CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Research Background

Mangroves can be defined as a type of woody plants that occur in marine and
brackish environments (Giesen et al.,2007). At this time the mangrove occupies
about 181,000 km of coastal tropical and subtropical regions. Mangroves are an area
of ecological and economic value, are significant nursery ground and breeding sites
for birds, fish, crustaceans, shellfish, reptiles and mammals; a renewable source of
wood; collection site for sediment, contaminants, carbon and nutrients and offers
protection alongside coastal erosion (Ibrahim et al, 2007)

Mangroves often play an important role in coastal protection from storms and tides
and act as buffer zones between land and sea ecosystems, coastal and river bank
stabilization. For example, (Duarte et al.,2013) stated that the high mangrove trees
can significantly reduce wave energy. Thus the existence of mangroves has provided
too many environmental social and economic benefits to local communities, national
and global. Malaysian mangrove represents 3.7% of the global mangrove (Giri et al.,
2011)

Based on new study count that in year 2005, the whole mangrove extent is 137,760
km in 118 countries and ability in tropical and subtropical sector. (Giri et al., 2010)
have regulate the major position of mangroves found in Asia (42%), go after by
Africa (20%), North and Central America (15%), Oceania (12%) and South America
(11%). Malaysian mangrove represents 3.7% of the total mangrove (Giri et al.,
2011). In Peninsular Malaysia, a total of 86.454 hectares of mangrove forests have
been gazetted as a forest reserve and Selangor is one of the states with a whole area
of mangrove forests (17.3%) after a main area that provide from the state of Perak
(47.8%) and Johor (20.6%).

1
Carey Island is sited in the Banting district in Selangor, Malaysia. Carey Island with
a total area of 16,187 hectares (JICA and DMGM et al,. 2002) is greatly refined with
oil palm (10,552 ha) mostly in the coastal region, other land use covers state land or
settlements (4,310 ha) and mangrove forest reserve (1,877 ha) (Golden Hope
Plantation Berhad et al,. 2006).

Approximately 70% of Carey Island is composed of Holocene deposits of clay, salty

clay, peat, and minor sand formations that over placed on Pleistocene deposits of
gravel, sand, clay, and silt. Sime Darby Plantation Sdn Bhd (Island, 2011) has been
running a mangrove restoration project in the southern part of Carey Island for three
years between 2008 and 2010. It was part of Carey Island, which faces the Straits of
Malacca, has been selected for restoration because of erosion and the destruction of
forests is sustainable. In 2008, a research project by the University involving coastal
protection schemes to restore mangroves depleted in Carey Island.

Remote sensors such as Landsat, provide appropriate resolutions for studying

changes in mangrove area, canopy extent and condition. In remote sensing studies,
vegetation indices are popular approach used in mapping mangrove. Besides, there
are other several approaches and technique that had been used to determine the
extent of this mangrove forest such as aerial photograph. (Hameed & Hasan, 2014)
definite that by using satellite measurement, it obviously take the compensations of
being the only set of spaces that give wide coverage. As for some studies in
Malaysia, Carey Island were explored to determine their specification changes of the
mangrove forest using series of Landsat data

1.2 Problem Statement

The introductory of the rural land in the Carey Isle significantly desolated
Mangroves forest, mostly in the south located in the study area. Mangrove bases was
initiate up to 300m seaward of the existing coastline, representative major of the
deforestation (Affandi et al.,2010). As stated by (Affandi et al.,2010), deforestation
of the mangroves vegetation keep on affected by unvarying sea water. The location is
visible to shortest wave exploit, appropriate severe meant for mangrove formation.

2
Hence, the geomorphological variations in the rural land use in Carey Island are
supposed to have continual harmful towards valuable growing of the mangroves
starting interior to seaward. Seawater waves act that took progressively been eroding
the soil affected the loss of the mangroves from the coast (Spalding et al., 2014).
Nevertheless, the daily actions carried out by humans similarly cause more severe
destruction to the mangroves.

Remote sensing technique is very useful to detect the changes of mangrove status
because it wii use the satellite image and by using the satellite, the area of mangrove
can be detected in largest view. In this research study, for method change detection
created on a classical that involves an operational system to image processing
appropriate for custom with standard spatial resolution images from different
sequences of Landsat data.

The Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) method is used to determine

the colour valuation of every pixel. It can be used to evaluate remote sensing
capabilities, characteristically but not certainly from a space policy and consider
whether the objective being detected surrounds live green vegetation or not. NDVI
has been used broadly in the vegetation custom studies as it has been used to
assessment crop yields, pasture presentation, and variety land.

Besides that, Tasseled Cap technique used to determine the mask changes, since it
recover the amounts of three main fundamentals of the biophysical coastal area,
water, soil and vegetation. Change detection thru the Tasseled Cap technique appears
to work well for phases fitting two controllers which is wetness and sparkle, and very
small marks for vegetation classes and participate the index NDVI is a vegetation
index commonly used to progress.

1.3 Aim and Objectives

The aim of this research is to evaluate the status of mangrove forest through
different spectral indices versus taselled cap transformation based upon the series of
Landsat data acquired between years 1996 to 2016.

3
The objectives of this study is carried out to achieve the aim which are:

i) To correct each image based on geometric, radiometric and atmospheric

correction.

ii) To determine the greennes, brightness and wetness of the respective

mangrove imageries through different Spectral Indices and Tasselled Cap
transformation methods on selected years.

iii) To analyze quantitative and qualitatively the variation of greenness,

brightness and wetness based on the Different Spectral Indices and Taselled
Cap throughout the selected years from 1996 to 2016.

1.4 Scope of study

In this research study, the selection area is selected for Carey Island, Selangor. Carey
Island is sited in the Banting district in Selangor, Malaysia. Carey Island with a total
area of 16,187 hectares (JICA and DMGM et al,. 2002) is greatly refined with
mangrove forest reserve (1,877 ha) (Golden Hope Plantation Berhad et al,. 2006).
The main of this study is to evaluate changes in mangrove variety of Landsat data.
To see the changes mangrove, Landsat data were readily available and is sufficient
to determine changes in the amount of mangrove random and not too detailed as
SPOT, QuickBird, etc. Therefore, Landsat imagery was selected as a primary data
from years 1996, 2001, 2006, 2011 and 2016. The technique of NDVI and Tasseled
Cap was applied during image processing for any type of Landsat data. NDVI and
Tasseled Cap is appropriate to make a comparative in terms of wetness and
greenness to each Landsat data.

1.5 Study area

Carey Island is set within the Klang Isle (0338N and 10100E), which is one of the
most signal mangrove wildwood reserves in the Strait of Malacca abreast the west
slide of the Malaysia Peninsula. Klang Isle is quiet of eight short islets, and Carey

4
Island is the biggest of the islets, alienated after the Selangor slide through the
Langat River on the eastwards and the Klang River on the north.

Figure 1.1: Map of peninsular Malaysia and the location of Selangor district
(GoogleMap,2016

Figure 1.2: Map of Selangor and the location area of Carey Island, Selangor
(GoogleMap,2016)

5
1.6 Software and Hardware

1.7 Software used in this project are ERDAS Imagine 2013 and ArcGIS 10.3.

1.8 Methodology

Stage 1: Preliminary Study and Data Acquisiton

At this stage, data Landsat are collected from USGS web-online based on selected
years from 1996 to 2016. Topography map which includes Carey Island also been
obtained from the JUPEM. The selection of study area also includes for this stage.

Stage 2: Pre-processing
There are three corrections needed before go through to the image processing. The
pre-processing involved on the imagery was Geometric Correction, Radiometric
Correction and Atmospheric Correction.

Stage 3: Image Processing

The image processing was conduct out using two software which are Erdas Imagine
software version 2013 and ArcGIS version 10.3. Spectral index method such as
NDVI, NDBI and NDSI will be applied to each of image. Taselled Cap
Transformation will be carried out to each of images from year 1996 to 2016.

Stage 4: Result and Analysis

The comparative analysis will be derived between each of images. The qualitative
and quantitative method will be defined based on analysis data. The expected
outcome in this thesis is result from classifying of vegetation spectral indices such
NDVI, NDBI, and NDSI. The level of greenness of wetness will be determine based
on result of Taselled Cap Transformation processing.

6
 PRELIMINARY STUDIES AND DATA ACQUISITION

i) Case study of Carey Island

ii) Journal / Article / Book / Web

iii) Landsat Data from USGS (TM and OLI)

Stage 1

PRE-PROCESSING

i) Geometric Correction
ii) Atmospheric Correction
iii) Radiometric Correction

Stage 2

IMAGE PROCESSING

i) Spectral Index Transformation

(NDVI. NDSI and NDBI)
ii) Taselled Cap Transformation
(Greenness, Brightness and Wetness)

Stage 3

RESULT AND DATA ANALYSIS

i) Comparative Analysis based on2 Different Spectral Index

CHAPTER
Transformation and Taselled Cap Transformation in selected years
ii) Regression Analysis

Stage 4
Figure 1.3: Overview of flow work

7
 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

Categorizing and mangrove is one of necessity for handling regular possessions as

plants delivers an improper for wholly existing creatures and acting an important
character in troubling total environment variation, for example inducing earthly CO2
X(Xie, Sha, & Yu, 2008). As said by (Nordberg & Evertson, 2005) the knowledge of
remote sensing deals a useful also economical resources to knowledge vegetation or
mangrove refuge changes, particularly concluded a big parts. Due to the probable
capability for efficient interpretations at some measures, remote sensing skill covers
probable data collections since current period to over some years ago.
Structure uses include various category of dataset that needs the application of
change detection amongst imageries plus vector data, image data plus image, image
and map data, vector and vector data, and maps and map data. (Singh, 1989)
specified that change detection between two multi dated imageries be able to be
numerically achieved and takes stretched effective close. Nevertheless, change
detection among extra category of data for example existing images and from the
past topographic data is commonly thru visually, whereas certain parts of
computerization has remained lately announced (Straub & Heipke, 2001).

