.&
The'IPPC'Direc+ve'is'based'on'several'principles,'namely:'
(1)'Integrated'approach,'
(2)'Best'available'techniques,'
(3)'Flexibility'
(4)'Public'par+cipa+on.'
(1)& The& integrated' approach& means& that& the& permits& must& take& into& account& the& whole&
environmental& performance& of& the& plant,& covering& e.g.& emissions& to& air,& water& and& land,&
genera7on&of&waste,&use&of&raw&materials,&energy&eciency,&noise,&preven7on&of&accidents,&
and&restora7on&of&the&site&upon&closure.&The&purpose&of&the&Direc7ve&is&to&ensure&a&high&
level&of&protec7on&of&the&environment&taken&as&a&whole.&
(2)& The& permit& condi7ons& including& emission& limit& values& (ELVs)& must& be& based& on& Best)
Available) Techniques) (BAT)& ,& as& dened& in& the& IPPC& Direc7ve.& To& assist& the& licensing&
authori7es&and&companies&to&determine&BAT,&the&Commission&organises&an&exchange&of&
informa7on& between& experts& from& the& EU& Member& States,& industry& and& environmental&
organisa7ons.&This&work&is&co_ordinated&by&the&European'IPPC'Bureau.&
&
This& results& in& the& adop7on& and& publica7on& by& the& Commission& of& the& BAT' Reference'
Documents&(the&so_called&BREFs).&Execu+ve'summaries&of&the&BREFs&are&translated&into&
the&ocial&EU&languages.&
(3)&The&IPPC&Direc7ve&contains&elements&of&exibility&by&allowing&the&licensing&authori7es,&
in&determining&permit&condi7ons,&to&take&into&account:&
(a)&the&technical'characteris+cs'of&the&installa7on,&&
(b)&its&geographical'loca+on'and&&
(c)&the&local&environmental'condi+ons.&
(4)&The&Direc7ve&ensures&that&the&public'has'a'right'to'par+cipate&in&the&decision&making&
process,&and&to&be&informed&of&its&consequences,&by&having&access&to:&
(a)&permit&applica+ons&in&order&to&give&opinions,&&
(b)&permits,&&
(c)&results&of&the&monitoring&of&releases&and&&
(d)&European'Pollutant'Release'and'Transfer'Register'(E_PRTR)&
&
Mandatory'environmental'condi+ons&
In& order& to& receive& a& permit& an& industrial& or& agricultural& installa7on& must& comply& with&
certain&basic&obliga7ons.&In&par7cular,&it&must:&
use&all&appropriate&pollu7on_preven7on&measures,&namely&the&best&available&techniques&
(which&produce&the&least&waste,&use&less&hazardous&substances,&enable&the&substances&
generated&to&be&recovered&and&recycled,&etc.);&
prevent&all&large_scale&pollu7on;&
prevent,&recycle&or&dispose&of&waste&in&the&least&pollu7ng&way&possible;&
use&energy&eciently;&
ensure&accident&preven7on&and&damage&limita7on;&
return&sites&to&their&original&state&when&the&ac7vity&is&over.&
In& addi7on,& the& decision& to& issue& a& permit& must& contain& a& number& of& specic&
requirements,&including:&
emission&limit&values&for&pollu7ng&substances&(with&the&excep7on&of&greenhouse&gases&if&
the&emission&trading&scheme&applies&_&see&below);&
any&soil,&water&and&air&protec7on&measures&required;&
waste&management&measures;&
measures&to&be&taken&in&excep7onal&circumstances&(leaks,&malfunc7ons,&temporary&or&
permanent&stoppages,&etc.);&
minimisa7on&of&long_distance&or&transboundary&pollu7on;&
release&monitoring;&
all&other&appropriate&measures.&
In& order& to& coordinate& the& permit& process& required& under& the& Direc7ve& and& the&
greenhouse& gas& emission& trading& scheme,& a& permit& issued& in& compliance& with& the&
Direc7ve& is& not& obliged& to& contain& the& emission& limit& values& for& greenhouse& gases& if&
these& gases& are& subject& to& an& emission& trading& scheme,& provided& there& is& no& local&
pollu7on&problem.&The&competent&authori7es&can&also&decide&not&to&impose&energy&
eciency&measures&targeted&at&combus7on&plants.&
Permit'applica+ons:&
All& permit& applica7ons& must& be& sent& to& the& competent& authority& of& the& Member& State&
concerned,& which& will& then& decide& whether& or& not& to& authorise& the& ac7vity.& Applica7ons&
must&include&informa7on&on&the&following&points:&
a&descrip7on&of&the&installa7on&and&the&nature&and&scale&of&its&ac7vi7es&as&well&as&its&site&
condi7ons;&
the&materials,&substances&and&energy&used&or&generated;&
the& sources& of& emissions& from& the& installa7on,& and& the& nature& and& quan77es& of&
foreseeable&emissions&into&each&medium,&as&well&as&their&eects&on&the&environment;&
the& proposed& technology& and& other& techniques& for& preven7ng& or& reducing& emissions&
from&the&installa7on;&
measures&for&the&preven7on&and&recovery&of&waste;&
measures&planned&to&monitor&emissions;&
possible&alterna7ve&solu7ons.&
Without' infringing' the' rules' and' prac+ce' of' commercial' and' industrial' secrecy,' this'
informa+on'must'be'made'available'to'interested'par+es:'
the'public,&using&the&appropriate&means&(including&electronically)&and&at&the&same&
7me& as& informa7on& cerning& the& procedure& for& licensing& the& ac7vity,& the& contact&
details&of&the&authority&responsible&for&authorising&or&rejec7ng&the&project&and&the&
possibility&for&the&public&to&take&part&in&the&licensing&process;&
the'other'Member'States,&if&the&project&is&likely&to&have&cross_border&eects.&Each&
Member&State&must&submit&this&informa7on&to&interested&par7es&in&its&territory&so&
that&they&can&give&their&opinion.&
Sucient&7me&must&be&allowed&for&all&interested&par7es&to&react.&Their&opinions&must&
be&taken&into&account&in&the&licensing&procedure.&
Administra+ve'and'monitoring'measures&
The& decision& to& license& or& reject& a& project,& the& arguments& on& which& this& decision& is&
based& and& possible& measures& to& reduce& the& nega7ve& impact& of& the& project& must& be&
made& public& and& sent& to& the& other& Member& States& concerned.& The& Member& States&
must,& in& accordance& with& their& relevant& na7onal& legisla7on,& make& provision& for&
interested&par7es&to&challenge&this&decision&in&the&courts.&
The&Member&States&are&responsible&for&inspec7ng&industrial&installa7ons&and&ensuring&
they& comply& with& the& Direc7ve.& An& exchange& of& informa7on& on& best& available&
techniques& (serving& as& a& basis& for& sefng& emission& limit& values)& is& held& regularly&
between& the& Commission,& the& Member& States& and& the& industries& concerned.& Reports&
on&the&implementa7on&of&the&Direc7ve&are&drawn&up&every&three&years.&
Regula7on& (EC)& No& 166/2006,& which& establishes& a& European& Pollutant& Release& and&
Transfer& Register& (PRTR),& harmonises& the& rules& whereby& Member& States& have& to&
regularly&report&informa7on&on&pollutants&to&the&Commission.&
The End
Civil, Arquitetura'e'Georrecursos
Departamento'de'Engenharia
Environmental'Policy'and'Law
Portugal
Constitution'of'the'Portuguese'Republic
&'Framework'Law'for'the'Environment
IST,'2016/2017
Hierarchy'of'legal'documents
Constitution /'Constituio
Main legal framework that can only be revised in the Parliamentwith 2/3 of votes.
This is done only every 5 or 10 years. All legislation has to comply with the
constitution. If it doesnt it can be revoked by the Constitutional Court.
Law'(including'Framework'Law)/Lei'(incluindo'Leis'de'Base'ou'Quadro)
Important (and quite stable) legal document always approved by a simple
majority of the Parliament, although it can be proposed by the Government.
Often establishes main orientations for a sector. It is usually implemented
through DecreeMLaws approved by the Government
DecreeULaw /'DecretoULei
ApprovedObyOtheOGovernment,OoftenOaimingOatOtheOpracticalOimplementationOofOaO
law,OalthoughOitOcanObeOabrogatedOorOchangedObyOtheOParliament.OItOusuallyOhasOanO
executiveOnature.
RegulatoryUDecree /'DecretoURegulamentar
Approved by the Government with the objective of detailing executive
procedures of a DecreeMLaw. Cannot be changed by the Parliament, except
through the DecreeMLaw to which it is linked.
Ordinance'and'Executive'Order /'Portaria'e'Despacho
Approved simply by one or more Ministers, always linked to a higher order
document.
CONSTITUTION'OF'THE'PORTUGUESE'REPUBLIC
SEVENTH'REVISION'[2005]
TABLE'OF'CONTENTS'
PREAMBLE PART)II)3 Organisation)of)the)economy)

