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a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: This review highlights key catalytic discoveries and the main industrial catalytic processes over the last
Received 18 January 2012 300 years that involved commodities, ne chemicals, petrochemicals, petroleum transformation for fuels
Received in revised form 4 April 2012 and energy supply, emission control, and so forth. In the past, discoveries have often followed events such
Accepted 5 April 2012
as wars or embargos, whereas the current driving forces of studies, researches and then discoveries aim
Available online 10 May 2012
at a better understanding of catalytic processes, at reducing the costs of raw materials and processes, at
developing new catalytic materials and at addressing environmental issues. This review focuses on the
Keywords:
history of many catalytic industrial processes, environmental issues, catalytic materials, especially their
Heterogeneous catalysis
History
expected catalytic properties, on catalyst characterisation by physical methods and development of in situ
Industrial realisations conditions, i.e., characterisation under actual working conditions with reactants and products analyzed
Future on-line. Emphasis is also placed on high selectivity in catalytic reactions and the major challenges for the
Challenges future, such as environmental issues, energy supply, pollution control for vehicles and industrial plants,
New materials air/VOCs/water purication, hydrogen sources and carbon dioxide storage/up grading, transformation of
Chemicals biomass as a promising source of raw materials, and catalytic water splitting perspectives.
Energy This review is a survey of heterogeneous catalysis and is not comprehensive but leads to the conclusion
Environment
that, although many catalysts and catalytic processes have already been discovered and developed over
the past century, many opportunities nevertheless exist for new developments, new processes and new
catalytic materials. It follows that substantial challenges exist for the younger generation of researchers
and engineers, as emphasized at the end of the manuscript.
2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
0920-5861/$ see front matter 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cattod.2012.04.003
I. Fechete et al. / Catalysis Today 189 (2012) 227 3
Table 1
Historical aspects in heterogeneous catalysis [713].
and less-capital-incentive processes and the use of cheaper feed of a molecular-level understanding of catalyst function, sur-
stocks are preferred. Since the end of the twentieth century, soci- face sensitive spectroscopies, in situ/operando characterisation
etal concerns have also become an important modern motivation, techniques, scientic computing, quantum chemistry, molecular
with intensive research being devoted to convert by-products to modelling, thermodynamics and kinetics, reaction and reactor
useful products and to treat all kinds of wastes for the preserva- modelling, high-throughput catalyst screening and testing, and
tion and protection of the environment. More stringent legislation so forth. Signicant improvements have been made in all of these
has been established which has led to research on new catalytic domains, and further developments should continue in the future.
materials and more efcient processes. More specically, with
respect to environmental issues, hydrodesulfurization started in 2. The catalysts
the 1960s as an important method for the removal of sulfur from
fuels. Hydrodesulfurization has resulted in a considerable reduc- Since ancient times, the development and use of materials have
tion in global emissions of sulfur oxides, while creating increased been one of the basic objectives of our world. Eras, the Stone Age,
demand for the selective methane reaction (SMR) for H2 produc- the Bronze Age, and the Iron Age, have been named after the funda-
tion; auto emission control catalysts developed in 1974 (oxidation), mental material used by mankind to construct their tools. Materials
1978 (three-way), and in the 1990s (Pd three-way); the selec- science is the modern activity that provides the raw material for this
tive catalytic reduction of NOx by NH3 or N2 H4 (SCR) for power endless need, demanded by the progress in all elds of industry and
plants in 1980 using V, W, and Ti oxides extruded into mono- technology, for new materials for the development of society.
lith forms [14]; ozone emission control catalysts developed by The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC)
Engelhard (now BASF); the replacement of CFCs by HCFCs for the has dened a catalyst as a substance that increases the rate of
reduction of topospheric ozone concentration (ozone holes), the a reaction without modifying the overall standard Gibbs energy
catalytic destruction of volatile organic compounds from the con- change in the reaction [15]. The chemical process of increasing
sumer products industry; the production of foods and chemicals; the reaction rate is called catalysis, and the catalyst is both a reac-
the development of diesel oxidation exhaust catalysts in 1990 using tant and a product of the reaction, i.e., the catalyst is restored after
cerium salt as additive; a variety of solutions that use metal oxides each catalytic act. Furthermore, the catalyst does not inuence the
for catalytic decomposition of N2 O (which resulted in an 81% reduc- thermodynamical equilibrium composition after the cessation of
tion of all N2 O emissions from the world adipic acid plants); the the reaction.
development of PtRh-alkali NOx storage catalysts; the develop- More efcient catalytic processes require improvements in the
ment of the Toyota Motor in 1994; the development of diesel catalytic activity and selectivity. Both aspects can be improved
particulate elimination catalysts in 2003; the development of urea by the tailored design of catalytic materials with the desired
SCR for NOx emissions control in vehicles in 2004; the development structures and the desired dispersion of active sites. Materials
of NOx removal in FCC regenerator units in 2007, and so forth. such as zeolites, AlPO, SAPO, mesoporous materials, PILC, MOFs,
New studies have also appeared in the past two or three decades etc. offer such possibilities in this regard, with controlled large and
under driving forces considered as pushers for the development accessible surface areas of the catalysts but without standalone
4 I. Fechete et al. / Catalysis Today 189 (2012) 227
ne particles. Moreover, one of the most important applica- by twelve SiO4 tetrahedra. The medium-pore zeolites, such as pen-
tions of these novel porous solid catalysts is the replacement tasil zeolites, contain a ten member ring with an ellipsoidal tubular
of environmentally hazardous, corrosive, difcult-to-separate- diameter of 0.55 0.56 nm. The system of channels and cavities in
and-dispose-of homogeneous catalysts (viz. mineral and Lewis these molecular sieves produces solids with very high surface areas
acids, organic and inorganic bases and toxic metallic compounds) and pore volumes, which are capable of adsorbing large amounts
employed in the liquid-phase synthesis of bulk and ne chemicals of hydrocarbons.
(vide infra) [16]. There are many families of solids catalysts like Zeolites can be used as sorbents and as catalysts in some cat-
metals, oxides, suldes, carbons, etc. as bulk materials or supported alytic processes. The major breakthrough in zeolite catalysts arose
on a more or less catalytically active support like silica, alumina, from the uid catalytic cracking (FCC) process for oil transforma-
zirconia, titania, ceria, carbons, etc. These materials may possess tion to fuels and chemicals. The addition of zeolites (FAU and MFI)
specic chemical properties, such as acid-base or redox or dehy- to acid clays and silicaalumina cracking catalysts in the mid-1960s
drogenating or hydrogenating or oxidizing, and physical properties resulted in a drastic increase in conversion and gasoline yields as
like porosity, high surface area, attrition resistance, thermal and/or well as in lower quantities of coke and dry gas [18]. The new cata-
electrical conductivity, etc. The largest family corresponds to lysts gave gasolines with lower octane numbers, primarily because
oxides whatever zeolites, clays, mesoporous materials, mixed of their lower olenicity [1921]. The rst octane-enhancing FCC
oxides as catalysts or as supports. Among them porous materials catalysts were introduced by catalyst manufacturers in USA in the
present some fascinating properties, which are described below. mid-1970s. Octane FCC catalysts consist of two major components,
and the zeolites can be used to boost gasoline octane. Chester et al.
2.1. Zeolites [22] have reported that, in addition to MFI (ZSM-5), different mem-
bers of the MFI family of zeolites (MEL, ZSM-12, ZSM-23, ZSM-35,
In the petrochemistry and organic synthesis elds, zeolites have ZSM-38) have octane-boosting abilities. Zeolites beta (BEA) [23]
played a major role in the twentieth century. Zeolites are inorganic and offretite (OFF) [24] have been reported to produce higher gaso-
crystalline aluminosilicates which structures consist of a three- line octane numbers than conventional Y (FAU) zeolites and can be
dimensional arrangement of TO4 tetrahedra (where T is usually used as octane-boosting additives.
Si4+ and Al3+ tetrahedrally coordinated atoms) assembled together Major milestones in this domain are summarized below:
through the sharing of oxygen atoms to form subunits, which repeat
to form an innite lattice [17], consisting of three-dimensional, R. Milton (Union Carbide in 1950s), D. Breck, R. Barrer and E. Flani-
fourfold interconnected TO4 tetrahedra linked via TOT bridges. gen developed commercially viable routes to various zeolites and
The TOT angles are ideally 140150 and rarely over 180 . The MeAPOs.
existence of Al in a tetrahedrally coordinated Si structure leaves a J. Rabo, working at Union Carbide, applied the use of zeolites to
negative framework charge, which requires the existence of com- petroleum rening (isomerization, 1959), whereas C. Plank and E.
pensating cations, located in the porous system. Rosinski of Mobil Oil applied zeolites to catalytic cracking (1962)
Consequently, an interesting feature of zeolites is the versatility of heavy oil fractions.
of their structures that arises from a large number of modica- P. Weisz and V. Frilette of Mobil Oil developed the concept (1960)
tion procedures which also tailor their catalytic properties. The of shape-selective catalysts, and W. Haag applied shape selectiv-
catalytic activity is associated with the presence of active centres ity to the production of aromatics.
in the framework. Such centres may be acid, their strength and G. Kerr of Mobil Oil discovered high silica zeolites in 1967 (ZSM-5,
number (Brnsted, Lewis) being adjusted in a controlled manner subsequently designated as MFI) and the rst large scale commer-
either during synthesis by isomorphous replacement of the central cial cracking trial was run in 1983.