This general assessment of the literature highlights on application of remote sensing

in change detection and mapping of mangrove system. A review of remote sensing
sensors plus their appropriateness in mangrove mapping will be untaken in following
segment. Image pre-processing and image classification procedures normally
implemented in mining mangrove info from remote sensing imageries. Classification
outcome assessment or correctness valuation will be conferred in Result evaluation.
Restrictions of consuming images and correlated considerations will be settled in the
last section.

8
2.2 Definition of Mangrove

2.2.1 Mangrove Ecosystem

The term "Mangrove" meaning a "grouping of trees" that specified to the tree itself,
and the whole habitation. As stated by (Kuenzer et al.,2011) mangroves are small to
standard evergreen plants or vegetation commonly with a demanding root
arrangement. Malaysia in some of the states approved the RAMSAR resolution in
1994. RAMSAR resolution well-defined wetlands as zones of swamp, fen or water,
whether natural or artificial, brackish or salt, containing sections of marine water the
depth of which at low tide does not outstrip six meters (Ramsar Convention
Secretariat, 2013).

On the expression of Britannica Concise Encyclopedia, Mangrove is distinct as

any or certain shrubs and trees that fit in towards the relatives. It creates in the dense
thickets or forest on the tidal estuaries, in salt marshes and on muddy shores. There
has remained a blast of systematic investigation on mangrove environmental
features. However, subjects amongst local public renewal organization stay restricted
(Abdullah et al., 2014).

Relatively, highest educations combine on the stats of Malaysias mangrove shelter

amount, mangrove system and its biodiversity, manner characteristics, grade and air
strike, repute and reducing explanations such as (Kamaruzzaman et al.,2008).
Mangrove habitations are manors of mangrove trees that develop in extraordinary
salinity, temperature and tidal zones, which have high sedimentation amounts and
muddy anaerobic soils (Giri et al., 2011). Mangrove ecosystems are represented by a
large range of plant families that are salt accepting and initiate in brackish waters
(FIELD et al., 1998).

2.2.2 Type and Distribution

Mangrove trees have specific characteristics such as tough root systems, special bark
and leaf structures, and other unique adaptations to enable them to survive in their
habitat's harsh conditions. Local people use wood from mangroves for building
materials, for fish traps, and for firewood and charcoal (Jusoff, 2013).

9
According to (Tomlinson, 1994) mangrove plants can be classified into three
categories which are major elements, minor elements or and mangrove associates.
Major elements or major mangrove are primarily controlled to intertidal zone
between high water levels of neap and spring tides. These plants are morphological
adapted to survive in unsafe locations of the coastal areas. Minor elements are
species that tolerate some degree of salinity. They are found in a mangrove habitat
but are not restricted to it. Mangrove flora associates are all other biota that includes
grasses, epiphytes, pteridophytes, bryophytes, and parasitic plants (Wan Juliana et al,.
2014)

In Malaysia, mangrove forests, which are under the jurisdiction of the various State
Forest departments, cover an area of about 577,500 ha, with Sabah having the most
extensive coverage of mangroves, accounting for 59% (or 341,000 ha) of the
countrys total, whereas Sarawak has 132,000 ha (23%) and Peninsular Malaysia
104,200 ha (18%) (Jusoff, 2013). Although mangrove forests are decreasing globally,
Malaysias mangroves are generally still intact under a mangrove forest management
precise system hierarchy analysis. (NUR ILAYANA MOHD ZUKKI, 2007)

2.2.3 The Important of Mangrove Forest

Mangroves keep coastlines from waves and control serving to substance the
revelation of flood destruction, coastal erosion and maintain soil balance, sustaining
preservation, clarification of sediment and chemicals, and the retreat of carbon
dioxide. (Spalding et al., 2014) Intended for societies alive in coastal zones,
mangroves resource firewood, medication, thread and dyes, food and manufacture
substantial.

There are many factors that affect the growth of mangroves of them is the increasing
tides, salinity, rainfall and population increase compression temperature environment
and cause global warming. They are the greatest carbon-wealthy forests in the tropics
and are energetic to withdraw carbon at a quicker part compared earthling forestry.
Human living in previous record utilization that the mangroves as firewood,
charcoal, timber poles and in fish trap construction (FAO, 2007). Mangroves are
recognize for their direct and indirect purposes (Choudhury, 1998)

10
Mangrove ecosystems are important for the maintenance of the local coastal fishery
industry in Malaysia. The fisheries products that are harvested from the mangrove
ecosystem include many shrimp species, which are caught in the mangrove
waterways or in adjacent coastal waters. (Abd. Shukor, 2004)

2.2.4 Status of Mangrove in Selangor

Selangor takes a big amount of mangrove forestry (Refer figures 2.2). Selangor is
positioned in the west county of the peninsula and has around 90-kilometre distance
of shorelines from Sungai Bernam to Sungai Sepang in the south (Jusoff & Bin Hj
Taha, 2009) It is also bordered through huge islands alongside the coastline. As
stated by (Ong, 1982), 60 per cent of the coasts are protected by mangroves.

The generally range of mangrove forestry in Selangor is 22,530.20 hectares with the
top supply in Klang with 16,630.87 hectares (Forest Research Institute Malaysia
(FRIM), 2012) In the beginning of years 1962, mangrove forestry in Selangor have
been succeeded below a right organization-operational strategy for the making of
extremes productions and regions for preservation and security (Forest Research
Institute Malaysia (FRIM), 2012)

Figure 2: Mangrove forest in Selangor as December 2010

Source: (FRIM, 2012)

2.3 Overview of Remote Sensing

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As a whole, remote sensing is the performance of gaining info nearly a thing from a
space or remoteness. Remote sensing and Earth remark is a rising ground and has
stretched meaningfully in current years. At this moment, hundreds of Earth survey
satellites in orbit around the Earth prepare many petabytes of information a year that
derived from remote sensing sensors which used in applying from precision
cultivation (DUrso et al., 2010) and climate modelling (Liang, 2007) to census data
reconstruction (Watmough, 2010) and disaster management (Tralli et al., 2005). A
numeral of writers are now express that Remote sensing has derived of era
(Mather, 2010) (Tang et al.,2009), however this has command to remote sensing data
release being apply with small consider to the operation by which they were obtain
and inherent in blunders and unpredictability in the data information.

2.3.1 Principle of Remote Sensing

The important objective of remote sensing is to suppose info on reserved things from
measurements of returned or radiated electromagnetic radiation (EMR) verified by a
sensor. Reflectance is a significant part in this progression: it constitutes the
interaction between EMR and the object and varies quantitatively as a purpose of the
visual assets of the thing, EMR wavelength and the Sun-sensor geometry.

Remote Sensing data handling includes interpreting quantities of radiance into

physical figures, for example, the substantial of a land apparent (Rees et al,. 2001).
Remote Sensing classifications can be considered to accumulate mutually smaller
and lengthier wavelengths, such as infrared (700 nm 1 mm) and microwave (1mm
1m) radiation, dependent on their proposed request.

Remote Sensing structures are categorized as creature either active or passive.

Active structures, such as radio detection and ranging (RADAR) produce and emit
EMR, and then high the reverted indication. Passive structures high the reflectance of
EMR radiated by the Sun. Passive Remote Sensing structures for earthly uses are
consequently considered to capture wavelengths for which the atmospheric broadcast
is highest, so called atmospheric windows. The belongings of dissimilar sensors and
recording method radiance is regularly defined by their spectral, radiometric, spatial
and temporal resolutions (Rees et al.,2001).

12
2.3.2 Remote Sensing for Vegetation

Wavelength reliant on inconsistency of reflectance is the leading info importer in the

spectral dominion for Remote Sensing of vegetation (Ustin & Gamon, 2010).
Generally, vegetation redirects lowest amounts of the visible wavelengths (400-700
nm) and highest amounts of the near infrared wavelengths (Sims & Gamon, 2002)
Reflectance in stretched wavelengths, such as short wave infrared (SWIR 1400-3000
nm) is primarily controlled by water content of leaves (Ustin & Gamon, 2010),
where microwave reflectance is measured by water contented, virtual proportions
and alignment of mechanisms, and the concentration of the vegetation (Ulaby,
Moore, & Fung, 1986)

Two primary genre of particular can be issue from Remote Sensing data, namely
categorical variables, that is discrete classes or objects, and continuous variables.
Classification can be done directly on pixels (Franklin et al,. 2002), or on an object
that has been marked by step using image segmentation setup (Blaschke, 2010).
Classification algorithm allocates pixel or object to a set of user-defined categories
that overlap and ideally should not be mutually exclusive. Other types of information
that can be extracted from data Remote Sensing is continuous element.

The percentage of occupied land cover classes in pixels that can be approximate as a
continuous element using methods such that spectral un-mixing (Ustin & Gamon,
2010). Continuous variables mapping may be greater appropriate to characterize the
spatial terrain fragmented, like a forest where the plants are composed of members
widely and tree canopy is open (Herold et al,. 2008). It is also better suited to
parameterize various environmental models (Wadsworth et al,. 2010) and can let
more reactive to detection of environmental changes (Lambin & Linderman, 2006).
The key to apply applicable details from Remote Sensing data is to accurately regard
as the relationship between light recorded by the sensor and plants interesting
properties.

