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sion of the European Communities
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IIIIDIZI I) BED
COMBUSTOR DESIGN,
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OPERATION

Edited by
RF. SENS and J.K. WILKINSON

ELSEVIER APPL IED SCIENCE

 FLUIDIZED BED COMBUSTOR
DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION
Proceedings of a contractors' meeting organized by the Commission of the
European Communities, Directorate-General for Science, Research and Develop-
ment, held in Brussels, Belgium, 18-19 May 1987.
FLUIDIZED BED COMBUSTOR
DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION
AND OPERATION

Edited by

P. F. SENS and J. K. WILKINSON

Commission of the European Communities, Brussels, Belgium

ELSEVIER APPLIED SCIENCE

LONDON and NEW YORK / PARI. r[
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Fluidized bed combustor design, construction
and operation.
1. Fuels. Fluidised combustion
I. Sens, P. F. II. Wilkinson, J. K.
621.402'3

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PREFACE

The present volume represents the first publication originating

from the new energy R and D programme "Utilization of Solid
Fuels", performed under the supervision of Directorate-General XII
for Science, Research and Development of the Commission of the
European Communities. The formal time frame for this programme is
from 1985 up to and including 1988 and the relevant call for
proposals was published in the middle of March 1985. The large
number of proposals submitted and the time required to make a
selection of these proposals with respect to their quality and
within the restrictions of the available budget are the reason
that the majority of the contracts could be signed only in the
course of 1986. As a consequence, the projects reported in this
volume have started only recently and in some cases it was still
too early to report progress.

The "Utilization of Solid Fuels" programme addresses the following

issues :

- fluidized bed combustion

- coal/water mixtures
- burner development
- solid fuels in integrated cycles
- environmental aspects
- transportation and handling
- basic studies of solid fuel combustion and properties.

On May 18 and 19, 1987, a first contractors meeting on the subject

of fluidized bed combustion took place in Brussels. A total of 19
contracts with 14 different contractors were concluded in this
area. The reports prepared by the contractors for this meeting
are compiled in the following pages. They led to very interesting
discussions and exchanges of views. It is felt that bringing the
participants in the various projects together is an effective
means to promote the awareness and appreciation for each other's
work and to create opportunities for enhanced transnational
cooperation.

At the end of the compilation, some conclusions are presented

which also give indications for the direction of future
activities, which may become elements of a second programme, to
8tart in January 1989.

P.F. SENS
 Vll

CONTENTS

Preface

GENERIC STUDIES

Contract n EN3F.0009-UK(H)
Large scale fluidization studies
I.R. SUMMERFIELD, E.A. ROGERS, British Coal Corporation, Coal
Research Establishment 2

Contract n EN3F-0043-NL
Computer modelling of particle gas-flow in AFBC freeboard
internals
R.A. VAN DER LAKEN, A.J. RENKEMA, Holland Energy Technology
B.V. 8

Contract n EN3F-0006-NL(GDF)
Metal wastage in fluidized beds for conventional and staged
combustion
H.H.J. TOSSAINT, Stork Boilers 18

Contract n EN3F-0013-P
Fluidized bed combustion of coals and different types of wastes
D.F. DURAO et al., Instituto Superior Tcnico 27

Contract n EN3F-0044-IRL
Enhanced heat transfer due to dust laden environments in heat
exchangers for fluidized bed reactors
J.A. FITZPATRICK, University of Dublin, Department of
Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering 37

FBC-TECHNOLOGY

Contract n EN3F-0010-UK(H)
Development and demonstration of improved air distributors for
fluidized bed boilers to burn untreated and power station type
coals
M.J. FISHER, A.E. ILES, M.A. VICKERS, British Coal
Corporation, Coal Research Establishment 40
 Vlll

Contract n EN3F-0011-F
Controlled internal circulation fluidized bed heat exchanger
J. ALKHOJA, P. GUIGON, J.F. LARGE, V. VERNOTTE, Centre
d'Etudes et Recherches de Charbonnages de France 50

Contract n EN3F-0012-F
Adaptation of fluidized bed grate for coarse particles and
high-ash products
A. DELEBARRE, A. KONIUTA, Centre d'Etudes et Recherches de
Charbonnages de France 56

Contract n EN3F-0015-UK(H)
Development of multisolids fluid bed combustor pilot plant for
lower cost, high efficiency steam generators
G. LANGERAAR, R.W. STONEBRIDGE, Foster Wheeler Power Products
Ltd. 60

Contract n EN3F-0065-UK
Construction of a circulating fluidized bed test rig for
research into lower cost, high efficiency steam generator
designs
R.W. STONEBRIDGE, Foster Wheeler Power Product Ltd. 70

Contract n EN3F-0016-D
Fluidized bed combustion of difficult fuels in a novel
circofluid plant
W.W. POERSCH, Deutsche Babcock Werke AG 71

Contract n EN3F-0046-D
Further development of circulating fluidized-bed boiler plant
for utilisation of different low-grade and waste fuels
H. DUERRFELD, K.H. FAILING, L. & C. Steinmller GmbH 85

Contract n EN3F-0064-DK
Circulating fluidized bed with optimal control of process
parameters to achieve better environmental conditions and
flexibility in operation
E.L. HOLM, Aalborg Boilers A/S 91

Contract n EN3F-0008-IRL
The design and development of a small-scale fluidized bed boiler
with automatic control
M.Z. ANABTAWI, J. BANNARD, E. MOGHADDAM, National Institute
for Higher Education 92
Contract n EN3F-0042-NL(GDF)
Development of a fluidized bed combustor with sulphur control,
multi-fuel firing and high efficiency cyclone separator to meet
all emission control standards
J. BIEMOND, W.K. Crone B.V. 100
 IX

FBC OPERATION FOR EMISSION CONTROL

Contract n EN3F-0005NL
Reduction of NO emissions in bubbling fluidized bed by staged
combustion
H.H.J. TOSSAINT, Stork Boilers; M. VALK, E.A. BRAMER,
University of Twente 106

Contract n EN3F-0007-UK(H)
Reduced NO emissions and other phenomena in fluidized bed
combustion
A.R. MARSHALL, Babcock Power 114

Contract n EN3F-0004-D(B)
Optimization of PFBC operating conditions for minimum pollutant
emission, especially of NO
H. MUENZNER, Bergbau-Forschung GmbH 124

Contract n EN3F-0034-UK(H)
Control of nitrogen oxides in pressurized fluidized bed systems
A.J. MINCHENER, G.J. KELSALL, British Coal Corporation, Coal
Research Establishment 133

CONCLUCIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE WORK 143

LIST OF PARTICIPANTS 147

INDEX OF AUTHORS 149

 GENERIC STUDIES

Large scale fluidization studies

Computer modelling of particle gas-flow in AFBC

freeboard internals

Metal wastage in fluidized beds for conventional and

staged combustion

Fluidized bed combustion of coals and different types of

wastes

Enhanced heat transfer due to dust laden environments in

heat exchangers for fluidized bed reactors
 LARGE SCALE FLUIDISATION STUDIES

Authors I.R. Summerfield, E.A. Rogers

Contract number EN 3F.0009.UK(H)

Duration 31 months 1 June 1986 - 31 December 1988

Total budget 382,300 CEC contribution: 154,000

Head of project: Mr. J.S. Harrison, Coal Research Establishment

Contractor British Coal Corporation's Coal Research Establish-

ment

Address British Coal Corporation

Coal Research Establishment
Stoke Orchard
Cheltenham
Glos. GL52 ARZ

Summary

This new project addresses the problem of metal wastage in fluidised

bed boilers by investigating gas and solids flow patterns in large
area fluidised beds.

The work has so far concentrated on design of a large cold model

fluidised bed facility. This model will be capable of operation
over a wide range of conditions typical of those used in fluidised
bed boilers. Measurements of gas and solids flows, particularly in
regions near walls and tubes will be made. These measurements will
be related to wear data in order to identify surface wastage
mechanisms and if possible quantify their relative contributions.

1. INTRODUCTION
Metal wastage in fluidised bed boilers and furnaces is a problem in
Europe and other areas of the world. There is little data available on
the effects of solids circulation patterns within large beds and their
effects on wear of immersed heat transfer surfaces.

Work to date to overcome this problem (1) has relied heavily on the
use of small scale cold models and monitoring of fluidised bed boilers.
This work has shown that wear on in-bed tubes is influenced by the
proximity of the model walls which can lead to misleading results.
Therefore there is a need to undertake testwork on a larger scale in
which actual boiler geometries can be more satisfactorily modelled.

This project involves the design, construction and operation of a

large scale cold model. The model will be used to investigate gas and
solid flow patterns In fluidised beds. The work should provide a better
understanding of wear in fluidised bed boilers, the resulting data should
enable boiler makers to identify improved , lower cost engineering
solutions and will help to minimise the inevitable uncertainties
associated with scale-up from research rigs to commercial plant.

2. OBJECTIVES
The project will address the metal wastage problems observed in some
fluidised bed boilers by investigating gas and solids flow patterns in
large area fluidised beds.

This broad objective will be achieved by:-

(a) construction of a large cold model fluidised bed facility.

(b) measurement, in the above facility, of surface wastage for

several geometries and operating conditions.

(c) measurement of gas and solids flows, particularly in regions

near walls and tubes.

(d) identification of surface wastage mechanisms, by relating wear

data to gas and solids flow patterns.

(e) providing information to aid manufacturers in the designing of

equipment free of erosion problems.

3. PROGRAMME AND PROGRESS

The programme for the work of this project is shown in the attached
bar chart, Figure 1.

Work in the first six months concentrated on design of the model,

this phase is now complete. Ordering and installation of the air blowers
and the main components of the model has commenced. Figure 2 shows the
air blowers and associated air and water cooling equipment installed at
the Coal Research Establishment.

A. COLD MODEL DESIGN

The system is shown schematically in Figure 3.

The model has been designed with two bed sections of 2m x lm and
3m x lm cross-section. Because of limitations in the air supply, the
larger section will not be able to operate at fluidising velocities above
2 m/s. However, it is considered that this limitation is acceptable in
order that larger area fluidised beds can be modelled.

The model can operate over a wide range of conditions as follows:-

Bed temperature, C C <40

Air supply pressure, bar(g) 0.42
Fluidising velocity, m/s 0.5 to 3 (0.5 to 2 for the
larger model)
Bed height, m 0.1 to 2.0
Bed material sand/coal ash/limestone
Test duration, hours 2-250
 The model will be operated unattended for periods of up to 24 hours.
A hazard and operability study following the procedure developed by
Rushford (2) was carried out to try to anticipate potential safety
problems. The design was modified in several respects to take account of
the findings of the study. The final design is detailed below.

4.1 Air Supplies

Air will be supplied from four "Rootes" type blowers connected in
parallel. The blowers are installed within acoustic enclosures, and the
air is cooled to less than 40C by four air/water heat exchangers. The
cooling water is circulated through a cooling tower and back to the
exchangers by a pump.

4.2 Model

The model will consist of five mild steel sections:-

(a) Plenum chamber/distributor

The plenum chamber will be 0.5 m high and carry the inlet air
duct. The distributor plate will consist of a flat plate with 25 mm
nominal bore standpipes set into it on a 100 mm pitch. Each standpipe
will have 40, 3.2 mm diameter holes. The holes will be drilled in four
rows around the standpipes, 10 holes to a row. The predicted pressure
drop for the standpipes is 20 m bar at a fluidising velocity of 1 m/s.

(b) Bed section

This section will be 2m high and the front face will be

predominantly perspex sheet to allow viewing of the fluidised bed using
video and cine cameras.

Tube and tube banks will be installed via doors on the side of
the model.

(c) Freeboard sections

The top 3m of the model will be constructed so that the model

area increases with height. This expanded section will help to reduce
losses of bed material by elutriation. The model will be protected
against over-pressurisation by a bursting disc mounted on the top section.

4.3 Solids handling

Bed material for the tests will be stored in a 5 tonne hopper
installed close to the model. Discharge from the hopper will be by
gravity directly into the model. Figure 4 shows this hopper installed at
the Coal Research Establishment.

Discharge of used bed material from the model will be by means of a

pipe connected to the bed section, at the same level as the standpipes.
These solids can be returned to the storage hopper via a mechanical
elevator.
4.4 Gaa cleaning
Two cyclones In parallel will be used to clean-up the exhaust air
from the model before discharge to the atmosphere. Both cyclones are of
standard high efficiency design. Solids will be discharged from the
cyclones into drums.

4.5 Instrumentation
The air flow to the model will be measured and recorded. The air
flow will be controlled using manual valves. Pressure in the plenum
chamber and freeboard of the model will be recorded. In addition the
following differential pressures will be indicated using manometers:-

base pressure drop

pressure drop across a known height of bed
pressure drop between the bed and the freeboard
cyclone pressure drops

Two automatic trips will be included so that air cooler failure or

bursting disc failure will result in shutdown of the blowers.

5. CONTRACT WORK
As part of this contract, work is to be carried out by
Bergbau-Forschung GmbH. Dialogue has commenced with engineers from
Bergbau-Forschung to detail their contribution to the project.

References

1. ECSC Project No. 7220-ED/808 Progress Report No. 3, September 1986.

2. "Hazard and Operability Studies in the Chemical Industries",

Rushford R., Transactions Vol 93, No. 5, published by the North East
Coast Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders.
^ ^ ^ ^ ^ EY AR 1986 1987 1988
J= t!= c> ^ o z o - "n I >2'--J>wlOz
^^MONTH 5 - m o O m
Z r- o " -i < o Z D I I ( Z r O "O -< < O Z t D j ) ^ 5 z r - 0 - D - ( <
"""""---^.^NO 1 2 3 i 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 2829 30
5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 I t 15 16 17 18 19

OUTLINE DE SIGN 7Z1

DETAILED OE SIGN Y///A
PROCUREMENT
Z2////A
INSTALLATION
Y////X
COMMISSIONING

TESTING
Y//// // / / A
REPORTING
y///// /////////

Figure 1 Schedule for Project

l|S!af^iffSiEisa^3J "

Figure 2 Air Blowers Installed at CRE

 -MECHANICAL FREEBOARD
SAND ELEVATOR SECTION
HOPPER

WATEH

BED SECTION

6 fi
AIR
-DISTRIBUTOR
I COOLER
COMPRESSOR

AIR CONTROL
VALVE

Figure 3 Schematic of Model

Figure 4 Sand Hopper Installed at CRE

 8

COMPUTER MODELLING OF PARTICLE GAS-FLOW IN AFBC FREEBOARD INTERNALS

Authors : R.A. van der Laken, A.J. Renkema

Contract number: EN3F-0043-NL

Duration : 18 months 1 October 1986 - 31 March 1988

Total budget : hfl 752.010, CEC contribution: hfl 350.000,

Head of project: Ir. R.A. van der Laken, Holland Energy Technology B.V.

Contractor : Holland Energy Technology B.V.

Address : P.O. Box 14116

3508 SE UTRECHT
The Netherlands

Summary

The combustion efficiency of AFBC-boilers can be improved by

increasing the residence time of coal particles in the freeboard.
Several authors have proposed the installation of flow-devices
("internals") in the freeboard to achieve this. In order to evaluate
the performance of these internals a computer code is developed,
on the basis of an existing fluid dynamics code, that will describe
with sufficient accuracy the particle gas-flow in the freeboard
with internals. This report describes the progress in the project
during the first half year. It was found that great care has to
be taken to avoid erronuous calculation results due to numerical
diffusion. A literature review has shown that two methods are
applicable to calculate the particle flow: a Monte-Carlo-approach
and a continuous-field approximation. Further study is required
to select the most suitable one.

1. Introduction
In fluidized bed coal combustors not all the coal is burnt in the
bed itself. Part of it, especially the finer fraction, escapes into the
freeboard before it is completely burnt. Without special precautions
the combustion efficiency is therefore relatively low, between 75 and
85%.
One solution to this problem is the recirculation of the
coal-containing ash from the cyclone to the fluidized bed. In this way
combustion efficiencies of around 95% have been obtained. Disadvantages
of this solution are the relatively high equipment costs and the potential
for operational difficulties due to wear and leakages.
Another solution suggested by several authors is to increase the
residence time of the coal particles in the freeboard by means of special
flow devices that guide the particle-gas mixture in a favourable pattern.
 Many geometries are proposed for these so called "internals". Figure
la shows one of them, proposed and investigated by the Dutch Organization
for Applied Physical Research TNO. To calculate the flow pattern and
particle residence time in the various possible geometries, a computer
code is required that accurately describes particle gas flow in the
freeboard. The development and verification of such a code is the purpose
of this project.
The project is subdivided in four phases, consisting of in total
fourteen actions as follows:

Phase 1. Single phase calculations and verification

To check the accuracy of the computer code, calculations will be
carried out in a geometry as sketched in figure 3a. The calculation grid
is oriented along the walls (action 1) and under 45 with the walls
(action 2). The second calculation will be repeated in finer grids. In
the same geometry flow experiments will be carried out. The result of
phase 1 will be a good insight in the accuracy that can be obtained,
and the required values of several numerical parameters.

Phase 2. Two phase flow calculations and verification

In this phase a particle trajectory calculation will be programmed
and included in the existing computer code.
Simultaneously calculations will be made of a realistic
internal-geometry. Firstly two-dimensional for comparison with the
calculations of phase 1, secondly three-dimensional, as required by the
actual internal-dimensions.
These results will again be compared with experiments in a realistic
internal model. Given the 3d-flow pattern, verified by experiments,
particle trajectories will be calculated. From these trajectories an
estimate can be made of the residence-time distribution of particles
of different size. These figures will be compared with residence-time
experiments.

Phase 3. Optimalization
Undoubtedly the computer code will require, in this stage of the
development, optimalization in two respects:
a) reduction of the computation time, maintaining sufficient
accuracy
b) simplifying the preparation of the input data for the
programme.
To arrive at an optimal computational time a series of numerical
experiments is required in which grid size and grid size distribution
are varied, and other numerical parameters like relaxation factor, number
of inner and outer iterations etc.
The preparation of the input data will be simplified by preparing
an "input generator"-code.

Phase 4 Reporting
Reporting is separately mentioned, as a complete and careful
documentation is a pre-requisite for the usefulness of the results of
this project.
A network planning is given in figure lb. It shows that the minimum
required time for the project is 56 weeks. Taking into account unavoidable
delays, the project requires an estimated one and half year to completion.
 10

2. Numerical approach

2.1 Comparison of computer codes

2.1.1 Introduction
Two computer codes, FLUENT from Creare Inc. and PHOENICS from Cham
Ltd. are compared, for a laminar flow in a geometry as sketched in figure
3a. These calculations are done to see what the effect is of numerical
diffusion in both codes. For that purpose a zigzagchannel with corners
of 90 is chosen as the geometry. According to S.V. Patankar, p 106-108
(1) there is a maximum of numerical diffusion if the flow is under 45
with the grid and there is no numerical diffusion if the flow is in the
same direction as the grid. So 2 kinds of grids are chosen:
1. an aligned grid, a grid which is oriented along the walls
(figure 2a)
2. a 45-grid, a grid which is oriented under 45 with the walls
(figure 2b)
The number of corners is chosen to be four, because it is expected
that the flow will be more developed after two corners.

2.1.2 An aligned grid

The inlet conditions for this grid are:
u
inl - 2 m/s

v. . = 0 m/s
ml
P = 1.2 kg/m3
v = 1.8 * 10"2 m 7 s
For FLUENT 32 x 32 cells are used and for PHOENICS 30 x 30 cells, this
gives for both codes a cell size of 0,1 x 0,1 m3. The differencing scheme
used in FLUENT is the power law and in PHOENICS the upwind scheme. Plots
are made of the calculated velocities in different cross-sections, which
are marked in figure 3a. In figure 3b the velocity profiles of FLUENT
and PHOENICS are shown in cross-section 5. Velocity profiles in other
cross-sections show the same agreement between FLUENT and PHOENICS.

2.1.3 A 45-grid
Now the inlet conditions are:
u. . =1.4 m/s
v. n = - 1.4 m/s
ml
P = 1.2 kg/m3
v = 1.8 * 10"' m 7 s
The cell size is 0,1 x 0,1 m3. The differencing scheme in PHOENICS is
again the upwind scheme.
Two different differencing schemes have been used in FLUENT: the
power-law scheme and the quadratic upwind differencing scheme (Quick).
The results of the calculations with FLUENT (Quick) is very different
from the results of FLUENT (power law) and PHOENICS. Even the last two
don't have the same results (see figure 3c). With the 45-grid FLUENT
(power law) and PHOENICS don't give the recirculation zones in the corners
like the aligned grid which is used on the same problem in 2.1.2. Only
FLUENT with Quick gives these recirculation zones.
 11

It will be clear that the bad solutions are due to numerical

diffusion. The Quick scheme is a second order scheme and therefore gives
less numerical diffusion.
In all cases the amount of numerical diffusion can be reduced when
the grid is refined. In 2.2 it can be seen that the finest grid solution
gives the best approximation of the measurements.

2.2 Comparison of the computer code FLUENT with the experiments

The comparison between the code and the experiments has been done
for the following problem:
A turbulent flow in a geometry as sketched in figure 3a and as inlet
data:
U
inl =
3 m/s
V
inl =
0 m/s
3
P = 1,,2 kg/m
K =
inl - 0 0 3 9 * u inl m,/s
'
v = 1.5 * 10"5 ma/s
e. , = 0.037 * u? , m J /s J
ml ml
The calculations have been performed on three different aligned grid
sizes:
a. 25 x 25 mmJ
b. 16 2/3 x 16 2/3 mmJ
c. 8 1 / 3 x 8 1/3 mm2
All the calculations used the quadratic upwind differencing scheme.
As an introductory experiment, an experiment is done in a flatwaterchannel
to vizualise the streampattern. Next experiments are done in a 3-d model
of the zigzagchannel with the same sizes and inlet data as in the
calculations. At the symmetry plane, the mean streampattern is established
by measuring the velocities and the direction of the airstream in six
cross-sections (AA-GG) with Laser-Doppler apparatus. The measured
velocities and the calculated velocities are compared in all six
cross-sections.
In figure 4 and 5 the velocity profiles in the cross-sections CC
and EE are drawn. It can be seen immediately that the coarse grids
(25 x 25 and 16 2/3 x 16 2/3) can't handle the strong gradients which
the measurements give. The calculated velocities don't give such high
values as the measurements. When refining the grid (8 l/3 x 8 1/3), the
results become much better. In cross-section EE the calculated solution
with the finest grid is almost the same as the measured solution, but
in cross-section CC the calculated u-velocity becomes too great and the
v-velocity is shifted to the left compared with the measurements. In
the other cross-sections the calculated velocity is in good agreement
with the measurements, with a few as yet unexplained exceptions.
Cross-section 5 and EE are the same, comparing figure 3b and figure
5b it can be seen that the v-velocity in the laminar case is almost the
same, for the grid with 32 x 32 cells, as the v-velocity in the turbulent
case!
 12
3. Choice of Particle Trajectory Model (PTM)
For the PTM three different theoretical approaches were studied:
a. Monte-Carlo-simulation
Within the solved velocity field of the gas, a large number of
particles is released and their trajectories are calculated numerically
over a large number of time steps. For each time step, the particle
is subjected to a random force due to the turbulence of the gas flow.
This random force is generated numerically, taking into account the
turbulence intensity and the circulation in time and space of the
turbulent velocities.
b. Mean trajectory model
Patches of particles are released at the inlet of the solved velocity
field of the gas phase. The trajectory of the centre of mass is
calculated as well as the growth of the patch with time due to
(turbulent) diffusion.
c. Continuous field model
The movement of the particles is expressed by differential equations
which describe the particle concentration as a probability function,
continuous in time and space. Interaction terms due to the gas flow
appear in these equations. The equations can be solved after the gas
flow has been calculated (in that case the gas flow cannot be
influenced by the particle flow) or simultaneously.

It will be clear that the mean trajectory model can not be used
due to the presence of baffles, which can split up a patch so that new
centres of mass have to be defined.
An advantage of the Monte-Carlo simulation is the fact that it gives
the most accurate results especially with regard to residence time. A
disadvantage is probably the required computation effort.
The continuous field model gives the possibility to incorporate
interaction terms between the gas and the solid phase. A difficulty is
that the residence time distribution has to be calculated by a transient
time depending calculation.

Work second half year

During the second half year it is planned to solve the zigzagproblem
in the 45-grid with body fitted coordinates (BFC) instead of rectangular
coordinates. Maybe in this case there is no need to refine the grid to
obtain a good solution. A reference internal geometry will be selected
for which calculations and measurements will be carried out. More study
of the methods to calculate the particle residence time is required before
a definitive choice can be made.
 13

References

Patankar, S.V., Numerical Heat transfer and fluid flow,

Hemisphere Publishing Corporation, 1980
Visser, B.M., Laken, R.A. van, Beckum, F.P.H. van, Cate, E. ten, and
Buis, D., Modellering van de eenfase-stroming in AFBC-internals,
Eindrapport fase 1 Nationaal Onderzoekprogramma Kolen, contractnummmer
20.35-070.10, 1986
Pohlmann, J.W., Een freeboard internal voor kolen gestookte
wervelbedketels, TN0, ref.nr. 85-071, 1985
Rappoldt, L.M., and Gasselt, M.L.G. van, Improved fluidbed combustor
efficiencies through freeboard internals, TOO, ref.nr. 85-0364, 1985
Picart, A., Berlemont, A. and Gouesbet, G., Modelling and predicting
turbulence fields and the dispersion of discrete particles transported
by turbulent flows, Int. J. Multiphase Flow, Vol. 12, pp 237-261,
1986
Pohlmann, J.W., Optimalisatie van freeboard internals en beproeving
van vier anti-entrainment baffles voor kolengestookte wervelbedketels,
TN0, ref.nr. 86-207, 1986

Figure la An internal configuration

 Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3 Phase 4

particle txaj* prpgranniiig

simple gecm.^skew geom. j^fine grid

1w 2w

2d-flow experiment
8w

development part, counting techn. particle counting exp.