Si atom in tetrahedral sites in the zeolite lattice, by for example W. R. Grace discovered the steaming of Y zeolite to produce ultra-
trivalent elements like Al, B, Fe, Cr, Sb, As, or Ga, and tetravalent stable Y (USY) zeolite in 1969.
elements like Ge, Ti, Zr, or Hf; and/or post-synthesis including the Mobil Oil developed the siliceous mesoporous-type materials
steam procedure, chemical vapor deposition, ion exchange of inter- designated as MCM, HMS, and so forth in the late 1990s.
stitial cations, reduction of exchanged metal ions to a lower valence M. Taramasso, G. Perego, and B. Notari discovered TS-1 (titanium
state. silicalite-1 with the MFI structure), a selective oxidation catalyst
A distinction has been made between small-, medium- and for the epoxidation of olens, at ENI-SNAM Progetti in 1983.
large-pore zeolites. In the case of small-pore zeolites, such as zeo- UOP/HYDRO (1995) developed SAPO-34, a silicoaluminophos-
lite A, eight SiO4 tetrahedra form a ten member ring (10MR) with phate molecular sieve applied for methanol to olens (MTO
a diameter a 0.41 nm and in the case of large-pore zeolites, such process).
as Y-zeolite (Fig. 1), a cavity with a diameter of 0.74 nm is formed
Another fascinating property of zeolites arises from their molec-
ular size porous network, which allows certain reactants to enter
and products to easily leave the pores or cavities, or to remain
trapped, or to leave the pores with difculty if they are too bulky.
This concept, of shape selectivity, pioneered by Mobil scientists
[25], has been developed to explain reactions that do not obey
the classical laws of thermodynamics and that are strongly inu-
enced by the size of the pores or cavities relative to the size of
the reactant or product molecules. Matching the size and cong-
uration of reacting molecules, intermediates and products with
the geometry and tortuosity of the zeolite channel/cavity system
provides the basis for controlled shape selectivity. Diffusion and
shape-selectivity catalysis in zeolites have been reviewed in sev-
eral publications [2628]. However, the shape selectivity in zeolites
can manifest itself through: reactant selectivity, product selec-
Fig. 1. Framework of Faujasite (FAU) zeolite (Y or X-Type Si/Al = 2.5 or 1). tivity, transition-state selectivity, molecular trafc control, etc.
I. Fechete et al. / Catalysis Today 189 (2012) 227 5
Fig. 2. Illustration of a molecule in a pore and shape selectivity in dealuminated mordenite zeolite.
The reactant selectivity, results in the exclusion of molecules too corresponding transition state would require more space than is
large to diffuse into the zeolite pores; a simple example is the dehy- available in the pores. Molecular trafc control [29] occurs in zeo-
dration of alcohols. Over the narrow-pore zeolite (CaA), n-butanol lites with two types of channel systems. The relationship between
is dehydrated, and isobutanol is not. Conversely, as expected, isobu- the length of the molecules and the size of the zeolite cage as well
tanol is more readily dehydrated than n-butanol over NaX (which as variations in molecular oscillations [30] also affect zeolite shape
has wider pores). The former result is readily explained because selectivity. In addition to geometric factors, shape selectivity can
both forms can enter NaX, but the bulkier isobutanol is excluded be due to electrostatic effects [31] which result from the interaction
from CaA product selectivity. In addition to size exclusion, entrance between the electric eld at the pore mouth and the dipole moment
to zeolite crystals may hinder when the unfavorable orientation of of the reactant molecule. Such an interaction can favour or inhibit
a reactant is caused by electrostatic effects. In this case, the align- the diffusion of the reactant molecule into the zeolite.
ment of a zeolitic electrostatic eld (perpendicular to the plane of The shape selectivity of zeolites can be modied by ion
the window) and a molecule dipole may restrict entry by electro- exchange, dealumination, changes in the framework Si/Al ratio, or
static repulsion, which allows only small molecules formed during by any modication that affects the pore size or geometry [3245].
the reaction to diffuse out of the zeolite pores. For example, in the The shape selectivity of a zeolite is often characterized by its con-
alkylation of toluene by methanol over H-MFI, yields of p-xylene are straint index, which is the ratio of the cracking rate constants for
enhanced because the diffusivity of p-xylene is much greater than n-hexane and 3-methylpentane [46]. Large-pore zeolites have con-
that of o- and m-xylenes (vide infra). Even if the primary product of straint indices less than 1; medium-pore zeolites have constraint
alkylation is not rich in p-xylene, its more rapid exit from the zeo- indices between 1 and 12; small-pore zeolites have constraint
lite allows further isomerization of o- and m-xylenes and results in indices higher than 12.
increased yields of the p-isomer. Restricted transition-state selec- The shape selectivity phenomenon is illustrated in
tivity occurs when certain reactions are prevented because the Fig. 2 for the synthesis of 4,4 -di-isopropyl-biphenyl and 2,
Fig. 5. Adipic acid processes using the old process (left) and the new process (right).
Fig. 7. Historical view of functions of coordination polymers reported from 1990 to 2005. Structures of 3-D porous coordination polymers, [Cu(SiF6 )(4,4 -bpy)2 ]n (1, left),
[Zn4 O(BDC)3 ]n (2, right), and the 1-D oxygen array are listed [124].
8 I. Fechete et al. / Catalysis Today 189 (2012) 227
Fig. 8. Self-assembly of polymetallic cluster nodes (left; top: m4-oxo {M4 O(-CO2 )6 }; bottom: {M2 (-CO2 )4 } paddlewheel) and organic linkers (right) yielding metalorganic
frameworks (center) [125,126].
dealumination. p-Xylene formed within the supercages as a pri- pore system. The crystallized materials consist of alternating AlO2
mary product would be isomerized to o- and m-xylene by the acid and PO2 tetrahedra joined together into electrovalently neutral,
sites not only on the external surface but also within the 10-MR three-dimensional frameworks whose structure depends upon the
channels. The improvement in the para selectivity by dealumina- preparation conditions. These frameworks contain no Al O Al
tion resulted from the suppression of isomerization activity; the or P O P bonds. The AlPO4 -5 structure consists of 4- and 6-
dealumination treatment probably eliminated framework Al atoms membered rings joined together to form the unidimensional
predominantly on the external surface and inside the 10-MR chan- cylindrical channels of 12-membered rings with a free diame-
nels compared with those inside the supercages [102]. ter of approximately 0.8 nm [106,107,50,108,109]. The porosity
Many other ne-chemical reactions have been developed by of the structures described by Union Carbide researchers varies
Corma, Garcia and their teams [2] at ITQ, Universidad de Valencia, from very small pores (0.3 nm) to relatively large pores (0.8 nm).
Spain. These reactions pertain largely to the eld of applications of Because AlPO4 frameworks are neutral, they have no ion-exchange
zeolites in catalysis, which has previously been limited to petro- capacity. They exhibit good thermal and hydrothermal stability
chemical reactions. and have weakly acidic catalytic properties. The absence of strong
acidity limits the application of these materials in cracking catal-
2.2. AlPO4 -n SAPO4 -n, Me-AlPO4 -n, Me-APSO4 -n ysis. By isomorphic substitution of a series of elements into the
AlPO4 framework, a new generation of crystalline molecular sieves
In the early 1980s, the discovery of a new family of molecu- was prepared [110]. The elements include framework cationic
lar sieves was reported by researchers at Union Carbide. Wilson species that range from monovalent to pentavalent, such as Li,
et al. [104,105] described the microporous aluminophosphates pre- Be, B, Mg, Si, Ga, Ge, As, Ti, Mn, Fe, Co, and Zn. The addition of
pared hydrothermally from alumina, phosphoric acid and an amine silicon to the aluminum and phosphorous framework elements
or quaternary ammonium salt as organic templates. The product results in silicoaluminophosphate (SAPO) molecular sieves [111].
composition for these materials is xRAl2 O3 1.0 0.2 P2 O5 yH2 O, The SAPO structures are mildly hydrophilic and have low-to-
where R is an organic template located in the intracrystalline moderate acidity, depending upon the silicon concentration and
Fig. 9. MOFs structures: Left: MIL-53, metal terephtalate (with Al, Cr, Fe ou V), which captures hydrogen into the framework formed of tunnels. Centre and right: MIL-100,
whose octahedra, constituted by chromates (CrO6 ), organise in tetrahedra and form cavities of diameter 23 nm as observed by electron microscopy from [127].
I. Fechete et al. / Catalysis Today 189 (2012) 227 9
Table 2
Comparison of MOFs with zeolites for some properties relevant to catalysis [131].
molecules can access the large pores, which should be important for but well for ne chemistry under more gentle reaction conditions.
catalytic purposes, if the MOF structure has been functionalised or Already many papers have appeared for some reactions such as
has active sites and presents accessible framework atoms or metal oxidation, Lewis-type reaction of cyanosilylation of acetaldehyde
cationic sites (Table 2). [137], etc.
Garcia et al. have described [131] the use of metalorganic It is clear that catalytic studies with MOFs are in their infancy.
frameworks (MOFs) as heterogeneous catalysts for oxidation reac- It is certainly possible to go into more sophisticated materials with
tion using hydroperoxides or molecular oxygen. The authors have organic ligands between the metals could be formed by transition
limited themselves to the oxidation of cycloalkanes, oxidation of metal complexes with one or two metals at controlled distance.
benzylic positions, oxidation of cycloalkenes and aerobic oxidation Such types of materials will allow synthesis of heterogeneous cat-
of alcohols, but many more oxidation reactions may be imagined alysts based not only on transition metal complexes but also by the
and studied. The use of MOFs as catalysts for enantioselective oxida- combination of mono- or multimetallic sites. Such design may lead
tions has also been considered with the peculiarity of the required to materials having a catalytic behaviour similar to that observed
oxidants and the advantages of having homo chiral MOFs. with enzymes.