2.3.3 Sensor for Vegetation Extraction and Mapping

13
A remote sensing sensor is an important equipment that captures data about an object
or scene from a distance. Features a unique spectrum (reflectance or emission region)
contained in objects or vegetation, can be identified using remote sensing images.

The variety of types of sensors in terms of the characteristics of spatial, temporal,

spectral and radiometric different, requiring the selection of the appropriate sensor in
the mapping of plant protection. Selection of images obtained by an adequate sensor
is largely determined by four factors related to the objectives of the mapping, the cost
of the image, the climatic conditions (in particular atmospheric conditions) and
technical issues for the interpretation of the images (Xie et al., 2008) There are many
types of sensors that can be applied in vegetation such as Landsat, SPOT, MODIS,
NOAAAVHRR, IKONOS and QuickBird.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e) (f)

14
 Figure 2.1: The types of sensors for vegetation (a) Landsat, (b) SPOT, (c) MODIS (d) NOAA-
AVHRR, (e) IKONOS and (f) QUICKBIRD
Source: (U.S. Geological Survey, DEC 2015)

a. Landsat

Figure 2.2: Landsat-8 Nevada Arizona Las Vegas 2014

Source: (USGS/ESA, DEC 2015)

Landsat sensors or satellites come from USA is the most familiar used in applying
any work of remote sensing. Landsat can be classified depending on their satellite
launched time. For example, the beginning series of Landsat satellites capture is
called multispectral scanner (Multi-Spectral Scanner). Landsat 4 place enhance
sensory which called Thematic Mapper (TM) called which led by series of Landsat 5.
Landsat 7 capture a qualify model of this series and make a new version which called
Enhanced Thematic Mapper (ETM). This ETM series contain seven type of spectral
band. Now, the Landsat series that are used in capturing data is called as Landsat 8.
There are two types of Landsat 8 which are Operational Land Imager (OLI) and the
Thermal Infrared Sensor (TIRS). In this study, Landsat 1-5 (MSS), Landsat 4-5
(TM), and Landsat 8 (OLI/TIRS) imageries that selected.

b. SPOT

15
 Figure 2.3: SPOT4 satellite image composite of continental Southeast Asia
Source: (European Union 2015)

SPOT sensor are very useful in monitoring study, forecasting and managing natural
resources plus human activities. There are five series of SPOT that have been
launched starting years 1986 (SPOT1), 1990 (SPOT 2), 1993 (SPOT 3), 1998 (SPOT
4) and 2002 (SPOT 5).

SPOT satellite are very effective in getting data of any kind of places or area every
day. These satellites also possess more advantages of mapping vegetation in flexible
scalar. The accuracy of mapping assessment can be integrated between SPOT images
and other remote sensing images.

Table 2: SPOT SATELLITE

Source: (European Union 2015)

c. Modis

Figure 2.4: Global warming detection hits lakes Tahoe by MODIS

Source: (milesclark.blogspot, 2010)

16
The MODIS instrument is operating on both the Terra and Aqua spacecraft. The
many data products derived from MODIS observations describe features of the land,
oceans and the atmosphere that can be used for studies of processes and trends on
local to global scales. (MODIS Web Service). However, image fusion by combining
multiple imagery types can possibly lead to better mapping results. (Knight et al,.
2006) examined the potential for classifying vegetation using MODIS-NDVI 250 m
16-day composite data and concluded that a significant value could be added to
MODIS imagery through combining and comparing the multi-temporal observations
with similar classifications generated from much higher spatial resolution data.

d. NOAA-AVHRR

Figure 2.5: Vegetation index image of Japan by NOAA/AVHRR data

Source: (rcaeei, Hiroshima 2009)

The AVHRR or Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer is the main sensor
which measures the radiance emitted or reflected by the earth-atmosphere system
simultaneously in 5 spectral bands, with a spatial resolution of 1.1 km sub-nadir and
a swath width of 2922km so that that the NOAA-AVHRR system registers the full
earth surface once every day. It was originally designed for meteorological purposes
and to complement the equatorial view of the geostationary GOES-platform. The
history and applications of the AVHRR-sensor (Advanced Very High Resolution
Radiometer) on board of the series of the US NOAA-satellites have been
documented by (Cracknell, 1997).

Table 2.1: Type of NOAA satellites

Source: (USGS/ESA, DEC 2015)

17
 e. IKONOS

Figure 2.6: IKONOS Satellite Image of California

Source: (Satellite Imaging Corporation, 2015)

IKONOS is a commercial sun-synchronous earth observation satellite launched in

1999 and was the first to collect publicly available high-resolution imagery at 1 and 4
m resolution. It has two imagery sensors, multispectral and panchromatic. The
IKONOS observations are at a spatial scale equivalent to field measurements
typically carried out in ecological and land cover research.

As such, the IKONOS observations may serve as a source of virtual ground

measurements for the lower spatial resolution, global observatories (Goward et al.,
2003). Ideally, IKONOS can be used to map vegetation cover at a local scale or
validate vegetation cover classified from other remote sensing images (Goward et al.,
2003).
Table 2.2: IKONOS in Design and Specification
Source: (Satellite Imaging Corporation, 2015)

18
 f. QUICKBIRD

Figure 2.7: QuickBird Satellite Image of Serifos, Greece

Source: (Satellite Imaging Corporation, 2015)
QuickBird multispectral imagery in detecting, mapping and monitoring the forestry
damages caused by beetles. The results suggested that QuickBird imagery
particularly had a valuable role to play in identifying tree crowns with red attack
damages. Similar to IKONOS, images from QuickBird can be used to map
vegetation cover at a local scale or used for validation purpose.
Table 2.3: QuickBird Satellite and Specification
Source: (Satellite Imaging Corporation, 2015)

QuickBird Satellite Specifications

Imaging Mode Panchromatic Multispectral

Spatial Resolution 2.61 meter GSD at 2.4 meter GSD at Nadir

Nadir

Spectral Range 445-900 nm 450-520 nm (blue)

520-600 nm (green)
630-690 nm (red)
760900 nm (near IR)

Swath Width 16.4 km at nadir

Off-Nadir Imaging 0-30degreesoff-nadir

Higher angles selectively available

Dynamic Range 11-bits per pixel

19
 Mission Life Ceased new collections January 27, 2015

Revisit Time Approximately 3.5 days (depends on Latitude)

Orbital Altitude 450 km

While most sensors aforementioned collect multispectral images with dozens of

spectral bands, hyperspectral imagery acquired by some other sensors may have
hundreds of spectral bands. Note that the principle for mapping vegetation cover
from remote sensing images relies on the unique spectral features of different
vegetation types.

Thus, hyperspectral imagery contains more vegetation information and can be used
for more accurate vegetation mapping. AVIRIS, for example, collects images with
224 spectral bands.

2.3.3 Landsat Series

Figure 2.8: History of the Landsat program

Source: (NASA, 2015)

Landsat imagery is available since 1972 from six satellites in the Landsat series.
These satellites have been a major component of NASA's Earth observation program,
with three primary sensors evolving over thirty years: MSS (Multi-spectral Scanner),
TM (Thematic Mapper), and ETM+ (Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus). Landsat
supplies high resolution visible and infrared imagery, with thermal imagery and a
panchromatic image also available from the ETM+ sensor.
Table 2.4: The collection of Landsat available through GLCF
Source: (NASA Landsat Program, 2003)

20
 a. MSS (Multispectral Scanner)

See instrument description under LS-1 to LS-3. However, with a new and
considerably advanced TM sensor on the same platform, the MSS instrument was
able to assume only a secondary observation role on the LS-4 and LS-5 satellite
missions. MSS instrument was turned off on LS-5 in August 1995.

Table 2.5: MSS parameters

Source: (e-Portal Directory, 2000-2016)
)

Spectral bands 0.5-0.6 m (green): mapping coastal features in sediment-laden water

0.6-0.7 m (red): mapping roads and urban areas
0.7-0.8 m (red to near IR): vegetation studies
0.8-1.1 m (near IR): vegetation studies and mapping land/water
boundaries

Spatial 80 m
resolution

Swath width 185 km

b. Thematic Mapper

TM is being regarded as a second generation imager for monitoring Earth's resources

with considerably improved spectral and spatial resolutions over those of the MSS
instrument. TM is being flown on LS-4 and on LS-5. TM is a multispectral
mechanically scanning optical imager operating in the visible and infrared regions of
the EMS (Electromagnetic Spectrum)
Band No. Bandwidth (m) Detectors Resolution (m) SNR (average)
1 0.45-0.52 (VIS, blue) SiPD (16) 30 60
2 0.52-0.60 (VIS, green) SiPD (16) 30 60
3 0.63-0.69 (VIS, red) SiPD (16) 30 46
4 0.76-0.90 (NIR) SiPD (16) 30 46
5 1.55-1.75 (SWIR) InSb (16) 30 36
7 2.08-2.35 (SWIR) InSb (16) 30 28

21
 6 10.4-12.5 (TIR) HgCdTe (4) 120

Table 2.6: TM parameter definition (LS-4/5)

Source: (e-Portal Directory, 2000-2016)
)
Table 2.7: Multi-spectral bands for ETM+ sensor

Band Spectral Band Resolution Use

1 0,45 - 0,515 m 30 m x 30 m Plant differentiation
2 0,525 - 0,60 m 30 m x 30 m Vegetation

3 0,63 - 0,69 m 30 m x 30 m Differentiate Plant

4 0,75 - 0,90 m 30 m x 30 m Biomass
5 1,55 - 1,75 m 30 m x 30 m Snow/cloud differentiation
6 10,4 - 12,5 m 60 m x 60 m Thermal
7 2,09 - 2,35 m 30 m x 30 m Lithology
PAN 0,50 - 0,90 m 15 m x 15 m -

ETM+ is an enhanced version of the previous sensor, Thematic Mapper or TM with

high resolution panchromatic wide band. Spatial resolution and temporal resolution
for this series is same from second Landsat series 30 meter and 16 days revisit time.
The altitude for this series is 705 km.