24 10
F i g u r e 1b
The time schedule of t h e p r o j e c t
 15

Figure 2a The aligned grid

Figure 2b The 45"-grid

 16

02 f G L = 1.2 ra
d = 0.6 ra laminar case

9N 0. origin_
\ G
C ... \--\-- C L = 0.3 m~
D B \ 9
d = 1.15 m turbulent case
1
1 0 origin_
i -
5E 1 E5

A O-LL,
-to- iff
^ 1
u - *^ d
J !
01 D
figure 3a The geometry of the test case

.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 21 J .7 * 1,1 1,3

1 in m ylnm

figure 3b The vvelocity in figure 3c The uvelocity in

crosssection 5; crosssection 9;
aligned grid 45grid
: fluent D: fluent, quick
X : phoenics V: phoenics
X: fluent, power law
 17

lit

: measurements
V : fluent, quick, 32 x 32 cells
#: fluent, quick, 47 x 47 cells
<>: fluent, quick, 92 x 92 cells

figure 4a The u-velocity in figure 4b The v-velocity in

cross-section CC cross-section CC

i tn mm
: measurements
V: fluent, quick, 32 x 32 cells
$: fluent, quick, 47 x 47 cells
O: fluent, quick, 92 x 92 cells

figure 5a The u-velocity in figure 5b The v-velocity in^

cross-section EE cross-section EE,
 18

METAL WASTAGE IN FLUIDIZED BEDS FOR CONVENTIONAL AND STAGED COMBUSTION

Author : H.H.J. Tossaint

Contract number: EN3F-0006-NL (GDF)

Duration : 36 months 1 May 1986 - 30 April 1989

Total budget : Dfl. 2,106,000 EEC contribution: Dfl. 1,053,000

Head of project: Ir. H. Boorsma

Contractor : Stork Boilers

Address : P.O. Box 20

7550 GB HENGELO
Netherlands

Subcontractors : Babcock Power Ltd., London, United Kingdom

British Coal, Cheltenham, United Kingdom

Summary

In 1981 Stork Boilers constructed a 4 MWth atmospheric fluidized

bed test facility at TNO in Apeldoorn. After two years of
operation serious erosion of the in-bed tubes was found.
At that time an extensive research program has been started,
which included the impact of in-bed tube geometry on erosion, the
impact of flow behaviour of the bed material, the hardness of the
particles in the bed, the erosion-resistance of the tube material
and the effect of the tube temperature on erosion. These parameters
contribute to a greater or less degree to the metal wastage.
Continued research is required to devise design rules in order to
achieve a minimum in-bed tube life of 5 years.

1. INTRODUCTION
In the research project subsidized by the EEC three stages can be
discriminated. The first stage covers making the bed section of the
TNO 4 MWth AFBB, where a high erosion rate occurs, equal to the bed
section of the Renfrew boiler of Babcock Power Ltd., where no erosion
was observed. The second stage involves research into the impact of
the bed material and of the tube wall temperature on erosion in an
oxidizing bed. The third stage relates to the erosion of the in-bed
tubes at two-stage combustion.
In this paper I will enter into the most relevant factors of
influence on erosion, while basing both on the results obtained during
this research subsidized by the EEC and those of research work done by
Stork Boilers in the period from 1983 to 1986. The erosion research
under staged combustion conditions, where the flue gas composition
in the bed is expected to deviate from the situation now examined,
will start in 1988.
 19

2. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

A schematic representation of the TNO 4 MWth test facility is
given in Figure 1. Some relevant data of the rig are: the bed area
is 2 x 1 m; in this rig the fluidisation rate can be varied between
0 to 3 m/s; the recycle flow (R/C) varies between 0 and 3 times the
coal capacity and the steam produced has a pressure of 12 bar, so the
temperature of the in-bed tube walls is approximately 225 C. An
extensive description of the rig was already given in (1).
British Coal composed a summary of the metal wastage in the UK
of fluidized bed boilers, mainly shallow fluidized beds. Their
findings are that mainly operating conditions (fluidisation rate and
bed height) and tube bank design parameters can affect the degree of
tube bank wear.
Erosion is a consequence of the interaction between bed material
and the in-bed tubes. Table I represents the parameters having an
impact on this interaction.

Tube material
The characteristics of the tube material determine its resistance
to the influence experienced from the bed material. Over the years
Stork Boilers have examined a lot of materials, of which a summary is
given in table II.
These materials were exposed in the bed tube bundle. The decrease
in tube wall thickness was first of all established by ultrasonic
measurements. However, their accuracy proved to be insufficient to
give a reliable impression of the erosion resistance of the materials
within a 1000-hour exposure period. To collect data in a quicker
manner than by such time-consuming in-bed exposures, we tried to
establish the erosion resistance of materials by blasting tests. The
correlation between the erosion rate found at Stork Boilers and that
established in the bed, however, is poor (table III).
Thereupon the measuring procedure was changed. The decrease in
diameter was determined using a micrometer, while a template ensured
that the measurements were conducted at exactly the same spot every
time.
The conclusion of this examination is that untreated metals lead to
a major wall thickness decrease. In case of surface-treated metals this
erosion rate has already sharply declined, while the erosion rate of
some coated materials is extremely low. A disadvantage associated with
coated materials is that the coating is difficult to apply to all
parts. Any repair job is difficult to undertake. Furthermore, these
materials are expensive.

Tube wall temperature

The effect of the tube wall temperature (Figure 2) can best be
explained by an increasing oxidization rate of the tube material at
a rising temperature. At lower tube wall temperatures the oxidization
rate is lower than the erosion rate and erosion of the pure metal
occurs. At higher temperatures, if erosion is not extreme, a black
oxide film is present and there is erosion of the oxide film.
Currently test tubes have been incorporated in the bundle of the
TNO 4 MWth rig.
 20

The tube wall temperatures are 350 C and 450 C respectively. The results
of this examination will give an insight into the question as to whether
the formation of the oxide film at these temperatures is such as to result
in an erosion rate decrease.

Pulsation phenomena
The occurrence of pulsations in fluidized beds has been recognized
for a considerable period of time, and it has generally been assumed
that the pulsations are a result of the bubbling/fluidisation process.
Babcock Power Ltd. first carried out work in this field in 1979 on a
cold rig with and without tube banks. At a later date they extended
their research to boilers in operation. The results of the study have
shown the presence of two main mechanisms. One is associated with
the bubbling process, the other being related to the acoustics of the
windbox and air supply system (2). In this research the pulsation
phenomena of the TNO rig were compared with those of the Renfrew
boiler. Typical pressure fluctuations in the windboxes of the TNO rig
and the Renfrew boiler are shown in Figure 3. Both spectra show that
two distinct frequencies are present at approximately 1.0 Hz and
2.5 to 3.0 Hz. These have been identified as responses due to the
acoustics of the air supply system and the bubbling effect in the bed
respectively. If these pulsations of the air and the flue gases in the
bed have an impact on the flow behaviour of the bed material, this may
also influence erosion. As shown in Figure 3, the amplitude of the 1 Hz
frequency in the TNO rig is much larger than that of the Renfrew
boiler. By mutual consultation with Babcock Power Ltd. adjustments
were made, which have sharply reduced the amplitude (Figure 4 ) . The
impact of these adjustments on the erosion rate, however, is not
clear. At the in-bed tubes no distinct effect was noticed. At the
tubes which TNO-MI exposed in the bed at a wall temperature of
approximately 500 C, a thicker deposit film is formed under these
conditions. Currently British Coal is engaged in the examination
of the correlation between pulsations and the erosion rate in a cold
model.

Bed material
The bed material is composed of CaO, CaS04, Si02 and calcium
aluminium silicates. These compounds have different hardnesses. At
the 20 MW TVA AFBB an increase in erosion rate was established after
changing from a softer limestone to a harder type. Erosion tests with
the Renfrew bed material (in Renfrew no limestone was added) and the
TNO bed material revealed that the Renfrew bed material is more
erosive, contrary to the measured erosion rate. Within the scope of this
research a softer limestone type and different coals will be tested at
TNO.

Geometry of the bed bundle

At the bed bundle originally incorporated, the erosive attack
appears to have been severest at the top layer of the bundle. Thereupon
the bundle was arranged lower in the bed and the erosion rate reduced.
At the 4 MWth AFBB of TNO 3 different horizontal and vertical pitches
were tested. This did not result in any difference in the erosion rate.
 21
In terms of tube diameter and horizontal and vertical pitch, the last
installed bundle was made equal to that of the Renfrew boiler. This
modification did not result in a change in erosion rate either. At the
20 MW TVA rig the original bundle had a square array. Now, amongst
others, a bundle of triangular array has been installed and the erosion
rate is much higher.
At Gibson-Wells bundles of triangular array were replaced by ones with
a square array. The impact on erosion was only limited. Furthermore,
the Renfrew boiler also has a bundle of triangular array, which does
not show erosion.

Bed height
At the 4 MWth AFBB of TNO, the effect of bed height was examined
within the scope of the EEC-subsidized research. The reason for this
was the slight bed height at the Renfrew plant. At a bed height of
68 cm (dynamic) the erosion rate, however, proved not to deviate from
the rate at a height of 105 cm.

Bubble velocity and bubble behaviour

Proper radial mixture in a fluidized bed is the result of the
bubbles rising in the bed. These bubbles have a major impact on the
movements of the particles in the bed. The bubble size and bubble
velocity are important. The bubble size increases with the bed height
due to coalescence of the bubbles. Therefore, the hightest particle
velocity can be noticed at the bed top. Bubble velocity proves to
depend on particle size of the bed material. In the 4 MWth AFBB British
Coal measured the bubble velocity at 3 places in the boiler over the
bed length (I m ) , twice below the bed bundle and once above it. The
results show that the bubbles rise at a lower velocity than the
superficial velocity of the flue gases. No difference was found in the
rising velocity of the bubbles underneath and above the bed bundle,
although there was a difference between the bubbles in the bed centre
and at the walls. The latter appear to have a significantly higher
velocity. Although at the walls a higher erosion rate is sometimes
found, this cannot unambiguously be attributed to the difference in
bubble velocity, since at the bed centre the tubes are protected by a
deposit film formed by the volatile matter contained in the coal.

Flow behaviour of the bed material

In 1986 it was found that the erosion rate in the bed may differ
at different places. Sometimes this difference can be attributed to
different in-bed conditions (Figure 5, tube 3.7), e.g. the recycle
nozzle, sometimes (Figure 5, tube 1.2) there seems to be no distinct
reason. By installing the new bundle, whose tubes are made of mild
steel, it is tried to get a better understanding of the flow behaviour
of the bed material.

3. CONCLUSIONS
The research work Stork Boilers has undertaken since 1986 jointly
with Babcock Power and British Coal has resulted in a classification
of materials in terms of their erosion resistance, which enables an
optimum material selection to be made. A significant insight was
obtained into the parameters having an impact on the interaction
between tube material and bed material (Figure 6 ) .
 22

Yet continued research work must be done to devise design rules as a

result of which the minimum life of the bed bundle will be five years.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research is supported by the Commission of the EEC and the
Management Office for Energy Research (PEO), which is financed by the
Ministry of Economic Affairs.

REFERENCES

(1) F. Verhoeff, M. van Gasselt. TNO/Stork Fluidized Bed Combustion

Development, 7th International Conference on Fluidized Bed
Combustion, 1985, Philadelphia.
(2) W.J.G. Little. Pulsation Phenomenon in Fluidized Bed Boilers,
9th International Conference on Fluidized Bed Combustion,
May 1987, Boston.

TABLE I

EROSION : A COMBINED ACTION OF

- In-bed tubes - tube material - hardness

- toughness
- thickness of protecting
layer

- formation of oxide layer - wall temperature

Bed material - flow behaviour - slugging

- bed height
- bubble velocity
- d
P
- tube geometry

- hardness - coal type

- type of limestone
 23

TABLE II LIST OF TESTED MATERIALS

Untreated metals :

- mild steel 12% Cr steel

- 2 1/4% Cr steel 18% Cr steel

Mild steel coated with

- NiCr 80/20 1756 C A1

23
- WC 1786 C Cr
23
- Stellite SF 6 Albro

Surface treated metals

- mild steel 12% Cr steel

-2 1/4% Cr steel 18% Cr steel

TABLE III

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EROSION VELOCITY OF

MATERIALS TESTED IN THE TNO 4 MWth RIG AND
MATERIALS TESTED DURING SHOTBLASTING TESTS
AT ELEVATED TEMPERATURE WITH BED MATERIAL

Erosion velocity
Material Ratio bed test
Erosion velocity
shotblasting test

Mild steel i.O

Stainless steel 1.8

Coatings - NiCr 80/20 2.9

- Stellite 4.5

- WC 0.6

Surface treated - 2 1/4% Cr steel 2.0

- mild steel 0. 1
 24

Figure 1:

TNO U MW Atmospheric Fluid Bed Boiler

nt*ck

Review of erosion test results

from TNO-MI and Stork Boilers
M
waatig*
rat*
(mm/1000 h)
I
'
r
itub* bnk

uncoolod
oft ampin
*-\ cootod
\s 1
tMttUbM 1
A/
. V .
0
500 iOO TOO tOO " WW
mtUI tomporatura (*C)

AFBB In-lMd tetli 4 MW ra TN O

C-tlnl
0
2 1/4 Cr 1 Mo
OCrlMo FIGURE 2
12 Cr 1 Mo V
AISI316
AI8I 310 8
Alloy 800 H
Typical windbox pressure spectra Windbox pressure before and
Dynamic pressure fluctuations after modification - TNO rig
due to bubbling mechanism Interaction of bubbling and
accoustic effects

6000
2500

TNO FBB
dynamic
1.09 Hz-519 Pa pressure
magnitude prlor to modification
(Pa/VHz 2.44 Hz-150 Pa (Pa/Hz)

3000-

Renfrew FBB
1.22 Hz-216 Pa
y 2.94 Hz-108 Pa after modification

i i

frequency (Hz) frequency (Hz) -

FIGURE 3 FIGURE 4
 Material wastage along tubes Effects on the erosion velocity

parameter influence on
erosion velocity

geometry - H.S. high In bed

- pitch
tested metals - untreated
tub* 2.1 tub* 3.7
- coated )
L(cm)
500 - surface treatment
AD bed tube temperature - 250 C - 600 C
(urn) 10 70 10 70
'

S" *~^
"NT-
s / parameters effecting the- 1Hz pulsations
-500 *x"* / bedmaterials behaviour
- bedheight 0,6-1,0 m
1000'
- bubble velocity
- coal type
fly ash
refirlng - type of limestone
nozzle
material tubas: mild steal
/
FIGURE 5 FIGURE 6
 27

FLUIDISED BED COMBUSTION OF COALS AND

DIFFERENT TYPES OF WASTES

Contract Number : EN3F-0013-C (T.T.)

Duration : 36 months, 1 June 1986 - 31 May 1989

Total Budget : 750 282 ECU'S CEC contribution:570 798 ECU'S

Scientific Coordinator: Prof.D.F.G.Durao, Instituto Superior Tecnico

Contractors : Instituto Superior Tecnico - 1ST

Head of project: D.F.G. Durao.
Authors : J. Azevedo, M.G. Carvalho, D.F.G.
DurSo, P. FerrSo, M. Heitor, L.
Moreira, J. Pereira.
Address : Av. Rovisco Pais
1096 Lisboa Codex
PORTUGAL
LNETI
Head of project: I. Gulyurtlu
Authors : I. Gulyurtlu, C. Bordalo, J.
Carrola, R. Jones, A. Monteiro
University of Sheffield
Head of project: P. Foster
Authors : P. Foster, E. Garbett
Construcoes Metalomecanicas MAGUE, SARL
Head of project: M. Silva

Summary

General procedures for predicting the performance of fluidised bed

combustors fuelled by waste materials and low grade coals are being
developed by a programme of experimental work co-ordinated with
mathematical modelling.

INTRODUCTION

The objective of this project is to provide engineering design data

for fluidised bed combustors (FBC) to burn low grade coal, forestry and
other waste materials, which could contribute significantly (about 3
million tonnes per year) to the energy requirements of Portugal and, by
implication, to other countries in the Community.

There is a large body of operating experience on fluidised bed

combustors burning bituminous coals, together with extensive experimental
 28

investigations and physical-chemical mathematical modelling. The extent to

which this information can be directly applied to predict the performance
of existing designs of FBC when using previously untested waste material
and fuel or to design FBC specifically for new waste materials is an
important objective of this project. The properties of bituminous coals
are relatively homogeneous when compared with the variations in calorific
value, volatile matter, physical form and density, ash content and
composition of potential forestry and waste materials. It is anticipated
therefore that while the present database largely based on bituminous
coals of good quality, provides a good starting point, it will be
insufficient.

The strategy adopted here is based on: i) a programme of experimental

investigations of the combustion of waste materials in pilot scale
combustors; ii) the correlation of these measurements with existing
mathematical models and the further development of these models in the
light of the experimental findings; iii) the formation of a database of
operational experience of fluidised bed combustors and associated
equipment and of the scientific investigation of all the sub processes
involved, reaction rates, devolatilisation rates, elutriation, heat
transfer in the bed and freeboard, pollutant formation, bed fluid
dynamics, erosion, particle attrition etc.; iv) a series of experiments to
provide information on those processes which are not yet understood,
particularly those which arise from the nature of waste materials.

This short paper summarizes the work on the experimental pilot plants
and the instrumentation for them and on the testing of current
mathematical models. The development of the project is aimed to provide
design methods and prototype design concepts for combustors to burn
specific waste materials.

2. MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

The mathematical models of Rajan and Wen, 1980 and Preto, 1985 were
selected and tested against experimental data acquired in a pilot AFBC
(Brikci-Nigassa, 1982), and the experimental rig at LNETI. A review of
mathematical modelling, including the two chosen models was presented by
Azevedo et al (1987).

2.1. The Selected Models

Both models include all the significant processes occuring in a FBC

but make different basic assumptions.

The model developed by Rajan and Wen (1980) involves two calculation
procedures. The first simulates elutriation from the bed and takes into
account attrition of both char and inerts. It includes a simplified
combustion submodel and calculates the particle size distribution in the
bed and along the freeboard. The mean values are provided to the second
procedure which divides the bed into a number of compartments based on a
prediction of bubble size: mass balances for char and gaseous species and
a heat balance are applied to each compartment. Temperature and char
concentration profiles along the bed are calculated. Gas phase mass
balances are performed in both the bubble-cloud-wake and the emulsion
phase. The distribution of volatiles is obtained by taking into account a
supplied mixing coefficient and the char combustion in both phases is
 29

based on the mean bed char particle diameter calculated in the first
procedure. This model is able to deal with different combustor and cooling
tube geometries.

The model of Preto (1985) considers combustion calculations in more

detail: i) the homogeneous reactions considered involve ten different
species including the pollutants: their concentrations are calculated by
minimizing the Gibbs function; ii) the distribution of volatiles
throughout the bed is obtained considering the devolatilisation and the
turnover time for each size of char particles; iii) the combustion of the
remaining char is calculated considering the mixing pattern for each
particle size. In the hydrodynamic submodel allowance is made for a jet
zone just above the distributor. The remainder of the bed is treated as a
free bubbling bed with a mean bubble diameterwhich is calculated taking
into account the influence of bed diameter. However, some basic
assumptions are considered as follows: i) the bed size distribution of
inerts is taken as known; ii) the bubble clouds and wakes are not
considered in the bubble phase; iii) the bed temperature is considered
uniform. It is also important to note that the model of Preto does not
simulate the effect of immersed obstacles on the bubble growth and is not
able to predict the performance of combustors with varying cross section
along the bed height.

The two selected models have been tested against published

experimental data in order to analyse the importance of the different kind
of assumptions.

2.2. Initial Results

Figure 1 compares the species concentrations predicted by the two

models with the experimental results of Brikci-Nigassa for 3% actual
excess air, for a bed temperature of 820C and a superficial velocity of
4.4Umf.

The model of Rajan and Wen predicts the consumption of oxygen near the
distributor more accurately than the model of Preto, due to the different
assumptions in the calculation of bubble fraction and mass transfer
between phases. At low excess air levels, the model of Rajan predicts the
presence of oxygen in the emulsion phase only near the distributor,
leading to a large conversion in that region. The model of Preto predicts
a comparatively more uniform combustion of char throughout the bed because
it considers a larger mass transfer and emulsion fraction and a jet zone
with a large availability of oxygen. The predicted value of carbon loading
is therefore smaller than that predicted by the model of Rajan and Wen. As
a result of the higher concentration of 0 in the emulsion phase, the CO
concentration is maintained in the model or Preto at low levels in the jet
zone. However, the levels of CO in the freeboard are underpredicted by the
two models because the level of oxygen is high enough to oxidize all the
CO. The transported unburnt volatiles in the model of Rajan and Wen are
assumed to burn instantaneously just above the bed leading to a rise in
temperature in that zone, which is not observed in the experiments due to
lack of resolution in the measurements. However, a similar behaviour in
the variation of temperature along the same bed for similar operating
conditions was reported by Gibbs et al (1975).
 30

Further tests for large particle sizes have shown that bed carbon
loading is not well predicted by the two models. In order to test various
empirical correlations the Rajan and Wen program has been modified
extensively. The results of changes made in the elutriation and
hydrodynamics sub-models have been compared with the initial experimental
results of the LNETI combustor, figure 2. These results show a reasonable
agreement between model and experiment. Further experiments will have to
be carried out for the assessment of the more important correlations used
in the models.

3. EXPERIMENTAL WORK

3.1. Introduction

Experiments have been designed and performed with two main objectives.
First, to obtain reliable data in practical combustors for steady
continuous combustion in order to evaluate and improve global calculation
procedures. Secondly, to provide specific knowledge of the mechanisms of
combustion kinetics of the solid fuels to be used together with those
associated with the fluid dynamics of the flow inside fluidised beds. The
work is summarized in the following six sub-sections.

3.2 Continuous combustion in AFBC

3.2.1.Experiments in a 0.2 m diameter AFBC

Experiments have been carried out in the facility of LNETI, which

consists of a 0.20 m diameter combustor, 3m high, made of insulated
refractory steel. The combustion air is distributed through a ^et of
standing pipes, each one with 8 holes of 1.5 mm diameter. Temperature and
pressure are measured along the combustor and the former is controlled by
cooling coils placed in the bed and freeboard regions. Major gas species
concentrations are measured at various heights of the reactor by water-
cooled gas sampling probes. The temperature of the flue gases leaving the
reactor are continuously recorded and elutriated particles are collected
in a twin-cyclone system for posterior analysis. A pneumatic conveying
system is used to feed into the reactor coal particles up to 6 mm in
diameter and a gravity feeder is used for larger particles. Ash and bed
material can be removed from the reactor through purpose built pipes to be
analysed. A premixed propane/air flame is used to heat up the bed, which
takes about 50 minutes to reach the temperature at which coal replaces the
propane.

Preliminary experiments with Portuguese anthracites have shown

particular difficulties in achieving an easy ignition and confirm the low
content of volatile matter of the coals discussed in section 3.3.
Particles up to 6 mm in diameter ignite at about 850C, but larger
particles do not ignite at all. For temperatures in excess of 1 00OC the
ash from the large coal particles tends to agglomerate and gives rise to
defluidisation as well as to a decrease in the bed temperature and to a
fast accumulation of ash particles in the bed. Measurements carried out
without any additive have shown negligible concentrations of NO but
comparatively high values of SO , probably due to the easy oxidation of
inorganic sulfur.
 31

Experiments have also been performed with wood waste particles between
2 and 3 cm fed from the top of the bed and have shown that most of the
burning occurs in the freeboard zone and is mainly controlled by the
excess air. Figure 3 compares the combustion efficiency of the reactor fed
with coal and wood particles and quantifies the influence of the excess
air in the combustion process. In particular for wood waste combustion,
excess air above 45% enhances elutriation of unburnt particles and
decreases combustion efficiency.

3.2.2.Experiments in a 0.5 metre diameter AFBC

This test rig is under construction at Sheffield University and

represents a section of an industrial shallow fluidised bed boiler. It
allows the investigation processes in the freeboard by optical methods,
namely, microsecond double flash photography and laser diffraction
particle sizing. The bed, 46 cm in diameter, is enclosed in refractory
concrete insulation with a static bed height varying between 0.125 and
0.175 m, fluidising velocities between 1 and 2.5 m/s, 32 standpipes to
distribute the combustion air and 6 boiler tubes of 50 mm in diameter in
two rows on a triangular pitch. The design was provided by the British
Coal Central Research Establishment. Fuel feed rates of 40 Kg/h of coal or
the calorific equivalent of other materials are provided by an overbed
feeder or inbed feeding. A water-cooled freeboard section, 2.5 m in
height, remains to be installed together with the cyclone particle
arrester.

The rig may be used to undertake combustion tests on fuels but it is

primarily designed to investigate the processes of particle splashing and
elutriation, devolatilisation and combustion in the freeboard, which are
important in the combustion of wood wastes and in overbed feeding. A
special feature is the provision of clean optical ports for optical
investigations using controlled wall purging air.

