PERMAFROST AND PERIGLACIAL PROCESSES

Permafrost and Periglac. Process. 17: 245252 (2006)

Published online 19 July 2006 in Wiley InterScience
(www.interscience.wiley.com) DOI: 10.1002/ppp.559

A Review of the Influence of Freeze-thaw Cycles on Soil Geotechnical

Properties
Jilin Qi,1* Pieter A. Vermeer2 and Guodong Cheng1
1
State Key Laboratory of Frozen Soil Engineering, Cold and Arid Regions Environmental and Engineering Research
Institute, Lanzhou, 730000, China
2
Institute of Geotechnical Engineering, Stuttgart University, Pfaffenwaldring 35, D-70569 Stuttgart, Germany

ABSTRACT

Freeze-thaw cycling affects the geotechnical properties of soils and must be taken into account when
selecting soil parameters for stability and deformation analysis of slopes, embankments and cuts in cold
regions, especially those underlain by permafrost. This review examines methods of investigation,
testing techniques and the impact of freeze-thaw processes on the physical and mechanical properties
of soils. Copyright # 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

KEY WORDS: freeze-thaw; geotechnical properties; soil structure; seasonal frost; permafrost

INTRODUCTION attention as other aspects of frozen soil engineering.

Freeze-thaw cycling is an important topic in cold
regions engineering. Given the influence of frost heave
and thaw settlement on construction, considerable
effort has been put into the development of predictive
models for frost heave and thaw settlement, such as
Konrads and Morgenstern (1980) segregation model
and Nixon and Ladanyis (1978) moving boundary
thaw settlement model. In addition, it has been
recognized that freeze-thaw cycling has a considerable
impact on the structure and thus the geotechnical
properties of soils. For construction involving newly
exposed soils in cold regions, care must be taken with
respect to freeze-thaw cycling. For instance, in
permafrost regions in Quebec, Canada, newly con-
structed highway embankments are left unpaved for a
few years which is, to some extent, an accommodation
relating to freeze-thaw action (Eigenbrod, 1996).
Changes in the engineering properties of soils
induced by freeze-thaw have not received as much
Most research has focussed on the physical and
mechanical properties of frozen soils, and the
effects of freeze-thaw cycling are seldom mentioned
(e.g. Andersland and Ladanyi, 1994). Several reviews
on mechanical properties, especially on the creep
behavior of frozen soils, have appeared (e.g., Jessberger,
1981; Ladanyi, 1981; Sayles, 1988; Sadovsky et al.,
1988). State-of-the-art studies on frost action have
focused mostly on predictive models and frost heave
mechanisms (e.g., Loch, 1981; Kay and Perfect,
1988), and a review by Slunga (1988) gave only a very
brief description of changes to physical and mechan-
ical properties induced by freezing. Descriptions of
the state of the art appear in some technical papers
(e.g., Konrad, 1989a,b; Konrad and Samson, 2000),
but these usually relate to specific technical problems.
A general summary given by Chamberlain (1989) did
not clearly address all aspects of soil mechanics. The
current paper provides a general review of the topic,
updated using findings from the last two decades.