Table 2.8: Type of resolution from Landsat 8 (OLI)

Resolution Description

Spatial Resolution Panchromatic: 15m resolution

Multispectral: 30m resolution
Spectral Resolution Band 1: Blue and Violet
Band 2: Blue
Band 3: Green
Band 4: Red
Band 5: Near-infrared
Band 6: SWIR 1
Band 7: SWIR 2
Band 8: Panchromatic
Band 9: Cirrus
Band 10: TIRS 1
Band 11: TIRS 2
Radiometric Resolution The sensor collects the data with
a 16-bit
Temporal Resolution Every 16 days it will come to the
same area

22
The spectral bands of the OLI sensor, while similar to Landsat 7s ETM+ sensor,
provides enhancement from prior Landsat instruments, with the addition of two new
spectral bands: a deep blue visible channel (band 1) specifically designed for water
resources and coastal zone investigation, and a new infrared channel (band 9) for the
detection of cirrus clouds. A new Quality Assurance band is also included with each
data product. This provides information on the presence of features such as clouds,
water, and snow.

There are many types of sensors of Landsat that can be used in land or vegetation
detection. In specific of mangrove mapping and detection, there are different
technique can be applied.

2.4 Mangrove Mapping and Detection

There are many method that can be used in studying mangroves changes. The best
method of selection must be based on compliance with data, time, software and
hardware used during processing.

2.4.1 Mangrove Mapping based on Aerial Photograph

Aerial photographs record the information of energy reflected by targets in the

visible and near infrared regions and have been widely used in the mapping and
evaluation of mangrove areas worldwide (Heumann, 2011). Aerial photographs at
scales larger than 1:50,000, have high spatial resolution, allowing detailed mapping
of mangrove cover as well as the discrimination of mangrove plant species
(Dahdouh-Guebas, 2006). Thus, the use of this tool has been designed for obtaining
information on local to regional scales, especially in cases which past data are not
available and field data were not collected (Kuenzer et al., 2011a). Moreover, aerial
photographs are very suitable for highly detailed mapping in very small and narrow
coastal environments as well as for the evaluation of mapping procedures performed
with lower-resolution data (Kuenzer et al., 2011a).

23
One of the limitations of the use of aerial photograph is for mangrove mapping over
large geographic areas (Heumann, 2011) due to the need to obtain a large number of
aerial photos to cover the area of interest. The quality of images obtained by aerial
photographs, particularly images before the 90's, and shading problems caused by
clouds should also be considered. Furthermore, the application of quantitative
techniques is also limited and in general visual analysis is applied, which could
introduce interpretation and discrimination errors due to subjectivity of the
interpreter.

On the other hand, this material provides information on a broad timescale in periods
prior to the availability of satellite images and is useful for detecting long-term
spatiotemporal changes and monitoring of mangrove forests (Dahdouh-Guebas,
2006). Aerial photographs are more accessible to developing nations in which the
majority of the worlds mangroves grow and they can provide very rapid assessments
for monitoring changes (Dahdouh-Guebas, 2006) in times of crisis (Heumann, 2011).

2.4.2 Mangrove Mapping based on Medium Resolution

Medium-resolution imagery provides multispectral surface information on regional

scale and serves a multitude of applications. The availability of commercial
spaceborne satellite data for approximately three decades is useful for change-
detection applications. Change detection is a powerful tool to visualize, measure,
and, thus, to better understand trends in mangrove ecosystems. Medium-resolution
imagery (spatial resolution between 5 and 80 meters) provides a multitemporal and
synoptic view of extensive areas, making available information in different bands of
the electromagnetic spectrum (Florenzano, 2005) Currently there is a significant
number of mediumresolution optical sensor systems that can be used to accurately
map coastal wetlands.

The availability of medium spatial resolution satellite images for about three decades
has enabled temporal studies of mangrove vegetation cover (Kuenzer et al,. 2011)
These images are useful to assess the extent and intensity of changes, but they are not
suitable for analysis on detailed scales, due to the coarse spatial resolution (Krause et
al,. 2004). The findings showed here by the use of medium resolution satellite images
are important information for the regional and local management of the ecosystem,

24
subsidizing the development of adequate management strategies, according to the
natural or anthropogenic changes affecting the mangroves. In the use of medium-
resolution optical imagery for mangrove studies, Brazil is following the global
tendency, as found by (Kuenzer et al., 2011), that many papers underscore the
importance of medium-resolution imagery for mangrove-habitat mapping, wherein
Landsat TM data have been used extensively.

2.4.3 Mangrove Mapping based on High Resolution Optical Data

Images of optical systems of high spatial resolution ( 5 m) are recent products of

remote sensing and sources of large-scale and detailed information about mangrove
vegetation. These tools allow the discrimination and mapping of mangrove plant
species or assembly of plant species, detailed characterization of the canopy
structure, estimation of green biomass and leaf area index at high spatial detail
(Kuenzer et al., 2011). Many of the high-detail applications that were once
exclusively dependent on aerial photographs surveys can be currently developed with
data obtained from high spatial resolution sensors (Novo et al., 2002)

However, the use of these images is limited to applications that require synoptic view
of large areas, because it is necessary to obtain a large number of images, which may
not be available, as well as for multitemporal studies, because they are recent images
which are not obtained at fixed intervals of time (Novo et al., 2002). High resolution
images include, for example, images of the panchromatic band from sensors as HRG
(High Resolution Geometric) from SPOT-5 satellite, PRISM (Panchromatic
Remotesensing Instrument for Stereo Mapping) from ALOS satellite and HRC
sensor (High Resolution Camera) from CBERS-2B satellite.

Besides these, there are multi-spectral images of new very high resolution sensors
such as GeoEye, RapidEye, QuickBird, Worldview-2, Worldview-3 and Ikonos. In
the case of panchromatic images, its fusion with lower resolution multispectral
images (pansharpening) is a suitable technique, allowing the generation of a final
product in three colors bands and with the maximum resolution of the panchromatic
image (Santos et al., 2014)

2.4.4 Mangrove Mapping based on Airbone Hyperspectral Data

25
Hyperspectral data provide new opportunities for mapping mangrove forests by
providing a large number of very narrow bands (<10 nm) in the 0.382.5-m range.
This greatly increases the level of detail, because a characterization of the complete
spectra of mangrove cover types is possible. Measurements beyond the
nonphotosynthetic spectral range facilitate new possibilities to differentiate
mangroves based on additional components, such as leaf water content, leaf
chemistry in relation to ecosystem, and environmental changes. (Hirano et al., 2003)
applied data acquired from the Airborne Visible/Infrared Imaging Spectrometer
(AVIRIS), providing 224 bands and 20-m spatial resolution, to map the vegetation in
Everglades National Park in Florida, USA. They found that accuracies for single-
vegetation classes differed greatly, ranging from 40% for scrub red mangroves (R.
mangle) to 100% for spike rush (Eleocharis cellulosa) prairies. They attributed the
low accuracies for mangroves to the relatively low spatial resolution, the complexity
of image-processing procedures for their untrained personnel, and a lack of stereo
views (e.g., useful for canopy differentiation).

2.4.5 Mangrove Mapping based on Radar Data

There are several reasons why spaceborne and airborne radar-imagery applications
are advantageous. Radar data deliver information that is useful for characterizing the
cover extent of mangrove surfaces, structural parameters, flooding boundaries, health
status, deforestation status, and the amount of total biomass. Because of persistent
cloud cover in the tropical and subtropical regions, radar imagery is an appropriate
option compared with optical remotely sensed data.

The potential and capability of SAR data for mapping and monitoring natural
resources is already widely known, particularly in the persistent cloud-covered
humid tropic region (Hoekman et al., 2000). In the context of forest survey and
biomass indicators in Malaysian forest, however, there has been no reported works
on such an applications. Recent studies by (Hashim et al,. 1999) have shown that
coastal vegetation biomass can be estimated at reasonable accuracy using airborne
SAR in their evaluation of AIRSAR/TOPSAR data for coastal zone information
extraction. (Brown et al. 2016) investigated the potential of polarimetric target

26
decomposition for mangrove forest monitoring and analysis in Rufiji Delta,
Tanzania.

Using three ALOS PALSAR images, they showed that L-band polarimetry is capable
of mapping mangrove dynamics and is sensitive to stand structure and the
hydrogeomorphology of stands. Entropy-alpha-anisotropy and incoherent target
decompositions provided valuable measures of scattering behavior related to forest
structure. Little difference was found between Yamaguchi and Arii decompositions,
despite the conceptual differences between these models. Scattering differences
related to season were attributed primarily to differences in ground moisture or
inundation. Their results suggest that higher resolution L-band quad-polarized
imagery, such as from PALSAR-2, may be a powerful tool for mangrove species
mapping. In image processing of Mangrove mapping, there are several classification
that can be used. The selected of classification depend on the purpose.