3.3 Combustion kinetics in a shallow fluidised-bed combustor

An important objective of the present investigation is to characterize

the mechanism of combustion of Portuguese coals and to compare them with
those of higher quality coals and pure carbon particles. This is because
the Portuguese coals contain high concentrations of ash and may be burned
efficiently in a fluidized-bed combustor, while meeting stringent
requirements for the control of environmental pollutant emission.
However,there is insufficient data on the combustion characteristics of
Portuguese coals and further experiments are needed. These will involve
detailed parametric studies on the evolution and combustion of volatiles
and resistances due to the presence of ash or due to the size of pores in
the burning particles.

Characteristic combustion parameters have been measured by introducing

a closely sized batch . of coal of known mass into a purpose-built
electrically-heated fluidised bed. The apparatus was constructed at LNETI
with the collaboration of 1ST and was made from a 120 mm bore diameter
ceramic tube supplied by "Kanthal" and fitted with a stainless steel
distributor. Silica sand particles were used as the inert bed material and
could be fluidized with either compressed air or nitrogen. Bed
temperatures were measured by shielded chromel/alumel thermocouples and
controlled by a variable output transformer connected to the heater
winding. Rotameters were used for air and nitrogen flow measurements.
 32

Devolatilisation and total burnout times for two types of Portuguese

coal have been obtained throughout this investigation and sample results
are compared with a higher quality coal in figure 4. The experiments were
carried out at bed temperatures from 800C to 1000C and fluidising
velocities ranging from bubbling to turbulent bed regimes and have shown
no visible volatile evolution for the Portuguese coals. The total burnout
times are influenced, to varying degrees by the ash present in the
different coals.

The results will be complemented in the future by a detailed

parametric study and will be extended to measurements of burning rates.
Steady state concentrations along the combustor will be also obtained.

3.4 Cold-flow models of AFBC

3.4.1 2-D bubble dynamics

A two-dimensional fluidised bed 50 cm wide, 70 cm deep and with a

variable thickness between 0.5 and 1.5 cm depending upon the particle
size, was constructed at 1ST. The bed is fluidised with air through a
porous bronze plate. Glass spheres (ballotini; density of 2.94 g/cm3) have
been used as bed particles after being graded by sieving. Air bubbles are
controlled by a fast acting solenoid valve operated through an electronic
timer to allow single and continuous bubbles growing in the beds
visualisation of the bubbles has been performed by illuminating the flow
with tungsten lights and recorded by video camera and a motor driven still
camera (see figure 5 ) .

The influence of the bubble splitting and coalescence on th,e mass

transfer between the cloud and the emulsion or interstitial phase has been
studied to improve knowledge of the transport of solids in the wake of
bubbles, which appears to be the prime mechanism by which bed particles
are mixed. A further objective of the present research is to quantify the
elutriation or loss of particulate material from the freeboard region.
Laser-Doppler. anemometry will be used to perform simultaneous gas and
particle velocity measurements in the freeboard region.

A theoretical analysis of bubble motion is also under development. The

analysis involves the numerical solution of the Navier-Stokes equations
for the motion of the particles by an implicit finite difference
procedure.

3.4.2 3-D bubble eruption and particle entrainment

A 25 cm square cold bed was constructed at Sheffield University in

order to study the mechanisms of ejection of particles from the surface of
a fluidised bed. Shadowgraphs of the freeboard have been taken using a 10
Joule Argon stabilised double flash unit and have allowed measurements of
the size and velocity of particles from two successive images. Depth of
focus about 2-5 mm and magnifications between 1 to 3 have enable views to
be obtained inside the burst, which will allow checking of current
theories of splashing and entrainment. The technique will be used in a
later stage in the 0.5 diameter hot bed.
 33

3.5. Particle sizing in the freeboard by laser diffraction

A Malvern laser diffraction particle size distribution small coal-

fired fluidised bed analyser Type 2000D has been tested to quantify the
elutriation and, ultimately, will be used in the hot 0.5 m diameter rig.
Three problems have been identified: (i) thermal radiation from the bed
interferes with the laser signal; ii) dust from the bed settles on lenses;
iii) refractive index gradient in the gases give false diffraction. The
first problem was solved by using a 10 manometer optical bandpass filter,
the second is solved by use of an air purged window, and the third problem
is more difficult and is being investigated. However, the false
diffraction pattern indicates false large 0.7-1.2 micron particles and
allows the smaller particles to be measured.

3.6. Standpipe distributor pressure losses

The magnitude of the pressure drop across the distributor is important

in determining the stability of the bed. In the 0.5 m diameter bed,
standpipes are employed, each one with three sets of three 2 mm holes in
the top of the sidewall, according to the method of Wen and King (1980).
However, it was noticed that the discharge coefficients recommended by
these authors were more appropriate to sieve plates than standpipes. To
elucidate this problem, flow tests were made on an individual standpipe
with four static pressure tappings and also on the distributor with
tappings on three standpipes. These tests provided a comprehensive body of
experimental data in relation to distributor pressure loss and have been
formalised in terms of the manifold flow theory of Denn (1980). In
particular pressure-loss coefficients for the flow past exit holes have
been found and have been incorporated into a computer program for the
design of a standpipe distributor.

4. SUMMARY AND FUTURE WORK

Two mathematical models have been used to simulate fluidised bed

combustion of low calorific fuels and have shown to be deficient in
several areas, although a substantial amount of work has been done to
modify and improve them. It has been observed that several of the
fundamental design correlations are lacking in acceptable experimental
data and, by carrying out several experiments, attempts are being made to
rectify these. The experiments involve measurements in large fluidised
beds running continuously and in hot and cold models of fluidised beds to
allow the identification of particular mechanisms of fluidised bed
combustion.

The research work will proceed by the development of the experiments

outlined here and the subsequent improvement and validation of
mathematical models, with the aim of providing and predicting engineering
design data for AFBC capable of burning low grade coal and other waste
materials.

REFERENCES

(1) AZEVEDO, J.L.T., CARVALHO, M.G., DURAO, D.F.G. andMOREIRA, A.L.(1987)

Modelling of fluidised bed combustors to be presented at the
International Specialist's Meeting on Solid Fuel Utilization, July 6-
9, 1987. Lisbon, Portugal.
 34

(2) BRICKI-NIGASSA, M. (1982). Monosized coal combustion in a fluidized

bed combustoc. PhD. Thesis, University of Sheffield.

(3) DENN, M.M. (1980). Process Fluid Mechanics, Prentice Hall, New York.

(4) GIBBS, B.M., PEREIRA, J.F. and BEER, J.M. (1975). Coal combustion and
NO formation in an experimental fluidised bed", Inst, of Fuel Symp. S.
nr.l D 6.1-D 6-13

(5) PRETO F. (1987). Studies and modelling of atmospheric fluidized bed

combustion of coal. PhD. Thesis, Department of Chemical Engineering.
Queen's University at Kingston, Canada.

(6) RAJAN, R.R. and WEN, Y.C. (1980). A comprehensive model for fluidised
bed coal combustors. AICHE Journal, ^6_, pp. 642-655.

(7) WEN, C. Y. and KING, D.F.U980). Distributor Design. Proceedings of

the 4th Conference on Fluidised Bed Combustion System Design and
Operation, Morgantown. West Virginia, 1980.

RAJAN and WFN (1960) PRETO ( 1 9 8 5 )

-\ ^

X
\ "
: \ /

"A
-i \
I y <- \>\ > - .

Ik 180 I 60 iio 100

BED HFIGHT (or) BED HEIGHT (cm)

Comparison of models predictions with published data (Brikcl-Nigassa, 1982)

CO CO

FIG: 1
 35

0 aodri
1.47 kg coal/h
0 . CO o 2 i*P>. A
V 2 Tb - 970*C '
CO aodil
C) Qiir (a>C) 13 aJ/h
CO xpa.
U 0.68 a / l
-
Hlf 44.5 a
Exc.lir - 431
15 '
A

10 '

/ A A A
5 /
V
/
f
50 2C0 Distinct f r a i
distributor (on)

FIGURE 2 Comparison of the predictions using the model of Rajan and

Wen (1980) with the experimental results of LNETI.

100

T r
700 750 800 950
TEMPERATURE (CI
FIGURE 3 Combustion efficiency for coal and wood particles obtained in
the 0.2 m diameter AFBC of LNETI.
 36

tO Q

FIG. 4 Burnout times of Portuguese and

foreign coals

FIG. 5 Gas bubble rising in the two dimen

sional fluidized bed built at 1ST.

1 '"v ""-. , \ , ,-":

*\ ..... ^ / '.'\*
i- 'S v
;

r ' J
; , . : \ * / ~
K
: . ' \
r
\
./,i
' '
.. \ \
I
1 / /
V

T
R-P-K/'tvi'-V:') >'>3
X't- '
? A "XH-'S' '" ^i fr "t V.TO " i:""'*'

FIG. 6 Holepassing loss coefficients in a standpipe tested at tne

University of Sheffield
 37

ENHANCED HEAT TRANSFER DUE TO DUST LADEN

ENVIRONMENTS IN HEAT EXCHANGERS FOR
FLUIDI2ED BED REACTORS

Contract number : EN3F-0044-IRL

Duration : 36 months, 1 July 1986 - 30 June 1989

Total budget : IRE 160.500,-,

CEC contribution IRE 140.455,-

Head of project : Dr. J.A. Fitzpatrick

Contractor : University of Dublin

Department of Mechanical and
Manufacturing Engineering

Address : Trinity College, Dublin 2, Ireland

OBJECTIVES

The objective of the proposed research work is to improve the

understanding of enhanced heat transfer by dust loading in
heat exchangers for boiler plant applications. The principal
aim is to provide design criteria to increase the potential
efficiency of these units.

In many fluidized bed systems, the shell side heat transfer

environment of the heat exchangers is gas mixed with dust
particles convected from the combustion area. It is
generally accepted that the presence of such particles
enhances the heat transfer characteristics but the mechanisms
of energy transfer in cross flow heat exchangers has never
been fully investigated. As a consequence, there is a
limited understanding of the fundamentals associated with the
phenomenon and there is no procedure for designing these
units for optimal heat transfer.
Recent tests at Babcock Power Research Centre in Scotland
have indicated that the increase in heat transfer obtained by
dust loading is sufficient to justify a fundamental study to
quantify those parameters most likely to influence this
enhancement. This project is a direct consequence of these
observations and aims to identify those parameters which are
most influential in the process of enhancement.

REMARKS

The contract of this project was signed in August 1986.

Since then, the experimental facilities have been under
construction but it is at present too early to report
experimental results.
 FBC-TECHNOLOGY

Development and demonstration of improved air

distributors for fluidized bed boilers to burn untreated
and power station type coals

Controlled internal circulation fluidized bed heat

exchanger

Adaptation of fluidized bed grate for coarse particles

and high-ash products

Development of multisolids fluid bed combustor pilot

plant for lower cost, high efficiency steam generators

Construction of a circulating fluidized bed test rig for

research into lower cost, high efficiency steam
generator designs

Fluidized bed combustion of difficult fuels in a novel

circofluid plant

Further development of circulating fluidized-bed boiler

plant for utilisation of different low-grade and waste
fuels

Circulating fluidized bed with optimal control of

process parameters to achieve better environmental
conditions and flexibility in operation

The design and development of a small-scale fluidized

bed boiler with automatic control

Development of a fluidized bed combustor with sulphur

control, multi-fuel firing and high efficiency cyclone
separator to meet all emission control standards
 40

DEVELOPMENT AND DEMONSTRATION OF IMPROVED

AIR DISTRIBUTORS FOR FLUIDISED BED BOILERS TO
BURN UNTREATED AND POWER STATION TYPE COALS

Authors : M.J. FISHER, A.E. ILES, M.A. VICKERS

Contract number: EN3F-0010-UK(H)

Duration : 24 months 1 June 1986 - 31 May 1988

Total budget : 304 000 EEC contribution: 152 000

Head of project: Dr W.G. Kaye, Assistant Director,

Coal Research Establishment

Address : British Coal Corporation

Coal Research Establishment
Stoke Orchard
UK - CHELTENHAM, Glos GL52 4RZ

SUMMARY

The Coal Research Establishment (CRE), in conjunction with boiler

manufacturers, is carrying out a programme to develop and demonstrate
improved air distributors and bed cleaning systems which will remove
from fluidised beds the high concentrations of oversize ash (>4 mm)
that occur when burning untreated and power station type coals. Two
principal designs are being developed, with the air distributor
consisting either of (i) directed standpipes or (ii) sparge pipes.
Bed material removal is accomplished either by an air classifier, for
removal of only the oversize ash, or by using novel screw extraction
devices to remove mixed size bed material for subsequent regrading via
external sieving equipment. The collaborative programme and design
concepts are briefly described. Supporting cold and hot model studies
form part of the programme and these are described together with
current results. Hot rig studies on a directed standpipe air
distributor have shown that oversize ash particles, collecting in the
bed at rates between 3.3% and 8.7% of the coal feed rate, can
satisfactorily be directed to and removed through, an air classifier.
Tests have been carried out on cold perspex models fitted with novel
screw extraction systems to assess the material removal
characteristics along the length of the screw.

1. INTRODUCTION
A major attraction of fluidised bed combustion lies in its ability to
burn a wide range of U.K. commercial coal grades. The coals used to date
have yielded oversize (>4 mm) ash collection rates in the bed which are <3%
of the coal feed rate. Oversize ash concentrations of up to 15% of bed
mass can be tolerated. Such particles can be removed by the use of
conventional flat plate standpipe distributors (Figure 1) with appropriate
drain ports and regrading equipment. However, with some unwashed coals,
particularly opencast, about 5% of the coal can collect in the bed as
 41

oversize (>A mm) stone/shale. At this level of concentration the oversize

ash can accumulate too quickly to permit adequate migration to drain ports
in a conventional system. Eventually segregation and defluidisation can
occur, leading to clinker formation (1). Hence, more effective bed
cleaning systems with novel air distributors are required to deal with such
coals.
Two different air distributor/bed removal systems have been selected
for further development in collaboration with boiler manufacturers. The
collaborative programme and design concepts are briefly described in this
report. Supporting hot and cold model studies are being carried out at the
CRE. An account is given of these test programmes with the results
obtained to date.

2. COLLABORATIVE PROGRAMME WITH BOILER MANUFACTURERS

Full commercial designs are being developed for two different
distributors in conjunction with Foster Wheeler Power Products Ltd and
Babcock Worsley Ltd. The bed extraction and regrading system will be part
of the design package. There are four phases in the programme:
(i) Develop designs,
(ii) Physical modelling work associated with the designs,
(iii) Construction of prototype units and installation into existing
boilers operating under commercial conditions,
(iv) Performance monitoring of prototypes and further development.
The detailed designs associated with phase (i) are confidential to
each boiler manufacturer but the design concepts are described in section
3. The physical modelling work (phase (ii)) carried out at the CRE is
described in sections 4 and 5. Phases (iii) and (iv) of the programme are
scheduled to start in June 1987.

3. DESIGN CONCEPTS
3.1 Foster Wheeler Power Products Ltd
A directed standpipe air distributor is being developed. This has
similar features to the conventional standpipe distributor except that the
holes in the standpipe circumference are drilled within an arc of less than
180 and directed towards one or more drain ports or slots (Figure 2 ) .
The objective is to promote migration of oversize ash particles to the
drain ports. There are two alternative methods of dealing with the bed
material at the drain ports: (i) Air classifiers can be installed through
the ports to separate and remove only the oversize ash particles from the
main bulk of bed material (Figure 3 ) , (ii) Mixed size bed material at the
drain ports/slots can be removed by an underbed extraction system and then
regraded by external screens to remove oversize ash particles before the
finer particles are fed back to the bed.
3.2 Babcock Worsley Ltd
A sparge pipe air distributor is being developed. This consists of a
series of horizontal 'sparge pipes' which supply air to the distribution
nozzles rather than it coming from a flat topped box plenum (Figure 4 ) .
This arrangement maintains the use of a horizontal air distribution system
whilst providing means of extracting segregating ash over most of the bed
area. Sparge pipe air distributors are already widely used on furnaces
burning low ash content coals. It is considered that when they are matched
to appropriate mass flow hopper sections (Figure 4) and an underbed screw
extraction system with external bed regrading in the form of static
inclined screens (Figure 5 ) , the system should be suitable for adaption to
boiler designs.
 42

4. HOT TESTS ON A DIRECTED STANDPIPE DISTRIBUTOR WITH AIR CLASSIFIER

4.1 Objective
The objective was to assess the ability of a directed standpipe air
distributor and internal air classifier to remove oversize ash particles,
derived from the combustion of high ash coals, under typical commercial
operating conditions; also to assess changes in fluidisation and heat
transfer characteristics as smaller ash particles (not removeable through
the classifier) accumulated in the bed. Coal with at least 5% by weight
oversize ash was required to be fed to the bed. In the event of this not
being achieved with the high ash coal chosen for the programme, provision
was made for feeding additional oversize ash particles with the coal.
4.2 Experimental facility
The detailed design features of the rig chosen for the programme have
been described elsewhere(2). The general features are described followed
by details of the directed standpipes air distributor and classifier.
The combustion chamber is of modular refractory construction with
walls of 300 mm thickness and internal dimensions 1 m long by 0.5 m wide
and 2 m in height, providing a bed area of 0.5 m 2 . The standpipe
distributor is located at the foot of the chamber. The silica sand or ash
bed material (of typical static height 160 mm) is supported by the
distributor and contained by the refractory walls.
For the current tests, six water cooled tubes (in two rows of three
tubes each 1 m long and 51 mm outside diameter) were positioned in the
expanded/splash bed region. Water is pumped through the tubes to a cooling
tower in a closed loop. Each row has its own metered water flow such that
heat transfer rates to each row can be obtained separately.
These general features of the rig are shown in Figure 6. Also
illustrated are the feeding arrangements for coal and air (metered by a
screw and orifice plate respectively), the pre-mixed gas nozzle system for
start up and the combustion gas off-take system with cyclone gas clean-up.
The directed standpipe air distributor consisted of seventy-eight
stainless steel standpipes each 85 mm long and 27 mm outside diameter
welded to the baseplate on a 75 mm square pitch. Each standpipe was capped
and contained two rows of holes within a 160 arc of the standpipe
circumference. The general direction of the holes was towards one end of
the bed (Figure 2) where a 75 mm diameter drainport with a 63.5 mm diameter
air classifier was fitted.
The classifier air, supplied from a compressor and metered by an
orifice plate, entered through a 50 mm diameter side entry port. The
classified oversize ash was collected in a catchpot fitted at the bottom of
the classifier tube. A slide valve was installed between the bottom of the
air classifier tube and the top of the catchpot to facilitate removal and
emptying of the catchpot during operation of the rig.
4.3 Test procedure and operating conditions
The bed was initially heated from cold to a temperature of 900C by
firing pre-mixed gas for about 20 minutes. Changeover to operation on coal
was achieved gradually over a period of 30 minutes.
Three series of tests (assigned Tests 1,2 and 3) were carried out with
a typical part-treated smalls coal (15.6% ash content, 13% moisture and
37.5 mm top size). At the start of the test the bed material was 14/25
grade sand (size range 0.6 to 1.2 mm and mean size 0.8 mm) of static bed
height 160 mm. The fluidisation velocity in all three tests was 2.5 ms
at a bed temperature of 900C and the air. classifier was operated
continuously at a velocity between 8 and 9 ms (at 20C and 760 mmHg).
Tests 1 to 3 lasted 18.5, 16.8 and 4^7 hours respectively and the coal feed
rates were 123, 120 and 103 kg.h" . During Tests 2 and 3 additional
 43

oversize ash (>4 mm) was added to the coal at rates of 3.4% and 7.3%
respectively of the fuel feed rate. This ash had been collected through
the classifier during Test 1.
Comprehensive test data was recorded; in particular the quantity of
ash collected in the catchpot was measured at hourly intervals. At the end
of each test, samples of coal, bed material, oversize ash and cyclone fines
were collected for chemical and size analysis.
4.4 Results and discussion
The average removal rates of >4 mm ash particles through the
classifier, expressed as a percentage of the coal feed rate, were 3.3%,
6.4% and 8.7% respectively for Tests 1, 2 and 3. These rates were achieved
without blockages occurring in the classifier and showed that it could deal
with in-bed ash collection rates in excess of the original target of 5% of
the coal feed rate.
Some >4 mm ash particles remained in the bed, the respective in-bed
concentrations at the end of Tests 1 to 3 were 4.7%, 7.5% and 8.1%. (These
concentrations would be reduced if the bed levels of 155, 138 and 123 mm at
the end of Tests 1, 2 and 3 had been maintained at 160 mm by the addition
of fresh sand). These values are reasonably steady and confirm the trends
shown in previous work(3) when the classifier was operated at a velocity of
up to 8 is
The effectiveness of the air distributor and air classifier can be
demonstrated by comparing the quantities of oversize ash removed from, and
remaining in, the bed. For example, in Test 3, 45 kg of >4 mm ash were
removed through the classifier together with 1.4 kg of finer material. The
>4 mm ash remaining in the bed amounted to 8.7 kg of which 2.3 kg was
within the region of the standpipe holes. This latter material could have
been inhibited from movement by the overhanging standpipe caps. If large
quantities of such ash accumulate near the standpipe holes the air
distributor characteristics can change. Further assessment of such
accumulation rates will be made on the industrial demonstration unit.
Previous tests (3) have also shown that material in the size range 1.2
to 4 mm progressively accumulates in the bed because it cannot easily be
separated from the sand particles (top size 1.2 mm) by using the air
classifier. This was confirmed in the current tests which showed that the
in-bed concentrations of such ash gradually increased throughout the test
programme (18.3%, 25.1% and 35.2% at the end of Tests 1, 2 and 3
respectively). These accumulation rates resulted in a reduction of
convective heat transfer coefficient to the in-bed tubes; tyjnical changes
to the lower tube row were from 210 Wm K in Test 1 to 170 Wm K at the end
of Test 2 ) . Such variations must be taken into account when designing tube
layouts and deciding upon the operating parameters in industrial boilers.

5. COLD TESTS ON A PERSPEX MODEL WITH VARIABLE PITCH AND TAPERED SCREWS
5.1 Objectives
The principal objective is to assess the suitability of variable pitch
and tapered screws (Figure 7) for removing bed material uniformly from
either a long slot or a number of drain ports. In a boiler system the
slots/ports would be situated at the base of a mass flow hopper, in the
case of a sparge pipe distributor, or at one end of a flat base plate, in
the case of a directed standpipe distributor. The screws would be used in
a total extraction system, where mixed size bed material is continuously or
intermittently removed from the combustor, regraded by external screens,
and the finer particles fed back to the bed.
5.2 Experimental facility
A cold perspex model has been built to study the flow characteristics
 44

of bed material, containing oversize ash particles, flowing down through

either (i) a long narrow rectangular slot or (ii) a series of drain ports.
In each case the material enters a variable or tapered pitch screw. The
design details are described below.
The slot is 2 m long and 100 mm wide in the top of the screw casing.
In order to feed material into this slot a perspex container, 2 m long by
1 m in height and 100 mm wide is positioned immediately above it. The
container is divided into six horizontally adjacent sections by vertical
partitions which are removable. These partitions enable an assessment of
material flowrate along the length of the screw to be made (Figure 8 ) .
A perspex hopper is also being tested with a slotted outlet. The unit
simulates the base of a fluidised bed associated with a sparge pipe air
distributor. A number of different baffle designs can be installed along
its length in order to control the flowrate of material to different
sections of the screw.
The drain port system has three 100 mm diameter holes, evenly spaced
in a plate covering the screw. Bed material is fed to them via hoppers
through perspex drain ports of 100 mm internal diameter (Figure 9 ) .
The screws are 2 m long and 250 mm diameter. When used with hot bed
material in a boiler they would be water cooled. The screws under test,
although not water cooled, are of the same dimensions as those that would
be used under hot conditions. In particular the shaft diameters are
sufficient to (i) provide the flow and return water cooling facilities and
(ii) accommodate the torque requirements of the screw when turning against
the weight of the bed material above.
The size of the test rig was chosen so that solids removal rates of at
least 1250 kg/h could be obtained, typical for a 15 MW industrial boiler.
5.3 Test procedure and operating conditions
Tests have been carried out on the three hopper designs with the
tapered screw. Initially the partitioned container was installed. The
material used was 14/25 grade sand (which had been used previously in coal
fired trials) with the addition of approximately 15% oversize (>4 mm) ash
particles. Calibrations were made of material flowrate versus screw speed
and also of material weight against height in each section of the
container. These calibrations were made with the screw flooded with
material. The* maximum screw delivery rate at these conditions was 2.26
tonnes per hour at 286 revolutions per hour. Tests were performed at 25%,
50%, 75% and at maximum screw speed. For each test the screw was operated
for 18 revolutions but was stopped after every 3 revolutions in order to
measure the level of material in each section. Tests were also performed
with the partitions removed.
Preliminary tests have been carried out on the perspex tube and
baffled hopper systems. The procedure for tests on the tube unit was
similar to that for the partitioned unit. In order to study flow patterns
in the baffled hopper unit alternate layers of different coloured sand were
used to fill the hopper and the screw was stopped after every 10
revolutions. The duration of each test was 60 screw revolutions. As
material flowed through the hopper observations of changes in the position
of the layers gave an indication of regions with preferential flow.
5.4 Results and discussion
The calculated material flowrates to the tapered screw from each
section of the partitioned container, as percentages of the total, are
shown in Figure 8. The effect of removing the partitions was to allow
lateral material flow which depended upon angle of repose (26 to the
horizontal). The relative material extraction rates from each section of
the container were independent of screw speed. The material profiles
 45

obtained Illustrate the removal characteristics of the tapered screw along

its length. They will be used to assess (i) the performance of the screws
on the demonstration boilers, (ii) assist in improving screw design and
(iii) develop baffle inserts for the hopper in order to provide more
uniform solids entry to the screw.
The tests with the perspex tubes indicated a slight preferential flow
through the tubes furthest from the screw discharge. The flowrates through
ports a, b and c (Figure 9) were 37%, 36% and 27% respectively of the total
flow and were virtually independent of screw speed. For a screw which does
not produce uniform material discharge along its length it is expected that
changes in the relative position of the drain tubes will effect the
proportion of material flow through each tube.
Tests performed with layers of different coloured sand in the mass
flow hopper have shown that the presence of baffles within the hopper
produces more uniform material discharge across the width of the hopper
(i.e. 'ratholing1 along the centre of the hopper is reduced). Material
flow at the sides of the hopper increased by a factor of two in the
presence of the baffles.
Preliminary tests with the variable pitch screw liave shown that
preferential flow occurs at the point mid-way along the screw where the
pitch increases from a nominally constant value of 70 mm to M O O mm.