TESTING TECHNIQUES
* Correspondence to: Jilin Qi, State Key Laboratory of Frozen
Soil Engineering, Cold and Arid Regions Environmental and
Engineering Research Institute, Lanzhou, 730000, China. Freeze-thaw cycle testing is usually carried out in the
E-mail: qijilin@ns.lzb.ac.cn laboratory rather than in the field. A cylindrical soil
Received 1 March 2005
Revised 21 March 2006
Copyright # 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Accepted 22 March 2006
246 J. Qi, P. A. Vermeer and G. Cheng
sample is typically put in an environmental cell
equipped with thermistors to monitor the tempera-
ture change along the sample. Caps at the top and
bottom contain liquid coolant to control freezing and
thawing and a dial gauge on the top cap measures
deformation. Pressure can be applied on the top cap.
At the same time, a water reservoir is connected to
the sample through the caps. Soil samples can also be
installed in the cell of a material testing system
surrounded by cooling liquid. This allows multi-
axial mechanical tests to be performed directly after
freeze-thaw cycling (Graham and Au, 1985; Ono and
Mitachi, 1997).
Field tests are seldom performed. Exceptions are
Benson and Othman (1993) who buried soil samples in
the field and Starke (1989) who left soil samples
outdoors for natural freezing and thawing, in order to
compare their properties with those of unfrozen soils.
Unfortunately, such test data are difficult to reproduce.
Although freeze-thaw devices used by various
researchers are fairly similar, different testing pro-
cedures have been employed. The location of the
cooling source controls whether unidirectional cap
freezing, two-sided cap freezing or all-round freezing
occurs. Similarly, freezing may take place in an open
or closed system depending on water supply, and in
stress-free testing conditions or under load depending
on the loading applied. The effects of differing
freezing procedures have been examined only in
relation to frost heave (e.g. Konrad, 1994) and we were
unable to find any systematic studies of the influence
of freezing procedures on engineering soil properties
despite their probable impact through differing ice
lens formation.
CHANGE IN PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Hydraulic Permeability
Chamberlain and Gow (1979) showed that freeze-
thaw may lead to compaction accompanied by an
increase in hydraulic permeability. This result at first
appears surprising as densification is usually associ-
ated with decreasing permeabilities but it has been
confirmed by numerous studies on different soil types
and under different experimental conditions. Kim and
Daniel (1992), for instance, found that the hydraulic
permeability of soil compacted dry of optimum water
content was increased two to six times by freezing
while that of soil compacted wet of optimum increased
about 100 times. Othman and Benson (1993) found
from tests on post-thawed and unfrozen soils that the
degree of change could be reduced by isotropic
Copyright # 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
loading (see Figure 1), as pressure may close the
cracks induced by freeze-thaw. A stress maintained
during freeze-thaw had tremendous influence and one
of 70 kPa was sufficient to prevent the increase in
permeability (Otham and Benson, 1993). Viklander
(1998), however, pointed out that this effect depends
on test configuration, temperature gradient and water
conditions. It is recognized that the permeability often
increases by one to two orders of magnitude after
freeze-thaw (e.g. Chamberlain et al., 1990; Zimmie
and LaPlante, 1990). Konrad and Samson (2000)
studied a kaolinite-silt mixture and developed a
quantitative model for predicting the hydraulic
permeability of post-thawed soils based on the
changes in void ratio.
As for the mechanism, Chamberlain et al. (1990)
and many others have inferred that the permeability
increase is due to both micro-fissuring during freeze-
thaw and the large pores that are left after the thaw of
ice crystals. Chamberlain and Gow (1979) also
mention that fine particles might move out of large
pores during freeze-thaw.
Void Ratio and Density
Chamberlain and Gow (1981) and Eigenbrod (1996)
found that freeze-thaw leads to densification of soft,
normally-consolidated clay samples, but other
studies showed the opposite to occur for dense
samples. Considering these results, Viklander (1998)
proposed a residual void ratio eres for freeze-thaw,
which means that both loose and dense soils may
attain the same void ratio after a number of freeze-
thaw cycles (Figure 2). Although the dual effect of
freeze-thaw on soil density is generally recognized,
the proposed idea of a residual void ratio is not yet
well-established.
Boynton and Daniel (1985), Othman and Benson
(1993) and Viklander (1998) all showed that neither
the permeability nor the soil volume changes
significantly after three to five freeze-thaw cycles
and that the first cycle has the greatest influence
(Figure 3).
Atterberg Limits
Soil parameters such as the liquid limit may also be
changed by freeze-thaw (Yong et al., 1985). Studies by
Wang et al. (1995) and Viklander and Eigenbrod
(2000) show that freeze-thaw cycles may influence
the grain-size distribution, which may induce change
Permafrost and Periglac. Process., 17: 245252 (2006)
DOI: 10.1002/ppp
 Freeze-thaw and Soil Properties 247

Figure 1 Hydraulic permeability of Wisconsin glacial clay as a function of overburden pressure for unfrozen and post-thawed samples
(after Othman and Benson, 1993).

in the plastic limit. Nevertheless, without sound CHANGE IN MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

proof that the fines change appreciably (which may
happen after a great number of freeze-thaw cycles
in an open system), it is difficult to accept a signi-
ficant change in the Atterberg limits. In contrast to
Yong et al. (1985), Eigenbrod (1996) reported that
Atterberg limits were not significantly changed by
freeze-thaw.
Change in Mechanical Properties in
One-dimensional Compression
Graham and Au (1985) tested high-quality natural
clay samples to develop oedometer consolidation
curves (Figure 4). They observed that the effect of

Figure 2 Residual void ratio in terms of freeze-thaw (after Viklander, 1998).