2.5 Digital Image Classification

2.5.1 Concept of Image Classification

Image classification is perhaps the most important part of digital image analysis.
Remote-sensing classification is a complex process and requires consideration of
many factors. The major steps of image classification may include determination of a
suitable classification system, selection of training sample, image pre-processing,
and features extraction, selection of suitable classification approaches, post-
classification processing, and accuracy assessment. The users need, scale of the
study area, economic condition, and analysts skills are important factors influencing
the selection of remotely sensed data, the design of the classification procedure, and
the quality of the classification results. This section focuses on the description of the
major steps that may be involved in image classification.

2.5.2 Supervised

27
 Figure 2.10: Steps in Supervised classification
Source: (Environmental Remote Sensing, 1999)

The image processing software system is then used to develop a statistical

characterization of the reflectance for each information class. This stage is often
called "signature analysis" and may involve developing a characterization as simple
as the mean or the rage of reflectance on each bands, or as complex as detailed
analyses of the mean, variances and covariance over all bands. Once a statistical
characterization has been achieved for each information class, the image is then
classified by examining the reflectance for each pixel and making a decision about
which of the signatures it resembles most. (Eastman, 1995)

2.5.3 Unsupervised

Unsupervised classification is a method which examines a large number of unknown

pixels and divides into a number of classed based on natural groupings present in the
image values. Unsupervised classification does not require analyst-specified training
data. The basic premise is that values within a given cover type should be close
together in the measurement space, whereas data in different classes should be
comparatively well separated (Eastman, 1995).

The classes that result from unsupervised classification are spectral classed which
based on natural groupings of the image values, the identity of the spectral class will
not be initially known, such as larger scale imagery, maps, or site visits) to determine
the identity and informational values of the spectral classes.

2.5.4 Types of Classifier Algorithm

a. Maximum Likelihood Classification

The maximum-likelihood classifier is a parametric classifier that relies on the second-

order statistics of a Gaussian probability density function (pdf) model for each class.
Maximum likelihood Classification is a statistical decision criterion to assist in the

28
classification of overlapping signatures; pixels are assigned to the class of highest
probability. The maximum likelihood classifier is considered to give more accurate
results than parallelepiped classification however it is much slower due to extra
computations.

b. Decision Tree

The DTs are well-known to produce outcomes of greater accuracies in evaluation to

traditional methods minimum distance to means classifiers. DTs presentation can
be exaggerated by a numeral of aspects with pruning and boosting approaches used
and choice of thresholds (Mahesh and Mather, 2003). Decision trees have quite a few
benefits over traditional supervised classification processes used in remote sensing
for example maximum likelihood classification. In particular, decision trees are
strictly non-parametric and do not require any assumptions regarding the distributions
of the input data. In addition, they handle nonlinear relationships between features
and classes, allow for missing values, and are capable of handling both numeric and
categorical inputs in a natural fashion (Irani, 1992a). Finally, decision trees have
significant intuitive appeal because the classification structure is explicit and
therefore easily interpretable (Brodley C.E.,1997)

c. Spectral Angle Mapper

Spectral Angle Mapper Classification (SAM) is an encoded method for directly

paralleling image groups to a well-known. This technique treats both spectra as
vectors and computes the spectral angle between them. This method is insensitive to
radiance since the SAM algorithm customs simply the vector trend and not the vector
distance. The end of the SAM classification is an image display the finest competition
at each pixel. This technique is normally used as a principal cut for defining the
mineralogy and in parts of homogeneous counties.

d. Support Vector Machine

29
The support vector machines (SVMs) is grouping of linked knowledge algorithms
that have been used for classification and progression. Same as DTs classifiers, the
SVM are similarly non-parametric classifiers. The total aim by expending SVM is to
discover out in which session the new records points reduction (Otukei, Blaschke,
2010). SVMs are informed to products outcomes of upper precisions paralleled with
the outmoded methods but the product dependent on the kernel used, superior of
restrictions for the selected kernel and the technique used to create SVM
.
2.6 Types of Spectral Indices

a. Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI)

NDVI provides a measure of the amount of vegetation at the land surface. The
magnitude of NDVI is related to the level of photosynthetic activity in the observed
vegetation. Many researchers have been able to obtain useful and reliable results in
determining vegetation state using vegetation indices, such as NDVI, which are
closely related to percent cover, leaf area Index (LAI), and plant canopy (Di et al,
1994). NDVI approach is based on the fact that healthy vegetation has a low
reflectance in the visible portion of the Electromagnetic Spectrum (EMS) due to
chlorophyll and other pigment absorption and has high reflectance in the NIR
because of the internal reflectance by the mesophyll spongy tissue of green leaf 4
(Campbell, 1987).

NDVI = (NIR band Red band)/ (NIR band + Red band) (2.1)

NDVI values range from -1 to +1. Because of high reflectance in NIR portion of the
EMS, healthy vegetation is represented by values between 0.1 and 1.

b. Normalized Difference Water Index (NDWI)

This index is useful in mapping the water areas, displaying the differences in
turbidity and vegetal content of the water, erratic soil or in measuring the water
content of the vegetation. This index uses green spectral bands and near infrared
(increases the spectral feedback of the soil humidity, of the rocks and plants and the
water begins to absorb radiation from the surface layer). The dark color (values close

30
to -1) represent the water crystal, the light color (values close to +1) represent dry
land and intermediate colors (values close to 0) represent lands with intermediate
humidity content. The formula for calculating this index is:

NDWI = (NIR - G)/ (NIR + G) = (B4-B2)/(B4+B2) (2.2)

c. Normalized Difference Built-up Index (NDBI)

Using this index the light colors represent tilled land and building areas and dark
colors represent forests. The values of NDBI vary according to the spectral signature
from medium infrared and near infra red band. Light colors (positive values)
symbolize lands with buildings and dark colors (negative values) symbolize other
landscape elements. It is useful in mapping human settlements but also some
elements of surrounding constructions. The formula for calculating this index is:

NDBI = (IR - NIR)/ (IR + NIR) = (B5-B4)/(B5+B4) (2.3)

d. Normalized Difference Soil Index (NDSI)

Normally, SWIR and NIR bands are used to represent the difference in reflectance
values in soil areas. Since there is no SWIR band, but there are unique differences in
the response values of soil between the green and yellow bands, this artifact can be
exploited to represent soil.

NDSI = (Band 7-Ban 2)/(Bnad 7 + Band 2) (2.4)

2.7 Tasseled Cap Transformation

The Tasseled Cap (Kauth-Thomas) transformation is designed to analyze and map

vegetation and urban development changes detected by various satellite sensor
systems. It is known as the Tasseled Cap transformation due to the shape of the
graphical distribution of data. It was developed in 1976 by R.J. Kauth and G.S.
Thomas of the Environmental Research Institute of Michigan (ERIM). The Tasseled
Cap transformation is a special case of principal components analysis which

31
transforms the image data to a new coordinate system with a new set of orthogonal
axes. The three component is Brightness, Wetness and Greenness.

2.8 Software Used

In remote sensing field, software is the main component to do the work. All the
process the data will use the software in the computer. Several of the application
related to remote sensing can found in market such as ERDAS Imagine and e-
Cognition. In this research, it will use ERDAS Imagine 2013 and ArcGIS 10.3.
ERDAS Imagine is a remote sensing application with raster graphics editor abilities
designed by ERDAS for geospatial applications. This software aimed primarily as
geospatial raster data processing and user can prepare, display and enhance the
digital images for mapping. Refer Figure 2.10.

Figure 2.11: ERDAS Imagine 2013 (Source: ERDAS Imagine 2013)

By manipulating imagery data values and positions, it is possible to see feature that
would not normally be visible and locate geo-positions of features that would
otherwise be graphical. The level of brightness of light from the surface in the image
can be helpful to analysis vegetation process or etc.

32
ArcGIS software are used to apply of Geometric Correction through the imageries.
By using this software, the process of Tasseled Cap also can be done easily compared
by another software.

2.9 Summary

In conclusion, the difference of Spectral Indices such as NDVI, NDBI and NDSI
versus Tasseled Cap is an indicator to describe and make a comparative in terms of
greenness , brightness and wetness to the different Landsat imageries. For the
satellite, the Medium Resolution is used because its imagery provides multispectral
surface information on regional scale and serves a multitude of applications. The
availability of this satellite data for approximately three decades is useful for
changedetection applications to better understand trends in mangrove ecosystems.

33
 CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

As it is indicated in the title, this chapter includes the research methodology of the
dissertation. The concept behind research methodology, its various models and tools
used in research and importance to research strategy applied. In more details, in this
part the author outlines the research method, research approach, methods of data
collection, selection of the sample, research process, and types of data analysis,
ethical consideration and research limitation of the project.

3.2 Research Methodology

The research methodology shows an important aspect of conduction research which

reflects the process. The process through the assessment of past data of previous

34
researchers, book, articles and other sources in order to carry out personal research
on a specific topic. This would facilitate researcher in understanding the method that
would be used to gather data based on either primary or secondary source. The main
theme of the research in a specified area is to enhance the knowledge of individual
on facts of present or prove subject area or discipline. The basis of research
methodology is based on the interpretation of researchers that were initially
performed and the detailed clarification of the study (Bryman & Bell, 2007). A fresh
and innovative viewpoint area derived through the assessment and analysis of the
specified subject area.

An effectual data collection, analysis and results to be presented are required to carry
on an effective research. Research is referred to the process which strives for the
unidentified and explored new ideas. The process of data collection and
interpretation through different methods in research methodology is needed to reach
conclusive position of the study.