Main applications of MOFs concern: adsorption, gas storage The possibility to synthesise MOFs with a large variety of transi-
(H2 , CO2 , etc.), gas separation, acid (Lewis; Brnsted), basic, redox tion metals could be largely exploited for Lewis acid-type catalysis,
and enantioselective (chirality) catalyses, biomass transformation, provided that the metal is accessible (free valency available) and
biomimetism, enzymes, drug delivery, magnetism, non linear optic, able to accept electrons from the reactant. In addition, the organic
lasers, sensors, luminescence, etc. In catalysis, the thermal stability component of the MOF should support acid, base, or acid-base
and leaching have been a big problem for many years and restrained pairs and should allow one to perform successive reactions. There
researches, but now some new systems have been claimed to be sta- may be interest in the chemical industry in exploiting MOFs as
ble up to 500 C. The MOFs may not replace zeolites in petrorening heterogeneous catalysts. Examples include epoxide ring aperture
with alcohols by zinc carboxylates, ne chemical reactions as Fries
rearrangements, acylations, alkylaromatic oxidation using cobalt
salts in acetic acid, etc. MOFs offer also some promises as enan-
tioselective catalysts, a topic that has not been possible to develop
using zeolites. Asymmetric syntheses are routinely practiced in the
synthesis of drugs, and these reactions are almost completely per-
formed using expensive homogeneous catalysts. By using chiral
ligands, a vast number of new MOFs could be available and tested
in this eld. Considering the simplicity of the synthesis of MOFs and
their affordability, it will be important to know if MOFs can outper-
form in large-scale or asymmetric reactions to replace expensive
homogeneous processes.
Finally, there is a need for theoretical studies in this new eld,
assisting the design of MOFs and providing insight into the interac-
tion of the substrates and MOFs. Clarifying the reaction mechanism,
the geometry of the transition states, and the controlling step in the
reaction mechanisms may help to develop MOFs in which each of
the components plays the expected role, as catalytic sites of natural
enzymes.
Fig. 13. World energy consumption in 2005 (13 TW or 87 Gbarrels oil) [245].
have advantages compared with the exclusively micro- or meso- 2.8. Mesoporous materials
porous materials. The reactant molecules are thus expected to
diffuse more easily [140] within these pores to reach the active Many mesoporous silica-type materials have been synthesized
zeolite sites. These materials provide better hydrothermal stability in the years after the pioneering works by Mobil researchers
[141], better multifunctionality to process a large variety of feed- on the M41S family (MCM-41, MCM-48, MCM-50) [166168].
stocks, more controlled leaching rates for a constant and gradual MCM-n mesoporous materials are synthesized using surfactants
release of active components, and are more capable of encap- as structure-directing agents and can be characterized by well-
sulating wastes in the micropores [142144]. Different porous dened pores of tunable sizes in the range between 2 nm and 10 nm
materials that combine micro- and meso-pores, such as SBA-15, and by specic surface areas between 600 m2 g1 and 1300 m2 g1 .
plugged hexagonal templated silica (PHTS), mesoporous aluminum The most representative M41S materials are MCM-41 and MCM-
silicates (MAS), mesoporous titanium silicates (MTS), UL-ZSM-5, 48. MCM-41 consists of regular pseudo-one-dimensional pores
and zeolites, have been developed within the last few years. Of in a honeycomb arrangement, whereas MCM-48 exhibits cubic
these materials, the latter four are mesoporous materials built up symmetry that consists of two interwoven but unconnected three-
from zeolite precursors. Such porosity in the mesoporous mate- dimensional pore systems of cylindrical pores. MCM-48 is more
rials with zeolite character can be created after synthesis by difcult to synthesize and high-quality materials can typically be
chemical treatments, including hydrothermal, acidic, basic, desili- obtained in the pore-size range between 2 and 5 nm [169]. MCM-50
cation/dealumination [2] or recrystallization treatments [145,146], comprises a lamellar phase. Independently, a family of mesoporous
or templating [147149] or carbon-based [150153] approaches. silica materials with properties similar to those of MCM-41 was
Desilication in alkaline media has become a widely applied prepa- discovered [170,171]; an important member of this family is FSM-
ration method to tailor these modied zeolites because of the 16 [171]. At the microscopic scale, these materials are essentially
methods optimal combination of efciency and simplicity. Alka- amorphous. Whereas the pore diameter range of MCM-41 mate-
line treatment is also a key step in strategic combinations with rials is restricted to 10 nm, ordered mesoporous silica with pore
other post-synthesis modications. diameters up to approximately 30 nm (SBA-15) can be obtained
using an amphiphilic block copolymer as a template [172,173].
2.7. Carbon materials SBA-15 (similar to MCM-41) consists of a hexagonal packing of
cylindrical channels; however, depending on the details of the
Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) constitute another class of porous synthesis procedure, this material can possess irregular intrawall
materials. They have been widely studied since their discovery micropores that connect adjacent channels [174,175]. Moreover,
in 1991 [154]. CNTs have highly unique electronic, mechanical, a great variety of mesoporous materials have been synthesized,
catalytic, adsorption, and transport properties, which make them such as SBA-1, SBA-2, SBA-12, SBA-16, HMS [176], MSU [177],
interesting for a variety of applications. Carbon multiwall nano- KSW-2 [178180], TUD-1 [181], periodic mesoporous organosilicas
tubes (MWNTs) and single-wall nanotubes (SWNTs) should be (PMOs) [182184], nanoporous carbon with ordered mesostruc-
distinguished. They are easily fabricated and may be employed tures [CMK-1, CMK-3) [185,186]. Pure-silica mesoporous materials
either as catalyst supports, by entrapping active moieties within the are known to exhibit low catalytic activity because of the absence of
pores, or to improve photoconversion and electrical energy storage active sites, which typically require heteroatoms. Therefore, one of
(vide infra) [136,155160]. Other forms of nanographitic carbon the emerging trends in the area of mesoporous materials synthe-
may also prove to be promising in the development of renewable sis is the incorporation of heteroatoms that serve as catalytically
energy devices. For example, graphene, which consists of a sin- active sites. Considerable research interest currently exists in the
gle sheet of graphite, is considered a promising form of carbon for preparation and use of heteroatoms that contain mesoporous sil-
device engineering applications and catalysis [161165]. A signi- icas as heterogeneous catalysts. Several elegant procedures have
cant volume of literature devoted to graphene and other forms of been reported for the incorporation of heteroatoms that also per-
carbon, including graphitic nanobers, has suggested that CNTs are mit the design of the catalysts with active sites located on highly
not the only promising nanostructures for either photoconversion accessible internal surfaces of the pore channels. These proce-
or electrical energy storage applications. The highly unique physical dures include impregnation [187190], grafting by liquidsolid
properties of carbon nanotubes have been demonstrated for a vari- reaction [191196], grafting by gassolid reaction [197], graft-
ety of photovoltaic devices as well as for improved Li-ion batteries ing by solidsolid reaction [198,199], isomorphous substitution
and electrochemical capacitors. [200210], molecular designed dispersion approach [211213] and
12 I. Fechete et al. / Catalysis Today 189 (2012) 227
template ion exchange method [214,215]. The objective was to syn- ee from virtually zero to values ca. 40% in the reaction of methyl
thesize porous materials able to accommodate bulky molecules and phenyldiazoacetate with tetrahydrofuran.
thus treat heavier petroleum feedstocks. For example, the intro- The idea is to graft, anchor or thether catalytic active entities
duction of Al into such silica frameworks led to medium-strength to mesoporous silica. These species may be identical or different
acidity compared with the acidity of normal zeolites because of which may lead to bifunctional, trifunctional entities within the
larger Si O Al bond angles. The applications of such materials in pores. Their proximity may result in synergistic effect for some
petrochemistry were subsequently limited. At present, research is reactant within a conned space and opens an important eld of
focused on the introduction of catalytically active functions within discovery of new catalysts, by taking advantage of continuum range
the mesopores (i.e., functionalization of the walls) or of nanopar- of distance between anchored functional groups and intrinsic active
ticles of metals or oxides. Interesting results were obtained; sites on the support surface. Synergistic effects within anchored
however, to our knowledge, no study has yet produced a break- bifunctional catalysts, between two anchored functional groups,
through in catalytic processes. H-Al-MCM41 materials have been and between the anchored groups and hydroxyl groups on solid
used as catalysts for the conversion of a large variety of substrates surface have been used to synthesise multifunctional catalysts. Lets
in reactions as diverse as hydrocarbon cracking, hydrocracking and also remind that synergistic effects are widely utilized in nature
hydroisomerization, olen polymerization, oligomerization and such as for enzymes which with limited functional groups can cat-
isomerization, FriedelCrafts aromatic and phenol alkylations and alyze many reactions smoothly with high activity and selectivity at
acylations, acetylazations, Beckmann rearrangements, glycosida- near room temperature. [244]
tion, aldol condensations, and Prins condensations. Several reviews
on the subject have been published [2,216,217].