FundamentalOprinciples TITLE'I'U General'principles'
TITLE'II'U Plans'
PART)I)3 Fundamental)rights)and)duties TITLE'III'U Agricultural,'commercial'and'
TITLE'I'U General'principles' industrial'policies'
TITLE'II'U Rights,'freedoms'and'guarantees TITLE'IV'U Financial'and'fiscal'system'
CHAPTEROIOM PersonalOrights,OfreedomsO
andOguaranteesO PART)III)3 Organisation)of)political)power
CHAPTEROIIOM Rights,OfreedomsOandO TITLE'I'U General'principles'
guaranteesOconcerningOparticipationO TITLE'II'U President'of'the'Republic
inOpoliticsO CHAPTEROIOM Status,OroleOandOelectionO
CHAPTEROIIIOM WorkersOrights,OfreedomsO CHAPTEROIIOM CompetencesOO
andOguaranteesO CHAPTEROIIIOM CouncilOofOStateO
TITLE'III'U Economic,'social'and'cultural' TITLE'III'U Assembly'of'the'Republic
rights'and'duties CHAPTEROIOM Status,OroleOandOelectionO
CHAPTEROIOM EconomicOrightsOandOdutiesO CHAPTEROIIOM CompetencesO
CHAPTEROIIOM SocialOrightsOandOduties CHAPTEROIIIOM OrganisationOandOmodusO
CHAPTEROIIIOM CulturalOrightsOandOdutiesO operandiO
CONSTITUTION'OF'THE'PORTUGUESE'REPUBLIC
SEVENTH'REVISION'[2005]
TABLE'OF'CONTENTS'
TITLE'IV' Government
TITLE'IX'U Public'Administration'
CHAPTEROIOM FunctionOandOstructure
TITLE'X'U National'defence'
CHAPTEROIIOM FormationOandO
PART'IV'U Guaranteeing'and'revision'of'
accountability
the'Constitution'
CHAPTEROIIIOM CompetencesOO
TITLEOIOM ReviewOofOconstitutionalityO
TITLE'V' Courts
TITLEOIIOM RevisionOofOtheOConstitutionO
CHAPTEROIOM GeneralOprinciplesO
CHAPTEROIIOM OrganisationOofOtheOcourtsO
Final'and'transitional'provisions'
CHAPTEROIIIOM StatusOandOroleOofOjudgesO
CHAPTEROIVOM PublicOProsecutorsOOffice
TITLE'VI'U Constitutional'Court''
TITLE'VII'U Autonomous'regions'
TITLE'VIII'U Local'government'
CHAPTEROIOM GeneralOprinciples
CHAPTEROIIOM ParishesO
CHAPTEROIIIOM MunicipalitiesO
CHAPTEROIVOM AdministrativeOregionsO
CHAPTEROVOM ResidentsOorganisationsO
Fundamental'principles
Article'9'
(Fundamental'tasks'of'the'state)
.'.'.
e) To protect and enhance the Portuguese peoples cultural heritage, defend
nature and the environment, preserve natural resources and ensure
correct town and country planning;
.'.'.'
Part'I'Fundamental'Rights'and'Duties
TITLE'II'U Rights,'freedoms'and'guarantees
CHAPTER'II'
Rights,'freedoms'and'guarantees'concerning'participation'in'politics'
Article'52
(Right'to'petition'and'right'of'actio popularis)'
a) Promote the prevention, cessation or judicial prosecution of offences
against public health, consumer rights, the quality of life or the
preservation of the environment and the cultural heritage;
b) . . .
Part'I'Fundamental'Rights'and'Duties
TITLE'III'U Economic,'social'and'cultural'rights'and'duties
CHAPTER'II'U Social'rights'and'duties
Article'64'
(Health)
2. The right to the protection of health shall be fulfilled:

...
b) By creating economic, social, cultural and environmental conditions that
particularly guarantee the protection of childhood, youth and old age; by
systematically improving living and working conditions, and promoting
physical fitness and sport at school and among the people; and also by
developing the peoples health and hygiene education and healthy living
practices.
...
TITLE'III'U Economic,'social'and'cultural'rights'and'duties
CHAPTER'II'U Social'rights'and'duties'(continuation)
Article'66
(Environment'and'quality'of'life)'
1. Everyone has the right to a healthy and ecologically balanced human living
environment and the duty to defend it.
2. In order to ensure the right to the environment within an overall framework
of sustainable development, the state, acting via appropriate bodies and with
the involvement and participation of citizens, is charged with:
a) Preventing and controlling pollution and its effects and the harmful forms of
erosion;
b) Conducting and promoting town and country planning with a view to a
correct location of activities, balanced social and economic development and
the enhancement of the landscape;
c) Creating and developing natural and recreational reserves and parks and
classifying and protecting landscapes and places, in such a way as to guarantee
the conservation of nature and the preservation of cultural values and assets
that are of historic or artistic interest;
d) Promoting the rational use of natural resources, while safeguarding their

ability to renew themselves and ecological stability, with respect for the
principle of interUgenerational solidarity;
e) In cooperation with local authorities, promoting the environmental quality of
rural settlements and urban life, particularly on the architectural level and as
regards the protection of historic zones;
f) Promoting the integration of environmental objectives into the various
policies with a sectoral scope;
g) Promoting environmental education and respect for environmental values
and assets;
h) Ensuring that the fiscal policy renders development compatible with the
protection of the environment and the quality of life.
PART'II'U Organisation'of'the'economy
TITLE'II' Plans'
Article 90
(Objectives of plans)
The objective of economic and social development plans shall be to promote
economic growth, the harmonious and integrated development of sectors and
regions, the just division of the national product between persons and between
regions, the coordination of the economic policy with the social, education and
cultural policies, the defence of the rural world, the preservation of the
ecological balance, the defence of the environment and the quality of life of the
Portuguese people.
PART'II'U Organisation'of'the'economy
TITLE'III' Agricultural,'commercial'and'industrial'policies
Article'93
(Agricultural'policy'objectives)
.'.'.
d)'To'ensure'the'rational'use'and'management'of'the'soil'and'other'natural'
resources'and'to'maintain'their'regenerative'capability;'
.'.'.
2.'The'state'shall'promote'a'policy'of'agrarian'planning'and'reconversion'and'
forestry'development,'in'accordance'with'the'ecological'and'social'factors'
that'condition'the'country.'
PART'III'U Organisation'of'political'power'
TITLE'III'U Assembly'of'the'Republic'
CHAPTER'II'U Competences'
Article'165
(Partially'exclusive'legislative'competence)
.'.'.
g)'The'bases'of'the'system'for'protecting'nature,'the'ecological'balance'and'the'
cultural'heritage;
.'.'.
Framework Law for'the Environment
Law no.'19/2014
14'April
Article'1
(Scope)
This'Law'establishes'the'bases'of'the'environmental'policy,'
in'compliance'with'articles'9'and'66'of'the'Constitution.
Fundamental'principles
Article'9'
(Fundamental'tasks'of'the'state)
.'.'.
e) To protect and enhance the Portuguese peoples cultural heritage, defend
nature and the environment, preserve natural resources and ensure
correct town and country planning;
.'.'.'
Table of Contents
Chapter'I
Scope,'objectives'and'general'principles'of'the'environmental'policy
Chapter'II
Environmental'rights'and'duties
Chapter'III
Areas'subject'to'environmental'policy
Chapter'IV
Reconcilement'of'environmental'policy'with'other'sectorial'policies
Chapter'V
Instruments'of'environmental'policy
Chapter'VI
Transitional'provisions
Chapter'I
Scope,'objectives'and'general'principles'of'the'environmental'policy
Article 2
Objectives of the environmental policy
1. The environmental policy aims at an effective compliance with the
environmental rights, through the promotion of a sustainable development,
based on an adequate management of the environmental, i particular of the
ecosystems and the natural resources, that ensures the wellUbeing and
progressive improvement of the quality of life of citizens.
2. It is the responsibility of the State to carry out environmental policy both

through the direct action of its institutions and agents at the various levels of
local, regional, national, European and international decisionUmaking, and
through the mobilization and coordination of all citizens and social forces, In a
participatory process and based on the full exercise of environmental citizenship.
Article 3
Principles of environment
Public action on the environment is subject, in particular, to the following

principles:
a) Sustainable development . . .
b) Intra and intergenerational responsibility . . .
c) Prevention and precaution . . .
d) PolluterUpays . . .
e) UserUpays . . .
f) Responsibility, which requires the accountability of all those who directly or
indirectly, with intent or negligence, cause threats or damage to the
environment, and it is up to the State to apply the sanctions due, not being
excluded the possibility of compensation under the law;
g) Recovery, which obliges the person causing the environmental damage to the
restoration of the state of the environment as it was before the occurrence of the
harmful event.
Chapter'II
Environmental'rights'and'duties
Article 5
Right to the environment
1. Everyone has the right to the environment and the quality of life, in
constitutionally and internationally established terms.
2. The right to the environment consists of the right to defense against any
aggression to the constitutional and internationally protected sphere of each
citizen, as well as the power to demand from public and private entities the
fulfillment of the environmental obligations and obligations to which they are
bound In accordance with the law.
Article 8
Environmental duties
1. The right to the environment is inextricably linked to the duty to protect it, to
preserve it and to respect it, so as to ensure longUterm sustainable development,
especially for future generations.
2. Environmental citizenship consists of the duty to contribute to the creation of
a healthy and ecologically balanced environment and, in view of the efficient use
of resources and in view of the progressive improvement of quality of life, for its
protection and preservation.
Chapter'III
Areas'subject'to'environmental'policy
Article 10
Natural components of the environment
Environmental policy addresses natural environmental components such as air,

water and sea, biodiversity, soil and subsoil, landscape, and recognizes and
values the importance of natural resources and ecosystem goods and services , In
particular as follows:
...
Article 11
Components associated with human behavior
Environmental policy also addresses the components of human behavior,

including climate change, waste, noise and chemicals, in particular with the
following objectives:
a) Climate policy implies an integrated vision of the various socioUeconomic

sectors and biophysical systems through a development strategy based on a lowU
carbon competitive economy, in accordance with the adoption of mitigation
measures and adaptation measures, with Reduce vulnerability and increase
responsiveness to the negative impacts of such changes;
b) Waste management is geared towards preventing its production by reducing
its quantity and danger for the preservation of natural resources by taking
account of the economic value of waste as potential sources of raw materials and
energy, and for the mitigation of adverse impacts to the environment and human
health arising from their production through the creation of adequate conditions
for their management, based on the optimization of the use of existing
infrastructures;
c) The reduction of exposure of the population to noise is ensured through the
definition and application of instruments to ensure their prevention and control,
safeguarding the quality of life of populations and human health;
d) The assessment and management of the risk associated with chemical,
biological and radioactive elements and products, genetically modified organisms
and the incorporation of new technologies throughout their life cycle to ensure
the protection of the environment and human health.
Chapter'IV
Reconcilement'of'environmental'policy'with'other'sectorial'policies
Article 12
Transversality and integration
1 U The transversal nature of the environment policy imposes its consideration in

all sectors of economic, social and cultural life, and requires its articulation and
integration with other sectorial policies, aiming at promoting relations of
coherence and complementarity.
2 U In order to promote and safeguard the principles and objectives of

environmental policy, environmental goods must be weighted with other goods
and values, including intangible and aesthetic, in order to ensure their
interdependence, in a reconciliation exercise that includes an evaluation of
alternative scenarios, promoting the realization of the public interest in the long
term.
Chapter'V
Article 12
1. The environmental policy is based, in particular, on environmental