3.3 General Methodology

35
 Figure 3: Overview of Flowchart

3.4 Preliminary Studies and Data Acquisition

3.4.1 Study Area

Befor starting any project, the selection of an area for the project needs to be done.
The selected area must include the wholeh of Carey Island area. It is important to

36
choose the area wisely for the prject because it will make it easier to find out the data
for the project.

3.4.2 Raw Image

The Landsat images were downloaded from the USGS EarthExplorer website
(http://earthexplorer.usgs.gov/). To detect the changes of Carey Island, the image was
selected among 9 years for each variation data since year 1989 until year 2016. All
images in years 1989, 1998, 2007 and 2016 were collected at 80 m spatial resolution
and processed and distributed at 60 m resolution; the images since 1998 are at 30 m
spatial resolution. All images are publicly available for free download. The years are
selected based on the different Landsat sensors includes Thematic Mapper (TM) and
Operational Land Imager (OLI).

Table 3: The Landsat series of satellite and years of launched from L1 to L8

Satellite Year Sensor

Landsat 1 1972-1978 MSS

Landsat 2 1975-1982 MSS

Landsat 3 1978-1983 MSS

Landsat 4 1982-1993 MSS/TM

Landsat 5 1984-2013 MSS/TM

Landsat 6 1993 FAILED

Landsat 7 1999-2013 TM/ETM

Landsat 8 2013-2016 OLI

37
 Fi

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e)
gure 3.1: The different series of Landsat image of Carey Island (a) 1996. (b) 2001 ,(c) 2006,
(d) 2011 and (e) 2016

3.4.3 Topography Map

38
According to previous study (Sulong & Ismail, 2002), the mangrove detection in
Kemaman Terengganu district were done using technique of Landsat TM imageries
and aerial photographs. A researcher stated that the limitation of aerial photograph is
detected because of the coverage area is very limited to the coastal areas only.

The previous study at Matang Mangrove Forest Reserve (MMFR), Perak (Azian,
2016) was applied two types of data collection to describes the changes in mangrove
area. Multi temporal SPOT 4 images and secondary data on the mangrove was
obtained from the Forestry Department Peninsular Malaysia in used of image
classification, change detection analysis and field verification processes. Digital
change detection technique was applied on both images and the magnitude of
changes in mangrove region was analysed.

The topographic map was obtained from the Jabatan Ukur dan Pemetaan Malaysia
(JUPEM). In this thesis, topographic map as a secondary data and alternative to
detect the changes to the landscape and cultural features regularly such as roads,
vegetation, and buildings. A map legend lists the features shown on that map, and
their corresponding symbols help to provide a reference in process of making
supervised or unsupervised classification. Topographic map derived from the JUPEM
must cover the entire area of Carey Island so that changes can be detected in the area
within 5 years and 10 years starting in 1996 until 2016.

3.5 Pre Processing

The image pre-processing task reduces environmental and remote sensing distortions
of the image data sets utilised in this study. The geometric and radiometric correction
were performed to correct and produce an image that resembles the true radiant
energy and spatial characteristics of the data set at the time of acquisition to maximise
the probability of extracting useful information from the data sets (Jensen, 2005; Lu
et al., 2002; Schowengerdt, 2006).

The raw digital numbers obtained from the image dataset, which included errors
caused by changes in sensor performance and interferences from atmospheric effects
(Riano et al., 2003), were converted to radiance and then to at sensor reflectance

39
using an exo-atmospheric model as prescribed by NASA (Chander et al., 2009). The
improved image-based dark object subtraction (DOS) model was used to implement
the atmospheric correction (Chavez, 1988, 1996). The resulting at surface reflectance
values ranged from 0 to 1 but were rescaled to the range of 0 and 1000 to facilitate
the object based image analysis.

3.5.1 Layer stack

The data in the image was either in the generic binary or the GeoTIFF format. The
individual bands for each image were imported into the software and the layer
stacked to form the multispectral image. The data obtained from many remote
sensing systems is comprised of different bands, corresponding to different
wavelength. Thermal infrared band is not a requisite for the mangrove studies. It was
thus not included for the study. Only the required bands are stacked in the software,
called as the layer stacking, and the output image comprising of the requisite bands
was taken up for the study purpose.

3.5.2 Image Subset

The data will be subset or croping to the specific area that will cover the whole of
Carey Island.

(a) (b)

Figure 3.2: The subset apply on Landsat Image (a) before and (b) after apply

3.5.3 Geometric Correction

40
A geometric correction is to compensate for the distortions introduced by this factor
so that the corrected image will have the geometric integrity of a map. The geometric
correction process is normally implemented as two step procedure. First, those
distortions that are systematic, or predictable, area considered. Second, distortions
that are essentially random, or unpredictable, area considered. Systematic distortions
are well understood and easily corrected by analyzing well-distributed ground control
point (GCPs) occurring in image. Geometric correction using the reference map is
only performed at one of the Landsat TM image data. Correction for the other image
is done by correction of 29 the image to the image. Resampling the original image
into a digital value in the corrected image using nearest neighbourhood interpolation
method.

3.5.4 Atmospheric Correction

The images were atmospherically corrected by applying a first-order atmospheric

correction (dark pixel, or deep water substraction) to every image. The minimum
radiance value for each band was recorded and subtracted to all the pixels in that
band. Radiance values of 0 were ignored in the calculation in order not to have
negative values.

Figure 3.3: The flow of Atmospheric Correction process

Source: (DellAcqua Fabio, 2013)
3.5.5 Radiometric Correction

41
Radiometric correction is the conversion steps of brightness values (DN: digital
number) into the reflection of the absolute value (absolute reflectance). The basis of
this conversion step is a concept that reflected waves received by sensor
electromagnetic a unit value of energy units has units W/m/sr/ m, while the value
contained in the satellite image is the reflection of the relative values which are
realized in the digital value without units. This digital value objects do not reflect the
true reflection because it is a relative unit without the unit that is still influenced
several factors such as gain and offset, the angle of the sun and the earth sun distance
variation.

The step of the conversion of digital value to value reflection is as follows:

L = gain * QCAL + offset (3.1)

Where:
L = Spectral Radiance at the sensor's aperture in W/m/sr/m
gain = Rescaled gain (the data product "gain" contained in the Level 1
product header or ancillary data record) in W/m/sr/m.
offset = Rescaled bias (the data product "offset" contained in the Level 1
product header or ancillary data record ) in W/m/sr/m

3.6 Processing

Image Processing is the objective of the work as the pre-requisite, as it forms the
basis on which for which the classification would be carried out.

3.6.1 Spectral Indices Transformation

An index in remote sensing is the principles of operation perform a mathematical

equation at every pixel or numerical values in the various spectral bands. There have
various types of indices, but in this research it only uses NDVI. NDBI and NDSI.
After apply the spectral indices, the comparison will be determined through another
technique of processing which is Tasseled Cap Transformation.

a. NDVI

42
This index is a measure the healthy vegetation. It is combination between normalized
difference formulation and use of the highest absorption and reflectance regions of
chlorophyll make it robust over a wide range of conditions. The value of this index
ranges from -1 to 1.

b. NDBI

Normalized Difference Built-up Index (NDBI) is used to extract built-up features and
have indices range from -1 to 1. This index highlights urban areas where there is
typically a higher reflectance in the shortwave-infrared (SWIR) region, compared to
the near-infrared (NIR) region.

c. NDSI

Nomalized Difference Soil Index (NDSI) a numerical indicator that combines blue,
red, near infrared and short wave infrared spectral bands to capture soil variations.
These spectral bands are used in a normalized manner. The short wave infrared and
the red spectral bands are used to quantify the soil mineral composition, while the
blue and the near infrared spectral bands are used to enhance the presence of
vegetation.

3.6.2 Tasseled Cap Transformation

Tasseled Cap index is calculated from data of the related six TM bands and three of
the six tasseled cap transform bands are often used is shown in Table 2.7:

Table 3.1: Tasseled Cap Transform Bands (Source :Shima, 2011)

Bands Characteristics

Band 1 Brightness, measure of soil

Band 2 Greenness, measure of vegetation

Band 3 Wetness, interrelationship of soil and canopy moisture

43
For each type of Landsat, it has its own coefficient value. For the Landsat 8, the TCT
coefficients are not same like Landsat 4 and Landsat 5.

Table 3.2: TCT Coefficient for Landsat 8 (Source: Hasan et al., 2014)

Blue Green Red NIR SWIR 1 SWIR 2

(Band 2) (Band 3) (Band 4) (Band 5) (Band 6) (Band 7)
TCT

Brightness 0.3029 0.2786 0.4733 0.5599 0.508 0.1872

Greenness -0.2941 -0.243 -0.5424 0.7276 0.0713 -0.1608

Wetness 0.1511 0.1973 0.3283 0.3407 -0.7117 -0.4559

TCT4 -0.8239 0.0849 0.4396 -0.058 0.2013 -0.2773

TCT5 -0.3294 0.0557 0.1056 0.1855 -0.4349 0.8085

TCT6 0.1079 -0.9023 0.4119 0.0575 -0.0259 0.0252

The Tasselled Cap Transformation for Landsat 4 and 5 imagery is calculated with the
following coefficients:

Table 3.3: TCT Coefficient for Landsat 4 and 5 (Source : Atiqa, 2014)
Blue Green Red NIR SWIR 1 RIR (Band
TCT (Band 1) (Band 2) (Band 3) (Band 4) (Band 5) 7)
TCT1 0.3037 0.2793 0.4343 0.5585 0.5082 0.1863

TCT2 -0.2848 -0.2435 -0.5436 0.7243 0.0840 -0.1800

TCT3 0.1509 0.1793 0.3299 0.3406 -0.7112 -0.4572

TCT4 0.8461 -0.0731 -0.4640 -0.0032 -0.0492 0.0119

TCT5 0.0549 -0.0232 -0.0339 -0.1937 0.4162 -0.7823

TCT6 0.1186 -0.8069 0.4094 0.0571 -0.0228 -0.0220

3.6.3 Regression Analysis

Regression analysis is done by using Excel software that use statistical calculations to
model the relationship between the different spectral index versus tasselled cap result.