3. Energy resources
Interesting results for the metal-mesoporous materials were
reported with respect to the FischerTropsch reaction [218,219],
Currently, petroleum and natural gas represent more than 60%
hydrodesulfurization [220222], the conversion of methylcy-
of the primary energy supplied to 7 billions inhabitants on earth.
clopentane [199,201], the acylation of phenol [223], the naph-
Coal also remains an important source of energy, primarily in Asia.
thalene hydrogenation [224], the hydrogenation of arenes [225],
Whether used for energy production, transport, heating or as a
cyclohexane hydrogenation [226], NO reduction with CO [227],
source of chemical raw materials, the consumption of oil, natu-
the acylation of aromatic compounds [228], the benzoylation of
ral gas and coal is expected to rise in the near future, while the
benzene [229], the metathesis of oct-1-ene [230], and the photocat-
development of alternative sources is expected to rise rapidly after
alytic decomposition of NO [231], the oxidation reactions [232,233]
a slow development in the past 20 years. The signicant increase
and soforth.
in energy demand over the past twenty years has primarily been
satised by increasing the production of fossil sources. Because of
2.9. Versatile heterogeneous catalytic systems
this situation, several governments are approving new laws aiming
to reduce CO2 emissions by promoting the utilization of renewable
Combining connement and synergy effects has appeared
energy sources and biofuels. The total world consumption in 2005
recently as a promising way to synthesise efcient and versatile
was of 13 TW (87 Gbarrels of oil), of which 81% came from fossil
heterogeneous catalytic systems. For instance, many studies have
resources, as shown in Fig. 13.
been performed in the past half century to immobilize homo-
Ten percent of the world energy use is derived from biomass,
geneous catalysts on solid supports to synthesize heterogeneous
and 7% is derived from nuclear power. Nuclear power is desirable
catalysts [234], known to result in easy separation of the catalyst
as long as the isotope uranium-235 (235 U) is employed. However,
from the reactants and products. Originally, the active centres were
a less than twenty-year supply of U235 , which may be recovered
designed to be away from a support surface in order to minimize the
at a reasonable cost, is available. When the supply of 235 U will be
support destructive inuence on the catalytic sites and to maintain
exhausted, it will then be necessary to employ breeder reactors.
the homogeneous metal complexes environment of ligands with
Unfortunately, the by-product of this reaction is the very hazardous
a long spacer and thus catalytic properties [235]. Later on, it was
element, plutonium-239, 239 Pu (238 U 239 Pu). Moreover since the
observed that a support can even have some benecial effects on
disaster following the tsunami in Japan in 2011 and the collapse of
the anchored homogeneous catalysts [236] such as connement
the nuclear plant in Fukushima, the construction of nuclear plants
[237] and synergy effects [238240]. Heterogeneous bifunctional
have been hardly questioned in many countries, although nuclear
and even trifunctional catalysts could then be prepared and stud-
power is non CO2 producer and non fossil resource consumer.
ied because a synergy between multifunctional groups could be
developed within conned spaces. An important further objective
was to try to synthesise heterogeneous catalysts with enantioselec- 3.1. The case of oil
tivity enhanced after chiral catalysts are introduced into conned
spaces. For example, Raja and Thomas [241] have shown that, It is difcult to evaluate the exact oil reserves because it cor-
compared with the racemic products obtained in homogeneous responds to rough estimations called current reserves, which are
catalysis, improved enantioselectivity (ee% 5394%) in asymmetric contingent resources (conventional and extra-heavy + bitumen)
hydrogenation reactions was obtained after chiral RhI complexes concentrated in a limited number of countries (Saudi Arabia, with
were introduced into the channels of mesoporous silica. He et al. 20%, Iran, Iraq, and Venezuela; these four countries possess 50%
[242] have also shown that after a bifuntional catalyst, 9-thiourea of the world reserves), with 75% in concentrated in 11 countries.
epi-quinine, was incorporated in the channels of mesoporous silica The current reserves correspond to approximately 1000 Gbarrels
SBA-15, the heterogeneous catalyst exhibited improved selectiv- therefore, approximately 35 years of production at actual consump-
ity and enantioselectivity (92.5% selectivity and 99.2% ee versus tion level, but less than the oil already extracted) and one may
83.8% selectivity and 93.2% ee) in asymmetric FriedelCrafts reac- add 200 Gbarrels for conventional resources and 200300 Gbarrels
tion between indoles and imines. more for extra-heavy oil and bitumen. Oil is extracted either by
Layered compounds, with two-dimensional exible interlayer simple pumping (20% of world production), by the injection of
regions, are also promising supports for the immobilization water (2/3 of oil produced), or by the injection of water + chemicals
of homogeneous catalysts. For instance, the immobilization of or gas (air, CO2 or gas produced (15%)). Efforts to discover new
copper complexes in laponite clay was found [243] to increase the resources are clearly important, and the substitution of oil by
I. Fechete et al. / Catalysis Today 189 (2012) 227 13
Biomass, i.e., all products from plants (crops, algaes, wood, agri-
cultural wastes, etc.), has emerged as an important future source
of energy and raw chemicals to replace, at least in part, coal, oil
and natural gas. The origin of biomass from CO2 and water under
solar photons and chlorophyll to produce sugar blocks at the ori-
gin of cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, and so forth is well known.
Lignin constitutes one of the three major components of ligno-
cellulosic biomass; the other two components consist of cellulose
and hemicellulose. Lignin is a three-dimensional amorphous poly-
mer that consists of methoxylated phenylpropane structures. In
plant cell walls, lignin lls the spaces between cellulose and hemi-
cellulose and acts as a glue that holds the lignocellulose matrix
together. Cross-linking with the carbohydrate polymers then con-
fers strength and rigidity to the system [245,247].
In 2005, more than 3% of the total energy consumption in the
United States was supplied by biomass, and it recently surpassed
Fig. 14. Some perspectives of oil demand in a near future from WEO 2006. Note that hydroelectric energy as the largest domestic source of renewable
billions tonnes should read giga tonnes. energy. Similarly, the European Union receives approximately 66%
of its renewable energy from biomass, which surpassed the total
combined contribution from hydropower, wind power, geother-
mal energy, and solar power. In addition to energy, the production
renewable energies is vital. Some prospects are presented in of chemicals from biomass is also essential because it is the only
Fig. 14. renewable source of liquid transportation fuel.
Over the last 30 years, three generations of biomass products
have emerged [248,249], which are distinguished by their nature.
3.2. Perspectives with natural gas (NG) Whereas oil was the principal source of energy in the twentieth cen-
tury, the 21st century is expected to bring new sources of energy,
Natural gas constitutes the largest reserves of fossil resources. particularly renewable energies such as bioenergies [248].
Eleven countries possess 75% of world gas resources, with 45% for Three strategies for biomass valorization can be followed [249].
Russia, 28% for Iran, and 25% for Qatar. The current reserves are In the rst strategy, biomass is gasied to syngas or degraded by
estimated to reach 175200 Tm3 (T = tera = 1012 ); however, large pyrolysis to a mixture of small molecules, which can be used to
resources exist in the form of methane hydrates, which are located produce chemicals using technologies developed for petroleum
primarily in Polar Regions or in deep-water acreage. Natural gas feedstocks. In the second strategy, extensive removal of the func-
can be used as an energy source (in power plants or as a heating tional groups present on the lignin monomers yields simple
source, for instance), but it can also be transformed into many aromatic compounds, such as phenol, benzene, toluene and xylene.
basic materials for chemicals. Nevertheless, currently, only its These platform chemicals are then reacted in a second step using
conversion to syngas via steam reforming, partial oxidation or existing catalytic technology developed for petroleum reneries
autothermal oxidation appears to be industrially viable [246]. All to produce bulk and ne chemicals. In the third strategy, biomass
direct transformations to, for instance, methanol, dimethyl ether, is converted directly to valuable chemicals in a one-pot process,
formaldehyde, aromatics, or olens are still not economically which requires highly selective catalysts that eliminate functional-
viable. This lack of viability constitutes a real challenge for the ities and linkages. This strategy is best suited for the production of
future, although many approaches have been attempted over the ne chemicals with a high degree of functionality, such as vanillin,
past 50 years, starting with the dimerization reaction in the 1970s, that already resemble the lignin structure; however, more com-
without commercialization success. The main possible reactions plicated target molecules may also be produced with additional
are summarized below: improvements in catalytic technology. Indeed, this approach could
yield a plethora of complex aromatics that are not otherwise read-
Steam reforming H0 298 (kJ mol1 ) ily available via conventional petrochemical routes. Because none
1. CH4 + H2 O CO + H2 206
2. Cn Hm + nH2 O nCO + (n + m/2) H2 1175 (for nC7 H16 )
of these strategies is expected to yield a single product in high
3. CO + H2 O CO2 + H2 (WGS) +41 yield, product separation is an important component of each pro-
cess. In each case, after the catalytic processing of the lignin stream,
CO2 (dry) reforming
4. CH4 + CO2 2CO + 2H2 247 the chemicals or fuels produced must be puried, which obviously
must be taken into account in evaluations of the environmental
Autothermal reforming (ATR)
impact of the whole process. Components from the cellulose and
5. CH4 + 1 O2 CO + 2H2 O +520
6. CH4 + H2 O CO + 3H2 206 hemicelluloses streams are integrated within the lignin framework,
7. CO + H2 O CO2 + H2 +41 but the process arrows are not fully depicted for clarity [245]
Catalytic partial oxidation (CPO)
Fig. 15.
8. CH4 + 1/2O2 CO + 2H2 +38 The transformation of cellulose, which is the main constituent
of the most abundant renewable lignocellulosic feedstock and is
Total oxidation
9. CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2 O +802 non-edible, into chemicals and fuels has attracted signicant atten-
tion in recent years. Compared with other conversion routes, such
Boudouard reaction
10. 2CO C + CO2 +172
as high-temperature gasication and pyrolysis and enzymatic fer-
mentation, a low-temperature and selective catalytic route for the
The main chemical products from natural gas are summarized transformation of cellulose in, e.g., a water medium, into a plat-
in Table 3. form molecule, which may be facilely transformed into valued
14 I. Fechete et al. / Catalysis Today 189 (2012) 227
Table 3
Main chemical products from natural gas.