information, economic and financial planning, environmental assessment,
environmental licensing and authorization, continuous improvement of
environmental performance and control, surveillance and inspection, which aim
to prevent, reduce and, as far as possible, eliminate negative environmental
impacts.
2 U In view of the nature and global characteristics of environmental issues,
environmental policy instruments are developed and applied in an integrated
manner with other national, regional, local or sectorial policies, with a view to
pursuing the national objectives and international commitments By Portugal.
3. Environmental policy instruments shall be reviewed on a regular basis or
whenever the public interest so determines, subject to the special provisions
laid down in their legal systems.
Chapter'VI
Transitional'provisions
Article 23
Report and White Paper on the state of the environment
1. The Government submits annually to the Parliament a report on the state of
the environment in Portugal, referring to the previous year.
2. The Government shall submit to the Parliament, every five years, a White
Paper on the state of the environment.
National'Strategy'for'Sustainable'Development'(2007)'and'Implementation'Plan'(2015)
Part'I''NATIONAL'STRATEGY'FOR'SUSTAINABLE'DEVELOPMENT'(ENDS'2015)'
I.OINTRODUCTION
Framework
Process
Goal
Objectives
Articulatiom
ImplementationOModel
StructureOofOtheOdocument
II.OPORTUGALO THEOSTARTINGOPOINTOFOROTHEOESTABLISHMENTOOFOSTRATEGYOFOROSUSTAINABLEODEVELOPMENT
BriefOanalysisOofOtheOstartingOpoint
SWOTOanalysis
III.OOBJECTIVES,OVECTORS,OANDOGUIDELINESOFOROTHEONATIONALOSTRATEGYOFOROSUSTAINABLEODEVELOPMENTOOO
GlobalOcrossMcuting targets
Objectives
1. PrepareOPortugalOforOaOknowledgeOsociety
2. SustainableOgrowth,OcompetitivenessOatOaOglobalOscaleOandOenergyOefficiency
3. BetterOenvironmentOandOanOenhancedOheritage
4. MoreOequity,OequalOopportunities,OandOsocialOcohesion
5. BetterOinternationalOconnectivityOofOtheOcountry,OandOaObalancedOimprovementOofOtheOterritory
6. ActiveOroleOofOPortugalOinOtheOconstructionOofOEuropeOandOinOtheOinternationalOcooperation
7. AOmoreOefficientOandOmodernizedOpublicOadministration
IV.OFINALONOTE
Part'II''IMPLEMENTATION'PLAN'OF'THE'NATIONAL'STRATEGY
FOR'SUSTAINABLE'DEVELOPMENT'(ENDS'2015)'
I.OMAINLANDOPORTUGAL
Introduction
Objectives
1. PrepareOPortugalOforOaOknowledgeOsociety
2. SustainableOgrowth,OcompetitivenessOatOaOglobalOscaleOandOenergyOefficiency
3. BetterOenvironmentOandOanOenhancedOheritage
4. MoreOequity,OequalOopportunities,OandOsocialOcohesion
5. BetterOinternationalOconnectivityOofOtheOcountry,OandOaObalancedOimprovementOofOtheOterritory
6. ActiveOroleOofOPortugalOinOtheOconstructionOofOEuropeOandOinOtheOinternationalOcooperation
7. AOmoreOefficientOandOmodernizedOpublicOadministration
II.OTHEONATIONALOSTRATEGYOFOROSUSTAINABLEODEVELOPMENTOANDOTHEOPLANSOFOROSOCIALOANDOECONOMICO
DEVELOPMENTOOFOTHEOAUTONOMOUSOREGIONS
II.1O TheOAutonomousORegionOofOAzores
II.2O TheOAutonomousORegionOofOMadeira
www.sdMnetwork.eu
http://www.apambiente.pt/index.php?ref=16&subref=143&sub2ref=734
The$End
Environmental'Policy'and'Law
The$Portuguese$Experience:$Adopted$solutions
and$sectors$evolution$in$Portugal
Francisco$Nunes$Correia
Professor$at$IST,$Lisbon
IST,'2016/2017
WATER
in'Portugal'and'everywhere
means'a'lot'of'different'things!
etcetera
Water'Scene'in'Europe
is'largely'determined'by'the
Water'Framework'Directive
Directive'2000/60/EC
Establishing'a'Framework'for'Community'Action
in'the'Field'of'Water'Policy
in'a'territory'of'such'diversity'the'WFD'requires'that
'common'solutions'are'applied'to'different'situations!
'and'common'problems'are'solved'with'different'solutions!
It'is'an'extraordinary'exercise'of'subsidiarity
under'common'goals'and'and'a'common'approach
Important'contributions'of'the'WFD'to'be'kept'in'mind:
1.'Global'vision'and'an'integrated'approach'of'previous'Directives''
2.'River'basin'as'the'main'focus'for'planning,'management'and'administration'
3.'Ecological'quality'as'a'comprehensive'concept'adjusted'to'local'conditions
4.'Very'ambitious'goal'of'immediate'standstill'and'good'ecological'quality
5.'Combined'and'demanding'approach'of'environmental'quality'norms
and'emission'limits'
6.'Full'cost'recovery'as'an'important'guiding'objective
7.'Credible'and'comparable'monitoring'systems'all'over'the'European'Union
8.'River'basin'plans'and'programmes'of'measures'that'are'credible,'comparable
and'periodically'reviewed'
9.'Strict'requirements'of'public'consultation'throughout'the'process
10.'Common'implementation'strategy'consistent'and'accounting''for'diversity
Main'Dimensions'of'innovation:
1
Water'environment'for'its'own'sake'
and'not'water'as'a'raw'material'for'specific'uses'!
Good'ecological'quality'as'the'best'guarantee
of'long'term'satisfaction'of'all'sustainable'uses'!'
2
Good'ecological'quality'in'all'EU'water'bodies'
requires'acknowledgement'of'significant'differences
Ecological'quality'indicators'are'certainly
comprehensive'but'specific'to'each'region !
3
Governance'is'an crucial'dimension
of'water'resources''management
Most'problems'remain'unsolved
not'because'we'lack'technical'solutions !
The'implementation'of'the'WFD
is'an'opportunity'for'important'reforms
In'2005'a'new'and'forward'looking'
Water'Law'was'approved
(Law'no.'58/2005'revised'by'DL'130/2012)'
It'harmonizes'EU'requirements
with'a'more'than'century'old'legislation
(subsidiarity)''
leading'to'the
Portuguese'Model
for'Water'Resources'Management'
Key'features'of'the'Portuguese'Model:
1 National'water'authority'with'a'clear'mandate'(APA)
2 Creation'of'5'decentralized'River'Basin'Administrations'(ARH)
3
More'collaborative'relationship'between'administration,
municipalities'and'water'users'and'(Users'Associations)'
4 New'and'comprehensive'planning'framework'(beyond'WFD)'
5 New'strict'but'versatile'licensing'regime
New'economic'and'financial'regime,'carefully'adjusted
6
to'users'specificities'(water'taxes)
7 New'monitoring'approach'meeting'WFD'requirements
8 Better'information'systems,'public'participation
and'full'use'of'ecgovernment
1 National'water'authority'with'a'clear'mandate
Duties'performed'by'the'Portuguese'Environmental'Agency'(APA)'after'the'integration'
of'the'National'Institute'for'Water'(INAG)'in'that'Agency'in'2012
! IMPLEMENTATION'OF'THE'WATER'LAW
! NATIONAL'INFORMATION'SYSTEMS
! INTEGRATED'WATER'RESOURCES'MANAGEMENT
! TECHNICAL,'ECONOMICAL'AND'LEGISLATIVE'MEASURES'NECESSARY'TO'
OPTIMIZE'THE'WATER'RESOURCES'MANAGEMENT
! USES'IN'THE'PUBLIC'WATER'DOMAIN
! HYDRAULIC'INFRASTRUCTURES'
! DAM'SAFETY'AUTHORITY
! COASTAL'PROTECTION
! EUROPEAN'WATER'POLICY
! INTERNATIONAL'RELATIONS'AND'COOPERATION
RIVER BASINS SHARED WITH SPAIN
64% of the territory is in international