44
The regression analysis method is used because is a simple and produce accurate
results if the processing of data is done correctly.

3.7 Summary

In this chapter have been show and explan about all process involved in this study to
interpret the information of satellite images. In pre-processing have several process
that including geometric, atmospheric and radiometric correction. Pre-processing was
a first step after the raw image was obtained. In processing, NDVI, NDSI, NDBI and
Tasseled Cap was important technique to achieve the objective of the study. The
relationship between all the spectral indices with Tasseled Cap was used to analyze
the status of the mangrove in terms of greenness, wetness and brightness.

CHAPTER 4

45
 RESULT AND ANALYSIS

4.1 Introduction

In this chapter of the research, all the result will be covered based on the data
collection and processing to achieve the objectives of the study. Under this chapters,
the detail result data analysis will provide from processing these images:
Spectral Indices Transformation

Tasseled Cap Transformation

All the result uses the images from sensor Landsat which is Thematic Mapper and
OLI. The images from sensors cover the status of mangrove in between 5years and
10 years from 1996 to 2016. That means this research to compare the technique of
selected Spectral Indices and Tasselled Cap in mangrove status detected based on
difference selected years. All the processing from will show in this chapter in order
to achieve the objectives.

4.2 Image Pre Processing

The data collection has been showing in chapter 3. After the data collection is
complete, the images must be identifying what types of the crop have in the image.
Each of Landsat imageries must be correct in terms of Geometric, Atmospheric and
Radiometric before does the processing.

a. Geometric Correction

Raw data image that downloaded from USGS usually contain a geometric distortion
and cannot be used directly. The sources of these distortion images from instability
condition of sensor platform and satellite. The purpose of geometric correction is to
reduce this factor of distortion so the image can be in its right position.

46
 Figure 4: RMS Error of the Georeference Process

In ArcGIS, georeferencing is done to map the coordinate system and by georeference

the raster dataset, the location of the map coordinates can be define. RMS error of the
image will be shown and the total RMS error for georeference process must be less
than 4. Based on figure 4, the total RMS for the georeferencing process is only
0.000015. This process is done at the first stage processing to correct the coordinate
of Topographic Map of Carey Island which is in GDM 2000 to MRSO.

b. Atmospheric

Based on figure 4.2, clear areas as well as haze can separated by applying haze
reduction through atmospheric correction.

(a) (b)

Figure 4.1: The image show (a) before and (b) after applies the haze reduction
in atmospheric correction
c. Radiometric Correction

47
When the emitted or reflected electromagnetic energy is observed by a sensor on
board an aircraft or spacecraft, the observed energy does not coincide with the energy
emitted or reflected from the same object observed from a short distance. This is due
to the sun's azimuth and elevation, atmospheric conditions such as fog or aerosols,
sensor's response which influence the observed energy. Therefore, in order to obtain
the real irradiance or reflectance, those radiometric distortions must be corrected.

(a) (b)
Figure 4.2: The figure of Band 1 of Landsat (a) before and (b) after correction reflectance
value with sun angle

Based on figure 4.2, the lowest of reflectance value is changes from 0 to -0.01 after
apply the radiometric correction. While the highest of reflectance value of Band 1 is
changes from 255 to 0.972.

4.3 Spectral Indices Transformation Assessment

This part is only represented the image result through the different spectral indices
method applied. Figure 4.3, Figure 4.4 and Figure 4.5 will show the results obtained
by three different spectral indices process which are Normalised Difference
Vegetation Index, Normalised Difference Built-up Index (NDBI) and Normalised
Difference Soil Index (NDSI). Each of figure will be divided onto 5 years starting
from 1996 to 2016.

4.3.1 NDVI

48
 (a) 1996 (b) 2001

(c) 2006 (d) 2011

(e) 2016

Figure 4.3 : The NDVI result shows areas where mangrove was detected within the scene of years
(a) 1996, (b) 2001, (c) 2006, (d) 2011 and (e) 2016

.3.2 NDBI

49
 (a) 1996 (b) 2001

(c) 2006 (d) 2011

(e) 2016

Figure 4.4 : The NDBI result shows areas where mangrove was detected within the scene of years
(a) 1996, (b) 2001, (c) 2006, (d) 2011 and (e) 2016

4.3.3 NDSI

50
 (a) 1996 (b) 2001

(c) 2006 (d) 2011

(e) 2016

Figure 4.5 : The NDSI result shows areas where mangrove was detected within the scene of years
(a) 1996, (b) 2001, (c) 2006, (d) 2011 and (e) 2016

4.4 Tasseled Cap Transformation Assessment

51
In this process, image of Carey Island will be used to show the characteristic of
mangrove in terms of greenness, brightness and wetness. This part will represent
only the result that obtained from Tasseled Cap processing. Figure 4.6, Figure 4.7
and Figure 4.8 will show the result of each terms between years 1996 to 2016.

4.4.1 Tasseled Cap Greenness (TCG)

Figure 4.6 : Tasseled Cap Transformation result shows areas wheres Greenness was detected within
the scene of years (a) 1996, (b) 2001, (c) 2006, (d) 2011 and (e) 2016
4.4.2 Tasseled Cap Brightness (TCB)

52
 (a) 1996 (b) 2001

(c) 2006 (d) 2011

(e) 2016

Figure 4.7 : Tasseled Cap Transformation result shows areas wheres Brightness was detected within
the scene of years (a) 1996, (b) 2001, (c) 2006, (d) 2011 and (e) 2016

4.4.3 Tasseled Cap Wetness (TCW)

53
 (a) 1996 (b) 2001

(c) 2006 (d) 2011

(e) 2016

Figure 4.8 : Tasseled Cap Transformation result shows areas wheres Wetness was detected within the
scene of years (a) 1996, (b) 2001, (c) 2006, (d) 2011 and (e) 2016

4.5 Relationship between Spectral Indices and Taselled Cap Transformation

54
This part will discuss the relationship between the Dfferent Spectral Index and
Tasseled Cap Transformation through the quantitave and qualitative method for each
year from 1996 to 2016.

4.5.1 Analysis NDVI vs TCG

Based on Figure 4.9 (a), the image is show a combination of (i) NDVI, (ii) Tasseled
Cap Greenness and (iii) NDVI versus TCG in 1996. The areas of dark green in image
(i), represent the highest values of NDVI, while the lowest value represented from
the area of lighter colours. By using the Tasseled Cap Greenness method in image
(ii), the highest values of Greenness are focused on the area of dark green and the
lowest of greenness values is the area of lighter colours.

Figure 4.9 (a): The relationship between NDVI and Tasseled Cap Grenness in 1996
Based on the graph (iii), when the lowest of greenness is -0.2, the range of values
NDVI is from -0.5 to -1. Meanwhile, 0.5 was the highest of greenness level and have
the highest range of NDVI value which is from 05 to 1. The directly proportional

55
graph between NDVI and TCG on image (iii) explain clearly that there is a
relationship between the two techniques have been applied to the image. NDVI
values have influence and correlated from the greenness level

Figure 4.9 (b): The relationship between NDVI and Tasseled Cap Grenness in 2001

The red arrows in each image shows a specific reference that describes the
differences that apply to each year from 1996 to 2016. Refer to the figure above,
different from the previous year 1996, the greenness changed from 0.6 to 0.3. While
at the same time, a decrease in NDVI values range between from 0.6-1 to range 0.4 -
0.6. It can also be viewed visually on the image (i) and (ii) in the figure above, when
there is a change in color from 1996. This factor caused the number of chlorophyll in
vegetation is decreasing and causing reflections and NDVI greenness become lower.
Based on the image, the arrow indicates that the entire region is experiencing a
change in the location of a dark green color of diminishing returns for the year. This
is clearly seen in the image (i) NDVI and (ii) TCG listed above. The graph also

56
shows the change in the value of NDVI greenness and the range corresponding to the
visual changes. Factors may change due to development began to build around the
area, and is a threat to the mangrove.

Figure 4.9 (c): The relationship between NDVI and Tasseled Cap Grenness in 2006

Based on the two figure 4.9 (d) 2011 and (e) 2016, there is a huge difference to the
overall area of Pulau Carey. This is clearly seen in the image (i) NDVI in both years
is that the loss of a dark green color. Images (ii) TCG on both figures also clearly
show a very significant difference from the start of the green color of the previous
year to dark purple and then increasingly in 2016. The change is visually evidenced
by the graph that there thru on both figure ,

57
 Figure 4.9 (d): The relationship between NDVI and Tasseled Cap Grenness in 2011

Greenness value decreased and reached the lowest level of -0.15 in 2011 Figure 4.9
(d). Changes in the greenness is also in line with the decline in the value of NDVI to
the lowest range of the estimate of -0.4 - -0.6. The decline in both the number of
proving that the amount of greenness in Carey Island extinction and diminishing.

58
 Figure 4.9 (e): The relationship between NDVI and Tasseled Cap Grenness in 2016

Roughly 2016 can be said to be somewhat similar changes that occurred in 2011.
This level can be seen in both images greenness (d) and (e) have different color
changes of the previous three years. However, changes in 2016 were higher when
compared to more closely. Graph 2016 shows the lowest amount at the level of
greenness at range -0.4 -to -0.6. Reduction in the amount of the last year compared
to 2011 proved that Carey Island was faltering destruction of greeneress at that time.