Products Production (Mtons/y) Energy consumption (GJ/t) CO2 (t/t) Main technology
chemicals and fuels in the subsequent step, is more desirable. Glu- It can be concluded that biomass is currently the leading renew-
cose, polyols, organic acids, and 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (5-HMF) able energy source in the world. Moreover, the introduction of
are all promising platform molecules. Some bifunctional catalysts biomass into energy systems presents certain advantages, such
and catalytic systems that contain both acidity for the hydrolysis as a reduction in greenhouse gas emissions, because its synthe-
of -1,4-glycosidic bonds in cellulose and metal nanoparticles for sis uses CO2 and water. However, its mobilization still presents
the hydrogenation or oxidation of monosaccharide to polyols or many challenges relative to the competition between uses and
organic acids have been developed [250256]. the management of local natural resources (e.g., water, soil, bio-
Some analogies can be drawn between the twentieth century diversity, farmer land and forest private properties). Therefore, the
petroleum renery and the twenty-rst century biorenery. In the technologies involved should be structured so that this resource
beginning, the petroleum renery made few products and incor- is developed to be truly sustainable. Two technologies exist for
porated little chemical and energy components. The development the production of diesel replacement fuels: vegetable-oil methyl
of the petroleum renery required considerable effort-spanning esters (VOME) and hydrotreated vegetable oils (HVO). The latter
decades-to become the highly efcient, integrated system that oils, blended with kerosene, have begun to be used as aviation
exists today. Many of the breakthroughs that allowed this remark- fuel.
able transformation involved advances in catalysis. Similarly, Crop yields depend on the nature of the biosource, as detailed
current bioreneries, which are still in their infancy, produce rel- in Table 4. Wood is an important source for lignin. The production
atively few chemicals (primarily ethanol or bio-oils) with little and transformation of wood into biofuel is presented in Table 5.
chemical and energy integration. Analogous to the history of the Algae as oil seed appears to be particularly efcient (yield of
petroleum renery, with the development of catalytic technology, 70 t ha1 and fuel efciency of 14 toe ha1 ), whereas sugar cane
the biorenery may become an efcient, highly integrated system and sugar beets have high yields (ca. 70 t ha1 ) but lower fuel ef-
to meet the chemical and fuel requirements of the twenty-rst cen- ciency (ca. 3 toe ha1 ). For comparison, the majority of the other
tury. To realize this system, in addition to the catalytic conversions biomass resources have yields of 1020 t ha1 and efciencies of
of cellulose and hemicellulose, the lignin fraction of biomass should 24 toe ha1 . The cultivation of microalgae to produce oil biomass,
be transformed from a low-quality, low-price waste product into a cellulose or hydrogen is free of many terrestrial constraints. Such
high-quality, high-value feedstock for bulk and specialty chemicals microalgae are cultured in photobioreactors and need only be in
by the development of the appropriate catalytic technology. The proximity to water, light, heat and CO2 . Microalgae constitute the
direct transformation of lignin into valued chemicals appears to be prevailing trend in current research.
more difcult than the transformation of cellulose. However, this In the future, solar, geothermal, wind and presumably nuclear
transformation is critical because lignin represents the only viable power plants will presumably be used for electricity; biomass,
renewable source for the production of the aromatic compounds natural gas, coal and oil will be used for syngas and chemi-
on which society currently depends. cals, hydrogen will be used for GTL and hydroprocessing, and
Fig. 15. Lignocellulosic biorenery scheme with particular emphasis on the lignin stream [245].
I. Fechete et al. / Catalysis Today 189 (2012) 227 15
Table 4 change in the Gibbs free energy as a function of temperature and the
Crops mobilised for energy pruposes versus total production in 2007.
corresponding decreasing equilibrium constant as the temperature
Total harvest (Mt) % for bioenergies is increased. Low temperatures thermodynamically favour higher
Corn 606 0.3 CO conversion. For maximum efciency and economy of operation,
With USA 120 1 many plants operate both a high-temperature stage (350400 C)
Rape sunower 77 17 and a low-temperature stage (180240 C). The commercial cata-
With USA 23 51 lyst is composed of copper, zinc oxide, and alumina. The copper and
Soybean 221 1
zinc oxide forms are stable under WGS reaction conditions. Copper,
With USA 144 2
Palm oil 193 0.2 the active species, remains active at temperatures as low as 200 C.
With Asia 165 0.3 The zinc oxide provides some protection of the copper from sulfur
Sugar beet 247 4 poisoning by reacting with adsorbed sulfur compounds while also
With EU 115 8
acting as a support for the copper. Because of the relatively low
Sugar cane 1591 15
With South America 641 37 melting point of copper, the commercial low-temperature stage
Wheat 606 0.3 catalyst is more sensitive to deactivation caused by sintering. Dif-
With EU 120 1 ferent catalysts are employed in the WGS reaction, including Fe
From FAOSTA, FAPRI. [260,261], Ni [262,263], Cu [264,265], Ru [266,267], Au [268,269],
Pt [270].
The essential role of the industrial WGS reaction is to increase
reneries will be used to produce heat, electricity, transports, and the production of hydrogen for renery hydroprocesses, bulk stor-
bulk chemicals (CO2 sequestration). age and redistribution. This role includes the need for gases of
appropriate H2 /CO ratios in the production of organic bulk chem-
4. Hydrogen as a future energy source icals such as ammonia, methanol, and alternative hydrocarbon
fuels through FischerTropsch synthesis. These gas mixtures, when
The future supply of energy is dependent on hydrogen as a applied in industry, are usually referred to as synthesis gas, or
clean energy carrier. Hydrogen can be produced from fossil fuels, syngas, and are produced in large-scale facilities by the high-
water electrolysis and splitting or biomass. However, the current temperature reaction of carbonaceous materials in the presence
debates concerning hydrogen economy are intimately linked to the of water or oxygen and supported-nickel catalysts.
clean production of hydrogen from fossil fuels (e.g., natural gas,
coal propane, methane, gasoline, light diesel), from dry biomass 4.2. Hydrogen production by steam reforming of ethanol
and biomass-derived liquid fuels (e.g., methanol and biodiesel),
and from water. Because of the low cost and wide availability of Ethanol is an excellent candidate for the production of hydro-
coal, coal gasication to syngas and then to hydrogen through the gen. The aim of the procedure for the steam reforming of ethanol
watergas shift (WGS) reaction is a promising route to cheap hydro- is to generate a large amount of hydrogen and carbon diox-
gen. The success of such a hydrogen production route will only be ide by breaking the ethanol molecule in the presence of steam
possible if carbon dioxide is sequestered safely and economically. over an appropriate catalyst [271275]. However, numerous reac-
The key to the cost effective conversion of coal to hydrogen and car- tion pathways occur in the ethanol steam-reforming process that
bon capture is the development of nanomaterials, such as catalysts depends on the nature of the catalysts used. These pathways
for the WGS reaction and inorganic membranes for hydrogen/CO2 include the dehydration of ethanol to ethylene and water followed
separation. In the future, hydrogen will be the dominant fuel and by ethylene polymerization to form coke [276], the decomposi-
will be converted to electricity in fuel cells, leaving only water as a tion or cracking to methane followed by steam-reforming [277],
product. dehydrogenation to acetaldehyde [274] followed by decarboxy-
lation or steam-reforming of C2 H4 O, decomposition into acetone,
4.1. Watergas shift reaction (WGS) CH3 COCH3 , followed by steam reforming [278], and steam reform-
ing of ethanol to syngas [274]. These processes are accompanied by
Since the early 1940s, the WGS reaction has represented an the watergas shift reaction, coking reaction, and other reactions.
important step in the industrial production of hydrogen [257]. Tremendous progress is needed to obtain a highly selective catalyst
Interest in the study of WGS catalysts has recently been renewed to develop a process for hydrogen generation by ethanol steam-
because of the importance of such catalysts in PEM fuel cell appli- ing, which is a sustainable solution for the problem of hydrogen
cations [258,259]. The WGS reaction is an old industrial process in production.
which water in the form of steam is mixed with carbon monoxide to
obtain hydrogen and carbon dioxide. The WGS reaction is reversible 4.3. Water splitting as a hydrogen source [279]
and exothermic. Because of its moderate exothermicity, the WGS
reaction is thermodynamically unfavorable at elevated tempera- Pure hydrogen may be the nal destination in the evolution
tures, as illustrated by the continuous decline and eventual sign of fuel usage from coal to petroleum to natural gas, which has
Table 5
Commercial uses of wood (in Mm3 ) and breakdown of conventional energy uses in 2007.