6. CONCLUSIONS
Two novel air distributor designs have been selected for further
development in collaboration with boiler manufacturers and ultimate
demonstration under commercial operation. The systems are (i) a directed
standpipe air distributor with internal air classifier and (ii) a sparge
pipe air distributor with underbed water cooled screw extraction facilities
feeding an external screening system.
Hot modelling studies have been made on a directed standpipe air
distributor and air classifier system. Tests have shown that most of the
oversize ash particles (>4 mm) fed to the bed at rates of between 3.3% and
8.7% of the coal feed rate can satisfactorily be removed through the
classifier. Ash particles of <4 mm tend to remain in the bed and can
replace elutriated sand. The gradual accumulation of this ash results in a
reduction of convective heat transfer coefficient which must be taken into
account when designing tube arrangements and specifying the operating
parameters for industrial boilers.
A programme of cold modelling work on novel screw extraction systems
(variable pitch and tapered units) has been carried out in order to
identify the material removal characteristics. The data obtained will be
used to assess the performance, and improve the design of, extraction
screws to be used on the demonstration commercial boilers.

REFERENCES
(1) COOKE, M.J., ROGERS, E.A., DANDO, R.L. and GAULD, D.W., Ash management
in the fluidised bed combustion of coal. 3rd International Conference
on Fluidised bed Combustion, Institute of Energy, London 1984.
(2) CHAKRABORTY, R.K. and VICKERS, M.A., Heat transfer characteristics of
cooling tubes in the expanded and splash regions of a fluidised bed
combustor - Ibid.
(3) VICKERS, M.A. and CHAKRABORTY, R.K. An investigation of changes in
fluidisation and heat transfer characteristics during combustion of
high ash coals in shallow sand fluidised beds. Fluidisation V.
Proceedings of the Fifth Engineering Foundation Conference on
Fluidisation, Helsingor, Denmark, 1986.
 46

.tmm DIAMETER HOLES

(TYPICALI

< ^

75mm tTYPICALI m

FIGURE 1 CONVENTIONAL FLAT PLATE STANDPIPE DISTRIBUTOR

Aft JETS ASSSTH3 GRADED

CROSS MGRATKM
BED MATERIAL

CONTANNATED BED MATERIAL

m
y -

O
FLUDISED BED
BASE I AR PLENUM

CLASSIFYING/
o -TRANSPORT
A
J

^OVERSIZE ASH

DRAM PORT FOR

OVERSIZE ASH REMOVAL

FIGURE 2 FIGURE 3
DIRECTED STANDPIPE DISTRIBUTOR AIR CLASSIFIER
 47

CONTAMINATED
BEO MATERIAL

STANOPIPES

SPARGE PIPES

GRADED MATERIAL
TO BEO
BED MATERIAL
PLUS SEGREGATING ASH

FIGURE A SPARGE PIPE FIGURE 5

DISTRIBUTOR WITH MASS FLOW HOPPER STATIC INCLINED SCREEN

BURSTING
asc

ACCESS
DOOR

ASH

S\ COLLECTION
an

FIGURE 6 GENERAL FEATURES OF TEST RIG

 48

VARIABLE PITCH SCREW

TAPERED SCREW

FIGURE 7 ASH EXTRACTION SCREWS

100%
7% -PERCENTAGE OF
16% 167% 13-3% TOTAL FLOW THROUGH
24-7% 22-3%
EACH SECTION, AND
RELATIVE LEVELS

100%

FIGURE 8 PARTITIONED CONTAINER WITH TAPERED SCREW

 49

37% 36% 27%

PERCENTAGE OF
TOTAL FLOW
THROUGH EACH
SECTION

] ii r
100%

FIGURE 9 PERSPEX TUBE UNIT WITH TAPERED SCREW

 50

CONTROLLED INTERNAL CIRCULATION FLUIDIZED BED HEAT EXCHANGER

Authors J. ALKHOJA, P. GUIGON, J.F. LARGE, V. VERNOTTE

Contract number EN3F-0011-F

Duration 36 months 1 July 1986 - 30 June 1989

Total budget 5 453 000 FF CEC contribution : 2 835 000 FF

Head of project PUFF, R.

Contractor CERCHAR

Address Tour Albert ler 65 av. de Colmar

F - 92507 RUEIL MALMAISON CEDEX
France

Summary

For improving the turn down ratio of a circulating fluidized

bed boiler, a heat exchanger consisting of two fluidized compart-
ments is used. One compartment is equipped with a compact tube
bundle while the other one is tube-free. The internal solids cir-
culation rate between these two compartments is controlled by a
special non-mechanical valve. The present paper deals with the
design of this valve. Different configurations of the valve were
tested, among which, one configuration was found to provide a
satisfactory control of the solid circulating rate through the
variation of the aeration gas flowrate solely.

1. INTRR0DUCTI0N

In most of the currently used circulating fluidized bed boilers,

the operating flexibility is achieved by varying the fluidization gas
velocity, the partial recycling of the fumes or the by-pass of the
external heat exchanger when one is used. In the latter case the
temperature of the combustor is maintained by adjusting the amount of
the heat removal from the recycling ashes.
Fluidized bed external heat exchangers are the most widely used in
the boiler. The modulation of the solids flowrate through these heat
exchangers is often achieved by installing a tapping device at the exit
of the cyclone. The necessity of implementing this device is due to the
lack of flexibility inherent to fluidized bed. However, the installation
of a high temperature solids diverting valve in a portion of the boiler
which is already quite crowded is not a simple task. As a solution to
this problem, the apparatus illustrated in figure 1 is proposed. The
heat exchanger consists of two fluidized compartments. One is packed
with a compact tube bundle and the other one is tube-free. The
compartments are interconnected through a special valve which allows the
 51

control of the circulation rate of solids. On fluidizing the beds, the

bed density in the compartment containing the tube bundle would be lower
as compared to its counterpart. This is due to the frictionnal effects
between the fluidized solids and the tubes. As analogue to a thermo-
siphon, a circulation effect would thus be created due to the density-
difference beween these two zones.
In the absence of the valve (see figure 2) (1), a self sustained
circulation rate Ws* is resulted. This circulation rate is established
according to an equilibrium between the driving force (i.e. the
difference in density) and the friction on the tubes. For a fixed
geometry of the bundle, Ws* depends on the fluidization conditions in
the compartments. However, through the introduction of the proposed
non-mechanical valve, one can control the circulation rate simply by
adjusting the degree of aeration to the valve, without modifying the
fluidization conditions.
For a given fluidization velocity and bundle geometry the
circulation driving force is constant. The established circulation rate
would then be an equilibrium between the resistance due to the solids
movement across the valve Pp-P- (Figure 1) plus the one from the tube
bundle and the driving force. In order to study the valve geometry and
operating conditions independently of the tube bank, the set-up
described in the next section is used. During the experiment, the solids
flowrate at various pressure differences Pp-P- was measured.

2. EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP AND RESULTS

2.1 Experimental set-up

The experimental set-up shown in figure 3 consists of a

rectangular plexiglass column of 0.5 m high and 0.28 x 0.204 m in cross
section. Gas flowrate to the various compartments is designed to be
adjusted separately. The location and the degree of the aeration to the
valve, as well as the shape of the valve can also be modified easily. 17
pressure taps are fitted along the sides of the column. The bed material
used is silica sand having a mean diamter of 210 fim.

2.2 Experimental procedure and results

For studying a valve geometry,

a) the two beds are fluidized at chosen gas velocities;
b) the rate of aeration to the valve is then fixed
c) solids are fed to one compartment at a constant flowrate.
When the steady state is reached, the solids flowrate leaving the
other compartment and the pressure distribution in the two beds are
measured. Based on the axial pressure drop data, the bed heights in both
compartments and their difference (AZ) are computed. The same procedure
is repeated over for various solids flowrate at a given aeration rate;
which subsequently leads to curves similar to the one presented in
figure 4. The same method is then applied to other aeration gas
flowrates.
By presenting the data obtained in the form as shown in figure 5,
(where the pressure difference Pp-P was used as the parameter) one can
clearly notice the effects of the aeration gas flowrate on the control
of the solids circulation rate.
 52
The same figure also illustrated that the configuration 1 yield a
better control than configuration 2. In fact among all the configura-
tions we have tested so far configuration 1 gives the best performance.

3. CONCLUSION

Among all the valve configurations tested so far, at least one is

giving satisfactory results in term of controlling the circulation
rate of solids.

The results obtained with sand must be confirmed by using ashes

coming from a circulating fluidized bed.

In the next step the whole exchanger apparatus i.e. including the
tube bundle, will be tested.

REFERENCES

1. NDENGE C., Contribution a 1'etude d'un echangeur fluidise a

circulation auto-entretenue des solides. These de docteur ingenieur,
Universite de Compiegne 1985.

S
o oooo o OO O O O O
oooooo o o OO OO
ooooo o o o o oo o
o o o oo o o oooo o

9 9
FIGURE 1 - Fluidized bed heat ex- FIGURE 2 - Experimental set-up
changer with controlled internal used in reference (1)
circulation.
 53

Figure 3-(a) Experimental set-up used in the present study

1 bucket elevator
2 hopper
3 pneumatic valve
4 solids flowrate control valve
5 manometer
6 gas valve
7 rotameter
8 valve
9 pressure regulator
10 thermocouple
 54

COUPE AA

Figure 3 (b) cross sectional view, (c) side view of the

experimental set-up.

Figure 3 (d) schematic diagram.

 55

w.
0.20 . kg/s

0.16

0.12

0.08

0-04

i , AZ
o' 4 8 12 16 20 cm

Figure 4- Solids flowrate versus pressure driving force at

fixed aeration flowrate in the valve.

Ws
kg/s

0,5.

0,1
Qg m 3 /h

Figure 5- Solids flowrate versus gas flowrate in the valve

configuration I
configuration 2
 56

ADAPTATION OF FLUIDIZED BED GRATE

FOR COARSE PARTICLES AND HIGH-ASH PRODUCTS

Authors A. DELEBARRE, A. KONIUTA

Contract number EN3F-012-F

Duration 24 months 1.07.1986 - 30.06.1988

Total budget FF 3 500 000 CEC Contribution : FF 1 750 000

Head of project R. PUFF, CERCHAR

Contractor Centre d'Etudes et Recherches de Charbonnages

de France
Research and Development Establishment of
Charbonnages de France

Address CERCHAR
13eme Etage Sud - Tour Albert ler
65 avenue de Colmar
92507 RUEIL-MALMAISON
FRANCE

Summary

CERCHAR (Research and Development Establishment of Charbonnages de

France) is undertaking the development of a range of flexible small-
and medium-sized fluidized bed boilers to burn a wide variety of
fuels. An original aspect of these boilers is the fluidization grid
which consists of a number of inverted pyramids shaped orifices fed
by individual pipes. The grid, in preliminary combustion trials, has
demonstrated its ability to provide good results and to eliminate
clinkering problems even in case of high-ash content and coarse
coals. Results presented here concern the effects of particle size,
bed height, coarse particle fraction on the good mixing of the bed.
On the other hand, the air distribution system has been improved to
get an easy start-up of the fluidization of the bed without using
large power requirement of the blowers. The automatic control will be
also greatly enhanced by those new devices, by giving a very simple
way to follow the steam demand.

1. INTRODUCTION
In the years 1958 to 1960, CERCHAR developed a special type of flui-
dization grid in order to carbonize agglutinating coals and to incinerate
industrial sludges. In these cases, the problem was to avoid the risks of
clinkering and to obtain a stable and uniform fluidization with beds
containing an extended particle size distribution including large
particles (1). The grid developed to this end was composed of pyramids in
juxtaposition and belongs to the family of inversed-cone grids.
 57

While the use of the grid in the above mentioned applications gave
entire satisfaction, its use in industrial fluidized bed boilers implied
that :
1) the grid feeding system had to be simplified to reduce costs and
allow a full automatization
2) an experimental program was required to better understand the
effect of grid geometry and operating parameters, on the behaviour of the
bed and the quality of fluidization.
This research program was primarily concerned with the mixing of fine
and coarse particles in the bed studied on cold model and the development
of a new type of air distribution.

2. HYDRODYNAMIC STUDIES
The purpose of these experiments was to elucidate the effects of the
grid both on mixing in the bed, and on its ability to prevent sedimen-
tation of large particles (there is the possibility that deposition may
occur during combustion when ungraded coal is used). The experiments were
carried out in a square section (0.4 m x 0.4 m) apparatus with transparent
walls containing 9 pyramids with dimensions one third of those of indus-
trial-scale units.
This set of experiments demonstrated that the effects of the jet in
the CERCHAR grid served to prevent the deposition of large particles at
the bottom of the reactor (2) (3). A binary mixture of particles was
used : glass particles with a mean diameter of 0.895 mm (all being smaller
than 1 mm) and having a minimum fluidization velocity of 0.52 m/s and
particles of coal of 4 mm mean diameter size and a minimum fluidization
velocity of 1.5 m/s. For instance the concentration of the coal particles
equalled 0.7 % for one of the experiments and 1.4 % during another one.
The fluidization velocity was maintained at 0.7 m/s, that is slightly
above the minimum fluidization velocity of the smaller particles, but half
that of the larger particles. The system was fluidized for one hour. The
air flow was then abruptly terminated, and the vertical distribution of
coal particles was determined by successively removing 100 mm layers from
the bed, which were then analyzed by screening and weighing. Figure 1 and
figure 2 show that the bed was found to be homogeneous in both tests, and
that the concentration of coal corresponded to that originally inserted.
The CERCHAR grid thus produces good mixing and avoids deposition of large
particles at the bottom of the reactor.
This result is explained by the presence of jets, which have greater
penetration than jets of conventional grid and are sufficient in number to
re-entrain upwards the large particles tending to settle to the bottom.

3. AIR DISTRIBUTION STUDIES

Fluidized bed combustion offers numerous advantages compared with
other methods of combustion but the large scale application confronts
nevertheless certain problems including those linked with the scale-up of
fluidization grids and the development of units with a high turn-down
ratio.
The CERCHAR grid is composed of a set of pyramids placed side by side
in such a way as to reduce to a minimum zones which are not fully
aerated ; hexagonal-based pyramids are used for combustors having a circu-
lar cross-section ; squared-based pyramids can be used for squared or rec-
tangular cross-sections (4). Due to its type of grid, the CERCHAR FBC
process is somewhat similar to the spouted beds and more precisely to
multiple spouted beds (5).
 58

When the cross-section of a conventional fluidized bed becomes

larger, it is often difficult to obtain an homogeneous distribution of
fluidizing air and more delicate, according to some earlier .studies, when
the grid looks like those of multiple spouted beds. Therefore, first of
all, each pyramid was equipped with an air feed pipe fitted with a regula-
ting and control valve and a compressed air injection at the base of each
syphon allowing re-fluidization after shut-down.
The air distribution studies decided by CERCHAR have got two goals :
- to reduce the cost of the- automatized control loop of start-up of
the fluidization by getting rid of the most part of the valves
- to lower the pressure drop necessary to insure even distribution of
air between pyramids leading to a smaller power consumption of the flui-
dization fan.
The compressed air injection design was improved, making it possible
to re-fluidize the bed without shuting the air flow by means of a special
device recently patented. On the other hand the design of the syphon was
greatly modified to obtain a low grid pressure drop allowing good distri-
bution and low operating costs. Such king of grate was set up on the
2.5 MWth boiler unit ordered by H.B.C.M. (Houilleres de Bassin du Centre
et du Midi - South and Central France collieries) and successfully started
up a few months ago (6).
The goal of the air distribution studies is now to design a grid that
will not require compressed air injection and that could be fitted to
boilers installed in boiler houses where compressed air is not available.

REFERENCES

(1) P. DUMOUTET, S. DELESSARD ; La combustion de schistes bitumineux

lorrains en lit fluidise. Revue Generale de Thermique, Vo. 16, N196,
April 1978, p. 380-384.
(2) M.J. COOKE, B.A. NAPIER, W.J. PARKINSON, E.A. ROGERS ; Segregation
and Defluidization in coal-fired Fluidized Bed Combustors. 7th
International Conference on Fluidized Bed Combustion, Philadelphia
(U.S.A.) - October 1982.
(3) D. MUZYKA, A. KONIUTA, J.F. LARGE ; Studies on jet dispersion on the
CERCHAR FBC fluidization grid. 8th International Conference on
Fluidized Bed Combustion, Houston (U.S.A.) - March 1985.
(4) R. PUFF, J.C. KITA, M. BENDIF ; Combustion of bituminous shales using
the CERCHAR FBC process. 187th American Chemical Society Meetings,
St-Louis (U.S.A.) - April 1984.
(5) K.B. MATHUR, N. EPSTEIN ; Spouted Beds. Academic Press 1974.
(6) G. MARLAIR, R. PUFF, V. VERNOTTE, A. PETROVIC, J.P. BARRIERE ; The
LARDET-BABCOCK / CERCHAR 2.5 MWth Package Fluidized Bed Boiler. 9th
International Conference on Fluidized Bed Combustion, Boston
(U.S.A.) - May 1987.
 59

Mean Concentration of large

parlicules 0,7%

Concentration of
large particles %

100 200 300 400

Height in the bed (mm)

Figure 1

Mean Concentration of large

particules 1,4%

Concentration of
large particles
(%)

-25 25 100 200 300 400

Height in the bed (mm)

Figure 2
 60

DEVELOPMENT OF MULTISOLIDS FLUID BED COMBUSTOR PILOT PLANT

FOR LOWER COSY, HIGH EFFICIENCY STEAM G E N E R A T O R S
Authors : G. LANGERAAR, R.W. STONEBRIDGE
Contract number : EN-3F-0015-UK-(H)
Duration : 32 months 1 April 1986 - November 1988
Total budet : 340,000 EEC contribution: 170,000
Head of project : Mr R.M.V. Beith, Foster Wheeler Power Products Ltd.
Contractor : Foster Wheeler Power Products Ltd
Address : Greater London House
Hampstead Road
LONDON NW1 7QN. UK.

Summary
Foster Wheeler Power Products is a licensee of the Multisblid Fluid
Bed (MSFB) process and as part of our continuing development work a
0.6MW pilot plant is being constructed. The pilot plant includes
all the major components of a typical MSFB but incorporates various
novel features. These novel features are designed to maintain
operational efficiency of the process but allow a reduction in
equipment capital cost and extend the market penetration of the MSFB
process down to relatively small steam users i.e. approximately
40,0001b/hr steam. This will allow the MSFB process to cover the
complete range of the industrial water tube boiler market and provide
steam users with the benefits and the advantages of the process.
The following sections describe the design of the pilot plant and the
progress to date.

1. OBJECTIVES AND AIMS OF RESEARCH PROGRAMME

The primary objective of the MSFB pilot plant is to provide a cost
effective development facility. The facility will be capable of
modeling the anticipated operation of the MSFB across a range of
operational conditions and allow testing of the novel features and
optimisation of a number of factors, including the following :
1. External heat exchanger and steam generator.
2. Combustor internal arrangement and air flow distribution.
3. Solids recirculation requirements.
4. Physical arrangement of cyclone diplegs.
5. 'L' valve arrangements in relation to process control requirement.
6. Process cyclone design and operation.
 61

Secondary objectives of the pilot plant will be to undertake

combustion test work to provide design data and ascertain combustion
efficiencies for a range of fuel types including waste materials, as well
as continously monitoring emission levels of nitrogen-oxides, sulphur
dioxide and carbon monoxide from the MSFB. These will be taken during
the proposed test programme and will be correlated to the combustion
charateristics of the combustor and fuel.

2. DESCRIPTION OF THE PILOT PLANT

The pilot plant is designed for a nominal 0.6MW heat input and the
process flow diagram for the MSFBC pilot plant is shown in Figure 1,
Table 1 indicates the maximum process flow conditions.
The general arrangement of the pilot plant is shown in Figures 2, 3,
& 4. The overall plant dimensions are 17m high with a plan area of
approximately 4.5m x 6.2m and the arrangement incorporates the following
major components.
A combustor vessel which is separated into seven sections with
flanges to ease fabrication, future maintenance of the vessel and allow
flexibility with regard to the internal geometry. The vessel will be
internally lined with 300mm of refractory comprised of approximately
100mm abrasion resistant hot face lining and 200mm of insulation. The
internal diameater is 300mm and the combustor height is 12m. The
combustor will operate at a temperature between 800 & 958C.
Air is supplied to the system by fans and is measured and regulated
individually to the various inlets.
The distributor of the combustor consists of a sparge pipe and a
stand pipe and is fixed on one end to allow expansion on the other end.
An in-duct gas burner upstream of the distributor will be used to heat
the bed material to the fuel ignition temperature. The test programme
will include analysing the effects of various distributor arrangements on
the process performance.
The dust laden flue gas from the combustor is ducted to a high
efficiency cyclone where most of the solids are returned to the system.
The hot solids* can be recycled to the combustor directly from the cyclone
diplegs via L-valves. Part of the hot solids stream overflows to the
external heat exchanger (EHE), through an inclined leg, for removal of
heat.
The EHE is refractory lined and has water cooled heat transfer
surface inserted vertically into the fluidised bed to simulate the
vertical evaporation tubes proposed in the development work. The whole
bundle is supported at the top and can be withdrawn completely by a
lifting device for inspection of tubes, refractory and the fluidising
nozzles. Temperature & pressure indicators will be used to evaluate and
determine the fluidisation characteristics and the solids flow pattern.
The water inlet and outlet temperatures are measured to enable estimation
of the heat transfer coefficient.
The cooled solids are removed from the bed by use of two vertical
drop tubes penetrating into the fluidised bed. This design is similar
to that in the development work and should be able to identify the
potential problems of such a system. The EHE is designed to allow easy
modification and simulation of alternative designs. Furthermore,
analysis of the operation of the EHE will provide valuable information on
the flow of material within the unit provide information for a practical,
but not conservative, design to reduce plant costs.
 62

The hot gases leaving the cyclone at approximately 900C are cooled
to a lower temperature, by a shell heat exchanger acceptable to the
baghouse. The baghouse is used as a final gas clean up and will allow
information to be derived on the efficiency of the hot cyclone, unburnt
carbon loss, and size distribution of the dust particles for the
appropriate selection of gas clean up system.
Gas samples will be taken and continuously analysed to determine the
emission levels of NOx, SOx, CO and O2.
From the various pressure tapping points on the combustor, EHE and
cyclone it will be possible to assess the effect on pressure of the
solids flow within the circulating system and verify the solids
circulating system proposed for the development work.
The combustor is maintained at a negative pressure by the suction
from an induced draft (I.D.) fan. The damper position of the I.D. fan
is controlled by a controller linked to the combustor freeboard pressure.
Hot and cold solids are monitored separately by controllers linked to
the temperatures in the oxidising zone and the dense bed and will allow
automatic control of temperatures within the combustor. Other control
functions, such as fuel feed rate, water flow, will be manually
controlled during operation of the pilot plant.
The pilot plant will also be used as a marketing aid to increase
potential customer confidence in the modifications to existing technology.

3. APPLICATION OF EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

The main aim of this pilot plant is to provide essential data for the
design of a practical, reliable and combustion efficient boiler plant
with high availability and cost competitive to other combustion
techniques while retaining the inherent benefit of low emission levels
and multi-fuel flexibility. The main areas that the pilot plant will be
directed to examine are as follows :
a ) . Emission Levels in the Flue Gases
Emission levels on NOx, SOx and CO are expected to be low with MSFB
staged combustion technology. Combustion tests to be carried out on
this test unit will provide essential information which will help to
demonstrate the suitability and viability of this combustion technique
for a range of fuels including coal & waste materials. Sorbent addition
will provide important data on SOx & NOx levels.
b ) . Combustion Efficiency of Different Fuels
The pilot plant will provide an opportunity to test fire fuels to
allow optimisation of process dynamics to maximise combustion efficiency.
c). Tube Erosion
In the development work evaporator tubes are erected vertically in
the fluidised bed with identical tube spacings to the tubes in the
convection bank and the fluidising air nozzles are distributed in the
centre of these tubes at similar spacings. The EHE will simulate
proposed commercial designs & provide information on potential erosion of
the heating surface.
 63

d). Elutriation in the EHE

The elutriation rate from the EHE will be assessed to provide
information on carbon carryover etc.
e ) . L-Valve Operation
The L-valve operation is essential to provide a smooth control of the
system. Operation of the rig will allow identification of the operating
characteristics of hot 'L' valves for evaluation purposes.
f ) . Optimum Dense Bed Height in the Combustor
The fluidisation characteristics of the dense bed will be studied in
relation to size distribution, fluidising velocity and potential bed
slugging.
g ) . Heat Transfer Characteristics
The heat transfer characteristics of the EHE fluidised bed will be
studied to remove conservative design on sizing the tube surface. With
the correct heat transfer rates it will be possible to reduce both
equipment costs and the quenching effect to the combustor dense bed when
over-cooled solids are returned from the EHE.
h). Process Cyclone Optimisation
The efficiency of the primary process cyclones is vital to the
circulating nature of the system, the sand make up and the carbon loss.
The pilot plant will provide an opportunity to assess the cyclone
performance, which can then be used to recommend appropriate design
specifications for the process cyclones. This will provide reduced
plant costs and size.
i). Fuel Handling Problems
Fuel handling systems are often the most critical factor in the
availability of the boiler plant. As the combustor diameter reduces the
wall effect with wet and fine sticky solid fuel on the fuel inlets
becomes influential in blocking the entry. The test unit will be able
to reveal the associated problems on handling a range of fuels and
possibly evolve a universal solid fuel handling system for the MSFB.

j). Evaluation of Maximum Solids Carrying Capacity of Hot Gases

The test unit will be able to supply data on the solids carrying
capacity of the hot gases, and verifiy theoretical predictions.
k ) . Optimum Injection Angle of the Cold Solids to the Oxidising Zone
The pilot plant wi 11 provide an opportunity to understand the
hydro-dynamic effect of injection of low temperature sand to the
combustor freeboard at different angles to the combustor. This
information will allow optimisation of recycle location & orientation.