river basins
50% of surface water flows from Spain

ALBUFEIRA CONVENTION
Cooperation'for'the'Protection'and'Sustainable'Use'
of'the'Waters'of'the'PortuguesecSpanish'River'Basins
1998'(amended'2008)
Coordination'Structure'for'the'WFD'Implementation
4'Working'Groups:
WFD'and'water'quality
Flow'regime,'droughts'and'emergency'situations
Dam'safety'and'floods
Information'exchange'and'public'participation
2 Creation'of'5'River'Basin'Administrations'(ARH)
Since'2012'the'ARHs'are'regional'departments'of'the'Portuguese'Environmental'Agency'(APA)
ARH''NORTE' RH1,'RH2,'RH3
ARH'CENTRO' RH4
ARH'TEJO' RH5
ARH'ALENTEJO' RH6,'RH7
ARH'ALGARVE' RH8
Each River'Basin'Administration'is'responsible'for'water'management,'including'
planning,'licensing'and inspection'of'water'resources'uses.
River'Basin Administrations
" Planning'of'water'resources
" Monitoring
" Licensing
" Collecting'water'taxes
" Infrastructure'management
" Surveillance'(inspection)
" Information'and'participation
3
More'collaborative'relationship'between'administration,
municipalities'and'water'users'and'(Users'Associations)'
River'Basin'Administrations'can'delegate'their'duties'by'specific'contracts'to:'
Municipalities
(ex.'urban'river'fronts)
Other'governmental'agencies
(ex.'natural'parks)
Managers'of'multicpurpose'schemes
(ex.'large'dams'and'associated'infrastructure)
Users'Associations
Users'of'a'basin'or'subcbasin'may'create'an'association'that'is'empowered
by'a'contract'to'manage'water'resources'in'that'area
National'Water'Council
Representation of public institutions related to water
(agriculture, industry, energy, health, etc.), sectoral economic
associations, professional associations, universities and other
research organizations, environmental associations.
River'Basin'Councils'(5)
Similar'representation'at'the'River'Basin'District'level'
4 New'and'comprehensive'planning'framework'(beyond'WFD)'
Planning'instruments'and'complementary'measures'
Complementary'
Land=Use'Plans Water'Resource'
Measures
Plans
= Conservation'and'
Public'Reservoirs' rehabilitation'of'the''river'
and'Lagoons National'Water'Plan network,'coastal'areas,'
estuaries'and'wetlands
Coastal'Area'Plans River'Basin' = Protection'of'abstractions'
Management'Plans' areas,'maximum'infiltration'
(RBMP) areas'and'vulnerable'zones
Estuary'Plans = Prevention'and'protection'
against'risks'of'floods,'
Specific'Water' droughts'and'serious'
Management'Plans pollution'accidents
Planning'Process' Main'steps
River'Basin'Management'Plans'and'Programmes'of'Measures
(according'to'the'WFD)
Monitoring'
Programmes River'Basin'
River'Basin' Significant'Water'
Management'
District' Management'
Plan
RBMP
Characteristics Issues
RBMP'Work'
(Draft)
Programme
PP PP PP
Strategic'Environmental'Assessment
5 New'strict'but'versatile'licensing'regime
Users'with'significant'impact''need'to'be'entitled
Three'types'of'titles:
Concession'contracts
Previous'License
Simple'permit
In'some'trivial'cases'the'user
simply'informs'the'administration
Common'uses'or'trivial'uses'can'be'exempted
Special'provisions'for'crisis'management'(ex.'droughts)'
Titles'are'tradable'with'previous'authorization
New'economic'and'financial'regime,'carefully'adjusted
6
to'users'specificities'(water'taxes)
Objectives'
" Improve'the'efficiency'and'sustainability'of'water'use
" Implement'pollutercpays'and'usercpays'principles
" Consider'both'the'social'and'economic'value'of'water
use'and'its'environmental'impacts'
" Internalize'environmental'and'resource'costs
" Increase'investment'capacity
" Give'incentives'to'municipalities'and'Users'Associations
" Look'beyond'EU'funds'and'prepare'phasing'out
Water'Resources'Tax
A E I O U WRT
A' Abstraction'(m3)
E' Effluents'(m3 and'concentration)
I'' Sand'mining'and'dredging' Inert'materials'(m3)
O' Occupation'of'area'(m2)
U' Use'of'water'benefiting'from'regulation'(m3)
Water'Resources'Tax'with'a'Sustainability'Component
A E I O U S WRT
In'2017''a'S'component'was'added'to'help'the'sustainability
of'the'warter'services'in'the'less'affluent'regions'of'the'interland
A' Abstraction'(m3)
E' Effluents'(m3 and'concentration)
I'' Sand'mining'and'dredging' Inert'materials'(m3)
O' Occupation'of'area'(m2)
U' Use'of'water'benefiting'from'regulation'(m3)
7 New'monitoring'approach'meeting'WFD'requirements
www.snirh.pt
National'and'River'Basin'Level
8 Better'information'systems,'public'participation
and'full'use'of'ecgovernment
Information Systems
Development'of'support'data'models
Development'of'geographic'and'alpha'numeric'databases'
Development'and'implementation'of'models'(e.g.'quality,'
quantity)
Establishment'of'protocols'to'obtain'geographic'information
....the(best(water(quality(simulation(model(is(
the(simplest(one(that(will(adequately(predict(
the(water(quality(impacts(within(a(particular(
water(body(associated(with(a(particular(
water(quality(management(policy
Daniel'P.'Loucks
'involvement'and'motivation'are'important!
Surveillance
Anyone who can solve the problems of water will

be worthy of two Nobel prizes < one for peace and
one for science
John F. Kennedy
Thank'you'!
Obrigado!
Na+onal'Strategy'for'Climate'Change''
Sectorial'Adapta+on'Strategy''Water'resources'
IST,'2016/2017'
hNp://climatePadapt.eea.europa.eu/countriesPregions/countries/portugal'
'
2015'
Several'Sectorial'Strategies'of'Adapta2on'
Including'Water'Resources'
(Source:' Santos,' F.' D.' 2014' ' An' Overview' of' Climate' Change' Impacts' and' Adapta2on' Research' in'
Portugal.' Adapta2on' Fron2ers' Conference' on' European' Climate' Change' Adapta2on,'
Research'Centre'CCIAM''CIM,'Lisbon')'
(Source:'Carvalho,'A.'et'al.'2014''Climate'Change'Research'and'Policy'in'Portugal.'WIREs&
Clim&Change&2014,'5:199217.'doi:'10.1002/wcc.258')'
(Source:'Santos,'F.'D.'2014''An'Overview'of'Climate'Change'Impacts'and'Adapta2on'Research'in'Portugal.'Adapta2on'
Fron2ers'Conference'on'European'Climate'Change'Adapta2on,'Research'Centre'CCIAM''CIM,'Lisbon')'
(Source:'Santos,'F.'D.'2014''An'Overview'of'Climate'Change'Impacts'and'Adapta2on'Research'in'Portugal.'Adapta2on'
Fron2ers'Conference'on'European'Climate'Change'Adapta2on,'Research'Centre'CCIAM''CIM,'Lisbon')'
SECTORIAL'STRATEGY'OF'ADAPTATION'TO'THE'
IMPACTS'OF'CLIMATE'CHANGE'
RELATED'WITH'WATER'RESOURCES'
2015'
(Con+nua+on)'
The End
ESTRATGIA SETORIAL DE ADAPTAO AOS
IMPACTOS DAS ALTERAES CLIMTICAS
RELACIONADOS COM OS RECURSOS HDRICOS
SECTORIAL STRATEGY OF ADAPTATION TO THE

IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE RELATED WITH
WATER RESOURCES
Agosto de 2013
Executive summary
The response to climate change requires action along two main approaches. Mitigation aims at
reducing the greenhouse gas emissions that are causing global warming, while adaptation attempts
to decrease the economical, environmental and social impacts of climate change. The water sector
can and must contribute to both mitigation and adaptation, but assumes a pivotal role in the
adaptation domain as it serves as the main transmission vehicle of climate change to other sectors,
like water services, agriculture, forests, energy and industrial production, ecosystems and
biodiversity and coastal zones.
Building on its on-going efforts to reduce its GHG emissions, the Portuguese government has
adopted the National Strategy for Adaptation to Climate Change (ENAAC)2. ENAAC identifies nine
priority sectors, amongst which are the sectors water resources and coastal areas, a sign of the
importance that Portugal assigns to adaptation in water related sectors. The Sectoral Strategy on the
Adaptation to the Impacts of Climate Change on Water Resources was commissioned by INAG, the
former Portuguese National Water Authority recently merged into the Portuguese Environment
Agency, and it is the first comprehensive contribution of this sector to the ongoing efforts of ENAAC
to build a more resilient society towards climate change in Portugal.
Water is used for human and industrial consumption, for irrigation in agriculture, for power
production, for navigation and recreation and for the maintenance of healthy ecosystems, in
particular aquatic ecosystems. It is also used as a receiving medium for wastewater discharges.
Water availability and its quality, as well as the risk of extreme events like floods and droughts,
condition the location of cities, forest and agriculture areas, industry and power generation plants
and trading centres. Climate change has direct impacts on the availability, timing, quality and
variability of water supply, and these impacts have profound implications on almost all sectors of our
society. Adding to these direct impacts, indirect impacts of climate change derived from changes in
economic and social activities must also be considered, for they may lead to new and additional
pressures of the water systems, namely an increase in water demand , an increment in pollutant load
or a significant change in the way we use our land and locate our activities. These indirect impacts
also affect our capacity to satisfy water needs, to protect humans and its activities and to promote
the quality of the water bodies and the health of the aquatic ecosystems.
2
Resolution of the Council of Ministers Nr. 24/2010
Estratgia Setorial de Adaptao aos Impactos das Alteraes Climticas relacionados com os Recursos Hdricos 9
The impact of climate change on water resources not only depends on changes in water availability
and demand, but also on the systems characteristics and how its management evolves, and on
which adaptation measures are implemented. In some cases, non-climatic changes may have a
greater impact on water resources than climate change itself.
The southern countries of Europe, namely those around the Mediterranean basin, like Portugal,
Spain, Italy and Greece, are amongst the most affected countries by climate change. Portugal will
likely experience a general decrease of overall water availability, an increase of seasonal and spatial
asymmetries in precipitation distribution, an increase of flood and drought risk and an increase of
water quality problems. The impacts of climate change on sea level may also affect the groundwater
levels and the groundwater quality, thus influencing the water resources availability, as well as
increasing the risk of urban flooding in coastal areas. Furthermore, the decreased runoff in Iberian
rivers and the retention of water in the Spanish part of the transboundary river basins is likely to
accentuate even further the expected decrease of water availability in the Portuguese territory. The
table below provides a brief survey of the impact of climate change on the Portuguese water
resources, showing significant regional asymmetries within the country. In general terms, the
impacts of climate change are expected to increase from the Northern region of Portugal, with
Atlantic influence, towards the South, with Mediterranean characteristics.
Climate change impacts on the Portuguese water resources
Issue Impact scenario
Decrease of annual runoff and aquifer recharge,

mainly in the South.
Water
Increase of flow variability and of the regional
availability
asymmetry of water availability.
Increase of drought risk.
Possible increase of water demand for

agriculture.
Water
demand Increase of water demand for energy
production to reduce dependence on fossil
fuels.
Decrease of water quality due to flow

reduction, temperature increase and possible
Water soil erosion increase.
quality Salinization of coastal aquifers due to mean sea
level rise and recharge decrease.
Degradation of ecosystems health.
Increase of flood risk, mainly in the North and in