Wood harvest Sawn wood Wood for paper Wood for board Wood for fuel Fuel wood %
followed a trail of increasing hydrogen content. A major bottleneck starting point for practical applications or the critical conver-
for the hydrogen vehicle is the issue of hydrogen storage. Hydrogen sion efciency of light energy to hydrogen from photocatalytic
has the highest energy per unit mass, but occupies a large volume. water decomposition (15%). Therefore, more efcient visible-
Even in liquid form, the energy density of hydrogen is only 8.4 MJ/L, light-driven photocatalysts need to be developed to allow the
compared with 31.6 MJ/L for gasoline. MIL-53 is a potentially useful construction of the necessary high-efciency and cost-effective
material for hydrogen storage, as are graphene [280] and bimetallic water-splitting systems. To develop more efcient visible-light-
Pd-based alloys. driven photocatalysts, the band gaps need to be narrowed to
Because of its high energy capacity and environmental friendli- harvest visible light in longer-wavelength regions of the spec-
ness, hydrogen has been identied as a potential energy carrier in trum and to enhance the photogenerated charge separation during
many low-greenhouse-gas (GHG) energy scenarios. In a proposed photocatalysis. Band-gap engineering for the modication of the
hydrogen energy system, hydrogen-containing compounds, such as band structure of semiconductor photocatalysts using ion dop-
fossil fuels (mainly methane), biomass, or even water, are potential ing, semiconductor sensitization, or solid solutions all present
sources of hydrogen. When hydrogen is derived from hydrocar- signicant opportunities to render such materials active in the
bons such as fossil fuels or biomass, the capture and sequestration visible-light region. Computational predictions based on rst-
CO2 are required in a low-GHG scenario. Although hydrogen pro- principles calculations could provide an efcient way to identify
duced from water does not present the challenge of unwanted candidates.
emissions at the point of conversion, it does require that energy be The loading of co-catalysts on the surface of the host photocat-
supplied from an external resource. If this energy can be obtained alysts has been shown to be rather effective in inhibiting charge
from a renewable energy source, such as solar energy, hydrogen recombination. Alternative, more economical co-catalysts, such as
can then be considered a green energy alternative, and it is becom- the non-noble metals and other derived metal-based compounds,
ing increasingly relevant in our world. However, the technology also need to be tested as possible substitutes for the most frequently
to produce hydrogen in a cost-effective, low-GHG manner has used noble metals, such as Pt, which is very efcient but expen-
not yet been developed. Since the discovery of hydrogen evolu- sive. In addition, new insights are needed into the water-splitting
tion through the photoelectrochemical splitting of water on n-type mechanism, particularly regarding the identication of any ther-
TiO2 electrodes, the technology of semiconductor-based photocat- modynamic and kinetic bottlenecks. Such determinations would
alytic water splitting to produce hydrogen using solar energy has facilitate the design of the most effective photocatalytic water-
been considered one of the most important approaches to solv- splitting systems.
ing the world energy crisis. Consequently, the development of the Presently, the available efciency for overall water-splitting
necessary semiconductor photocatalysts has been the subject of systems for the simultaneous production of hydrogen and oxy-
considerable research. Over the past 40 years, many photocatalysts gen under visible-light irradiation is still low because of the
have reportedly exhibited high photocatalytic activities for split- fast charge recombination and backward reactions. To achieve
ting water into a stoichiometric mixture of H2 and O2 (2:1 by molar enhanced and sustainable hydrogen production, the continuous
ratio) in the UV-light region. These photocatalysts include La-doped addition of electron donors is required to make up half of the
NaTaO3 , Sr2 M2 O7 (M = Nb, Ta), La2 Ti2 O7 , K2 La2 Ti3 O10, NiO/NaTaO3 water-splitting reaction to reduce H2 O to H2 . These sacricial
and -Ge3 N4 , among others, photocatalyst, which shows the high- electron donors can irreversibly consume photogenerated holes
est activity, with a quantum yield of 56% at 270 nm. However, these and thus prohibit undesirable charge recombination. Taking into
oxide photocatalysts are only active under UV irradiation. With account the decreasing cost of solar-to-H2 energy conversion, pol-
respect to the solar spectrum, only a small fraction (ca. 4%) of the luting byproducts from industries and the low-cost renewable
incoming solar energy lies in the ultraviolet region, whereas the vis- biomass from animals or plants are preferential sacricial electron
ible light in the solar spectrum is far more abundant (ca. 46%). It is donors in water-splitting systems. At little or no cost, they could
essential, therefore, as an alternative to UV-active photocatalysts, be exploited to simultaneously accomplish the task of hydrogen
to develop visible-light-driven photocatalysts that are stable and production and that of waste treatment and biomass reforming.
highly efcient for the practical, large-scale production of hydro- Nevertheless, such an admirable goal for the practical applica-
gen using solar energy. In recent years, continuous breakthroughs tion of water-splitting systems is especially interesting considering
have been made in the development of novel visible-light- worldwide energy and environmental concerns, but is still in its
driven photocatalysts, which has led to the enhancement of infancy.
photocatalytic activity for water splitting and has inspired great The current lack of industrial applications of the semiconductor-
enthusiasm. A large number of semiconductor materials have been based photocatalytic hydrogen generation is largely due to two
developed as photocatalysts for the splitting of water to hydro- reasons: the low photocatalytic efciency and the lack of exten-
gen under visible-light irradiation. Signicant process has been sive studies for a successful scale-up of the laboratory setup to an
achieved [281] with respect to semiconductor-based photocat- industrially relevant scale.
alytic hydrogen generation through water in the hydrogen energy In addition to TiO2 , heterogeneous photocatalysts such as ZrO3 ,
system. NaTaO3 , BaTa2 O6 , SrTa2 O6 , K4 Nb6 O17 , and K3 TaSi2 O13 can decom-
Photocatalytic systems for water splitting are classied as pose water to evolve O2 and H2 without loading any co-catalysts
one of two main kinds: sacricial-reagent-containing water- under UV irradiation [282]. The activities of the majority of these
splitting systems and overall water-splitting systems. Thus far, the photocatalysts are augmented by the loading of a co-catalyst, such
sacricial-reagent-containing water-splitting systems constructed as NiOx, as a proton-reduction site. In this regard, high-donor-
from the Pt/CdS, Pt-PdS/CdS, and Zn/Cr layered double-hydroxide doped layered perovskites loaded with NiO have demonstrated
photocatalysts have demonstrated the best performance for hydro- photocatalytic ability for water splitting under UV irradiation.
gen production and oxygen production, with highest quantum These layered structures with a basic composition Am Bm O3m+2 ,
yields of ca. 60%, 93%, and 60%, respectively, at 420 nm. How- where m 4 or 5, A Ca or Sr, and B Nb or Ti, showed elevated
ever, the efciency of overall water-splitting systems based on quantum yields and a stoichiometric evolution of H2 and O2 . How-
visible-light-driven photocatalysts is still quite low, with a max- ever, SrTiO3 , KTaO3 , Ta2 O5 , Rb4 Nb6 O17 , K2 La2 Ti3 O10 , Rb2 La2 Ti3 O10 ,
imum quantum efciency of ca. 5.9% over Rh2y Cry O3 /GaNZnO Cs2 La2 Ti3 O10 , CsLa2 Ti2 NbO10 , Na2 Ti6 O13 , and BaTi4 O9 can also
in the range of 420440 nm. This result is still far from the evolve O2 and H2 with the aid of co-catalysts, such as Pt, Rh, and
quantum efciency (ca. 30% at 600 nm) designated as the initial RuO2 [282].
I. Fechete et al. / Catalysis Today 189 (2012) 227 17
changes in the climate. The energy sector, which is the largest fertilizers and plastics), salicylic acid (a pharmaceutical ingredient)
source of CO2 emissions, is responsible for approximately 25% of and polycarbonates (for plastics). It is worth noting that the actual
global CO2 emissions. Great efforts have been conducted in the past use of CO2 corresponds to a small percentage of the potential CO2
to use carbon dioxide as a chemical raw material with a very low that is suitable to be converted into chemicals; thus, a chemical
or even negative cost rather than as a waste, e.g. CO2 reductions transformation of CO2 may signicantly contribute to a reduction
under photoirradiation, or under electrolytic conditions, or produc- of its emissions, in particular for the fuel pool, the worldwide con-
tion of synthesis gas by reforming natural gas. However, many of sumption of which is two orders of magnitude greater than that
these reactions produce rather simple molecules such as carbon of chemicals. Note that CO2 transformation requires energy, which
monoxide and formic acid. CO2 has the advantages of being non- may produce CO2 . Thus, the importance of the transformation of
toxic, abundant, and economical, attractive as an environmentally CO2 into useful chemicals should be closely related to the impor-
friendly chemical reagent, especially useful as a phosgene sub- tance of utilizing a renewable feedstock [353].
stitute. The largest obstacle for establishing industrial processes Different options exist in heterogeneous catalysis for the con-
based on CO2 as a raw material is its low energy level. In other version of CO2 . The hydrogenation of CO2 to form oxygenates
words, a large energy input is required to transform CO2 . There and/or hydrocarbons are the most intensively investigated area of
are several methodologies to transform CO2 into useful chemicals, CO2 conversion. Methanol synthesis from CO2 and H2 has been
such as the use of high-energy starting materials such as hydro- investigated at the pilot-plant stage with promising results. An
gen, unsaturated compounds, small-membered ring compounds, alternative possibility is the production of DME, which is a potential
and organometallics; the choice of oxidized low-energy synthetic diesel substitute. Ethanol formation, either directly or via methanol
targets such as organic carbonates or the supply of physical energy homologation, and the conversion of CO2 to formic acid are also
such as light or electricity. Selecting appropriate reactions can lead potentially interesting routes. Methanol, ethanol, and formic acid
to a negative Gibbs free energy of the reaction [353358]. may also be used as feedstocks in fuel cells, which provide a route
Possibilities for the chemical recycling of carbon dioxide to fuels to store energy from CO2 and then produce electricity.
have been studied largely as a complementary technology to car- The hydrogenation of carbon dioxide to hydrocarbons consumes
bon sequestration (CSS) and storage. CSS requires the minimization much more hydrogen (per unit of product) than the formation
of hydrogen consumption to produce fuels [29,258], which can be of oxygenates. Therefore, this route is, in principle, only valuable
easily stored and transported, and to use renewable energy sources. when hydrogen is made primarily from renewable or non-fossil
From this perspective, the preferable option is to produce alcohols resources; however, other thermodynamic aspects must also be
(preferably C2) by use of solar energy to produce the protons considered. The dry reforming of methane with CO2 is a known
and electrons necessary for CO2 reduction. The chemical trans- technology that is available on a nearly industrial scale, although
formation of CO2 includes a reverse watergas shift reaction and the positive impact on CO2 emissions is questionable [362364].