3. PROJECT STATUS
The project is presently 6 months late on the original programme
mainly due to a delayed start and a substantial review of the main area's
of investigation and objectives of the project during the initial design
stages. As a result of this review the combustor height has been in-
creased from 6m to 12m to increase the residence time of the circulating
material in order to optimise and maximise the benefit of the development.
 64

In this initial review the advisability of widening the design

concept was realised and areas were indentified for expanding the rig and
the tests at a later date after the present trials are completed.
Provisions for the future development e.g. high temperature gas
filtering, etc, has been made in the design of the test rig which has
increased in overall height from 7m to 17m height.
The present status (May 1987) is :
Design complete, engineering 85% complete, 85X of the plant is on
order, refractory lining of the combustor, EHE and cyclone has commenced,
civil work is complete and erection of the structure and plant is
scheduled to start end July 1987. Commissioning of the test rig is
programmed for Oct '87 with tests commencing during Nov 1987.
To optimise the performance under a variety of conditions a
computerised control system will be installed to continuously control,
monitor and record the parameters under investigation and to evaluate the
test results. It is expected that in this way the original proposed
test programme will still be completed before the 31st December, 1988.
 65

TABLE 1

GAS FLOW AIR FLOW WATER FLOW SOLIDS FLOW PRESSURE TEMPERATURE
NO. kg/h . kg/h kg/h kg/h timH20 C

1. _ 120* AMB AMB

2. AMB AMB
AMB
4. 260 1900 850*
5. 240 1400 AMB
6. . 390 _ _ 25 AMB
7. _ , 174 _ _ 50 psig AMB
8. _ 1000 30 psiq 900
9. _ _ 4280 -505 900
10. _ _ _ 1000 30 psig 900
11. _ _ 3280 -485 900
12. . _ 1000 30 psig 900
5 psig
13. - - - 2300 max: from 650
H.P'. air
5 psig
14. - 174 - 2300 max: from 650
H.P'. air
16. 720 . _ 4280 -410 900
17. 720 _ _ Trace -560 900
18. 240 Trace -560 650
19. 240 Trace -410 650
20. 1000 _ Trace -870 160
21. 1000 _ _ -1250 160
22. 440 _ _ Trace -560 900
23. 440 _ Trace -810 900
27/
/30 _ 4528 _ 50 psig 60
28/
/29 _ _ 4248 _ 50 psig 60
 (ri) CYCLONE GAS OUTLET
ja~H>r _o_ _,
Secondary
(ft Air

OS
ON

FUTURE(7) FITTI1
(gT " "JOIL
' SLUDGE
t^TARi'urt^mPisiNq

BURNER
<A>PRIMARY
AIR

Q
PRIMARY AIR F . D . FAN HIGH PRESSURE AIR

FIG. 1 PILOT PLANT PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM

 67

$ ^
EL 16 500

STACK 200 0

HIGH TEMP OUST

FIRST STAGE WASTE

HEAT COOLER

SECOND STAGE WASTE

HEAT COOLER
I FUTURE )

REACTOR I FUTURE I

FUEL BIN

FIG 2. PILOT PLANT GENERAL AERANGEMENT

6000

u
 68

TOP OF COVR

FIG 3. PILOT PLANT SECTIONAL GENERAL ARFMGEMENT

3700

(D 0
 69

in

<
a.

FIG 4. PILOT PLANT SECTION PLAN AT 5.5M LEVEL

 70

CONSTRUCTION OF A CIRCULATING FLUIDIZED BED TEST

RIG FOR RESEARCH INTO LOWER COST, HIGH
EFFICIENCY STEAM GENERATOR DESIGNS

Contract number EN3F-0065-UK

Duration 32 months

Total budget ECU 194.000,-

CEC contribution ECU 97.000,-
Head of project : Mr. R.W. Stonebridge

Contractor : Foster Wheeler Power Product Ltd

Address : P.O. Box 16, Greater London House

Hampstead Road, London NW1 7NQ, UK
OBJECTIVES

The proposed project forms an important part of the

development work required to meet the principal objective of
increasing the market opportunity for small to medium size
multisolid fluidized bed (M.S.F.B.) boilers by designing a
circulating fluidbed which is cost competitive with
conventional solid fuel firing system. As part of the work
required to satisfy this major objective, it is required to
study the internal dynamics of the combustor, cyclone and
external heat exchanger, so as to ensure optimum reaction
conditions within the main process vessels. The principal
objectives are summarised below :
- Maximise residence time of fuel particles within the
combustor.
- Optimise combustion air distribution in relation to
mixing of gaseous and particulate phases.
- Evaluate performance of the dense bed i.e. fluidizing
conditions, residence time effects etc.
- Evaluate effect of entrained bed recycle rates on mixing
and residence time.
- Evaluate cyclone pressure drops at varying solids
loadings.
- Evaluate external heat exchanger mixing.
The project is part of a larger study into the operation and
optimization of the MSFB circulating fluidbed process and
along with the hot pilot plant of the project under contract
EN3F-0015-GB, will provide an improved data base and designs
to meet the primary objective of lower cost plants.

REMARKS

At the time of the meeting, the contract was in an advanced

state of preparation. As the work is expected to start in
mid-1987, no results could be reported as yet.
 71

FLUIDIZED BED COMBUSTION OF DIFFICULT FUELS

IN A NOVEL CIRCOFLUID PLANT

Author W. W. Poersch
Contract number EN3F-0016-D, Deutsche Babcock
Duration 19 months 1 June 1986 - 31 December 1987
Total budget DM 1.798.826,-
CEC Contribution: DM 785.336,-
Head of project
Dipl.-Ing. A. Rafael
Contractor
Deutsche Babcock Werke AG
Address Deutsche Babcock Werke AG
Duisburger StraBe 375
D-4200 Oberhausen 1

Summary
The efficient utilization of problematic fuels which
cannot be used or can only be used to a limited extend
in conventional firing system, and which cause insuffi-
cient combustion rates in classical bubbling fluidized
bed combustors or do not achieve the low emission levels
specified today, is to be demonstrated in the Circofluid
system. Problematic fuels characterized by
- a low content of volatile matter and low reactivity
(anthracite),
- a high reactivity, due to high volatile matter, high
specific reaction surface and low ash and moisture
content (medium-sized pulverized brown coal),
- a high ash and water content with a low calorific
value (flotation tailings)
are to be investigated. With the use of such fuels reli-
able continuous operation is to be achieved at several
load points and by an appropriate operating mode within
the following boundary conditions: burnout at least 99 %
and emissions of pollutants (CO, S0 2 , NO ) are to be
markedly below 200 mg/Nm3. x

The test material and the test plant are described

in detail. Test work has started as scheduled but has
not yet been concluded at the time of this report.

1. INTRODUCTION
Fluidized bed combustion is a combustion for clean fuel-
to-energy conversion based on coal. Its advantages for
burning fossil fuels, especially difficult ones with high ash
 72

content, are generally accepted and have been proved many

times (1), (2), (3), (4). Even during combustion, it prevents
the formation of nitrogen oxides (NO ) and sulphur dioxide
(S02) to large extent.
Due to their relatively large mass of solids stored in
the expanded bed, fluidized bed systems exhibit a high
ignition stability; therefore, fuels of high-ash content and
low calorific value - even with a low content of volatiles -
can be burned stably witli^good results (5), (6), (7),. (8).
For some fuels, however, the residence times of the
smaller fuel particles elutriated in the form of dust from
the fluidized bed, and frequently also the residence times
required for the secondary reactions for pollutant removal,
are too short to achieve the desired combustion conversion
rate or the low emission levels specified today. For these -
fuels, and also above a certain load range, atmospheric
fluidized bed combustion systems with so-called classical
bubbling low-expanded beds reach their limit.
A further development of the atmospheric bubbling bed
system for steam generators is the Circofluid system.
Fluid-dynamically, a distinction is made between two
process principles of fluidized bed systems:
- the low-expanded, classical bubbling bed with
relatively low fluidizing velocities (< 2.5 m/s) and
relatively coarse particle size ( 0 - 8 mm in diam.)
and
- the highly expanded, circulating fluidized bed with
relatively high fluidizing velocity (> 5 m/s) and
fine particle grain size (< 2 mm in diam.).
Both systems have process and operating advantages and
disadvantages. The Circofluid combustion system attempts to
combine the advantages of the classical bubbling fluidized
bed system, such as
- simple plant arrangement,
- low investment costs,
- low auxiliary power requirements and
- short start-up times
with the advantages of the circulating fluidized bed
system, such as
- high burnout rate,
- high pollutant capture efficiency and
- high load variation range,
minimizing and avoiding their respective disadvantages
as far as possible.
In general, the advantages of the Circofluid system
include:
1) Improved carbon burnout;
2) Longer residence time for small particles due to
ash recirculation;
3) No restriction in coal fines content;
4) Lower limestone requirements for a given sulphur
capture efficiency;
5) Two-stage combustion and due to this;
6) High N 0 X reduction;
7) No in-bed heat transfer surface;
8) Improved lateral mixing of fuel and bed material due
 73

to higher fluidizing velocities ( 1 - 5 m/s);

9) Fewer coal feed points;
10) Greater fuel flexibility.
For a number of fuels, it has already been possible to
successfully demonstrate these mentioned advantages of the
Circofluid system. However, there are fuels of technical
interest which are known to cause combustion problems because
of their high ash content, low calorific value and volatile
content, or because of their low reactivity. Other ones -
just because of their fine grain size, high reactivity and
low ash content - are extremely difficult to burn in
fluidized beds meeting the specified low emission standards.
Objective of this investigation is to furnish proof that
reliable combustion at combustion efficiencies of more than
99 % can also be. achieved for such difficult fuels with
simultaneous reduction of the noxious combustion products
S0 2 , N 0 X and CO to emission levels below 200 mg/m 3 . This is
also to be simulated for varying load behaviour.
This objective is to be essentially achieved by
- targeted temperature control,
- selected economical addition of additives,
- staged supply of primary and secondary air,
- adjusted ash recirculation and possibly
- corresponding flue gas recirculation
still to be determined for three selected fuels
considered difficult from the combustion point of view.
2. TEST FUELS
Table I shows an analysis of the fuels.
Anthracite as a high-quality fuel can be burned in
classical bubbling bed systems only at an insufficient
combustion efficiency (9), (10). Due to its very dense,
graphite-like, predominantly aromatic coal structure, this
fuel, as an individual grain, has a low reactivity, it has
few active sites on its external surface which are required
for sufficient oxidation. The fine coke particles elutriated
in the form of dust cause problems. They require relatively
high ignition temperatures. The smaller the particle
diameter, the faster they are extingushed in the freeboard
above the expanded bed (11), (12). Temperatures of possibly
more than 900 C may be necessary (13). On the other hand,
tests have shown that at still higher temperatures graphiti-
zation of the coke may occur which reduces the reactivity of
such particles with oxygen by up to two orders of magnitude
(14).
Flotation tailings, a sludgy, pasty mining waste
material, have a high content of ash and moisture and only a
low calorific value. With the portion of inert constituents
being greater than 85 %, self-sustained combustion is
practically no more possible. Dispersion of the sludge into
small droplets and adequate distribution over the surface of
the fluidized bed are absolutely necessary for satisfactory
combustion. In combustion tests (without pretreatment by ash
granulation) the combustion efficiencies aimed at here were
not attained in classical fluidized beds (15).
 74

Pulverized brown coal is a fine-grained, high-volatile,

highly reactive fuel with low ash and moisture content. It is
generally known that the reactivity of coal increases when it
drops in rank or its degree of carbonization decreases. The
increased reactivity which also the pyrolyzed residual coke
has is attributed to the increased number of active sites of
the internal coal structure. The active sites are located in
the left-over coke shell, preferentially at the edges of the
condensed lamella-like crystalline aromatic ring groups. With
dropping rank of the coal the aromatic lamella-like structur-
al parts become smaller; thereby the number of active sites
increases. At the same time, the distance between the lamella
of the aromatic rings increases and their crystalline order
decreases (model prepared by Hirsch (13), (16)). Burnout
problems are therefore not to be expected with this brown
coal. Also in tests with classical fluidized bed combustion
systems, almost complete burnout was achieved (1), (2), (11).
However, the high combustion reactivity of the coke to
be expected, but also the high portion of volatiles and the
small grain size of the fuel require a selected temperature
control and air supply in the freeboard above the fluidized
bed to avoid too high excess temperatures and in order not
to jeopardize sulphur capture. With the low sulphur content
and high alkaline earth content of this fuel reliable self-
desulphurization is expected.

3. CIRCOFLUID PILOT PLANT

For investigation of the combustion behaviour of the
fuels a fluidized bed pilot plant is available in the
development centre of Deutsche Babcock Group. Here, a wide
variety of fuels can be examined and tested for their
combustion and emission behaviour. Moreover, it serves to
determine the design parameters of Circofluid systems and to
confirm guaranteed values.
Fig. 1 shows the diagrammatic arrangement of the
Circofluid test plant essentially consisting of:
- a "Circofluid" simulation steam generator with
fluidized bed reactor 9 and ash particulate
recirculation 10, 11, 12, 13, 18 and 19,
- a coal feed system 1, la, 2, 3, 4 and 5,
- a start-up gas 6 and air supply system 7, 8 with
flue gas recirculation 22, 23 and 24,
- an ash removal system 14, 15, 16 and 17 as well as
- a flue gas cooling system 20 with dust collection 21.
The main design features of the plant are:
- Thermal output 0 - 2 MW;
- Inside-combustion chamber height 20 m;
- Inside-combustion chamber diameter 0.7 m;
- Fluidizing velocity w = 0.8 m/s to 8 m/s;
- Secondary air supply at 5 different levels;
- Ash recirculation rate between 0 and 30 times;
- Fuel feed at 4 different levels and via,
3 different feed systems;
- Heat exchangers in the bed and freeboard at
5 different levels and with stepped
control of the cooling capacity;
 75

- Head and cyclone temperature adjustable between

350 and 600 C.
3.1 "Circofluid" Simulation Steam Generator
The fluidized bed reactor 9 is made of cylindrical steel
sections 1.92 m in outside diameter which are lined with
refractory. Its clearance above the air distribution plate is
22.3 m and its inside diameter 0.7 m which changes in the
lower reactor section above the air distribution plate into a
rectangular cross section of 0.72 m x 0.53 m.

3.1.1 Air Supply

The combustion air L is compressed by a Roots blower 7
and supplied as primary air Lp to the windbox arranged below
the air distribution plate. From there, it is passed into the
fluidized bed, predistributed through air nozzles. In
addition, there is the possibility of supplying part of the
combustion air L as secondary and tertiary air Ls to the
reaction chamber of reactor 9. For this purpose, injection
points Lsl, Ls2 to Ls5 are arranged at five different levels
which can be operated individually or in combination. Primary
air Lp and secondary air Ls can be preheated as required by a
controllable air heater 8. In addition, there is the possi-
bility of supplying low-oxygen flue gas by a flue gas recir-
culation blower 23 through a suitable line 24 to the flu-
idized bed to reduce the oxygen content of the primary air
Lp. (Roots blower 7 supplies conveying air, if required, also
to dip-leg seal 13 and pneumatic filter ash recirculation
system 19.)

3.1.2 Start-up of the Simulation Steam Generator

For starting the pilot plant, i. e. for heating up the
fluidized bed, natural gas G is used. The natural gas is
compressed by a gas roots blower 6, supplied to an ignition
burner arranged at the side in the lower section of reactor 9
and ignited; after ignition it is also passed to the
fluidized bed for combustion through an especially designed
part of the air distribution plate. All gas, flue gas and
air flows are measured and, in part, controlled.

3.1.3 Coal Feed System

The fuel K and (if required) sorbent S (mainly lime-
stone of different grain size) added for sulphur capture are
passed in prepared condition from their storage silos 1 and 2
to the dosing systems 3. From there, both components K and S
measured and controlled are supplied jointly via a chute 4 to
reactor 9 or by the pneumatic system 5 from the side or from
the fluidized bed bottom to the fluidized bed. (To provide an
air seal rotary feeders are arranged between the dosing
system 3 and the fuel feed points.) For raw coal, a separate
coal feed system is provided. In this system, the fuel is
delivered from the fuel bunker la and the dosing system 3 by
a gas-tight mechanical conveying system to a dip-leg seal 13
operating on recirculated ash. This dip-leg seal controlled
by the conveying air flow conveys the fuel together with the
recirculation ash into the fluidized bed reactor 9.
 76

3.1.4 Bed Ash Drain System and Heat Exchanger

The fluidized bed building up with the given throughput
of fuel, limestone and combustion air can be controlled via a
bottom drain and measured continuously via a bed ash drain
system 16. The fly ash-laden flue gas produced during com-
bustion passes through a total of five heat exchangers
arranged at various levels in the reaction chamber 9. The
heat exchangers serve as a heat sink for the heat released
from the fuel during combustion, heat exchangers WT-Fr, WT-1,
WT-2 and WT-3 serving for simulation of finned tube walls in
the' freeboard. The main heat extraction is effected in the
top heat exchanger WT-Kopf. All heat exchangers generate hot
water and are provided with heat exchange surfaces capable of
being switched on and off which allow a temperature distribu-
tion adjustable over the reactor height. In the process, the
heat flows can be exactly registered and it is also possible
to determine gas-side heat transfer coefficients by individ-
ual tube measurements. In the area of the reactor near the
bottom where a markedly dense expanded fluidized bed is
formed, a heat exchanger WT-B is only rarely operated and
then only one arranged near the wall with small heat exchange
surface; in the process, WT-B simulates the heat absorption
by finned tube walls (in most cases lined with refractory)
located in the bed area.

3.1.5 Dust Collection

After leaving the reactor, the ash-laden flue gas enters
into a cyclone 10 where the ash is mechanically pre-collect-
ed. The fine particulates remaining in the flue gas are re-
moved in a fabric filter 21. To protect the filter bags from
excessive temperatures a flue gas cooler 20 is arranged be-
tween cyclone 10 and baghouse 21. The almost dust-free flue
gas leaving the fabric filter is passed to the chimney by a
flue gas fan 22 through a downstream flue gas measuring
section 25. For controlling the pressure level in the plant,
induced draught fan 22 is controlled via a control damper.
The pressure measuring point regulating the pressure level is
located at the reactor top upstream of the cyclone.

3.1.6 Filter Ash Removal

The ash collected in the fabric filter 21 is either
completely discharged and measured 17 or in part returned to
the combustion chamber 9, as required. The recirculated
filter ash mass flow 18 is measured and controlled by a
gravimetric dosing system 3, and then recirculated from the
side into the fluidized bed by means of a pneumatic conveying
system 19. The air mass flow Lf required for this is measured
in turn.
3.1.7 Cyclone Ash Recirculation
The ash collected in cyclone 10 can be returned to
reaction chamber 9. This can be done in two ways: either via
the weighing system 11 or directly via the bypass system 12.
In both cases, ash recirculation is effected via a fluidized
dip-leg seal 13 acting as an airlock.
 77

3.1.7.1 Bypass System

When the ash is recirculated via the bypass system 12
all ash quantities collected by cyclone 10 are first passed
into the bypass 12. Possible excess ash quantities exceeding
the desired amount are discharged through a controlled rotary
valve as cyclone ash 14. This discharged ash quantity is
temporarily collected and weighed.

3.1.7.2 Weighing System

If the ash mass flow being recirculated by the cyclone
ash recirculation system is to be measured, the ash recir-
culation via weighing system 11 is chosen by actuating manual
gates below cyclone 10. The weighing system consists of two
weighing bins supported on pressure pickups, ash bin 11a and
measuring bin lib. (Fig. 2 shows this ash cycle in more de-
tail.) Here, the ash collected by cyclone 10 first passes
through rotary feeder lid and switch lie into the ash bin
11a. In this bin a predetermined ash quantity is stored as
surge quantity. In the process, the speed of the rotary
feeder lie arranged below this ash bin controls (regulated
by the bed temperature of reactor 9) the desired, yet still
unknown, mass flow of the recirculated cyclone ash in the
circuit. The speed of the rotary feeder lid arranged above
switch lie is controlled via the total weight by ash bin 11a
and measuring bin lib so that the cumulative weight remains
constant. Possible excess ash accumulating before rotary
feeder lid is discharged and measured via a screw cooler and
cyclone ash removal system 15.
During measuring, the previously adjusted ash path to ash bin
11a is changed and in the process measuring bin lib is filled
by simultaneous closing of the previously open gate llf below
measuring bin lib and changing-over of switch lie. During
this procedure, ash bin 11a is further emptied by rotary
feeder lie controlled by the reactor temperature. The indi-
vidual variations in the quantities from measuring bin lib
and ash bin 11a which are measured with regard to time corre-
spond to the (positive or negative) circulating mass flow of
the recycled cyclone ash. When the surge quantity in the ash
bin 11a reaches its minimum level measuring is stopped. Gate
llf is opened, the predetermined ash surge quantity building
up again in ash bin 11a. At the same time switch lie is again
changed over to the original ash path to ash bin 11a.

3.2 Measuring Equipment and Data Acquisition

3.2.1 Ash Analyses
To check the ash analyses samples are taken every hour
(during testing) and analyzed in the laboratory. For this
purpose, measuring points STA are provided for bed ash,
cyclone and filter ash.
3.2.2 Flue Gas Analyses
Via heated sampling probes with heated filters and hose
lines, flue gas analyses RGA are continuously made, namely at
the chimney, downstream of the flue gas measuring section 25
and at the top of the reactor, downstream of the top heat

<V
 78

exchanger WT-Kopf and upstream of the inlet of cyclone 10

(cf. Fig. 2 ) . In addition, a zirconium probe is permanently
installed at this point for constant measurement of the
oxygen content. Fig. 3 shows the analyzer system installed
on the chimney. Fig. 4 the system taking measurements at the
reactor top which can be alternatively changed over to a
measuring probe RGA directly installed above the expanded
denser part of the fluidized bed. Table II shows the
measuring instruments, measuring ranges and principles of
measurement. Other measurement arrangements in the area of
the reactor and ash recirculation system of the "Circofluid"
simulation steam generator will be seen from Fig. 2.
Apart from many pressures and temperatures not shown,
all entering and leaving mass flows of solids and gases are
measured and registered. Therefore, the equipment includes
a computer-based measuring and control system with a process
computer for on-line data acquisition and processing with
fault monitoring for checking operation and backing-up the
data checked for plausibility. An additional computer serves
the off-line evaluation.

4. TEST PROGRAMME
The test programme is at present being implemented.
Tests on the following fuels are planned:
Anthracite from April 21 to May 15, 1987,
Pulverized brown coal from June 1 to June 26, 1987,
Flotation tailings from July 1 to July 24, 1987.

Test parameters used for anthracite

Bed temperature *bed C 840 880 920

Freeboard temp.
freeboard c 950 980 free

Fluidizing
velocity w m/s 3,0 4,5 6,0
Excess air ratio
(total) X
total - 1,3 konst.