Flood Risk
coastal areas
10 Estratgia Setorial de Adaptao aos Impactos das Alteraes Climticas relacionados com os Recursos Hdricos
The Sectoral Strategy on the Adaptation to the Impacts of Climate Change on Water Resources aims
at reducing the countrys vulnerability to the impacts related to water in a way that is sustainable
from the technical, economical, environmental and social perspectives.
To ensure this overarching goal, climate change should be considered at all stages of the planning
and management efforts and should be integrated as much as possible in national, regional and
organizational water policies. If a broad and long-term perspective is assumed, the climate change
impacts have to be considered as pressures on future water resources or as water related risks,
therefore requiring the design and implementation of adequate responses. Adaptation measures will
then result naturally from the planning exercise and will be coherently incorporated in the overall
program of measures aiming to protect and improve the water resources status and reduce water
related risks.
To design the program of measures, water planners need to accept a significant level of uncertainty
and be able to take decisions under those conditions. To cope with the current uncertainty
associated with current climate scenarios, a precautionary approach based on flexible actions that do
not restrict future options is preferable. Water planning and management, and particularly climate
change adaptation, is an on-going process, where any proposed and implemented action should be
periodically reviewed.
This special report analysed impacts on different economic or water use sectors. For each economic
or water sector and system, the proposed adaptation measures address the factors that determine
their vulnerability to climate change, namely: i) its exposure to climate conditions; ii) its robustness,
i.e., its capacity to perform under new climate conditions; and iii) its resilience, i.e. its capacity to
recover from adverse conditions.
Demand-side actions to limit the growth and, if possible, reduce the pressures on water resources
aim at reducing the exposure to climate. The reduction of the pressures on water resources, such as
water abstractions or pollutant discharges, creates a buffer that may be used to maintain operational
goals in the future under more climate stressed conditions. The removal and/or relocation of people
and infrastructures from flood prone areas is another example of an action aiming at reducing the
exposure to climate factors, although its cost will tend to make this an action for extreme cases only.
Actions to increase the robustness and the resilience of water resources systems include those that
aim at improving the capacity to deal with new climate scenarios, such as the upgrading of
monitoring and forecast systems, the improvement of water management processes to increase
water efficiency use, the diversification of water supply sources, the increase of water storage
capacity or the construction of floods defenses.
Goal and principles of the Sectoral Strategy on the Adaptation to the Impacts of Climate Change on Water
Resources
GOAL
To reduce the country vulnerability to the impacts related to water in a way that is
sustainable from the technical, economical, environmental and social perspectives
PRINCIPLES
Invest in research and development;
W
Assume an integrated and long term
PL
VIE
AN
vision;
RE
Mainstream adaptation policies into

existing water management practice,
making use of existing instruments;
Adopt flexible, low regret, cost-effective
and proportional solutions;
ACT Decide early and review frequent.
This sectoral strategy assumes a broad and long-term perspective and proposes a flexible action
program that does not restrict future options and is able to cope with the uncertainty associated
with current climate scenarios. It is organized around four strategic objectives which can be achieved
through more specific goals.
Strategic Objectives and Goals on Adaptation to Climate Change in the Water Resources Sector
Strategic objective Specific goal
Reduce pressures on Manage water demand to reduce dependency on water
water resources
Protect water bodies and their dependent ecosystems
Safeguard water supply Improve water resources planning and management procedures
reliability
Reinforce, upgrade or adapt water management infrastructures
Manage risk Evaluate climate change induced risk
Upgrade monitoring, forecast and alert systems
Raise public awareness on climate change induced risks
Upgrade of infra-structures for flood protection
Promote research and Strengthen climate monitoring and analysis programs
knowledge
Review methodologies and criteria for the design and performance evaluation
of water systems and infrastructures
Promote public awareness and technical training
For operational purposes, this sectoral strategy organizes the proposed actions around programs for
seven economic or water use sectors. The water resources planning and management sector is
considered a transversal sector that regulates all water uses to achieve and maintain a good
qualitative and quantitative status in all water bodies. The tourism sector is considered separately
from the water services sector (i.e. water supply and waste water drainage and treatment services)
due to its importance in Portugal.
Each strategic objective and specific goal is achieved by different programs of measures for each
sector. Some programs, like the ones proposed for risk management and research and knowledge
gathering, cross all water users sectors.
Programs of Adaptation Measures by Water Use Sector

Sector Program
Water resources Water bodies protection
planning and
Improvement of water resources planning and management processes
management
Increase of water storage and flow regulation capacity
Diversification and reinforcement of water supply sources
Flood risk management
Research and knowledge enhancement
Aquatic Preservation and enhancement of physical, chemical and biological conditions and of biodiversity
ecosystems and of ecossystems
biodiversity
Preservation and enhancement of hydrological and hydro morphological conditions
Water services Promotion of water use efficiency
Improvement of quality control and water treatment capacity for human consumption supply
Review and upgrade of the operational procedures in wastewater drainage and treatment
systems
Flood risk management
Agriculture and Promotion of water use efficiency in the irrigation of temporary crops
forests
Promotion of water use efficiency in forest areas
Electricity Enhancement of the robustness of the electricity production system
production
Risk management
Tourism Promotion of water use efficiency
Coastal zones Risk management
Coordination of risk management and land management instruments
Each program includes several specific measures planned for an explicit implementation timeframe.
To foster the integration of climate change adaptation in the current water resources planning and
management, the strategy adopts many ongoing initiatives such as the River Basin Management
Plans, the National Water Plan, the National Plan for an Efficient Use of Water, the Strategic Plan for
Water Supply and Wastewater Treatment, the National Strategy for the Effluents of Agriculture and
Livestock Industry and the National Program on Dams with High Hydroelectric Potential.
The River Basin Management Plans are the main planning instruments for water management in
Portugal, defining for each water body the quality status to be achieved in the short and medium
term, as well as the program of measures to achieve those objectives. The National Plan for an
Efficient Use of Water defines clear goals for water loss reductions for all sectors and specifies a set
of measures to achieve these objectives by well defined deadlines. All water operators applying for
public funding have to show how they will comply with those guidelines and goals. The Strategic Plan
for Urban Water Supply and Wastewater Treatment and the National Strategy for the Effluents of
Agriculture and Livestock Industry are special plans for the improvement of effluent drainage and
treatment systems. Some of the pressures on the quality of the Portuguese water resources will be
reduced with the implementation of these plans. The National Program on Dams with High
Hydroelectric Potential aims to significantly increase the share of energy production from renewable
sources. Those carefully selected reservoirs will bring up an important contribution (on a national
level) to climate change mitigation. It will also alleviate the increasing water stress and allow better
and more reliable service to the local communities.
Another aspect that is very important is the cross-boundary coordination of adaptation efforts in
Portugal and Spain, as climate induced pressures in the Spanish part of shared river basins are likely
to be transmitted to Portugal. The development of a coordinated strategy of adaptation to climate
change in the River Basins of Minho, Lima, Douro, Tagus and Guadiana is therefore a major goal.
Joint studies of climate change impacts on shared water resources can be a first, but nevertheless
important step to promote scientific and technological cooperation between the two countries of the
Iberian Peninsula.
Finally, it is important to note that adaptation is a local process, conditioned by site-specific

requirements. One size fits all solutions, if applied indiscriminately, will probably lead to bad results.
The challenge is to transform the concept of adaptation into a set of practical solutions with a high
degree of acceptability by all stakeholders. Hopefully, this document provides sufficient information
to help achieve this goal.
AN OVERVIEW OF CLIMATE CHANGE
IMPACTS AND ADAPTATION RESEARCH IN
PORTUGAL
FILIPE DUARTE SANTOS
University of Lisbon
Research Center CCIAM - SIM
www.sim.ul.pt
Adaptation Frontiers
Conference on European Climate Change Adaptation
CIRCLE 2
Lisbon, 10-12 March 2014
- The oldest Portuguese weather station to provide a continuous
record of meteorological data was established in Lisbon in 1854 by
Infante D. Lus, brother to King D. Pedro V
- The pioneer of climate science research in Portugal was Jos Pinto

Peixoto (1922-1996) author of Physics of Climate together with
Abraham Oort.
- The first paper that addressed climate change and its impacts in
Portugal was published in 1987 in Portugaliae Physica. A model
integrating the perturbed carbon cycle and the atmosphere and
biosphere responses to a changing climate was developed. It projected
that CO2 concentration would double relative to pre-industrial
values by 2080 leading to an increase in the lower atmosphere global
average temperature of 2.5 C. The assessment of the impacts of this
climate change scenario for Portugal indicated potentially negative
effects in the biosphere and in particular an increase in the risk
of desertification, especially in the southern part of the country.
- In the 1990s Portuguese researchers started to consider the problem
of downscaling of General Circulation Model (GCM) climate
scenarios for Portugal and to assess the reliability of different
Methodologies
Joo Corte-Real, Ricardo Trigo, Ana C. Costa, Joo C.A. Santos,
Pedro Garrett, Mrio Pulqurio, among others
- The assessment of climate change vulnerabilities, impacts and

adaptation measures was started at the end of the 1990s with the
Project SIAM I (Scenarios, Impacts and Adaptation Measures)
- The final reports involved an analysis of the 20th century climate,

climate scenarios and socioeconomic scenarios for continental
Portugal, Azores and Madeira and an integrated and multi-sectorial
assessment of the impacts of climate change, including water resources,
coastal zones, agriculture, human health, energy, forests, biodiversity
and fisheries. This assessment report was the first for a Southern
European country.
Climate Change in Portugal. Scenarios, Impacts and
Adaptation Measures, SIAM Project
1st phase 1999-2002

2nd phase 2002-2006
SIAM I SIAM II
26 Portuguese and International Institutions

60 Researchers
15 Reviewers
Both books are available online at www.siam.fc.ul.pt
Historical Series of Temperature OBSERVATIONS
Temperature
in Continental Portugal
Tmax
Tmin
Source SIAM
Mean annual accumulated
precipitation. Data from
1961-1990 observations.
Source SIAM
Lisboa, Porto, Penhas Douradas, Montalegre, vora e Beja
Lgia Amorim and F.D.Santos IPMA and CCIAM_SIM, 2014