hydrogenation to produce hydrocarbons, alcohols, dimethyl ether Specically, it is important to ensure that CO2 emissions due to
and formic acid, a reaction with hydrocarbons to syngas (such energy consumption are not greater than the amount of CO2 con-
as dry reforming of methane), and photo- and electro-catalytic sumed in the reaction. An improvement in the positive direction is
and thermochemical conversions [257,258,359361]. CO2 can be tri-reforming, which operates autothermically and does not require
used as a building block in organic syntheses to obtain valuable a pure CO2 feed stream; however, large-scale demonstration units
chemicals and materials has been discussed in many reports and are necessary [365,366].
review articles. The main applications of CO2 as chemical raw The conversion of CO2 at room temperature and atmospheric
materials [353] are syntheses of polycarbonates and polyurethanes. pressure using solar light represents a highly challenging approach
Organic carbonates are roughly categorized into cyclic and linear to close the CO2 cycle and develop approaches that mimic photo-
carbonates, which both compounds have three oxygens in each synthesis. An interesting solution could be a photoelectrochemical
molecule, and are suitable from a thermodynamic point of view (PEC) reactor that operates in the gas phase and uses nanoconned
as synthetic targets starting from CO2 . Four industrially important electrodes that differ from those used in conventional PEC systems,
organic carbonates are ethylene carbonate (EC), propylene car- as described [247].
bonate (PC), dimethyl carbonate (DMC), and diphenyl carbonate
(DPC). EC, DMC and DPC are useful intermediates for manufac-
turing polycarbonates through a non-phosgene process [353]. In 7. Activation and upgrading of light alkanes
addition, EC, PC and DMC are employed as electrolytes in lithium
ion batteries and are widely used as aprotic polar solvents. Fur- Alkanes are currently two to three times cheaper than the corre-
thermore, the excellent properties of DMC as a fuel additive have sponding olens and are thus quite valuable for upgrading. Olens
attracted much attention. DMC can be synthesised from methanol are mainly used for polymerization processes. There are several
and CO2 , over homogeneous catalysts or heterogeneous such as possibilities to up-grade to light alkanes (C2 C6 ). An isomerization
solid acid catalysts of zirconia modied by Ce and acid additives reaction on an acid catalyst can yield branched alkanes of higher
such as phosphoric acid, or as a support for heteropolyacids, or octane number. An acid catalyzed alkylation reaction on isobutane
via cyclic carbonates (CO2 with epoxides), the cycloaddition of oxi- with butene can yield trimethyl pentanes of high octane number
ranes and oxetanes and CO2 over e.g. CeO2 ZrO2 or homogeneous or other isomers, such as dimethyl hexanes, of much lower octane
metal complexes catalysts, or coplymerisation of CO2 and oxiranes number [367369]. The main industrial catalysts are HF and H2 SO4
on metal complexes, the synthesis of urea (CO2 + NH3 ) and ure- in solution [370], although signicant efforts have been made in
thane derivatives, e.g. CO2 + secondary or primary amines giving the past 30 years to nd a solid substitute without yielding any
carbamic acid which reacts with organic halides or alcohols giving reliable/promising process. No industrial processes could emerge
carbamates (urethanes) or are dehydrated to isocyanate without as deactivation due to fouling by butene polymerization residues
using phosgene, the synthesis of carboxylic acids, e.g. acrylic acid, was too important and selectivity to TMP versus dimethyl hex-
the synthesis of esters and lactones by combining CO2 with unsat- anes (DMH) of low octane number was too low (5060). Another
urated compounds such as vinyl ethers, the hydrogenation and approach is to proceed by dehydrogenation, e.g., on Pt-Sn/Al2 O3 ,
hydroformylation of alkenes by CO2 and H2 , and so forth [353]. or by oxydehydrogenation of alkanes on V-based mixed oxides.
Currently, the utilization of CO2 as a chemical feedstock is lim- The former reaction is endothermic and highly sensitive to deac-
ited to a few processes, such as the synthesis of urea (for nitrogen tivation by coke deposits [371373]. The latter is exothermic with
I. Fechete et al. / Catalysis Today 189 (2012) 227 19
low deactivation by coke fouling, but it may lead to total oxida- efciencies. Further developments of this technology should
tion and CO2 formation and, thus, to a lower selectivity to alkenes. include highly durable and low-cost catalysts. CWAO provides an
A third way is oxidizing/ammoxidizing the alkanes to the corre- environmentally attractive option to manage the growing problems
sponding oxygenates or oxynitriles such as aceto or acrylo-nitriles, of the treatment of organic sludge and toxic wastewater [386,387].
aldehydes, ketones or acids. Two processes have been developed The treatment of toxic nitrogen-containing compounds, which
industrially, oxidation of butane to maleic anhydride on a vanadyl are mainly produced in the chemical and pharmaceutical indus-
pyrophosphate based VPO catalyst or ammoxidation of propane to tries, is one of the major applications of the wet air oxidation
acrylonitrile on MoVTeNb mixed oxide catalysts. Maleic anhydride (WAO) process. Many studies have dealt with the oxidation of ani-
is a raw monomer for resin and for THF an industrial solvent pro- line, which is often chosen as a model molecule of a dye-industry
duced by Reppe process of maleic ahydride reduction pn Pd catalsyt pollutant. Particular attention has been paid to selectivity toward
as well as a monomer for segmented polyurethanes (Lycra) and organic by-products (especially azo, nitroso and nitro compounds,
copolyester elastomers (Hytrel). Vanadium-based catalysts [374] phenolic compounds and carboxylic acids) and inorganic forms of
and in particular, vanadium phosphates (VPOs) are very well known nitrogen (NH4 + , N2 , NO2 , NO3 ). Usually, similar catalysts can be
as the only catalysts for industrial process of n-butane oxidation used for the CWAO of oxygen-containing (phenol, carboxylic acids)
to maleic anhydride [375378], which is a precursor of polyester and nitrogen-containing organic compounds. Ammonia is one of
resins [379]. In general, VPO catalysts are inexpensive and attrac- the most refractory by-products formed during catalytic WAO of
tive in selective oxidation processes since they are environmentally nitrogen-containing organic pollutants and is itself a pollutant.
friendly [380]. The reaction follows Mars van Krevelen mechanism Very high selectivities to dinitrogen have been obtained on certain
where the adsorbed organic molecule is oxidized by lattice oxygen noble-metal catalysts. As a rule, catalysts that are active and selec-
from the catalyst, which is subsequently restored by oxygen reac- tive for ammonia oxidation are different (nature of active phase,
tion feed. Acrylonitrile was produced in ammoxidation reaction of support, etc.) from the solids proven to be the best catalysts for the
propylene using FeBiMoO and FeSbO systems as catalysts CWAO reactions of organic compounds. Multifunctional catalysts
but this process would be replaced in a near future by ammoxi- are therefore required for the treatment of nitrogenous organic
dation of propane due to the lower cost and abundance of propane. compounds.
Acrylonitrile is the main raw material for production of synthetic Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are signicant atmospheric
bers, plastics, elastomers and polymers as styreneacrylonitrile pollutants due to their high toxicity and malodorous nature.
and acrylonitrilebutadienestyrene. By polymerization of acry- VOC emissions arise from mobile sources and industrial appli-
lonitrile with butadiene synthetic rubber is produced. This process cations. In this context, the degradation of VOCs has become a
includes multifunctional molybdates and antimonates as catalysts. major area of research in environmental protection during recent
However, propane conversion is about ten times lower than that decades [388,389]. Common VOCs such as halogenated hydrocar-
of propylene in the same conditions since the activation energy bons, ketones, alcohols and aromatic compounds have been widely
of C H bond is higher. The more performing catalyst developed used in many industries and are often found in the emissions ow
recently by Japanese industrialists [381,382] is a mixed MoVNbTe [390,391].
oxide active for the (amm)oxidation of propane to (acrylonitrile) Traditional methods of removing VOCs from the polluted air
acrylic acid [381384]. A process, designated AlkyClean using a stream include adsorption onto activated carbon or zeolite and
solid acid catalyst (HY-zeolite based) and claimed to be compet- thermal combustion. These methods have inherent limitations. The
itive with other two processes, was proposed [355] by Akzo Nobel, adsorption process includes recovery treatments that require the
ABB Lummus Global and Fortum with a demonstration unit con- regeneration of the adsorbent and also requires durability, whereas
structed at Fortum facilities in Porvoo, Finland. The reaction is the high temperature of VOC degradation makes thermal degrada-
carried out in liquid phase at 5090 C with isobutane to olen ratio tion not economically feasible.
(i/o) of 8 to 10 against 410 C and i/o = 810 for H2 SO4 and 3238 C Many advanced technologies have been developed for the rapid
and i/o = 1215/1 for HF respectively. Regeneration was realized at and economical removal of VOCs from indoor air. Among these,
250 C under hydrogen. For this research part see special issue of catalytic oxidation is the most innovative and promising approach.