Stoichiometric air -
ratio (primary) primary 0,75 0,9 1,05

Calcium to sulphur
ratio Ca/S - 0 1 1,5 2,0 2,5
Filter ash to coal
m
feed mass recir- AFU - 0 0,5 1
culation ratio
"K
 79

REFERENCES
(1) POERSCH, W. W., WIED, W. and ZABESCHEK, G.,
Verbrennung und Rauchgasentschwefelung in der Wirbel-
schicht beim Einsatz unterschiedlicher Kohlesorten.
BWK, 31 (1979) 18.
(2) POERSCH, W. W. and ZABESCHEK, G.,
Fluidised Combustion of Fuels with Different Ash
Contents. Inst, of Energy Symp. Series, 4 (1980)
IV-2-1/IV-2-12.
(3) TIGGES, K. D. and AHRENS, L.,
Betriebserfahrungen mit den Wirbelschichtdampferzeugern
des Heizkraftwerkes Liineburg-Nord. Wirbelschicht-
feuerung (Bilanzen, Konzepte, Perspektiven) VDI Berichte
601 (1986), VDI-Verlag, Diisseldorf.
(4) HUSCHAUER, H., PAULSEN, W. and SPANGENBERG, W.,
Betriebserfahrungen mit der atmospharischen stationaren
Wirbelschichtanlage im Kraftwerk Afferde. Wirbelschicht-
feuerung (Bilanzen, Konzepte, Perspektiven) VDI Berichte
601 (1986), VDI-Verlag, Diisseldorf.
(5) BIJMHOLT, H. and KOWOLLIK, G.,
Vier Jahre Versuchsbetrieb mit der Wirbelschichtanlage
Gneisenau. Wirbelschichtfeuerung (Bilanzen, Konzepte,
Perspektiven) VDI Berichte 601 (1986), VDI-Verlag,
Diisseldorf.
(6) WATERS, P. L.,
Factors influencing the fluidised combustion of low
grade liquid and solid fuels. Inst, of Fuel Symp. Ser.
No. 1: Fluidised Combustion, London 1975.
(7) POERSCH, W. W. and ZABESCHEK, G.,
Fluidised combustion of flotation tailings Fluidization.
Proc. Sec. Engng. Found. Conf. Cambridge, 1978.
(8) POERSCH, W. W.,
Umweltfreundliche Verbrennung von Flotationsbergen in
der Wirbelschicht. Dechema Monographien, 1775-1801,
Band 86/11, S. 639/658, Verlag Chemie-Weinheim-NY
(1980).
(9) VLEESKENS, J. M.,
Effect of coal properties on the fluidized bed
combustion Efficiency of single coals and blends.
Report ECN-133 (May 1983).
(10) VLEESKENS, J. M.,
Mechanical cause of fuel loss from fluidized bed
combustors. Fuel (1985) 64, 1606.
(11) POERSCH, W. W.,
Short Communication: Combustion Efficiency of Fluidized-
Bed Combustors: Some Thoughts about the Combustion of
Small Carbonic Particles in the Fly Ash from Fluidized-
Bed Combustors. Powder Technol. 1984, 40, 331.
(12) FIELD, M. A., GILL, D. W., MORGAN, B. B. and
HWASHKSLEY, P. G. W.,
Combustion of Pulverized Coal. BCURA, Letherhead, 1967.
(13) ESSENHIGH, R. H.,
Chemistry of Coal Utilisation. Second supplementary
volume. Wiley, New York, 1981, chap. 19, 1153.
 80
(14) BEN-AIM, R. I.,
Influence of structural parameters on the mechanism
of combustion of coal. Int. Chem. Eng., 27 (1987) 70.
(15) LA NAUZE, R. D. and DUFFY, G. J.,
Technical and Economic appraisal of fluidized-bed
combustion for coal-washery tailings disposal in
Australia. Proceedings of the 7th Int. Conference on
Fluidized Bed Combustion, Philadelphia (1982) 847,
(DOE/METC/83-48), "(published Jan. 1983).
(16) BOUSKA, V.,
Geochemistry of coal, chap.: Chemical Structure of
Coal, 141 pp. Elsevier, Amsterdam (1981).

Tab. I Analysis of Test Fuels

Anthrazit Flotation Brown

Tailings Coal
Dim. (granular) (pasty) (pulverized
size range mm 0-6 0-1 0 - 0,5
proximate Moisture (an) wt % 10,6 18,9 11,0
analysis Ash (a) (wf) wt % 7,4 68,0 5,6
Volatiles (wf) wt % 8,1 13,6 49,4
Fixed Carbon (wf) wt % 84,5 18,4 45,0
ultimate Carbon (c) (wf) wt % 85,5 23,7 65,4
analysis Hydrogen (h) (wf) wt % 3,3 1,9 4,7
Oxygen (0) (wf) wt % 1,15 4,39 23,5
Nitrogen (n) (wf) wt % 1,5 0,6 0,8
Sulfur (s) (wf) wt % 1,1 1,3 0,5
Chlorine (CI) (wf) wt % 0,05 0,11 < 0,1
Cross.Cal.Val.H 0 (wf) MJ
/kB 33,0 9,05 21,7
oxid SiOz wt % 47,0 54,27 9,5
analysis AI2O3 wt % 28.0 24.73 5,0
of Fe20a wt % 10.0 6.54 15.0
the Ti0 2 wt % 1.0 0.86 _
Ash CaO wt % 3.0 2.99 41,0
MgO wt % 3,0 2,25 14,0
Na 2 0 + KjO wt % 5,0 5,25 2,0
S0 3 wt % 2,3 1,52 13,5
p,o 5 wt % 0,7 0,29 -

feeding System - mecanical pumpe pneumatic

(Gravity) (nozzel)
 81

Tab. II

Survey - analyzers for flue gas analysis on the chimney

Gas Constituent Manufacturer Type Designation Measuring Principle Measuring Range Used
HC1 Bodenseewerk Spectran 677 IR absorption 0 - 200 vppm wet
(Perkin-Elmer)
H,0 Bodenseewerk Spectran 677 IR absorption 0 - 50 Vol. % wet
(Perkin-Elmer)
0> Servomex OA 540 Paramagnetism 0 - 25 Vol, % dry
NO/NO x Nucletron/ CLD 502 Chemlluminescence 0 - 500 vppm dry
Tecan
CO, Bodenseewerk Spectran 647 IR absorption 0 - 20 Vol. % dry
(Perkin-Elmer)
CO Bodenseewerk Spectran 647 IR absorption 0 - 1000 vppm dry
(Perkin-Elmer)
C
r, H m Bodenseewerk Spectran 647 IR absorption 0 - 1000 vppm dry
n in (Perkin-Elmer)
SO, Leybo1d-He re aus Blnos I UV absorption 0 - 1000 vppm dry
SOx Bodenseewerk Spectran 647 IR absorption 0 - 1000 vppm dry
(Perkin-Elmer)

Survey - analyzers for flue gas analysis at the reactor top

Gas Constituent Manufacturer Type Designation Measuring Principle Measuring Range Used
HtO Leybo1d-He reaus Blnos 5.4 IR absorption 0 - 50 Vol. % wet
NO* Leybold-Hereaus Blnos 5.4 UV absorption 0 - 200 vppm wet
SO, Leybold-Hereaus Binos 5.4 UV absorption 0 - 1000 vppm wet

COt Leybold-Hereaus Binos 5.4 IR absorption 0 - 20 Vol. * wet

0, Leybold-Hereaus Oxlnos Paramagnetism 0 - 25 Vol. % dry

CO Leybold-Hereaus Binos 4b.2 IR absorption 0 - 2000 vppm dry

NO Leybold-Hereaus Binos 4b.2 IR absorption 0 - 500 vppm dry

0-probe - permanently Installed at the reactor top

Gas Constituent Manufacturer Type Designation Measuring Principle Measuring Range Used

Ot Servomex / BUhler Servomex 780A ZiOi-probe - 21 % wet

(Voltage probe)
 82

1 FUEL BUNKER 13 DIP-LEG SEAL K - COAL

(FOR PREPARED FUEL) 14 ASH REMOVAL S = SORBENT
1a FUEL BUNKER (BYPASS SYSTEM) L - AIR
(FOR RAW COAL) 15 CYCLONE ASH REMOVAL Lp=PRIMARY AIR
2 LIMESTONE BUNKER 16 BED ASH DRAIN Ls-SECONDARY AIR
3 WEIGHING AND DOSING 17 FILTER ASH REMOVAL Ly-DIP-LEG SEAL AIR
SYSTEM 18 FILTER ASH Lf= CONVEYING AIR
4 CHUTE RECIRCULATION G = GAS
5 PNEUMATIC SYSTEM 19 PNEUMATIC SYSTEM
6 START-UP GAS FIRING (FILTER ASH RECIRCUL.) Wt-Kopf = TOPHEAT
SYSTEM 20 FLUE GAS COOLER EXCHANGER
7 AIR-ROOTS BLOWER 21 FABRIC FILTER Wt 1 =HEAT EXCHANGER FOR
8 AIR HEATER 22 FLUE GAS INDUCED Wt2 SIMULATING FINNED
9 SIMULATION STEAM DRAUGHT FAN Wt3 TUBE WALLS IN THE
GENERATOR (RE ACTOR) 23 FLUE GAS RECIRCULA- FREEBOARD
10 CYCLONE TION FAN WtFr =FREEBOARD HEAT
11 ASH RECIRCULATION 24 FLUE GAS EXCHANGER
(WEIGHING SYSTEM) RECIRCULATION Wt-Bett -HEAT EXCHANGER FOR
12 ASH RECIRCULATION 25 FLUE GAS MEASURING SIM.FINNED TUBE
(BYPASS SYSTEM) SECTION WALLS IN THE BED
FIGURE 1
Diagrammatic arrangement of Circofluid test plant
 83

+!P %

M - ACTUATOR
W= KONT-WEIGHING SYSTEM
AP-DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE TOP
p . STATIC PRESSURE TOP
_ T -THERMOCOUPLE ELEMENT
RGA - GAS SAMPLING PROBE
STA - A S H SAMPLING PROBE

FIGURE 2
Schematic diagram of cyclone ash r e c i r c u l a t i o n system
 t-180C

heated system

r
para'maga UV IR

O2 SO, CO

IR IR
H20 IR 2 cooler
00
-P>.

paramagn.
so, CO, N02 UV 02

IR
UV CO IR

CnUr

CO, NO IR

Li."15!
K-cooler heated system

C-converter NO x /NO

FIGURE 3 FIGURE 4
Analyser system f or flue gas - analysis of the chimney. Analyser system f or flue gas - analysis at the reactor
top.
 85

FURTHER DEVELOPMENT OF CIRCULATING FLUIDIZED-BED BOILER PLANT FOR UTILI-

SATION OF DIFFERENT LOW-GRADE AND WASTE FUELS

Authors H. Durrfeld, K. H. Failing

Contract number EN3F-0046-D

Duration 30 months 1st Sept. 1986 - 28th Feb. 1989

Total budget DM 2,287,485 CEC Contribution: DM 806,250

Head of project K. H. Failing, L. & C. Steinmuller GmbH

Contractor L. & C. Steinmuller GmbH

Address FabrikstraBe 1
D-5270 Gummersbach 1

Summary

On its premises in Gummersbach the Steinmuller company has a

1 MW.. boiler with an integral circulating fluidized-bed combustion
system (CFBC) which was built within the framework of an R & D
project, sponsored by the EC Commission from 1981 to 1984, and
successfully operated with different kinds of bituminous coal. After
appropriate plant reconstruction and retrofit measures it is now in-
tended also to fire low-grade fuels and waste fuels. To this end,
efforts are concentrated on optimizing the treatment and feeding of
fuel as well as its combustion in a suitably adapted furnace, and on
minimizing emissions. The hardware effort essentially involved the
extension and lining with refractory of the bottom furnace section
as well as the installation and optimization of fuel treatment and
feeding.equipment. Operations with a low-calorific brown coal have
been initiated and they yielded an extremely high burnout and emis-
sions that ranged significantly below the statutory limits in West
Germany. It is expected that the project will be brought to a
successful conclusion and that the process will lend itself to
widespread commercial use.

1. INTRODUCTION
Steinmuller pursued an EC-sponsored R & D project in the period from
January 1981 to March 1984. It concerned the construction of a boiler
pilot plant for 1 MW thermal output with integral CFBC system as well as
the relevant test runs. In the course of said R&D project the CFBC pilot
plant underwent 47 runs, was operated some 800 hours under 'hot' con-
ditions, and fired with diverse German, Belgian and American bituminous
coals. High efficiencies and low pollutant emissions obtained with
these fuels demonstrated the excellent performance of the implemented
Steinmuller CFBC concept. Inter alia, the boiler steaming capacity,
 86

the secondary-to-primary air ratio and the calcium-to-sulphur ratio were

varied. Until the new R & D project started as of 1st September 1986,
other fuels were fired in the CFBC pilot plant, e.g. diverse brown coals
and flotation slurry.
The underlying aim of this new project is for appropriate recon-
struction and retrofit measures to permit firing of low-grade fuels such
as oil shale, petroleum coke, high-ash and scrap coal, industrial,
sewage and flotation slurries, refuse pellets, carbon-containing fly ash,
peat and bark. The point-of-main effort is concentrated on optimizing the
treatment and feeding of these fuels, their combustion in a suitably
adapted furnace, and on minimizing emissions.
2. DESCRIPTION OF PLANT
Fig. 1 illustrates the flow schematic of the CFBC pilot plant. The
CFBC boiler with lower furnace extension can be seen centrally, with ash
recycle cyclone and bottom-arranged bed ash coolers and CFBC furnace re-
turn line located to the left. Further left there are fuel storage and
supply bins as well as feed and metering screw conveyors. On the extreme
l.h. side are mounted the feed system for fuel or inert material in the
form of a rotary lock as well as a metering screw conveyor for pneumatic
limestone transport to the furnace. A Roots type combustion-air compressor
will maintain the required supply of primary air via the distributor
plate, of heated secondary and tertiary air as well as of fluidizing and
transport air for cyclone ash return. The gas start-up burner air and the
pneumatically recirculated ash from the fabric filter enter the furnace
bottom on the r.h. side. A third fuel feeding system is served by a slurry
pump.
Bed ash from the furnace can be removed via two ash coolers and two
rotary locks, operating alternately or in parallel, and delivered to the
transport bin. The l.h. bed ash removal system performs a sizing function
so that the fines portion is retained in the system when coarse fuel ash
particles are removed.
A compressor has been installed for flue-gas recirculation to the air
plenum chamber, if necessary. Gas recirculation is mainly employed to
assist fluidization under part-load conditions and, in special case, to
lower emissions.
Flue gases from the cyclone are cooled by heat exchange with the
superheater and economiser elements in the 2nd and 3rd pass, respectively.
Further downstream, the gases pass through the fabric type filter and are
led via ID fan to the stack. The filter ash is either removed or recircu-
lated to the furnace with the aid of rotary valves.
Two sides of the top furnace section are composed of membrane wall
tubes cycled in natural-circulation flow. The other furnace walls are
lined with refractory.
The cooling coils placed in the cyclone ash recycle line have a two-
fold function. On the one hand, by an appropriate energy balance they
should allow the circulating cyclone ash mass flow to be determined
quantitatively and, on the other, afford a certain degree of cooling
when high-calorific fuels are fired. The cooling coils can be isolated
from operations if low-calorific fuels or part-load conditions exist.
The sootblowers in the 2nd and 3rd flue-gas pass are operated with
compressed air and serve to remove any ash deposits, e.g. that may occur
with brown-coal firing, from the heating surface coil elements.
Within the extended-furnace part several extra measuring points
were incorporated. Furthermore, the process control system was upgraded
by including programmable controller hardware and modifying the mimic
 87

diagram in the control room to suit the reconstruction and retrofit

measures.
Fig. 2 shows the geometry of the Steinmuller CFBC furnace which has
a height of 7 m, a cross-section of 0.45 x 0.45 m and an enlarged mid-
section of 0.45 x 0.6 m.
Control room with mimic diagram and process control system are
illustrated in Fig. 3.
The overall plant, integrally mounted in the boiler-house steel-
work, can be seen in Fig. 4.
3. PLANNING OF TESTS
The treatment and feeding processes are optimized first for the fuels
to be fired in order to establish the desired transport and combustion
requirements. Next, combustion trials with the treated fuels are con-
ducted in the CFBC system and the optimum firing settings are chosen. For
the whole series of test runs the following firing- and boiler-system re-
lated data will be determined:
- Combustion and boiler efficiency
- Heat transfer behaviour
- Erosion, corrosion and fouling behaviour
- Pollutant emissions, and
- Load-following capability.
The test results will be interpreted by means of a data acquisition
and evaluation system on the basis of chemical analyses - on-line and off-
line. The assessment of erosion, corrosion and fouling behaviour is sup-
ported by visual examination as well as by chemical analyses and mecha-
nical testing.
The results of measurement and testing will be presented in a final
report. An assessment will be made with regard to the technical and eco-
nomic feasibility of firing the proposed wide fuel range in commercial
applications. Future R & D efforts will be identified.
4. WORK STATUS AND FURTHER PROGRESS
Most of the CFBC pilot plant reconstruction work has been completed.
Cold and hot commissioning have been carried out. The fuel initially
fired is a low-calorific raw brown coal (approx. 9500 kJ/kg NCV, 55 - 60 %
moisture). The feed system comprises a screw conveyor with special coating
and a downstream pneumatic transport facility to the furnace. This partic-
ular fuel can be fired at a burnout rate in excess of 99.5 % without in-
jection of any additives, limestone or the like, yielding emissions of
S0 2 , NO and CO significantly below 200 mg/m3 STP (related to 7 % 0 2 in
the flue gas).
During the tests all plant components were demonstrated to function
adequately, and this also applies to the flue-gas recirculation compressor
which, however, did not have to be operated for optimum emission settings.
Conversely, 20 % tertiary air staging was established as a favourable
figure.
For the next phase it is planned to conduct trials with a reference
bituminous coal in order to investigate how the reconstructed CFBC pilot
plant performs. Subsequent to this, preparations and further tests are en-
visaged for firing other low-grade solid fuels.
 Circulating (luidised
bed boiler

Inertmaterial

Limestone CO
CO

9
Fly-ash
feedwater
pump
, r

ITEI1MUI1ER Circulating fluidised bed pilotplant Figure 1.

 89

Fig-2
Furnace of Circulating
fluidized bed-pilotplant

HeaHng surface

Refractory
 90

a.
f5
j
II
II
Q. m
.JrL..lM...ji*XJri
31

Fig. 3 - Control room with mimic diagram and process control system

Fig. 4 - Overall plant, mounted in the boiler-house steel work

 91

CIRCULATING FLUIDIZED BED WITH OPTIMAL CONTROL OF

PROCESS PARAMETERS TO ACHIEVE BETTER ENVIRONMENTAL
CONDITIONS AND FLEXIBILITY IN OPERATION

Contract number : EN3F-0064-DK

Duration : 30 months

Total budget : DKr 14.537.410,-

CEC contribution DKr 3.634.352,-

Head of project : Mr. E.L. Holm

Contractor : Aalborg Boilers A/S

Address : P.O. BOX 661, 9100 Aalborg, Denmark

OBJECTIVES

The objective of the project is to form the basis for an

advanced fluidbed concept, primarily for combustion and
gasification of fossil fuels (coal and biofuels), consisting
of a moderately pressurized (0-4 bar) circulating fluidbed
with the possibility of selected process optimization.

It is intended to finally develop a fluidbed concept in the

size 30-100 MWt, which is optimum as regards : investment,
industrial economy, fuel flexibility and environmental
impact.

REMARKS

No results can be reported as the project had not yet started

at the time of the contractors meeting.
 92

THE DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF A SMALL-SCALE, FLUIDISED, BED BOILER

WITH AUTOMATIC CONTROL

Authors M.Z. Anabtawi, J. Bannard & E. Moghaddam.

Contract number EN3F - 0008 IRL

Duration 18 months from 1 October 1986

Total budget IR 67,040

Head of project Professor J.E. Bannard

Contractor National Institute for Higher Education

Address Plassey Technological Park, Limerick, Ireland.

Summary
This report describes the development of a small scale fluidi'sed
bed boiler of approximately 25 kW output. The features of this
design were chosen to secure the following : wide range of
turn-down ratio; great flexibility of response to load demand;
high degree of automatic control; ease of maintenance and oper-
ation. The fundamentals of fluidised beds in different areas
related to the design parameters such as inhomogeneous fluid-
isation, variable heat transfer rates, electric start-up, cheap
actuators and automatic control were revised and investigated.
The independent study of all these elements was carried out and
the first combustor was constr-e.ired in which some operational
experience was gained. The construction of a second prototype
boiler for the operation under full automatic control is to be
achieved in the second stage of this project and work to date is
described.

1. INTRODUCTION
Rising prices of oil and gas in the context of increasing world
demand for energy, made it inevitable to return to the. use of coal by
industry. In the past coal-fired boilers have been inconvenient and
have offered low efficiency, but the development of fluidised bed
combustion, FBC, has promise of improvements in this respect. It is
believed that there exists a large potential for coal fired boilers of
size below 100 kW to meet the hot water (and space-heating) needs of the
small industrial and commercial (and even domestic) unit. In Ireland
for example, the majority of industrial companies employ fewer than 50
people. The range of sizes of output below 100 kW is seen as a problem
area in coal-fired boilers in respect of efficiency, flexibility and
automation; and the additional problems of lack of simplicity and high
capital cost would appear to be inherent in FBC technology. The coal
 93

used in the current study is the cheapest coal on the market i.e. unwashed
bituminous smalls.
This project is concerned with the development of a fluidised bed
boiler of approximately 25 kW output, which represents the lower end of
the range of interest. The problems of the small FBC in the main are
concerned with : (a) heat loss; this is important and steps must be taken
to compensate, (b) increase of elutriation. (c) erosion of heat transfer
surfaces, (d) fluidisation characteristics, (e) maintenance of com-
bustion and avoidance of sintering, (f) turn-down ratio, (g) sophistic-
ation and cost of ancillary equipment.
In order to overcome these problems and to meet the market criteria,
a number of novel features were to be incorporated into the boiler design.
a) Start-up is to be by electric heater and heat losses on start-up
to be minimised. This is achieved by careful design of the heater
and placement in the plenum, together with a start-up schedule which
allows only a small portion of the bed to be heated initially.
b) The bed is to circulate internally as a means of reducing segregat-
ion of bed material, and of improving lateral mixing (x) and hence
response time of the bed.
c) Reduction in elutriation by careful design of the freeboard.
d) A combustor of asymmetric section as a means of bringing about a
partial slump (and hence improved turn-down ratio) at reduced values
of fluidislng velocity.
e) The boiler was to be fully automatic and require the minimum of
attention.
f) Simple actuators and sensors were to be developed as a means of
keeping down costs.
To satisfy the above features it was necessary to carry out a number of
basic research projects in addition to the programme to build and test
the prototype boiler. These subprojects are as listed below :
a) Start-up heater and its location.
A model was developed to predict the sizes and positions of the var-
ious possibilities for electric heaters. This location was checked
against start-up tests. The heat losses were also to be tested at
various locations.
b) Other actuators.
The coal-feed and the ash-offtake are required to be cheap, robust
and reliable. The blower is to have similar characteristics but
also to be small in size and quiet in operation.
c) Control sensors.
The sensors to be developed are for determination of : bed height,
air flow rate, bed and water temperature and pressure drop inside
the bed and across the air distributor.
d) Studies on bed dynamics.
This work was designed to gather information about the way particles
behave in an asymmetric bed and its advantage over the symmetric one.
e) Studies of elutriation.
Since the feed has a wide range of coal sizes including a large pro-
portion of fine material, it was considered necessary to study
elutriation and of methods of reducing it.
f) Studies on maintenance of combustion.
Since the high turn-down ratio is important whereby the bed
is slumped or semislumped, it is important to understand the con-
ditions under which slumps could be formed, bed temperature main-
tained, and sintering avoided.
 94

g) Constructing and testing of the prototype boiler.

This part of the programme is to include studies on the general
operating characteristics of the boiler necessary to optimise the
bed features, e.g. the performance of the air distributor, main-
tenance and boiler control, material durability, heat transfer
characteristics, combustion efficiency, etc.

2. DESIGN OF THE COMBUSTOR

The combustor is asymmetric as shown in Figure 1. In a previous
study in this Institute work has shown that this shape causes the bed
to circulate internally if the fluidising air is passed through the dis-
tributor pipes in a non-homogeneous fashion. The location of the chute
and therefore the way under which the particles flow into the combustor
cause the fuel particles to internally circulate before they move vert-
ically upwards.
The position of the deflector is important in participating in the
rate of circulation in the combustor too. Bannard (2) showed that the
circulation rate is proportional to the fluidisation velocity. At re-
duced values of fluidising velocity, the rate of circulation of the bed
decreases and a "semi-slump" is formed on the sloping plate, whereas at
high values of fluidising velocity the bed expands Up to 100% which
allows for increasing amount of contact with the cold wall heat exchanger.
The main advantage of this type of fluidisation is the high turn-down
ratio that maybe obtained. Segregation is expected to happen at the
bottom of the bed where stones will slide along the sloped plate to the
ash off-take. The combustor size is determined by the design require-
ment of approximately 25 kW from bituminous coal of calorific value
24-28 MJ/kg. The coal feed rate is up to 4 kg/hr., and for stoichiometric
combustion plus 25% excess, an air through put of up to 50 kg/hr.,
(38.7 m3/hr.) is needed. Allowing for a four-fold increase in volume as
the air passes through the hot bed, the bed cross-sectioned area of
0.054 m 2 is required. A cross-section of dimension 180 mm x 300 mm is
chosen. Four different pipes are connected to the combustor, they are
i) the coal chute; (ii) the ash off-take; (iii) two air inlet pipes
connected to the sparge pipes.

2.1 The Air Distribution

To keep down the capital cost of the production boiler it is necess-
ary to decide on the type of air distribution equipment which satisfy the
following (i) easy to construct; (ii) cheap to produce and (iii) easy to
maintain. Calculation shows that three pipes are necessary to allow a
maximum of 600 litres/minute of air to enter into the bed. There are
two sparge pipes of diameter 1.2 cm, each accommodating 27 holes of 2.5mm
diameter. Every pair of holes make an angle of 120 along the circumfer-
ance of the pipe. The third pipe is of 1.2 cm diameter and is connected
to the feed chute. The sparge pipes are positioned near the base plate
in a fashion shown in Figure 1. The two pipes are symmetrically spaced
across the width of the combustor with one pipe positioned 50mm from the
other. The holes in the pipes are directed downwards, in order to avoid
ingress of bed material ( ) and this is shown in Figure 2. A small cheap
fan as fitted into a domestic vacuum cleaner is found to be adequate for
the task of fluidisation ( 2 ). It is manufactured by Holland Electro BV,
Rotterdam. The air pipe connected to the chute acts an another source of
increasing the circulation rates.
 95

22 Bed_Characteristics
Course sand of size 300-600 um is taken as the bed material. The com-
bustor is designed with the intention of burning even bigger fuel than 10
mm. If long term runs are carried out then the sand is expected to be
replaced by coal ash.
Table I represents the analysis of a coal sample taken from unwashed
industrial smalls with the particles larger than 8 mm screened out. This
sample indicates that the proportion of fines (over 30% less than 1mm), is
high. This sample is typical of the cheapest readily available coal. The
shape of the combustor is suitable for stones and course particles to fall
to the bottom of the bed and gravitate to the ash off-take. Bed level is
to be maintained constant. This is done automatically by operating the
ash off-take, when the height of the bed increases to an undesirable value
and therefore the pressure drop increases. The coal is to be fed by a
pulsing mechanism in an automatically-controlled ratio with the air flow.