Annual Precipitation 1897 a 2003
Maximum temperature on Summer (JJA)
HadCM3 Control
Source SIAM
HadCM3 2071-2100
Annual precipitation anomalies in Portugal (western
Iberia) obtained with the IPCC DDC GCM data
Source SIAM
Conclusions
The Portuguese observations are consistent with a pattern of global
warming and rates of warming since the 1970s are above the global
mean. Heat waves became more frequent.
There is a weak tendency for annual precipitation decrease and an

anticipation of the rainy season with significantly lower precipitation
in March.
Future scenarios indicate significant climate changes in Continental
Portugal and also in the archipelagos of Azores and Madeira
Future warming is more pronounced in the continent and more
moderate in the Azores. More frequent and pronounced heat waves
are expected
The change in the precipitation regime is more severe in the
continent (less annual precipitation and longer periods without rain)
and in Madeira (less rain in winter) than in the Azores.
Water Resources
Progressive reduction in the annual river runoff during the
21st century;
Runoff reduction is larger in the south thereby increasing
the current spatial asymmetry of water availability in Spain
and Portugal;
The concentration of precipitation in winter and the
estimated general increase in the frequency of heavy
precipitation events is likely to increase the number and
severity of floods, particularly in the northern part of the
Iberian Peninsula.
Water quality will be degraded by higher water
temperatures and by river flow reduction in the summer,
particularly in the south;
Water management authorities must consider climate
change as a decision variable.
Agriculture
Decreases in the productivity of wheat, maize and rice.
Productivity and quality of wine is likely to be variable
acording to the region. Long term impacts on wine for >2C
will be strongly and widely negative.
37% increase in irrigation water requirements; future
irrigation will be constrained by reduced runoff, demand from
other sectors, and by economic costs.
Adaptation measures are needed to avoid the negative
impacts of climate change:
Advances in the sowing date;
Select crop varieties better adapted to high temperatures
and more resistant to water stress;
Migration of vineyards to higher altitude slopes, where
possible
Milder winters allow the cultivation of horticultural crops in
regions where it is not possible at present.
Forests
Percentage of forest area in Portugal increase from 7 to 35.4%
in the last 200 years and now accounts for 3.5% of the GNP
IMPACTS
Decline in productivity in most of the mainland territory and
a NW shift of the physical optimal plant distribution in
comparison to the present;
Substantial increase in meteorological fire risk in the
country, both in severity and in length of the fire season,
particularly in the Continent and Madeira;
Carbon sink strength in the future is likely to be lower than
today;
Biotic invasions are very likely to be favored by climate
change.
Strong increase in the
meteorological risk of
forest fires;
Increase in the
duration of the annual
period of high risk;
The repetitive return
of fires may prevent the
sustainability of the
present forests.
Forest fire at Serra de Monchique,

Algarve, in 2003
Climate change impact on the potential distribution area of
Pinus pinaster in continental Portugal
Productivity in Average annual increase AMA (m3 ha-1 year-1)
Present Situation Observation Present Simulation Future Simulation
9% -11%
-27% -4%
-53% -63%
Source, SIAM
Climate change impact on the Potential Distribution Area
of Eucalyptus globulus
0%
7%
-15% -25%
-35% -59%
Source, SIAM
Climate change impact on the potential
distribution area of Quercus suber
10%
18%
0%
5%
-10% -30%
Source, SIAM
Adaptation Measures
Adopt an adaptive forest management
The choice of the species should take into account the
local productive potential, especially the length of the
growing season and the duration of the dry period.
The genetic improvement program should promote the
adaptation to higher temperatures and larger water
stress, especially to species with large economic
importance (cork, pine trees and eucalypt)
The forestation actions must be planned taking into
account the fire risk.
In a high fire risk environment the management policies
need to focus more on prevention, which has smaller
costs, than on fire combat.
Biodiversity
Some of the present biodiversity in protected areas will
be under increasing environmental stress and some
landscapes (e.g., some of the montado areas) will be
disloged and modified under the future climate
scenario.
Populations that have limited geographical
distributions, small habitat areas, or low number of
individuals, are more vulnerable to rapid climate
changes. Extinction may occur in populations with low
reproductive and dispersal capacity. In some cases,
however, the effects of land use changes induced by
human society are likely to override the long-term
effects of climate change on biodiversity.
Terrestrial protected areas constitute 22.3 % of the area of Portugal
Coastal Zones
Source SIAM
Source Dias, 1990
Source SIAM
Longshore distribution of risk,
SIAM Project
Longshore distribution of risk,
SIAM Project
Source SIAM
Changes in Wave Climate Reference scenario 1961-1990 Projection 2070-2099
30
25
20
15
10
-5
-10
-15
-20
-25
-30
-35
Clockwise rotation of 5 - 10 in the mean wave direction

Andrade C, Pires HO, Taborda R, Freitas MC Projecting future changes in
wave climate and coastal response in Portugal by the end of the 21st century
Journal of Coastal Research 2007, 50: 253-257. Source SIAM
Wave Climate Reference scenario 1961-1990
Projection 2070-2099
Mean significant wave height
1.07
1.06
1.05
1.04
1.03
1.02
1.01
1.00
0.99
0.98
0.97
0.96
0.95
0.94
0.93
0.92
0.91
0.90
0.89
0.88
Winter Summer
Hs Hs
increase by a factor of 1 to 1.04 Increase by a factor of 1 to 1.2
Source SIAM
Schmidt L, Prista P, Saraiva T, ORiordan T, Gomes C Adapting governance for
coastal change in Portugal
Land Use Policy 2012: 314325. DOI: 10.1016/j.landusepol.2012.07.012
Effects on Human Health
Environmental Health Perspectives 2006, 114: 1950-1956. DOI: 10.1289/ehp.8431

- Trigo RM, Ramos AM, Nogueira PJ, Santos FD, Garcia-Herera R, Santo FE
Evaluating the impact of extreme temperature based indices in the 2003
heatwave excessive mortality in Portugal Environmental Science and Policy 2009,
12: 844-854. DOI: 10.1016/j.envsci.2009.07.007
- Carvalho A, Monteiro A, Solman S, Miranda AI, Borrego, C Climate-driven changes in

air quality over Europe by the end of the 21st century, with special reference to Portugal
Environmental Science and Policy 2010, 13: 445-458. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.
envsci.2010.05.001
- Garrett P, Casimiro E, Pulqurio M, Santos FD Statistical approach to estimate the

impact of climate change on daily ozone concentrations
International Journal of Global Warming 2012, 4: 273-286. DOI: 10.1504/IJGW.2012.049446
Source: Instituto Nacional de Sade
Heat wave July-August 2003

comparisons with adjacent years
500 2367,3 deaths
450
328,8 deaths
400
350
300
250
200
150 Total: 2696,1 deaths
100
50
0
4-Ago
9-Ago
14-Ago
19-Ago
24-Ago
29-Ago
3-Set
8-Set
1-Mai
6-Mai
10-Jun
15-Jun
20-Jun
25-Jun
30-Jun
13-Set
18-Set
23-Set
28-Set
11-Mai
16-Mai
21-Mai
26-Mai
31-Mai
5-Jun
10-Jul
15-Jul
20-Jul
25-Jul
30-Jul
5-Jul
2002 2003 2004

CIRCLE-MED CALL
COASTAL ZONES AND INTEGRATED WATER MANAGEMENT
http://www.circle-med.net
CLITOP Climate Change and Tourism in Portugal:
Potential Impacts and Adaptation Measures
www.siam.fc.ul.pt/clitop
Porto
Lisboa
Madeira Algarve
4 main tourism regions:

Portuguese
Algarve (45%) Foreigner
Great Lisbon Area (21%)
~ 90 % of tourism nights in Portugal (2005)
Madeira Is. (RAM) (20%)
Great Porto Area (5%)
Tourism accounts for about 9 to 10% of GDP
Conclusions from Future Scenarios for Tourism in Portugal
The Future Ahead?
- Shifts in comfort levels in line with projected changes
- Regional changes may be significant in the mid- to long- term
- Overall thermal comfort profiles and thresholds arent expected
to change dramatically fast (except for extreme events)
- Summer months might experience the most significant impacts

- Lengthening of summer period in all 4 regions
- Winter and shoulder months can gain space for promotion and
increase activities in all 4 regions
- Careful attention should be paid to Algarve (summer heat stress)

and Porto (all year round increase comfort possibilities).
- Changes in the short-term allow time to analysis and adaptation

Vulnerabilities, Impacts and Adaptation at the regional and local
levels
SIAM Sintra, Strategic Plan for Adaptation and Mitigation of Climate Change in the
Sintra Municipality, Cmara Municipal de Sintra, 2009,
http://www.siam.fc.ul.pt/siam-sintra/ (available online)
SIAM Cascais, Strategic Plan for Adaptation and Mitigation of Climate Change in
the Cascais Municipality, Cmara Municipal da Cascais, 2010,
http://www.siam.fc.ul.pt/PECAC/ (available online)
ELAC Estratgia Local para as Alteraes Climticas Almada, http://www.m-

almada.pt/portal/page/portal/AMBIENTE/ENERGIA_EF_ESTUFA/?amb=0&ambiente_
energia_estufa=12899982&cboui=12899982
- CLIMAAT II, Clima e Meteorologia dos Arquiplagos Atlnticos, Impactos e
medidas de adaptao s alteraes climticas no Arquiplago da Madeira,
Santos FD, Aguiar R. eds., Direco Regional do Ambiente da Madeira,
Funchal, 2006,
http://www.sra.pt/files/PDF/Destaques/Brochura CLIMAAT_II_MadeiraFINAL.pdf
- One of the major outcomes of CLIMAAT II was to alert to the increase

in the risk of dengue fever in the island of Madeira since the competent
vector was introduced in 2004 in the capital, Funchal, and the warming
climate was becoming more favourable for its development.
- Recommendations were made to monitor and control the population

of Aedes aegypti in Madeira. Nevertheless, dengue appeared in
October 2012 and the number of infected persons reached more than
1800 within less than two months. The situation is much better now.
- Cruz MJ, Aguiar R, Correia A, Tavares T, Pereira JS, Santos FD

Impacts of climate change on the terrestrial ecosystems of Madeira
International Journal of Design and Nature and Ecodynamics 2009,
4: 413-422. DOI: 10.2495/DNE-V4-N4-413-422
VIA Projects at the Sectorial and Private Levels
- The project ADAPTACLIMA-EPAL aims to provide to the LISBON WATER
FACILITY - Empresa Portuguesa das guas Livres (EPAL) an adaptation
strategy in the medium and long term to reduce the vulnerabilities of
their activities to climate change.
Increasing competition between the domestic and energy use of water,

particularly at the Castelo do Bode dam
http://siam.fc.ul.pt/adaptaclima-epal/?lang=en
- CIRAC Flood Risk and Vulnerability in Climate Change Scenarios
Small scale (1m) mapping of flood risk in 5 locations: Porto, Gaia,