Copyright # 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Permafrost and Periglac. Process., 17: 245252 (2006)
DOI: 10.1002/ppp
248 J. Qi, P. A. Vermeer and G. Cheng

Figure 3 Relationship between volumetric strain and number of freeze-thaw cycles (after Eigenbrod, 1996).

Figure 4 Oedometer consolidation curves for a clay in unfrozen and post-thawed states (after Graham and Au, 1985).

bonding was lost after five freeze-thaw cycles (dashed
line in Figure 4). It is not clear to what extent freeze-
thaw destroyed the effect of overconsolidation as there
may have been a reduction in the preconsolidation
pressure. The consolidation line appears to approach
that of the normally consolidated reconstituted
sample, but as yet this has not been confirmed.
Change of Mechanical Properties of Soils in
Monotonic Triaxial Testing
Natural and man-made soils behave differently in
triaxial testing. Typical data from undrained triaxial tests
on overconsolidated natural clay samples are shown in
Figure 5. For precise results the reader is referred to

Copyright # 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Permafrost and Periglac. Process., 17: 245252 (2006)
DOI: 10.1002/ppp

Figure 5 Triaxial CIU compression curves for an unfrozen and post-thawed clay (after Leroueil et al., 1991).
Graham and Au (1985) and Leroueil et al. (1991), which
show that all overconsolidated soils exhibit a remark-
ably clear peak on the curves from triaxial testing. For
natural intact clays, these peaks are very pronounced
due to structural inter-particle bonding. The bonding is
damaged during freeze-thaw and the peak is reduced or
may even disappear. Graham and Au (1985) found that a
lower peak remained after five freeze-thaw cycles, while
Leroueil et al. (1991) could not detect it after freeze-
thaw in a clay.
Ono and Mitachi (1997) undertook undrained
triaxial tests on overconsolidated reconstituted clay
samples instead of natural ones. Consequently, their
clays were not structured due to bonding, and stress-
strain curves showed a more ductile behaviour. Their
samples were subjected to a single freeze-thaw cycle
which increased both stiffness and shear strength. The
samples were relatively loose and freeze-thaw caused
a net compaction (i.e., an improvement). As a result,
the authors proposed a re-structuring effect due to
freeze-thaw.
Alkire and Morrison (1982) performed similar
undrained triaxial tests on a reconstituted clay. When
samples were overconsolidated, their testing data
agreed with those of Ono and Mitachi (1997). On
approaching the preconsolidation pressure, however,
Copyright # 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Freeze-thaw and Soil Properties 249
stress-strain curves began to change and it appears that
Ono and Mitachis (1997) conclusions do not hold for
normally consolidated samples.
Alkire and Morrison (1982) also tested compacted
silt samples. The densely compacted silt appeared to
behave very similarly to the overconsolidated clay
samples tested by Ono and Mitachi (1997). The
loosely compacted silt samples did not show a
completely different behaviour, but they did exhibit
some of the tendencies of normally consolidated clay
samples. In the original paper, the authors use the
words loose and dense to refer to their two groups of
samples but given dry densities of 1.26 and 1.33 g/
cm3, respectively, all the silty samples were rather
loose.
Change of the Resilient Modulus in Cyclic
Triaxial Loading
One of the most important factors to be considered in
pavement design is the behaviour of the subgrade soil
when subjected to repetitive traffic loading. As the
subgrade soil is a man-made soil, cyclic triaxial tests
are usually carried out on compacted soil samples to
measure the resilient modulus. It is a common practice
Permafrost and Periglac. Process., 17: 245252 (2006)
DOI: 10.1002/ppp
250 J. Qi, P. A. Vermeer and G. Cheng
to use the symbol MR, but the resilient modulus might
be denoted as ER as it is a secant modulus.
Considerable laboratory work has been performed
on factors affecting the resilient properties of soil,
including studies on the effects of freeze-thaw.
The basic understanding is that even a small number
of freeze-thaw cycles may lead to a significant
reduction in the resilient modulus. Simonsen et al.
(2002) studied five soils from gravelly sand to marine
clay. They found that the modulus decreased by 25%