2.3 Heat transfer

The boiler requires high turn-down ratio. This will give the flex-
ibility of having a variable removal of heat from the boiler particularly
from the combustion zone. Roberts, Hoy and Carpenter (3) have shown
an approximately linear relationship between heat transfer coefficient and
height of splash zone. Accordingly it is possible to design the in-bed
heat transfer surface based on their conclusion. The authors showed that
in this area the heat transfer coefficient decreased from that within the
bed to that of the free board. In order to remove heat from the bed one
can assume that the sloped plate is a fully immersed surface and because
of the rapid particle exchange with the surface there will be a high heat
transfer rate from the particles"to the surface. Heat transfer values
can be assumed in the freeboard. Heat transfer area can be determined
from the knowledge of heat duty of the boiler and from the knowledge of
heat capacities of the reactants at the combustion temperature. Heat is
removed from the bed by fitting a large number of separate water jackets.
It is important that the amount af the heat extracted from the
boiler should not bring the bed temperature too low. This is done by
careful positioning of the cooling jackets. Several thermocouples are to
be installed at different levels in the combustor.

3. THE FREEBOARD
One of the main problems that this study faces is the high percentage
of fines that leave the bed before they burn, because more than 30% of the
coal is less than 1 mm diameter. In order to disentrain the elutriated
fines two approaches are used (i) increasing the residence time of the
fines in the combustor by appropriate design of the freeboard, (ii) by
injecting the coal at the base of the combustor. The above two factors
keep the fines a longer time in the boiler before they leave the bed.
Previous work showed that when the fluidising velocity exceeds a certain
value for a given bed dimension (1.5 m/s) for (0.6m x 0.6m) the elutriation
of unburnt carbon particles markedly reduce the combustion efficiency.
Pemberton (*) showed that vertical plates located in the freeboard of a
fluidised beds caused entrained particles to flow downwards at the surface
of the plate. Bannard (2)et.al. have tested this behaviour. The plates
were installed at slightly different angles to the vertical in an attempt
to uniformly disperse the fluid flow from the baffle throat. It was found
that this arrangement reduced the elutriation from 500 pm to less than
150 iim in size. Also the air flow velocities were reduced sharply by that
 96

effect, together with the temperature drop effect, as the flue gas reached
the top of the freeboard. The importance of gas velocity on fines disen
trainment has been discussed by Subbarao, HowardHildige and Bannard ( 5 ).
The freeboard has a dimension of 180 mm x 300 mm and 800 mm long, as shown
in Figure 1.

4. ANCILLARY EQUIPMENT

^ 1 Air_ Blower
The boiler is designed to produce a thermal output of 25kW. If the
combustion efficiency is assumed to be 95% and the calorific value of the
coal is 24 MJ/kg, then the coal feed rate required is :

25 x 100 x 10 3 x 3600 . . ,,
------------* - 4 kg/hr.
95 x 24 x 10
Then the maximum air flow rate required to burn 4.0 kg of bituminous coal
will be 40 kg. Allowing for up to 25% excess air for complete combustion,
an air flow rate of 50 kg/hr. is needed which is equivalent to 600 1/min.
This flow rate should be supplied by a blower against a pressure drop
not exceeding that of the pressure drop build up in the combustor. Ban
nard found that the pressure drop into his system was not exceeding 60 mm
water guage, and a variable speed fan as fitted to a vacuum cleaner was
found to meet the requirements. It is small, quiet, robust and cheap.

4.2 Coal Feed

The feeder suggested here is working on a pushpull mechanism. The
feeder is composed of two solenoids located at the bottom of the hopper.
These two solenoids are identical and are connected by a steel rod. They
operate by an on/off switch. When the first solenoid is on the other is
off and the rod moves in one direction under the influence of the magnetic
field generated by the first solenoid, and vice versa : see Figure 3. They
operate at a fixed speed and deliver the 8 mm coal at a fixed weight/min
ute into the top of the chute which feeds to a point just above the
sparge pipes and under the surface of the bed. This is at a point opp
osite the sloping plate. This feed point is important because it increases
the residence time of the coal in the bed. Also because during startup,
only this part of the bed is continuously fluidised. To reduce the temp
erature of the chute an air bleed through a pipe 1.2 cm diameter is fitted
to supply continuous cold air. This air also does the majority of the
fluidising at low flow rates.

4.3 Ash OffTake

A vibratory ash offtake table which is activated by the pressure
drop due to the bed height is to be used. Bannard has shown that this
technique was successful and should be adequate for this size of fluid
ised bed combustor.

4.4 Startup Heater

To keep the capital cost down and to reduce the number of services,
it is found necessary to adopt electric startup. The small size of the
combustor makes it difficult to use inbed heaters. Plenum heaters are
therefore used. The startup heater is a resistance wire shaped to fit a
pipe 5.0 cm diameter and capable of dissipating 3.6 kw. This element is
installed in the plenum.
 97

5. CONTROL
To accomplish the design of the boiler it is found necessary to set
an adequate control on the variables to be studied which are 1) bed temp-
erature; 2) water temperature; 3) air flow rate and bed pressure drop.
Bed temperature is expected to vary from ambient to a little over 1000 C
within the bed. Chromel-alumel thermocouples sheathed in inconel have an
operating range to above the maximum anticipated bed temperature. One
thermocouple is inside the combustor to record the combustion temperature
and another to record the temperature of the flue gas that will be leaving
the boiler. Water temperature will also be measured but by using a semi-
conductor temperature probe with current output proportional to the absol-
ute temperature ( 6 ).
Bed Height : The total pressure drop across the bed and the sparge
pipes is related to the bed height. The operatability of the boiler is
not terribly sensitive to that value of pressure drop and therefore a
cheap pressure sensor is used which causes the ash off-take vibrator to
operate in order to maintain bed height.
Air flow rate : Because the fan output depends on its speed and on
the load, a precise measurement of the air flow is essential for precise
control. A hot-wire anemometer is used. The design suggested for this
project should be subjected to high degree of automation to make the
boiler market-acceptable. The control strategy has already been deduced
(2) using a Westinghouse model 1500 ( 7 ). General purpose controller is
suitable, so this strategy is to be transferred to microcircuitry for this
project. The controller was designed to deal with three major aspects :
a) Start-up procedure and duration.
b) The need for maintenance of constant bed temperature and efficient
combustion.
c) The need to follow load variation.
One of the most important elements of the control strategy is the
requirement to maintain the bed temperature within limits. This happens
by changing the coal feed rate.

REFERENCES
C1) SUBBARA0, D. MOGGADHAM, E. & BANNARD, J.E. J. Chem. Eng. Scl.
Vol. 40, No. 10 pp. 1988-1990. (1985).
(2) BANNARD, J.E. Contract FED-1-302-IRL, January 1982-June 1984.
(3) ROBERTS, A.G. : HOY, H.R. & CARPENTER, L.J. Inst. Energy 55,
(1982) 128.
(*) PEMBERT0N, S.T. PhD. Thesis. University of Cambridge, 1982.
(5) SUBBARA0, D. HOWARD-HILDIGE.R & BANNARD, J.E. Powder Tech. 43
(1985) pp 235-241.
(6) GELPERIN, N.I. AND EINSTEIN, V.G. Heat transfer in fluidised beds.
Fluidisation Academic (1977).
(7) Handbook, Westinghouse 1500 Control Computer.
 98

Table 1 Analjsis_of_Coal

(a) Size Analysis

-8 mm coal

+ 2.8 mm 0.29
2.8 - 1.0 0.37
1.0 - 0.6 0.12
0.6 - 0.3 0.10
0.3 - 0.15 0.06
0.15 - 0 0.07

Maximum particle size 8 mm; average particle size 0.529 mm.

(b) Proximate Analysis

-8 mm coal

Moisture 8.7%
Ash 12.8%
Volatile matter 30.8%
Sulphur 1.2%
Fixed carbon 46.5%
Calorific value 28.8 MJ/kg
 o o o o o o o o o ooool

27 Holes (2-5mm-diamet-er)

FIGURE 2 - DIMENSIONS OF SPARGE PIPES

S5irp^
Combustor
Solenoid

Fan

Heatin
Ashcollecfor 9element

FIGURE 1 - SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF THE BOILER

Feed chute" .
*-- Solenoid
FIGURE 3 - PUSH-PULL ROD COAL FEEDER
 100

DEVELOPMENT OF A FLUIDIZED BED COMBUSTOR WITH SULPHUR CONTROL,

MULTI-FUEL FIRING AND HIGH EFFICIENCY CYCLONE SEPARATOR TO MEET ALL
EMISSION CONTROL STANDARDS

Author : Ing J. Biemond

Contract number : EN3F-0042-NL (GDF)

Duration : 18 months ~" 1 May 1987 - 31 December 1988

Total budget : Hfl. 1.263.000,- CEC contribution: Hfl. 505.200,-

Head of project : J. Biemond, W.K. Crone B.V.

Contractor : W.K. Crone B.V.

Address W.K. Crone B.V.

le Tochtweg 39
2913 LN NIEUWERKERK A/D IJSSEL
THE NETHERLANDS

Summary

1. Description W.K. Crone B.V.

2. Involvement of Crone in F.B.C.
3. Present product
4. Further development
5. Research Programme
6. Present state of execution of the programme

1. DESCRIPTION OF W.K. CRONE B.V.

W.K. Crone B.V. Ketel- en Apparatenfabriek is situated in Nieuwerkerk
a/d Ussel, The Netherlands. The company is private owned and employes ca.
35 men. It is founded by the present owner in the years sixty and the
products at that time were triple-pass furnace-firetube heating boilers
for horticultural purposes. When the natural gas was found and distributed
the demand for boilers increased an Crone expanded steadyly. At that time
new types of steam- and heating boilers were developped and especially the
so named smokegascondensor for natural gas boilerinstallations was a good
selling product.
The company also got involved in delivery to industry of various
products like cilindrical steamboilers, decompression compartments and
other pressure-vessels, parts for the off-shore industry like reducers,
spacerplates, tubes and so on.
In 1981 and 1982 when the interest in using coal as combustible
increased Crone looked out for a coal burning system suitable for horti-
cultural and small-industrial application and got involved with Fluidised
Bed Combustion.
 101

2. INVOLVEMENT OF CRONE IN F.B.C.

Crone started by taking a licence concerning fluidised bed boilers,
working on the Shallow-Bed technology, as developped bij C.R.E. of British
Coal. This technology was chosen for following reasons:
a. A wide range of coal could be burnt.
b. Suitable to be produced in the Crone workshop.
c. Presence of properties important for small industry purposes.
d. Certain environmental advantages.
A 3 Mw pilot plant was constructed and tested and following matters
were developped by Crone to obtain a satisfactory operation for the Dutch
circumstances.
2.1. A bedmaterial regenerationsystem to remove course ash from the bed.
2.2. A controlpanel constructed with common electromagnetic parts, for
easier toiler-operation by the client.
2.3. Coalstorage, transport and feeding equipment which can handle the
types of coal containing much fines as available in The Netherlands.
2.4. An integrated startingburnersystem which reduced both the production-
costs and the time needed for a start from cold.
2.5. A temperature control of the smoke gasses, needed for the applicance
of baghouse-type dustfilters which are obliged in The Netherlands.
2.6. A pneumatic transportsystem for fly-ashes with the ability to load
the dust directly into transporttrailers.
At present time following installations delivered by Crone are in
operation:
U.K. : 1 pc. 2,4 Mw heating boiler installed in a nursery, using fines.
Austria: 1 pc. 3 Mw boiler installed in a district heating system, using
2" lignite pellets.
France : 7 pes heating boilers from 2,4 to 7 Mw, installed in nurseries
all using fine types of 15% ash coal.
1 pc. steamboiler, capacity 9000 Kg/hour at 18 bar, installed in
a diary, using fine types of 15% ash coal.
1 pc. heating-boiler, capacity 0,6 Mw, using 30% ash coal, in-
staaled at a mining-site.

3. PRESENT PRODUCT
The Crone type F.B.C. boilers are characterised by following main
data:
Bed depth (static) 15 cm.
Bed temperature control in-bed cooling tubes
Fluidisation velouty 1 - 2 , 6 m/sec
Bed temperature 850 - 900 C
Bed material sand/ash mixture
Coalfeed overtop feeding-screw with droptube
Combustion air control damper
Capacity-control high/low, 2:1
Freeboard water cooled
Cold-start by burner in air-duct
Starting fuel light-oil or gas
Cold start time ca. 30 min.
Hot start time 30 sec.
Stop-time 2-3 min.
Gascleaning bag-filter or multicyclone depending on reglemen-
tation at site.
Fuel characters:
Size grading : max. 30 nm, 30 % < 2 ran.
Ash content : max. 14%, 1,5% course ash
 102

Volatiles : such, that ignition at 550 C is possible

Sulphur : depending on reglementation at site

4. FURTHER DEVELOPMENT
In order to have the possibility to produce and install this type of
boilers in future Crone wants to do developments in following aspects:
4.1. Environmental properties of the boiler.
4.1.1. Emission of sulphur-oxides:
One of the advantages of the P.B. tech-nology is the possibility to retain
a major part of the sulphur, present in the fuel, in the bed. Preliminar
test on a boiler of the present Crone-type showed that 75% of the sulphur
can be retained by adding linestone into the bed. 60% can be considered as
a figure which can be obtained in practice. However, as the combustion
chamber will be altered thoroughly because of the reduction of nitric-
oxides it will be necessary to re-design and test the sulphur-retention
system completely. The future emission of sulphur-contence of the coal
which is used.
4.1.2. Emission of nictric-oxede NOx:
Restriction of emission of nitric-oxides is an important issue in
improvement of the environment. The present boilertype tends to have a
high NOx emission compared with other systems. This is probably caused by
the good circumstances for oxidisation in the bed. One of the main
purposes of the progranme is to bring this emission, which is ca. 810
mg/rm3 on the moment down to below 500 mg/rm3, which is the future demand
in The Netherlands.
4.1.3. Emission of dust:
Good filteration of smoke-gasses can be done by using a textile filter
system. However, in practice there are some problems in using this
equipment such as:
1. High investement cost
2. High maintainance cost
3. The filter has to be by-passed during cold start-up
4. Continious measuring of performance is necessary
A British company, Paladon joines Crone in the progranme and will design
and test a new type of separator which guarantees good performance at low
capital and maintainance cost. This separator will be installed at the
test-site, built by Crone in the programme.
4.2. Restricions of fuel used by the boiler:
As mentioned in chapter 3 there are restrictions in course ash and total
ash contents of the coal to be used. Several countries both from Europe as
well as in Asia have lots of coal available with higher ash content. To
handle this types of coal a new type of bed-plate and bed-material
classification has to be developped.

5. THE RESEARCH PROGRAMM

The project involves 4 stages for both Crone and subcontractor
Paladon. The Design-stage, whilst planned and executed in collaboration,
will be pursued separately at their respective premises. Fabrication of
the components of the test plant will be similarly divided, whilst the
succeeding installation and test stages will be a combined operation on
the installed plant.
5.1. The Crone Programme comprises:
5.1.1. Stage I. Design of Test Unit:
This unit will provide for variations in bed-depth, two stage combustion
and admission points for fuel, additives, combustion/dilution air and
instrumentation. Sizing and proportions of the combustor will be such as
 103

to justify the scaling up of the results to satisfy designs of 2-10 Mn

capacity. The supporting fuel/additive/ash handling faciliteis will be
such as to accxxtmodate runs of up to 5 hrs at full capacity. During this
Design Stage the initial requirements from the Paladon separator will be
defined and its require-ments incorporated into the full design.
5.1.2. Stage II. Construction:
Fabrication and installation of the test plant including a heat
absorption/dissipation facility to provide the load.
5.1.3. Stage III. Test Schedule:
1. Oonniissioning of the basic plant
2. Testing of fuel feeding systems
3. Testing of prototype particulate separator
4. Testing of NOx reduction devices
5. Testing of SOx reduction devices
6. Testing of several types of fuel and additives
5.1.4. Stage IV. Reporting: The report will cover:
1. Advantages and disadvantages of alternative fuel feeding systems
2. Degree of control of NOx formation in the combustor
3. Effectiveness of the design and additives in promoting sulphur
retention in the bed.
5.2. The Paladon Programme comprises:
5.2.1. Stage I. Design:
Rig testing of different sizes of cyclone models with a range of grit
sizes and densities. Extension of results into computer modelling and
subsequent empirical derivation of improved cyclone designs, combine this
with past development data and the preliminary specification from Crone to
design a separator to meet both combustor and separator test requirements
with particular regard to variations in gas flow under modulating
conditions.
5.2.2. Stage II. Construction and installation of the test separator.
5.2.3. Stage III. Test Schedule:
This involves participation in the full range of test being undertaken by
Crone and particularly in the measure-ment and regulation of the
performance of the separator. Modifications to the cyclone separator to
obtain maximum efficiency will be carried out at this stage.
5.2.4. Stage IV. Reporting:
A supplementary report covering more detailed aspects of separator tests
and performance will be prepared, the most relevant parts of which will be
included in the full project report.

6. PRESENT STATE
Due to the collapse of the prices of oil and gas in the beginning of
1986 the turnover in coal-firing installations also fell dramaticly. For
this reason Crone had problems in financing this Research Programme which
were resolved the other day. So the programme has just started and
therefore no proceedings can be reported at the moment.
 FBC OPERATION FOR EMISSION CONTROL

Reduction of NO emissions in bubbling fluidized bed by

staged combustion

Reduced NO emissions and other phenomena in fluidized

bed combustion

Optimization of PFBC operating conditions for minimum

pollutant emission, especially of NO

Control of nitrogen oxides in pressurized fluidized bed

systems
 106

REDUCTION OF NOx EMISSIONS IN BUBBLING FLUIDIZED BED

BY STAGED COMBUSTION

1) 2) 2)

Authors : H.H.J. Tossaint , M. Valk , E.A. Bramer

Contract number: EN3F-0005-NL(GDF)

I May 1986 - 30 April 1988
Duration : 24 months
EEC contribution: Dfl. 875,000
Total budget : Dfl. 1,750,000

Head of project: Ir. H. Boorsma

Contractor : I) Stork Boilers

Address P.O. Box 20
7550 GB HENGELO
Netherlands

2) University of Twente
P.O. Box 217
7500 AE ENSCHEDE
Netherlands

Summary

A comprehensive research program was started in 1986 to determine

quantitatively the reduction of NOx and SO. emissions by staged
combustion in an atmospheric fluidized bed process. The first
results are given in this paper.
The tests were performed on the 0.6 x 0.6 m pilot plant of the
University of Twente.
In the test program the primary air stoichiometry was varied from
60 to 120 percent while the secondary air varied from 60 to 0
percent maintaining the total stoichiometry constant. The
superficial velocity in the bed could be kept at the same level
by changing the heat transfer surface in the bed during a test
run. Under these conditions the emission levels of NOx and SO,
and the combustion efficiency were measured for two different coal
types.
Samples from the bed, the cyclone and baghouse were collected for
analyses to determine the amount of sulfur containing components
and the amount of carbon.
 107

1. INTRODUCTION
Using fluidized bed technology for coal combustion the NOx
emission level will meet the current standards in the EEC, and it is
well known that the SO. emission level can be reduced to a desired
level by adding limestone to the combustion process. However, it is
expected that the standards for NOx and SO. emission levels will become
more severe in the future and research work must be done with the
objective to reduce the NOx and SO. emission levels. Low NOx emissions
can be achieved in a bubbling fluidized bed combustion system by means
of staged combustion (1,2). In staged combustion, the air used for
combustion is separated into a primary air stream through the air
distributor and the bed and the secondary air stream supplied as
overfire air above the bed surface into the freeboard. The total
excess air is kept constant, so the availability of oxygen in the
bed to combine with the fuel nitrogen is lower and the NOx emission
will decrease.
The data from most fluidized bed test facilities indicate that in
general the NOx emission is reduced by a number of agents, including
carbon monoxide, char, hydrogen, ammonia and unburned hydrocarbons, of
which the major reducing agents are char and CO. Higher concentrations
of these reducing agents are formed in the bed under lower excess air
conditions.
Results from experiments with staged combustion described in this
paper show that it is possible with this technology to decrease the
NOx emission levels. However, the emission of SO. increases to such an
extent that further experimental research will be focused on the
interaction of sulfur retention, nitric oxide emission and combustion
efficiency under staged combustion conditions.

2. EXPERIMENTAL FACILITY
The experimental research program described in this paper was
performed at the fluidized bed combustion facility at the University
of Twente. A scheme of this test facility is presented in figure I.
The 0.6 m square combustor is refractory lined, the height being 4.4 m
from distributor plate up to the freeboard cooling section. The bed
section is equipped with a water cooled heat exchanger submerged in
the bed. It consists of 5 rows of water tubes. Up to 40 percent of
this heat exchanger surface can be withdrawn from the bed. This makes
it possible to maintain a constant bed temperature and fluidizing
velocity for different primary air stoichiometries. Above the freeboard
section the heat exchanger (A) is used to control the flue gas
temperature in the baghouse filter.
A second freeboard heat exchanger (B) was installed during some
test runs. This heat exchanger consisted of 2 rows of 5 water tubes
and 1 row of 4 water tubes in order to lower the freeboard temperature.
The bed material was a mixture of limestone and ash from the coal.
The mean particle size was 1.5 mm. The bed height and the bed expansion
were measured by seven pressure probes inserted into the bed section.
During a test run bed material can be drained or sampled, protected by
inert gas.
 108

Coal and limestone are supplied by a hopper and fed via screw
feeders with variable speed motors, measured by weighing belts. They
are injected together into the bed by air through the refractory lined
wall 0.15 m above the air distributor plate.
Primary fluidizing air is supplied by a forced draft fan, metered
and introduced into the bed through an air distributor plate with
nozzles.
The secondary air is supplied through 4 overfire air ports into
the freeboard 1.2 m above the bed surface. These air flow rates are
measured with positive-displacement-type meters.
Balanced draft at the freeboard is realised by an induced draft
fan.
Downstream of the freeboard cooler the flue gases pass a
mechanical cyclone dust collector and a baghouse filter prior to
discharging to the stack. The fly ash separated by the mechanical dust
collector can be reinjected by air into the bed 0.15 m above the air
distributor. The fly ash recycle system is designed in a way which'
enables partial reinjection of the collected fly ash. The total
recycle flow can be drained in an ash bin during any time interval.
The time intervals of recycling and of fly ash draining can be
controlled by an electronic time sharing system. In this way the
recycled mass flow can be adjusted to the desired value. This fly ash
flow rate is measured by weighing a sample drained during a few
seconds. The flow rate of the fly ash reinjected into the bed is
calculated from this drained flow rate and the total weight of fly ash
drained per hour. Smaller particles in the flue gas are collected in
the baghouse filter and drained in a bin.
Temperatures are measured by thermocouples, concerning the
temperatures in the bed section, the freeboard section and the cooling
water system.
A gas sampling unit for continuous flue gas sampling from freeboard
and stack is available. S0 2 , C0 2 , CO (non dispersive infrared absorption),
02 (paramagnetic), NOx (chemiluminescense), CxHy (flame ionisation
detection) concentrations are measured during the experiments.
The measured values of most process parameters are transferred to
a computer by means of a datalogger system.

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The NOx and SO- emissions depend on many factors, including the
coal type. For this reason the test program includes two coal types
having a different volatile constituent content (table I ) .
Sulfur capture as well as NOx formation and reduction fornupart
of a network of chemical reactions (figure 2 ) . Some reactions show a
heavy temperature dependence in the range from 800C to 1000C.

NOx emission
The effect of the primary air stoichiometry on NOx emission is
presented in figure 3. For both examined coal types a 50% decrease has
been achieved, when the primary air stoichiometry was reduced from 1.2
to 0.8 (figure 3 ) . The higher figures for Marine coal may have to be
attributed to the higher nitrogen content of this coal.
 109

During a subsequent test run the freeboard temperature was

reduced by approximately 80 C, using a freeboard cooler. This proves
to have an increasing effect on NOx emission (figure 4 ) . It follows
that, also after addition of secondary air, the NOx reduction still
takes place and that these reduction reactions are governed by the
temperature.

Sulfur capture
Reduction of the primary air stoichiometry has an adverse effect
on the SO. emission (figure 5 ) . Sulfur emission is doubled when the
primary air stoichiometry is reduced from 1.2 to 0.6. The increase in
sulfur emission is less when freeboard cooling is used (figure 6 ) . Its
effect may possibly be attributed to the decrease in the CaS04
decomposition reaction.
As indicated in figure 3, sulfur capture forms part of a network
of chemical reactions, most of which are highly dependent on the
temperature.in the range from 800 C to 1000 C.
By measurements in the freeboard for injection of the secondary
air, comparatively slight quantities of H.S were measured only
occasionally. Furthermore, analyses of bed - cyclone - and bag filter
ashes have not been able to reveal the presence of CaS. Continued
research is required to obtain a better understanding of the factors
having an impact on sulfur capture.

Impact of the bed temperature on combustion

The bed temperature was varied between 790 C and 880 C. Its
impact on the 0. and CO, concentrations is presented in figure 7. The
0. concentration declines from 10.0 percent to 6.7 percent, whereas
the CO. concentration increases from 9.3 percent to 12.3 percent. As
may be expected, combustion was completer at the higher bed temperature.