Coimbra, Algs and Baixa de Lisboa
http://siam.fc.ul.pt/cirac/
RISK ASSESSMENT probability / damage functions
Annual average
damage
Fixed assets at
the ground floor
Return Period
GONALVES DE SOUSA, A., AVELAR, A., VENTURINI, S. FERRADA GOMES, A.,
CAPELA LOURENO, T. (EDS.) (2014). CLIMATE ADAPTATION RESEARCH IN A LARGER EUROPE:
AN ANALYSIS AT LOCAL AND NATIONAL SCALES. CIRCLE-2 REPORT, JANUARY 2014
KEY FINDINGS
From 2005 to 2009 the average annual budget per project shows an
overall increasing trend. In 2008 and 2009, the highest average budget
per project reaches nearly 180.000 and is followed by a decrease from
2010 to 2013.
Adaptation measures is the category with the highest average annual

budget per project of 160.000.
Financial instruments and insurance is the sector with the highest

average annual budget per project of over 250.000.
The majority of research funding organizations in the European countries

represented in the CIRCLE INFOBASE are public.
Temporal distribution of Portuguese research projects from 2005 to 2013.
Distribution of Portuguese research projects per sector. Bar numbers
indicate total number of projects in each sector. Projects can be tagged
with more than one sector.
The key policy driver behind the observed trends in terms of
adaptation-relevant research funding has been the Portuguese research
policy (in turn connected to the countrys financial policy) rather than climate
adaptation policy developments.
The national adaptation strategy was launched in 2010, the year that saw
the start of the largest number FCT funded adaptation-relevant projects.
Nevertheless, the strategy does mention only one FCT co-funded

project while making explicit reference to several other national projects
funded by other sources between 1999 and 2006.
This conclusion points to the need for a stronger coordination between

the Government Ministries and Departments responsible for the
Environment and for Science
THANK YOU FOR YOUR ATTENTION
Dimensions'and'Principles'of'Water'Governance'
IST,'2016/2017'
A'star+ng'point'.'.'.'
Water)management)
is)an)animal)that)walks)on)two)legs:))
infrastructure)&)governance))
governance)!!
John'Briscoe,'2011''
MAKING'REFORM'HAPPEN'IN'WATER'POLICY:'Reec+ons'from'a'prac++oner''
.'.'.'and'what'is'governance'?'
OECD'2015'
Water' governance' refers' to' the' range' of' poli+cal,' ins+tu+onal'
and' administra+ve' rules,' prac+ces' and' processes' (formal' and'
informal)'through'which'decisions'are'taken'and'implemented,'
stakeholders' can' ar+culate' their' interests' and' have' their'
concerns'considered,'and'decision^makers'are'held'accountable'
for'water'management''
Governance'
A'concept'with'three'components'
Actors'and' Governance'
Ins+tu+ons' Principles'
Water'
Governance'
What'are'the'INDICATORS?'
Performance'
(Source:'UNDP,'2013)'
Water' management' is' much' more' than' simply' a'

technical'(or'infrastructure)'issue'!!
Many) problems) remain) unsolved) not) because) we) lack)

technological) solu@ons,) but) rather) because) there) are)
dicul@es) and) boClenecks) at) the) social) and)
ins@tu@onal) levels) that) make) the) required) decision)
processes)very)complex)
A)mul@Gdimensional)issue!)
Governance'plays'a'central'role...'
The'approach'to'governance'must'be'
'
holis+c' &' contextual'
Formulation
of Water Policies
Match in space
and time water
needs and
availability
(Project)EUROWATER,)1999))
OECD Principles on
A'benchmark'and'
Water Governance
Welcomed by Ministers at the OECD Ministerial
a'cornerstone'
of'a'long'process'
Council Meeting on 4 June 2015
Directorate for Public Governance and Territorial Development
that'started'
in'2010'!'
Review!by!OECD!
of!water!governance!in!
17!OECD!countries!&!
13!La<n!American!countries!
3'main'dimensions/goals'of'water'governance'
Capacity
Data &
information
Policy
coherence Financing
Appropriate Regulatory
scales within Frameworks
Hit'
basin systems
WATER
GOVERNANCE
Clear
roles &
the'target'!'
Innovative
governance
responsibilities
TRUST &
ENGAGEMENT
Eec@veness) Integrity & Monitoring
Relates) to) the) contribu@on) of) governance)
Transparency to) dene) clear)
& Evaluation
Equity
sustainable) water) policy) goals) and)
Stakeholder targets) at) all) levels) of)
across users,
government,) to) implement) those) policy) goals,) and) to) meet)
engagement territories,
generations
expected)targets.)'
Capacity
Data &
information
Policy
coherence Financing
At'the''
basin systems
WATER
GOVERNANCE
Clear
roles &
least'cost'!'
Innovative
governance
responsibilities
TRUST &
ENGAGEMENT
Integrity & Monitoring
Eciency) Transparency & Evaluation
Equity
Relates)to)the)contribu@on)of)governance)to)maximise)the)benets)
Stakeholder across users,
of)sustainable)water)management)and)welfare)at)the)least)cost)to)
generations
society.)'
Capacity
Data &
information
Policy
coherence Financing
Being'
basin systems
WATER
GOVERNANCE
Clear
roles &
credible'!'
Innovative
governance
responsibilities
TRUST & ...'and'
Integrity &
ENGAGEMENT
inclusive'!'
Monitoring
Trust)and)Engagement)
Transparency & Evaluation
Relate) to) the) contribu@on) of) governance)
Equity to) building) public)
condence) and) ensuring) inclusiveness)
engagement of) stakeholders) through)
territories,
democra@c)legi@macy)and)fairness)for)society)at)large.'
generations
OECD'Principles'on'Water'Governance! K E Y '
Endorsed'at'the'OECD'Ministerial'Council'Mee+ng'on'4'June'2015!
WORDS'
Data &
Capacity information
Policy
coherence Financing
basin systems
WATER
GOVERNANCE
Clear Innovative
roles & governance
responsibilities
TRUST &
ENGAGEMENT
Integrity & Monitoring
Transparency & Evaluation
Equity
generations
1'
Clearly' allocate' and' dis+nguish' roles) and) responsibili@es) for' water'
policymaking,' policy' implementa+on,' opera+onal' management' and'
regula+on,'and'foster'coôrdina+on'across'these'responsible'authori+es''
2'
Manage' water' at' the' appropriate) scale(s)) within' integrated' basin'
governance' systems' to' reect' local' condi+ons,' and' foster' coôrdina+on'
between'the'dierent'scales''
3'
Encourage'policy'coherence'through'eec+ve'crossGsectoral)coGordina@on,'
especially'between'policies'for'water'and'the'environment,'health,'energy,'
agriculture,'industry,'spa+al'planning'and'land'use''
4'
Adapt'the'level'of'capacity)of'responsible'authori+es'to'the'complexity'of'
water' challenges' to' be' met,' and' to' the' set' of' competencies' required' to'
carry'out'their'du+es''
5'
Produce,' update,' and' share' +mely,' consistent,' comparable' and' policy^
relevant' water' and' water^related' data) and) informa@on,' and' use' it' to'
guide,'assess'and'improve'water'policy''
6'
Ensure' that' governance' arrangements' help' mobilise' water' nance' and'
allocate'nancial)resources)in'an'ecient,'transparent'and'+mely'manner''
7'
Ensure' that' sound' water' management' regulatory) frameworks) are'
eec+vely'implemented'and'enforced'in'pursuit'of'the'public'interest''
8'
Promote' the' adop+on' and' implementa+on' of' innova@ve) water)
governance)prac@ces)across'responsible'authori+es,'levels'of'government'
and'relevant'stakeholders''
9'
Mainstream' integrity) and) transparency) prac+ces' across' water' policies,'
water' ins+tu+ons' and' water' governance' frameworks' for' greater'
accountability'and'trust'in'decision^making''
10' Promote) stakeholder) engagement) for' informed' and' outcome^

oriented'contribu+ons'to'water'policy'design'and'implementa+on''
11' Encourage' water' governance' frameworks' that' help' manage' tradeG