4.5.2 NDSI vs TCB

The Normalized Difference Soil Index (NDSI) is a simple graphical indicator which
was used to analyze remote sensing measurements and to assess whether the target
being observed soil water content . The graph shows the relationship between soil

59
index and Tasseled Cap Transformation in terms of Brightness. Basically, brightness
and wetness are using the same combination of Band 3 and Band 1. But, brightness is
more related and depending on the value of surface temperature.

Figure 4.10 (a): The relationship between NDSI and Tasseled Cap Brightness in 1996

The light brown in image figure 4.10 (a) (i), represent the medium and dark brown
shows the highest values NDSI at that time in Carey Island. By using the Tasseled
Cap Brightness method in image (ii) on the figure above, the dark purple represents
the highest values of Brightness and the dark brown colours show the lowest of
values.

60
 Figure 4.10 (b): The relationship between NDSI and Tasseled Cap Brightness in 2001

The red arrows in each image shows a specific reference that describes the
differences that apply to each year from 1996 to 2016. Refer to the figure above,
different from the previous year 1996, the highest of brightness changed from range
1 - 1.5 to the range 4-6. While at the same time, a decrease in NDSI value range
between from -0.8 - -0.9 to range -0.9 - 1. But from the viewed on the image (i) and
(ii) in the figure above, there is a inverse changes in colour. When the dark purple
turn to medium level which is light brown colour (ii), the medium level of (i) NDSI
is turn to dark brown which is the highest level This factor caused the type of soil
content and thermal conductivity is two example of the factor of NDSI and
brightness values reflected.

Based on the two figure 4.10 (c) 2006 and (d) 2011, there is a huge difference to the
overall area of Pulau Carey. This is clearly seen in the image (i) NDSI in both years
is that the dark brown become separately and become lowest level. But, (ii) TCB
shows clearly show a very significant difference from the start of the dark purple

61
which is the lowest of the previous year to the highest level in 2006 and 2011. The
change is visually evidenced by the graph that there thru on both figure.

Figure 4.10 (c): The relationship between NDSI and Tasseled Cap Brightness in 2006

Figure 4.10 (d): The relationship between NDSI and Tasseled Cap Brightness in 2011

62
 Figure 4.10 (e): The relationship between NDSI and Tasseled Cap Brightness in 2016

However, the changes in 2016 were higher when compared to more closely other
than previous year . Graph 2016 shows the lowest amount at the level of brightness is
increase at range 0.4 05. While, the number of NDSI is more decrease than 2011
which is to the range -0.8 - -1. This reduction in the amount of the last year compared
to 2011 proved that Carey Island is starting to the development process.

4.5.2 NDBI vs TCW

63
By using the same combination band with the term brightness which is band 3 and
band 1, wetness is related to moisture or humidity of a surface of the object. Based
on the figures below, the highest value of NDBI is the lowest value of wetness.
While, the lowest value of NDBI given, the highest value of wetness represent. It
shows that, the NDBI is inverse proportional with the value of Wetness. The lowest
of NDBI area in Carey Island, the highest of wetness values reflected.

Based on figure 4.11 and figure 4.12, the light turquoise in (i) NDBI image represent
the lowest values. While, the dark colour of orange in (ii) TCW image show the
highest value at that time. It is means the largest area of vegetation or water, the
lowest values of NDBI reflected.

Figure 4.11 (a): The relationship between NDBI and Tasseled Cap Wetness in 1996

64
 Figure 4.11 (b): The relationship between NDBI and Tasseled Cap Wetness in 2001

Based on the figure 4.11 (b), the red arrow on image (i) NDBI shows the highest
values in 2001. But the image (ii) TCW shows the lowest level reflected visually.
That is means, the more built up area the less of wetness level reflected. Highest
wetness may be caused by the existence of mangrove much at that point. Turning to
next year, image (c) 2006 indicates the wetness level decreases, but still in the
medium level in coastal areas.
Image (d) 2011 (e) 2016 showed significant changes in the wetness provided
through satellite images. The colour changes from dark brown to blue light indicates
that the life of the mangrove suffered destruction when it was. This causes changes in
the wetness and then continued fall in both years.

65
Figure 4.11 (c): The relationship between NDBI and Tasseled Cap Wetness in 2006

Figure 4.11 (d): The relationship between NDBI and Tasseled Cap Wetness in 2011

66
 Figure 4.11 (e): The relationship between NDBI and Tasseled Cap Wetness in 2011

The figure 4.11 (e) shows the huge difference occured towards Carey Island. The red
arrow in the image (i) NDBI, show the location of built up area at that time. While
the red arrow for image (ii) shows the lowest level of Wetness reflected. The
development that occured in Carey Island destroyed the status population of
Mangrove. This is also caused the level of wetness reflected become more less than
previous years.

4.6 Comparative analysis between Spectral Indices in multiple time series

4.6.1 5 YEARS

67

Figure 4.23: The relationship between NDBI and Tasseled Cap Wetness in 2016
 (a) 1996 (b) 2001

(c) 2006 (d) 2011

(e) 2016

Figure 4.12 : NDVI image of Carey Island between 5 years (a) 1996, (b) 1996 to 2001, (c) 2001 to
2006, (d) 2006 to 2011 and (e) 2011 to 2016
a. NDSI

68
 (a) 1996 (b) 2001

(c) 2006 (d) 2011

(e) 2016

Figure 4.13: NDSI image of Carey Island between 5 years (a) 1996, (b) 1996 to 2001, (c) 2001 to
2006, (d) 2006 to 2011 and (e) 2011 to 2016

b. NDBI

69
 (a) 1996 (b) 2001

(c) 2006 (d) 2011

(e) 2016

Figure 4.14: NDBI image of Carey Island between 5 years (a) 1996, (b) 1996 to 2001, (c) 2001 to
2006, (d) 2006 to 2011 and (e) 2011 to 2016

4.6.2 10 YEARS

70
a. NDVI

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 4.27: NDVI image of Carey Island between 10 years
(a) 1996, (b) 1996 to 2006 ,(c) 2006 to 2016

b. NDSI

(a) (c)
(b)
Figure 4.28: NDSI image of Carey Island between 10 years
(a) 1996, (b) 1996 to 2006 ,(c) 2006 to 2016

c. NDBI

71

(a)
 (c)
(b)
Figure 4.29: NDBI image of Carey Island between 10 years
(a) 1996, (b) 1996 to 2006 ,(c) 2006 to 2016

4.7 Summary

Based on this research, it can conclude that there is the result of determining the
changes of the mangrove status by using the Different Spectral Index and TCT
method.

Based on view as a human,t he images from the Different Spectral Index give more
precise image of classification compare to Tasseled Cap Transformation. This is
because the method of Tasseled Cap is hard to make a difference of features
reflected.

Futhermore, in this chapter have been show all the result previois process include
pre-processing, images of Carey Island by NDVI, NDBI and NDSI also by using the
technique of Tasseled Cap.

72
 CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION

5.1 Introduction

This chapter will discuss about the conclusion from all the results and analysis obtain
from the study and how the objectives relate to the analysis. Analysis about the
different spectral indices and Tasselled Cap Transformation technique will be
discussed in this chapter. Several recommendations are also listed for the further
study in determining status changes of mangrove.

5.2 Summary of Finding

As informed in the early chapter, the study was carried out at Carey Island to see the
changes of status mangrove between year 1996 and 2016. The area is chosen because
Carey Island is one of the largest mangrove areas that which has suffered the
destruction of mangrove habitat due to rapid development. All the three objective
states on the chapter 1 have been reaffirm. The objective reaffirm is:

5.2.1 To correct each Landsat image through Geometric, Atmospheric and

Radiometric correction.

This is the first objective during carry out this research, based the image have on this
research, this objective carry out successfully done.The objective has been achieved
by getting the result of the Geometric Correction by using ArcGIS software.

73
5.2.2 To determine the greennes, brightness and wetness of the respective
mangrove imageries through different Spectral Indices and Tasselled Cap
transformation methods on 1996 to 2016.

The second objective has been achieved by the analysis between the NDVI, NDSI,
NDBI and Tasselled Cap Transformation technique. The images produce to show in
terms of qualitative method in detect of mangrove changes.

5.2.3 To analyze quantitative and qualitatively the variation of greenness,

brightness and wetness based on the Different Spectral Indices and Taselled Cap
throughout the selected years from 1996 to 2016.

The third objective is achieved through the line graph that have show the
relationship between NDVI versus TCG, NDSI versus TCB and NDBI versus TCW.

And lastly it can conclude for the objective on this research topic is, the research is
successful but must have improvement on the research later. It cans stronger data to
get the best result.

5.3 Recommendation

The recommendation for the research will carry out later is by comparing with better
resolution image such as SPOT. Because when this research carries out the result
show, the low resolution images cannot give the best result cause their resolution
especially on the small area.

Second recommendation is, the images must make in the same time frame or almost
the same time. It is because when the time frame is bigger difference, it is make the
result in the fair condition. By using the same time frame, the change detection will
be more clealy and the area for every changes occured can be counted.

74
5.4 Final Remarks

For the overall this research it can be conclude the aim and objective on this research
is successfully achieved. The aim for this research is to detect the status of mangrove
by usin the Different Spectral Index versus Tasseld Cap Transformation. Both of the
method give the results and can compare between the images. And all the objectives
can be achieved.

75
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