Appl Catal A, Ed. G.S. Patience, J.M. Lpez-Nieto [385]. This oxidation process is promising for air purication because
the pollutants can be oxidized to H2 O and CO2 . The catalysts play
the most important role by converting polluting compounds into
8. Waste air, water and VOCs treatments relatively harmless compounds at low operating temperatures.
A series of catalysts were evaluated for VOC decomposition
Wet air oxidation (WAO) is a liquid-phase reaction between [388,389,392402]. The most active catalysts are the noble metal
organic material in water and oxygen. The WAO process is used catalysts dispersed on high surface area supports. The dispersion
around the world to treat industrial wastewaters and sludges increases both the available metal surface area and the thermal
at moderate temperatures (180315 C) and at pressures from 2 stability. Many researchers have suggested that the performance of
to 15 MPa. Under these conditions, complex organic compounds noble metal supported catalysts for the oxidation of VOCs is highly
are primarily oxidized to carbon dioxide and water, along with dependent on the oxidation state of the metal. Some authors have
simpler forms that are biodegradable. Unlike other thermal pro- suggested that the oxide species are more active than the metallic
cesses, WAO produces no NOx , SO2 , HCl, dioxins, furans or y ash. species for catalytic oxidation, while others argue the opposite.
However, the efciency of aqueous-phase oxidation can be signif- In the case of catalysts with the same oxidation state, the particle
icantly improved by the use of catalysts, either heterogeneous or sizes may play a more important role in the catalytic activity [403].
homogeneous. Moreover, key points to be solved are the stability Several studies have shown a correlation between the catalytic
of the heterogeneous catalysts and the recycling of the homo- activity and the oxidation state of the catalyst, the nature of the
geneous catalysts. Commercial catalytic WAO (CWAO) processes support, the metal-support interaction, and the morphology of the
started as early as the mid-1950s in the USA. Several Japanese catalyst particles [389,403417]. However, the use of noble metals
companies developed CWAO technologies that relied on hetero- leads to a high cost purication system and the natural reserve of
geneous catalysts based on precious metals deposited on titania or noble metals is limited. Therefore, the substitution of noble metals
titaniazirconia. Compared with conventional WAO, CWAO offers with ubiquitous elements is required for environmental and
lower energy requirements and signicantly higher oxidation economic reasons. Metal oxides have been reported as relatively
20 I. Fechete et al. / Catalysis Today 189 (2012) 227
high activity catalysts for the complete oxidation of VOC [392,393]. three-dimensional interconnected pore system of large 12-
Research efforts in this eld are oriented towards the development membered ring channels in its structure, which endow the material
of new catalytic materials with low manufacturing costs that show with excellent diffusion properties [430]. This regular channel sys-
high activities at moderate temperatures. tem has a direct effect in determining the shape selectivity of the
degradation process [431]. Another approach is the introduction
of some transition metals, such as Cr, V, Fe, Cu, Mn, Co, Ni, Mo,
9. Photocatalysis or La, into the synthesis mixture of the MCM-41 and MMS [432].
The authors then demonstrated that the presence of the transition-
In the 1930s, the term photocatalysis was introduced as new metal salts in the gel during the hydrothermal synthesis process
branch of catalysis. Photocatalysis is dened as a change in the rate hinders the action of the template, which results in MCM-41 pores
of a chemical reaction under the action of light in the presence that are not well formed. These materials were then loaded with
of photocatalysts that absorb light quanta and are involved in the TiO2 via the solgel method, and the activity of the TiO2 /TM-MCM-
chemical transformations of the reaction participants [418,419]. 41 catalysts toward the degradation of 4-chlorophenol was tested
The photocatalyst is dened as a solid that functions by pho- in the presence of UV and/or visible light. The results showed that,
toinduced electron transfer at moleculesemiconductor interfaces although some metals were deleterious, others improved the per-
[282,420423]. formance of the photocatalysts and even enabled them to utilize
Among photocatalytic applications, photocatalytic oxidation visible light. A wide range of other semiconductors and materials
and the reduction of organic compounds in water have become have been tested for photocatalytic activity. In general, they have
important and have received considerable attention during the last been found to be less active than titanium dioxide; signicant work
few years [282,424427]. These applications involve the oxidation has been conducted with V2 O5 , Fe2 O3 , ZnO, ZnS, CdS, Pt/CdS, ZnTe,
or reduction of an organic compound to an intermediate that con- ZrTiO4 , MoS2 , SnO2 , Sb2 O4 , Sn/SbO2 , CeO2 , WO3 , and Nb2 O5 .
tains oxygen or to carbon dioxide, water, and a mineral acid if a
heteroatom such as nitrogen or chlorine is present. The mecha-
nism of the photocatalytic decomposition of organic compounds is 10. Solar photon conversion [433]
supposed to follow these steps: under UV-light illumination, the
absorption of photons creates an electronhole pair if the photon The efcient and cost-effective direct conversion of solar pho-
energy is greater than that of the band gap; thereafter, the pairs tons into solar electricity and solar fuels is one of the most
migrate to the surface and are trapped by OH surface groups and important scientic and technological challenges of this century. At
other surface sites, thereby forming hydroxyl (OH ), hydrosuper- least 20 TW of carbon-free energy (1.5 times the total amount of all
oxide (H2 O) and superoxide (O2 ) radicals; these free radicals forms of energy consumed today globally), in the form of electricity
nally cause the oxidation of the organic compounds [425428]. and liquid and gaseous fuels, are estimated to be required by 2050
This process can be used in various areas such as the elimina- to avoid the most serious consequences of global climate change
tion of odor from drinking water, the degradation of oil spills in and to ensure an adequate global energy supply that will avoid
surface-water systems, and the degradation of harmful organic economic chaos. However, for solar energy to contribute a major
contaminants, such as herbicides, pesticides, and refractive dyes. fraction of future carbon-free energy supplies, it must be priced
One of the most widely studied metal oxides is semiconducting competitively with, or perhaps even be less costly than, energy from
TiO2 [423]. Three common TiO2 polymorphs exist in nature, which, fossil fuels, nuclear power and other renewable energy resources.
in the order of abundance, are rutile, anatase, and brookite. An The challenge of delivering very low-cost solar fuels and electric-
additional synthetic phase, called TiO2 (B), and some high-pressure ity will require breakthrough advances in both fundamental and
polymorphs are also known [428]. The rutile and anatase poly- applied sciences. These required advances include new concepts for
morphs are primarily used in photocatalysis. Both the rutile and low-cost photovoltaic (PV) energy based on chemistry, solar water
anatase crystal structures comprise distorted octahedra. In rutile, splitting, redox catalysis for water oxidation and reduction, pho-
a slight distortion from orthorhombic geometry occurs, where the toelectrochemical energy conversion, and photoinduced electron
unit cell is stretched beyond a cubic shape. In anatase, the distortion transfer. Note that the total energy capacity at the end of 2009 was
of the cubic lattice is more signicant, and thus, the resulting sym- approximately 7 GW-years (0.2% of global electricity usage). Thus,
metry is less orthorhombic [429]. Titania, in anatase form, exhibits there is potential for the PV industry to grow substantially in the
a strong photocatalytic effect, which generates electronhole pairs. future (by a factor of 100300) for it to provide a signicant frac-
As a result, the material can harvest photons in the near-UV region tion of the total global electricity needs (currently approximately
(<410 nm) to provide its surface strong oxidizing power to decom- 3.5 TW).
pose organic molecules. Photocatalysis is a rapidly growing eld of Presently, solar-derived fuels are produced from biomass
study that has attracted intense attention of chemical and materials (labeled as biofuels) and are generated through biological pho-
researchers in recent years. tosynthesis. The global production of liquid biofuels in 2009 was
Even though TiO2 exhibits excellent photocatalytic activities approximately 1.6 million barrels/day, equivalent to a yearly
in the decomposition of VOCs and other organic compounds, the output of approximately 2.5 EJ (about 1.3% of global liquid fuel uti-
study new photocatalysts with different structures that exhibit lization). The direct conversion of solar photons to fuels produces
higher activity is desirable. In this regard, the novel photocata- high-energy chemical products that are labeled as solar fuels; these
lysts made of highly donor-doped (110) layered perovskites, have fuels can be produced through nonbiological approaches, which
recently been developed and were found to be much more ef- are generally referred to as articial photosynthesis. The feedstocks
cient than bulk-type TiO2 . This higher activity results from the for articial photosynthesis are H2 O and CO2 , which react either as
highly donor-doped electronic structure, which leads to a nar- coupled oxidationreduction reactions, as in biological photosyn-
rower depletion region and a more facile separation of the charge thesis, or by rst splitting H2 O into H2 and O2 and then reacting H2
carriers. with CO2 (or CO produced from CO2 ) in a second step to produce
Selective photocatalysis can be achieved using proper molec- fuels through the known chemical routes previously described such
ular sieves, such as the titanosilicate ETS-10, which provides as syngas, watergas shift reaction, or alcohol synthesis. The solar
an alternative approach. The photocatalytic activity of ETS-10 is generated H2 can itself be used as a gaseous fuel, such as in fuel
due to the presence of photoexcitable TiOTi chains and the cells. However, currently, no solar-fuels industry exists. Signicant
I. Fechete et al. / Catalysis Today 189 (2012) 227 21
Table 6
Major problems and challenges in automotive car industry.
Lean burn gasoline engine Efciency higher by ca. 25% NOx trapping; SOx tolerant traps
Dry particulate emissions from diesel engines DOC reduces SOF, HC, and CO; no Catalyst to lower lightoff T of soot;
current catalyst/system to treat dry addition of Cu and Ce-organometallics
soot to fuel
Diesel engine lean NOx Direct decomposition or reduction of Larger operating window for PM or
NOx in O2 -rich atmosphere BM-catalysts, NH3 or urea SCR.
electronic devices to regulate the air/fuel ratio in the motors. The Acknowledgement
initial three way catalysts for simultaneous CO oxidation, NO reduc-
tion, hydrocarbon total oxidation were improved further with the Support from CNRS France is gratefully acknowledged by I.
use of Pd. Another presentation by R. Farrauto et al. [454] provides Fechete.
details of the actual performances and of the future prospects. Only
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