to 60%, depending on soil type: the larger the
percentage of fine particles, the greater the change.
Lee et al. (1995) related this effect to a stress
corresponding to 1.0% of strain in unconfined
compression test, Su1.0%. They reported that for a
soil with Su1.0% less than 55 kPa, the freeze-thaw effect
was negligible. When Su1.0% was larger than 103 kPa,
however, the change of modulus was more than 50%
after freeze-thaw.
The literature on the resilient modulus suggests that
freeze-thaw often leads to material degradation.
However, most studies were carried out on heavily
compacted subgrade material, i.e. on dense soils. As
discussed above, dense soils tend to dilate under
freeze-thaw. On the other hand, loose soils are
densified under freeze-thaw and should show an
increase in the resilient modulus. However, this has yet
to be demonstrated in the literature.
Undrained Shear Strength
Fine-grained soils have a relatively low permeability
and during loading they tend to behave as undrained.
As a consequence, stability problems in such soils are
often controlled by the undrained shear strength being
(denoted as cu or su). The effect of freeze-thaw on the
undrained shear strength has been studied on natural
soil samples as well as laboratory-prepared samples.
Data for natural clays, for example, was reported by
Graham and Au (1985) and Leroueil et al. (1991), and
it was found that the undrained shear strength
decreased significantly. It was also found that change
was greatest during the first few cycles (Yong et al.,
1985).
As laboratory-prepared samples do not possess a
natural structure with particle cementation, they are not
as affected by freeze-thaw damage. Undrained triaxial
tests carried out by Alkire and Morrison (1982) on two
loosely compacted silt samples, for example, show an
increase in the undrained shear strength after freeze-
thaw. This appears logical for loose samples as they
were given time to consolidate after freeze-thaw, so that
compaction occurred. Ogata et al. (1985) obtained the
same result for reconstituted clay samples and this was
Copyright # 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
also reported by Ono and Mitachi (1997) at least for
isotropically-loaded freezing and thawing.
CONCLUSIONS
The literature shows that after a number of freeze-thaw
cycles:
1. The void ratio of soils increases for dense soils and
decreases for loose soils;
2. The hydraulic permeability of soils increases
despite the change in void ratios. The increase is
believed to be due to crack development and the
large voids left when ice thaws;
3. The structure of natural soils is damaged, as a result
of the preconsolidation pressure reduction in oed-
ometer tests. In triaxial tests, the peak in stress-
strain curves is not as pronounced in natural soils;
reconstituted soils show various effects depending
on the initial state of the samples;
4. The resilient modulus and undrained shear strength
decrease, at least for the relatively loose soils
tested. However, it is likely that very dense soils
would lose some portion of resilient modulus and
strength after freeze-thaw.
It appears that freeze-thaw causes degradation of
structure in natural fine-grained soils, such as clays,
but structure improvement in reconstituted normally
consolidated clays. For coarse soils, it causes dilation
of dense soils and densification of loose soils.
Mechanical properties are changed at the same time.
However, the influence of freeze-thaw on the
mechanical behaviour of soils is difficult to clarify
without more extensive investigations, and con-
clusions remain open. Systematic study is needed of
the various mechanical testing procedures on soils in
which soil state (natural and reconstituted), density
and overconsolidation ratios are all examined.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was supported in part by the National
Science Fund of Distinguished Young Scholars of
China (Grant No. 40225001) and the fellowship pro-
gram of the Max-Planck Society in Germany. The
authors would like to express their sincere thanks to
Mr. Geoffrey Gay for his kind help in revising the
paper. The comments of two anonymous reviewers
and the editorial assistance of Professor A. Lewkowicz
are also acknowledged.
Permafrost and Periglac. Process., 17: 245252 (2006)
DOI: 10.1002/ppp

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