os)across'water'users,'rural'and'urban'areas,'and'genera+ons''
12'
Promote' regular' monitoring) and) evalua@on) of' water' policy' and'
governance'where'appropriate,'share'the'results'with'the'public'and'
make'adjustments'when'needed''
Download!the!Principles!!!
English! French!
Translation in 15
languages German! Spanish! Portuguese! Italian! Dutch!
Greek! Korean! Turkish! Hebrew! Japanese!
+!Arabic'
Chinese! Russian! Hindi!
(Mandarin)!
h@p://www.oecd.org/gov/regionalGpolicy/OECDGPrinciplesGonGWaterGGovernanceGbrochure.pdf!
The)water)crisis)is)largely)a)governance)crisis)'
(OECD,)2011))
but!sEll!.!.!.! water!governance!
!is!NOT!an!END'IN'ITSELF'
and!should!never!be!considered!as!such!!
Water!governance!must!be!purposeful!
and!help!us!overcoming!problems!in!a!socially!!
acceptable,!and!accepted!way!
Thank'you'!'
,' 2016/2017'
IST
Water'in'Sustainable'Development'Goal'
Past,'Present'and'Future''
IST,'2016/2017'
Environmental Policies are not static...
... they need to be understood in its context:
advances'and'drawbacks'
stakeholders'and'their'interac+ons'
society'and'its'prevailing'values'
technology'and'the'use'that'is'made'of'it'
Among other sources,
we can (we must) learn from history ...
... including ancient civilizations !
Past,'Present'and'Future'
1.'A'hint'on'the'relevance'
2.'A'liRle'of'history'
3.'A'scent'of'Portugal'
4.''a'bit'of'humour'
A'hint'on'the'relevance'
Preaching'to'the'priest'...'!'
Water'and'sanita+on'is'important,'but'.'.'.'
we'need'to'have'an'integrated'view'of'all'uses'
and'all'values'at'stake'
Water)is)many)things)
.).).)to)many)dierent)people!)
they)are)ALL)important!)
they)ALL)must)be)considered!)
such'as:!
ecosystems'services''
nature'conserva+on'link'
irriga+on'
water'food'link'
energy'
water'energy'link'
and,'of'course,'
water'supply'and'
sewage'treatment''
hygiene'link'
such'as:!
Water)is)a)common)
thread)of)environment)
and)development)
An)integrated)approach)
is)always)required)!)
Sustainable'Development'Goals'
Agenda'for'2030'
.'.'.'
6.2.'By'2030,'achieve'access'to'adequate'and'equitable'sanita+on'and'hygiene'for'all'
.'.'.'
Goal'6.'Ensure'availability'and'sustainable'
management'of'water'and'sanita+on'for'all'
6.1'By!2030,!achieve!universal!and!equitable!access!to!safe!and!aordable!drinking!water!for!all!!
!
6.2!By!2030,!achieve!access!to!adequate!and!equitable!sanita=on!and!hygiene!for!all!and!end!
open!defeca=on,!paying!special!a?en=on!to!the!needs!of!women!and!girls!and!those!in!
vulnerable!situa=ons!!
!
6.3'By!2030,!improve!water!quality!by!reducing!pollu=on,!elimina=ng!dumping!and!minimizing!
release!of!hazardous!chemicals!and!materials,!halving!the!propor=on!of!untreated!wastewater!
and!increasing!recycling!and!safe!reuse!by![x]!per!cent!globally!!
!
6.4!By!2030,!substan=ally!increase!waterEuse!eciency!across!all!sectors!and!ensure!sustainable!
withdrawals!and!supply!of!freshwater!to!address!water!scarcity!and!substan=ally!reduce!the!
number!of!people!suering!from!water!scarcity!!
!
6.5!By!2030,!implement!integrated!water!resources!management!at!all!levels,!including!through!
transEboundary!coopera=on!as!appropriate!!
!
6.6'By!2020,!protect!and!restore!waterErelated!ecosystems,!including!mountains,!forests,!
wetlands,!rivers,!aquifers!and!lakes!!
Explicit'references'to'water:!
3.3'''.!.!.!combat!waterEborne!diseases!.!.!.!
3.9'''.'.'.!reduce!the!number!of!deaths!and!illnesses!from!water!pollu=on!.'.'.'
11.5'.'.'.!reduce!the!number!of!deaths!caused!by!water!related!disasters.'.'.'
12.4'.'.'.!reduce!the!release!to!water!of!chemicals!and!all!wastes!.!.!.!!
15.1'.'.'.'ensure!sustainable!use!of!terrestrial!and!inland!freshwater!ecosystems!.'.'.'
15.8'.'.'.!reduce!the!number!of!deaths!caused!by!water!related!disasters.'.'.'
Water'directly'is'relevant'for'other'goals:''1,''2,''5,''7,''13,''14,''16,''17!.'.'.'may'be'all'!'!'!!
We'are'at'the'dawn'of'a'new'era'
in'what'concerns'water'and'sanita+on'!'
The'General'Assembly'of'the'United'Na+ons'
Recognizes) the) right) to) safe) and) clean) drinking)
water) and) sanitaEon) as) a) human) right) that) is)
essenEal) for) the) full) enjoyment) of) life) and) all)
human)rights)
28'July'2010':'Resolu+on'64/292''
28'July'2010':'Resolu+on'64/292''
This'is'a'revolu+on,'a'true'civiliza+onal'step:'
Water'
and'Sanita+on'
for'
All'!!!'
A'liRle'of'history'
Who'invented'the'toilet?'
For'many'centuries,'these'were'the'procedures'
For'the'poor:' For'the'not'so'poor:'
We'have'come'
a'long'way,'indeed'!'
Sewers'
in'
Babylon'
3750'B.C.'!'
Sewers'in'
Harappa'
(Indus'Valley)'
2600f1900'
B.C.'!'
Sewer'in'
Knossos'palace'
(Crete)'
1st'in'Europe'
1700'B.C.'
Cloaca)Maxima)
(Rome)'
600'B.C.'
Public'Toilet'in'Efeso,'Turkey''
(Roman'Empire,'100'b.c.)'
In'Rome,'in'315'A.D.'
there'were'144'public'toilets'!'
(Source(of(6(previous(slides:(Sonia(R.(Bu,(2010((Saneamento(Bsico((Como(Tudo(Comeou,(Elo(Ambiental,(So(Paulo,(Brasil)(
Modern'+mes:'
1596''John'Harrington'invented'the'toilet' ...'a'poet'!!!'
...'a'godson'
of'Queen'Elizabeth'I'
...'or'maybe'
he'simply'reinvented'it!'
(Knossos,'1700'B.C.)'
Modern'+mes:'
1668''All'houses'in'Paris'are'required'to'have'toilets'
1824''First'public'bath'in'Paris'
1883''First'toilet'in'ceramics'made'for'Queen'Victoria'
1889''Sewage'is'treated'for'the'rst'+me'in'the'world'
Throughout'the'ages'and'all'over'the'world'sanita+on'
was'a'privilege'of'auent'people'in'urban'areas.'
Only' a' few' decades' ago' the' idea' of' expanding' water'
and'sanita+on'services'to'rural'areas'and'poor'people'
started'doing'its'way.'
This'is'why'UN'Resolu+on'64/292,'2010,'is'so'important:'
Water'and'sanita+on'FOR'ALL'!'
Yes,'we'have'come'a'long'way'!'
Google'search:'spacefage'toilet'
A'scent'of'Portugal'
Weve'come'a'long'way!'
Prtugal'has'come'a'long'way'as'well'!'
Downtown'Lisbon'1939'
Levels'of'service'of'water'supply'and'wastewater'drainage'and'treatment'
(mainland'Portugal)'
%'of'popula+on'served'
Water'supply' Drainage' Wastewater'treatment'
(Source:(Pato,(J.,(2008((ArKcializing(waters(P(the(consequences(of(a(late(modernity(in(Portugal)(
A'very'poor'baseline'20'years'ago'
Access'to'drainage'in'1994' Access'to'treatment'in'1994'
' '
<'50%' 0f24%'
24f49%' <'50%'
0f24%'
24f49%'
50f64%' 50f64%'
65f79%' 65f79%'
80f94%' 80f94%'
95f100%' 95f100%'
EvoluEon)from)1993)to)2015)of)the)Public)
Supply)of)Water)and)Wastewater)
1993' 2015' Target'
Percentage of
80% 97% 95%

households with access
to public water supply
systems
Households with access
30%
to public systems for
waste water disposal
with adequate treatment 80% 90%
Quality controlled water
supply in accordance
with national and EU
standards 50% 98% 99%
EvoluEon)from)1993)to)2015)of)the)Public)
Supply)of)Water)and)Wastewater)
Safe'Drinking'Water'(%)' Bathing'water'quality'(%)'
98,2%'
A'boom'in'aRendance'and'quality'of'service!!!'
The)Portuguese)miracle))
Paul)Reiter,)Former)ExecuEve)Director)of)IWA)
'a'bit'of'humour'
...'and'why'not?'
We'oren'see'nothing'
but'the'+p'of'the'
iceberg'.'.'.'
Habits'and'gestures'of'everyday'life'count'!'
Please'never'forget'that'
water)and)wastewater)management)
is)an)animal)that)walks)on)two)legs:))
infrastructure)&)governance))
governance)!(
(John(Briscoe,(2011(( MAKING(REFORM(HAPPEN(IN(WATER(POLICY:(ReecKons(from(a(pracKKoner)((
We'have'learned'a'few'thing'from'the'past'
A'good'water'and'wastewater'policy'
is'not'a'watered'down'water'policy'
We'need'arma+ve'ac+on'at'all'levels!'
But...'we'also'need'to'keep'our'feet'well'on'the'ground'!'
Thank'You'

DPA Fusao

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Mestrado Integrado

Direito e Polticas de Ambiente

1972 1992 2002 2012

The need for na environmental

The need to safeguard

The Nature of Exponen0al Growth

The Limits of Exponen0al Growth

The Growth in the World System

Technology and the Limits to Growth

Planning and Management of Human Settlements for Environmental Quality

Environmental aspects of Natural Resources Management

Identification and Control of Pollutants of Broad International Significance

Educational, Informational, Social and Cultural Aspects of Environmental Issues

Development and Environment

Pollution is simply a symptom, not the cause

It is not enough to understand the symptoms and

The need for all public policies

Section I. Social and Economic Dimensions

Chapter 2 International Cooperation for Sustainable

Chapter 9 Protection of the Atmosphere

Chapter 23 Preamble Major Groups

Chapter 33 Financial Resources

A closer relationship between environment and development:

A growing concern with environment gloibal problems

A growing relevance of social and institutional dimensions

A stronger public opinion and a growing rtole of NGOs

A growing importance of political and geostrategic dimensions

Meet the needs of present generation

without compromising the ability

of future generations to meet

their own needs

The imperative of action !

The need to define priorities!

1. Poverty eradication (Millennium Declaration)

2. Change unsustainable patterns of production

3. Protect and manage natural resources as the basis

Main Documents Approved in Johannesburg:

Political Declaration on Sustainable Development

1. Lack of resources in developing countries

2. Lack of coherence and consistency in several areas of public policy

3. Many actions confined to national efforts (many probllems

4. Endless debates and scientific disputes undervalue the

5. The nature of Sustainable Development determines that all segments

1972 1992 2002 2012

The General Assembly,

Decides to organize, in 2012, the United Nations

Decides that the objective of the Conference will be to

1. A green economy in the context of sustainable

2. Institutional framework for sustainable development

On 25 September 2015, the 193 countries of the UN General

The Agenda for Sustainable Development has 17 Sustainable

Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs):

Sustainable Development Goals

Direito e Polticas de Ambiente

The combination of physical, chemical,

Environmental damage is any impairment

The socio-economic activities use the

Natural resources are natural assets

"... pathways of economic, social and political

Therefore, renewable resources should not be used in

Substances and products representing a hazard to

Antnio Gonalves Henriques

Antnio Gonalves Henriques