Impact of the bed temperature on the SO. and NOx emission

In the bed temperature range from 790 C to 880 C a slight decrease

in NOx emission and a sharp rise in SO. emission can be noticed
(figure 8 ) . This may be a consequence of the reduced 0. concentration
occurring at higher temperatures, which promotes the NOx reduction and
interferes with the SO. oxidation to SO,, or the temperature impact is
comparable to that experienced with freeboard cooling.

4. CONCLUSIONS

1) Staged combustion technology can be used in order to reduce NOx

emission levels.
2) Research is required to obtain a better understanding of the
factors having an impact on sulfur emission.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This research program is supported by the Commission of the EEC
and by the Management Office for Energy Research (PEO), which is
financed by the Ministry of Economic Affairs.
 110

REFERENCES

(1) J. Tatebayashi et all. Simultaneous NOx and SO. Emission

Reductions with Fluidized Bed Combustion. Proceedings of the
sixth International Conference on Fluidized Bed Combustion,
Atlanta.
(2) T.E. Taylor. NOx Control through Staged Combustion in Fluidized
Bed Combustion Systems. Proceedings of the sixth International
Conference on Fluidized Bed Combustion, Atlanta.

TABLE I ANALYSES OF THE COAL TYPES USED

Coal Type Polish-5 Br. Marina

Ultimate ana'lyses
(dried fuel) (%)

Carbon C 74. 13 81.84

Hydrogen H 4.52 4.54
Oxygen (by d:iff.) 0 9.83 3.20
Nitrogen N 0.71 1.39
Sulfur S 0.78 0.95

Proximate analysis
(as received) (%)

Volatile matter 29.73 23.40

Moisture 2.24 1.00
Fixed carbon 58.31 67.65
Ash 9.74 7.95

Calorific value (MJ/kg) 29.37 32.06

(gross)

SOXth (g/Gj) 536 589

NOXth (g/GJ) 806 1510

Size range (mm) 0-12 0-12~

Mean diameter (mm) 2.45 2.50
< 1 mm (Z) 29.5 22.0
 Ill

Figure 1:

AFBC test facility Twente University of Technology

Flue ,
x=Gas sampling point's and Gas
thermocouples

6,5 m.
 112

Figure 2 Figure 3
Simplified reaction scheme at
two-stage combustion

Influence of primary air ratio

on the NOx- emission,
T b =850C,R/C=1.5.

CaO + S C + CO,
X-1.1
Polishcol A-U

Figure 4 Figure 5

Influence of primary air ratio Influence of primary air ratio

on the NOx-emission, on the desulfurisation efficiency,
Marine coal, Tb=850C, A=1.1, T b =850C,R/C=1.5and
R/C=1.5 Ca/S=1.5

i A -i.i

400
A-u
"SO,
NO,
(8/OJ)
300
 113

Figure 6 Figure 7

Influence of primary air ratio

on the S02-emission,
Marine coal, Tb=850C, \ p r = 1.1, Influence of bed temperature
R/C=1.5,Ca/S=1.5. on the C0 2 and 0 2 concentrations
in the flue, Marine coal,
A. pr. = 0.6, A Sec = 0.5, R/C = 1.5.
1500 -

so,
(mg/nm3)
COrO,
(vol. %)
1000

freeboard cooler
VyT without
3 with

500

T.rci

1.0 0.8 0.6 A

Figure 8
Influence of bed temperature
on the NO x -S0 2 emissions,
Marine coal, K =0.6, Asec.=0.5,
R/C=1.5,Ca/S=1.5.

NO.-SO,
(mg/nm3)

T.rci
 114
REDUCED NOx EMISSIONS AND OTHER PHENOMENA IN
FLUIDISED BED COMBUSTION

Author : A.R. MARSHALL

Contract number : EN3F-0007-UK(H)

Duration : 36 months 1 July 1986 - 30 June 1989

Total Budget : 400,000 CEC contribution 200,000

Project Leader : A.R. Marshall, Babcock Power

Contractor : Babcock Power

Address : 165 Great Dover Street

London SE1 4YA

Summary

The Solid Circulation Boiler (SCB) has certain advantages over

conventional bubbling bed AFBC, principally due to its
separation of the combustion and heat transfer processes which
results in an absence of in-bed tubes and more flexible
control. The process incorporates the staged admission of
combustion air and is therefore potentially capable of low NOx
emission levels. Consequently the main aim of this project is
to investigate the conditions required to reduce NOx emissions,
on a SCB test rig, whilst maintaining a satisfactory combustion
efficiency and sulphur retention. ' In addition, other FBC
phenomena will be investigated, such as pulsation, residue
characteristics etc. British Coal are actively cooperating on
this project which also has links with two matching projects of
Stork Boilers. At present the project is about ten months into
a three year programme. Test results so far have indicated that
low NOx emission levels can be achieved, with staged combustion
in SCB, whilst maintaining reasonable levels of CO and
combustion efficiency. Investigations of sulphur retention,
under these conditions, are currently in progress.

1. INTRODUCTION
Current fluidised bed combustion technology appears to be able
to restrict NOx emissions to levels which will meet current European
Community emission standards. However, it is expected that future
standards will become more severe and development work is required now,
in order to achieve the necessary reduction in emission levels.
 115

Staged combustion is an established method of reducing NOx

emissions in various combustion systems. It has also been tested to a
limited extent in Fluidised Bed Combustion (FBC), where it reduces the
availability of oxygen for combination with the fuel nitrogen. The
Solids Circulation Fluidised Bed (SCB), which was invented by W.B.
Johnson and is being commercialised by Babcock Power, is designed to
operate with a reduced air supply to the bed. The remaining air, after
being used for solids transport, is added above the bed in order to
support secondary combustion, in the freeboard. This is illustrated in
Figure 1 and is, in effect, staged combustion.
Consequently, the principle objective of this project is the
investigation of the control of NOx emissions by staged combustion in
SCB, together with its effect on sulphur retention. Other areas for
investigation include fluidisation characteristics, pulsation, and
feedstock and residue characterisation, under these conditions. The
Coal Research Establishment (CRE) of British Coal is cooperating on the
project and contributing directly to the investigations.
Stork Boilers and TNO are also cooperating via linked projects,
which cover similar areas of interest. These projects are 'Reduction
of NOx emissions in bubbling fluidised bed by staged combustion*
(EN3F-0005-NL) and 'Metal wastage in fluidised beds for conventional
and staged combustion' (EN3F-O006-NL) and are described elsewhere at
this meeting.

2. SCB PROCESS PRINCIPLES

The SCB has a number of features (1) which distinguish it both
from conventional bubbling beds and from fast beds
Within the unit, three solids circuits can be identified, as
shown typically in Figure 1. The first is in the bed itself, which has
three velocity zones of slow, medium and high fluidising velocity
respectively. The mix zone above the bed is also carefully
proportioned so that a circulation pattern is established, entraining
fresh fuels and returned solids.
Bed material is withdrawn continuously via a drop leg into a
non-mechanical J-valve, where it is fed into a current of air forming
the second solid circuit. The mixture is transported up a water cooled
channel, (the riser) down a water cooled channel (the downcomer) and
returned to the bed via a slope known as a "ski slope". During the
course of this action the bed material is cooled, giving up its heat to
the water. Because the quantity of solid material withdrawn is
proportional to the amount of control air supplied to the J-valve, the
heat extracted from the bed is also controllable and turn down over a
wide range can be rapidly achieved. Note that this turndown is
accompanied at substantially constant bed temperature, improving
limestone performance if sulphur retention is practised; and also,
because combustion is separated from the heat transfer process, no
in-bed tubing is required.
The solids transport air is used as secondary air with the bed
operating sub-stoichiometrically.
The elutriation of fuel and limestone from the bed constitutes
the third solids circuit. After passing through the mix zone and
freeboard, this material enters the first convection bank. Generally,
both superheat and economiser surface is incorporated in the boiler
envelope, and the gases are discharged at around 350 C to a multi
cyclone.
 116

The cyclone returns materials larger than about 15 microns to the bed.
Finer materials escapes with the flue gas to any external
economlser/alr heater and Is eventually removed by the baghouse, or
other gas cleaning plant.
Ash removal is effected at two locations. Oversize and surplus
bed material is removed from the lower end of the riser and fine
material from the baghouse. For many coals this will be sufficient,
because the vigorous action within the bed rapidly reduces most coal
ash and limestone to less than 15 microns. For some fuels, however, it
may be necessary to make provision for withdrawal of 15 microns plus
material from the cyclone or to adopt a cyclone with a variable
efficiency capability.
Compared with alternative systems, the SCB offers the following
advantages:
constant bed temperature over wide load range.
no in-bed tubing.
rapid load control and start up.
low convection bank gas velocities.
low cyclone gas temperatures.
potential NOx reduction.
compact arrangement.

3. SCB PILOT PLANT DESCRIPTION

Some fundamental research work on the SCB process was carried
out in a cold model and a hot test facility in the USA. However a SCB
pilot plant has now been built at Babcock's Renfrew Research Centre, in
order to continue the development of the technology. It is on this
existing plant that the CEC supported project on reduced NOx emissions
is being carried out.
The Renfrew SCB pilot plant was commissioned in early 1986. A
schematic arrangement is shown in Figure 2 and the major design
features listed in Table I.

4. PROGRAMME OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT ACTIVITIES

The principal results expected from this project will be the
determination of the NOx emission levels from solid circulation
fluidised beds over a range of operating parameters. This will be
compared with NOx from conventional and staged combustion in deep
bubbling beds.
A bar chart, outlining the proposed project programme, is shown
in Figure 3. This programme is open to modification and review as the
project progresses. The various phases involved are briefly itemised
below, including the other results expected from this project:

Phase 1 NOx Review and Feed Selection

A review will be undertaken of published data on NOx control in
FBC and of the testwork carried out by CRE, as part of an ECSC
contract, and other studies. The review will assist in the planning of
this project and of the Stork Project EN3F-0005-NL.
A standard typical U.K. coal and a number of other fuels will be
selected to- provide a range of nitrogen contents and will include a
high ash coal and a link coal which will also be tested by Stork.
During the test programme full physical and chemical analyses will be
carried out, together with slagging and fouling characteristics and
reactivity measurements. This work will not be restricted to Phase 1.
 117

Two limestones of different reactivity will be selected.

Phase 2 Base Line Performance

The performance of the pilot plant as designed and built will be
established over a range of loads. In particular the effect of the two
stage combustion, on NOx emissions, combustion efficiency and limestone
utilisation for sulphur retention, will be investigated. The effect of
limestone size and limestone type will be tested.

Phase 3 Performance Optimisation

A wider range of operating parameters will be.tested, in order
to optimise SCB performance for the reduction of NOx emissions, whilst
maintaining satisfactory combustion efficiency and sulphur retention.
These parameters may include bed temperature, freeboard temperature,
excess air, bed height etc. In addition, during this phase it may be
necessary to carry out plant modifications as a result of the review
undertaken in Phase 1, or the subsequent testwork. These modifications
may include coal feed position, grit recycle position, secondary air
location, freeboard cooling etc.

Phase 4 Fuel Size and Type

The effect of fuel size and type on NOx emissions will be
investigated, together with the ability of the system to manage the
larger stones that may be contained in coarse high ash coal.

Phase 5 Pressure Pulsations

The main effort on work under this heading will be carried out
on the Stork Project EN3F-0006-NL. However, during this programme, the
pulsation and fluidisation charateristics of the SCB system will be
established.

Phase 6 Residue Assessment

Where appropriate, typical residues from the testwork will be
examined. The physical and chemical properties of the
residues,produced by the low NOx two stage combustion conditions, will
be assessed,, with particular reference to any environmental problems
that might be posed by their disposal.

Phase 7 Reporting
Analysis of the test results and reporting will be carried out
throughout the duration of the project. The results will also be
regularly reviewed, along with those from projects EN3F-0005-NL and
EN3F-0006-NL, by the cooperating bodies, i.e. Babcock, CRE, Stork and
TNO.

5. PROGRESS AND RESULTS

This project has only been running for about ten months of its
planned three year duration. However, progress has been made broadly
in line with the programme indicated in Figure 3 and some promising
results achieved.

5.1 NOx Review

The CRE review of in house and published work on the control of
NOx emissions, confirmed that staged combustion offers one of the most
 118

effective ways for controlling NOx emissions from fluidised bed

boilers. An illustration of the results obtained by different workers
is provided in Figure 4.
The degree of NOx reduction obtained, by a variety of workers in
the field, ranged from about 25% to about 70%; although about 50% was
typical. Primary air ratios used during staging typically ranged from
about 0.75 to 1.1, but it is not clear what the ratio is for maximum
NOx reduction. The effectiveness of the staging appears to increase
with the height of the secondary air addition above the bed, at least
up to about 1.5m.
Other factors also influence the level of NOx emission.
Emissions rise as bed temperature and excess air increase, but appear
to fall with decreasing bed particle size. The presence of lime,
rather than calcium sulphate, has been found to increase NOx
emissions. There is insufficient evidence to indicate any effect of
fluidising velocity and there is conflicting data on the effect of bed
depth, indicating either no effect, or reduction in NOx emissions as
bed depth increases.
It seems to have been universally found that the reduction in
combustion efficiency, which occurs when sub-stoichiometric conditions
are used in the bed, is only partially recovered by the introduction of
secondary air. Staged combustion has also been found to have an
adverse effect on the sulphur capture efficiency of limestone.

5.2 Pilot Plant Test Results

The standard U.K. coal selcted for much of the basic testwork is
Killoch coal washed smalls (nominally 12.5 x 0mm size), which is a
Scottish coal with the following typical range of analysis.
Moisture % 12-17
Volatile Matter % 30.1-33.4
Fixed Carbon % 46.0 - 49.5
Ash % 4.2 - 10
Sulphur % 0.9-1.3
Chlorine % 0.08 - 0.35
Nitrogen % 1.14 - 1.39
GCV KJ/KG 26780 - 28200
IDT (Reducing) C 1180 - 1280
The first limestone selected is the reasonably reactive Ballidon
limestone, which has previously been tested on the Renfrew boiler.
Base line performance testwork has been carried out under Phase
2 of the programme and Table II summarises the first series of tests,
which concentrated on NOx emission levels and unburnt loss at different
primary air ratios and loads. The NOx emission levels are plotted
against the primary air stoichiometric ratio in Figures 4 and 5. The
results so far have been encouraging.
The figures show that in-bed (primary air) stoichiometry
significantly affects the level of NOx emission in SCB, confirming they
findings of others for conventional FBC. Limited testwork at an in-bed
stoichiometry as low as 0.7 seems to indicate a still falling NOx
level, unlike the findings of some other workers illustrated in Figure
4. The testwork carried out so far with limestone addition indicates
no increase in NOx, due to the limestone. Dnburnt loss was generally
in the range 2-4%; except where grit recycle was turned off, when it
rose to 6-8%. CO levels were generally low, presumably because the
 119
pilot plant provided sufficient freeboard residence time at
temperature, after the addition of secondary air, to encourage
burn-out.

5.3 Pulsation Results

Babcock's experience of and background in pulsation is described
by Little (8). This subject is also referred to in Stork's paper
(EN3F-0006-NL)
The amplitude and frequency of pressure pulsations throughout
the pilot plant SCB system were measured. Over a range of bed height
and loads, one peak dominated the pressure spectra throughout the
system, with the highest levels being measured in the main windboxes.
The presence of only one peak is consistent with other plants, which do
not have in bed tubes. Because of this the possibility of coupling
between the underbed duct acoustics and any periodic exitation arising
from the bed may be increased.
The configuration of the underbed ductwork is an important
factor in the pulsation characteristics of SCB plant, as has also been
found with some conventional AFBC plant. The effect of adjusting the
location of pressure drops in the air supply ductwork warrants further
investigation.

6. FUTURE WORK
The effect of staged combustion on sulphur retention in SCB, for
various sizes of limestone, is being investigated in a second series of
tests. It is anticipated that some of the results will be described
during the author's presentation.

REFERENCES

(1) JOHNSON, W.B., BALLANTTNE, J.G., Heat Transfer Results, Solids

Circulation Boiler Plant, AIchE 1986 Annual Meeting, Miami
Beach Florida, Nov. 1986, Paper No.9e.
(2) TATEBAYASHI J. et al , Simultaneous NOx and SO- Emission
Reduction with Fluidised Bed Combustion, Proc. 6th Int. Conf.
on Fluid Bed Comb., Atlanta, 1980.
(3) ECSC Progress Report No.2, Project No. 7220/ED/810, Control of
Nitrogen and Sulphur Oxides, Hydrocarbon and particulates, March
1986.
(4) MODRAK, T.M., et al, Sulphur Capture and Nitrogen Oxide
Reduction on the 6' x6' Atmospheric Fluidised Bed Combustion
Facility (Babcocks-USA and EPRI) American Chem. Society (Div. of
Fuel Chem.), Vol. 27, No.l, pp 226-248, 1982.
(5) SHIMIRU, T., et al, The Combustion Characteristics of Different
Types of Coal in the 20 t/h Fluidised Bed Boiler, Proc. of 8th
Int. Conf. on Fluid. Bed Comb., Vol. 1, Houston, Texas, July
1985.
(6) KIKUZAWA, K., et al, Industrial Fluidised Bed Boiler
Co-generation System at Mitsu Aluminum Co. Ltd., Wakamatsu
Works, Japan, Proc. 8th Int. Conf. on Fluid. Bed Comb., Vol. II,
Houston, Texas, July 1985.
(7) LECKNER, B., et al, Emission from a MW(th) FBC boiler, Chalmers
Univ. of Tech. & Univ. of Gotberg (Sweden), 7th Int. Conf. on
FBC, Philadephia, 1982.
(8) LITTLE, W.J.G., Pulsation Phenomena in Fluides Bed Boilers, 9th
Int. Conf. on FBC, May 1987, Boston.
 120

TABLE I MAJ OR DESIGN FEATURES OF SCB PILOT PLANT

Dense Bed

Gas Velocity 2.4 m/s

Temperature 870C
Overall Excess Air 25%
Stoichiometry to Bed 0.7 to 0.9
Operating Bed Height 0.6m

Risers

Gas Velocity 10.7 m/s

Average Temperature - 815C
Solids Loading at Full Load - 30 Kg/Kg gas

Coal Fuel

Type Killoch Washed Smalls

Heating Value 25.86 MJ/Kg
Ash 5.0 wt Z
Sulphur 1.0 wt %

Convection Section

Intertube Velocities Less than 6.1 m/s

Cyclone Temperature 370C to 425C
Solids Loading 1*0 Kg/Kg gas

Dimensions

Unit Size 0.88m x 1.13m x 11.0m H

Riser Size 2 at 17.8cm diam. x 6.4mH
Downcomer Size 2 at 30.5cm diam. x 2.4mH
Heat Exchanger 1 18 rows staggered
3.8cm diam on 11.4cm centre

Height Profile

Windbox 0.6m
Bed 0.6m
Mix Zone 0.9m
Freeboard 3.1m
Heat Exchanger 0.9m
Free space 0.9m
 121

TABLE II: RESULTS OF PHASE 2 SERIES 1 TESTS

TEST %MCR OVERALL PRIMARY BED FEGT NOx CO UNBURNT

NO. AND XSS AIR AIR TEMP C (ppm) (vppm) LOSS
(No)of RATIO STOICH C DRY DRY %
RISERS RATIO M0 6Z02
2
2101 104(2) 1.27 0.95 869 892 180 438 4.4
2103 103(2) 1.25 0.87 870 912 158 236 3.7
2104 102(2) 1.25 0.81 862 928 121 138 3.3
2105 105(2) 1.21 0.87 866 907 129 409 4.5
2106 103(2) 1.38 1.05 858 858 192 381 4.4
2107 103(2) 1.49 1.15 866 840 240 539 3.9
2108* 102(2) 1.25 0.87 865 893 179 70 6.5
2109* 100(2) 1.53 1.15 863 839 273 122 7.6
2110 74(2) 1.23 0.71 857 928 63 71 3.3
2111 73(2) 1.32 0.78 860 917 84 94 3.3
2112 74(2) 1.47 0.92 857 876 135 163 3.7
2113 71(1) 1.28 0.96 860 925 126 104 3.3
2114 45(1) 1.72 1.21 861 815 240 104 3.2
2115 47(1) 1.90 1.41 859 818 265 155 2.8
2116 48(1) 1.42 1.01 846 832 144 99 2.7
2117 48(0) 1.83 1.83 852 848 287 197 2.2

* Grit Recycle off.

PROJECT PROGRAMME
REDUCTION IN NOx EMISSIONS IN A SOLID CIRCULATION
CONTRACT No. EN 3F-0007-GB
FLUIDISED BED BY STAGED COMBUSTION
YEAR Y EAR 1 1rEAR 2 YEAR 3
MONTH 1 2 3 l> 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 > 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 i 3
(. 5 6 7 8
9 K 11 12
PHASE 1
REVIEW CURRENT KNOWLEDGE
SELECT TEST FUELS
SELECT TEST LIMESTONES
PHASE 2
BASE LINE PERFORMANCE
LIMESTONE SIZE
LIMESTONE TYPE
PHASE 3
OPTIMISE PERFORMANCE
PHASE U
FUEL FEED SIZE
FUEL FEED TYPE
PHASE 5
PRESSURE PULSATION
PHASE 6
ASSESS RESIDUES
PHASE 7
REPORT WORK

Figure 1
 122

S
SOLIDS CIRCULATION BOILER BFW T
r __w*\ STEAM DRUM
350 C
FLUE GAS
I (r il

AIR
PREHEATER
OR
ECON.

iHOUSE
TO BAGHOUSE |
160C
SKI SLOPE

FUEL * LIMESTONE FEED - RISER/DOWNFLOW

CHANNELS

PRIMARY AIR

^ F D FAN

Figure 2

COM. HOPPER

LIMESTONE HOPPER

GRIT REFIRING
FLUIOISED BED

-=*5
FORCED DRAUGHT
FAN

SCB PILOT PLANT

Figure 3
 123

BEF 3 1 0 5 B MO DEPTHI

>
Q.

SCB TEST RIG

5 300

^^BEFSHO.BED DEPTHI

= 200

i
REF7IU.S.C0ALI
x 100

P.EF 7IP0LISH COAL!

07 M M 1-0 V1 1-2 1-3 1-4 K

PRIMARY AIR STOICHIOMETRIC RATIO

REVIEW OF NOx REDUCTION WITH PRIMARY

AIR RATIO FROM VARIOUS SOURCES.

Figure 4

AT 4 0 % - 1 0 0 % MCR RATING

400 -

300-
O
O
O O

200 -
o o0
O SERIES 1 TESTS
Without Limestone

100 - + SERIES 2 TESTS

With Limestone
D

0 - 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 -i 1 1 1 1 1
0.70 0.90 1.10 1.30 1.50 1.70 1.90 2.10

PRIMARY AIR STOICHIOMETRIC RATIO

NOx ( d r y . 6 % 0 2 ) vs BED STOICHIOMETRY

Figure 5
 124
OPTIMISATION OF PFBC OPERATING CONDITIONS FOR
MINIMUM POLLUTANT EMISSION,! ESPECIALLY OF NO
x
Author : H. MUNZNER

Contract number : EN3F-0004-D(B)

Duration : 24 months _^ 1 April 1986 - 31. March 1988

Total budget : 804 253 DM CEC contribution : 374 440 DM

Head of project : Dr. H. Munzner, Bergbau-Forschung GmbH

Contractor : Bergbau-Forschung GmbH

Address Bergbau-Forschung GmbH
Franz-Fischer-Weg 61
D-4300 Essen 13

Summary

Objective of the project is the optimization of the operating

conditions of a pressurized fluidized bed combuster with particular
respect to minimizing NO -emissions, but in combination with minimum
emission of other pollutants.
A laboratory-scale PFBC reactor has been designed and built. It has
a throughput of about 1 kg/h of coal at atmospheric conditions.
However, testing at elevated pressure up to 10 bar is carried out
in the course of this programm and operating at these conditions
needs further improvements and changes. The reactor has up to 4
consecutive zones in which excess air, fluidizing velocity, and
temperatur can be individually controled. By variation of these
conditions optimum conditions for low pollutant emissions are to be
evaluated in 3 pressure steps.
First results are presented and commented for atmospheric pressure
(phase 1 ) , for 2,5 bar (phase 2) and pressure range up to 10 bar
(phase 3 ) .

1. PFB-C0MBUSTOR
The laboratory-scale PFB-combustor, presented in fig. 1, is equipped
with a water cooled pressure shell. Inside is located a three-staged
reactormade from temperature-resistent alloy tubes of different diameter:
6 cm, 10 cm, and 12 cm. For atmospheric pressure experiments there is a
granulated insulating material provided between water jacket and
combustion tubes, which can be fluidized progressively to function as a
flexible heat exchanger. For higher operating pressures the insulating
material is removed and the heat is transferred to the water jacket by
radiation and convection and is controled by a moveable insulation-
screen. With high heat production at high pressure- and airflow-conditions
additional cooling is necessary for temperature control.
For starting-up combustion a small fraction of bed ash is
electrically heated to the ignition point of coal (fuel). During coal
combustion, the level of fluidized bed ash ist topped up. By inserting
 125

bubble breakers and centrifugal separators (fig.2) the disengaging height

is reduced, so that the freeboard volume can be kept small. Temperature
T4 in the upper zone is reduced to about 300 C by additional cooling.
This upper zone has the function of a secondary fluidized bed, made up
from elutriated bed material of the primary combustion bed. During
transfer from zone T3 to zone T4 flue gas as well as elutriated bed
material (ash and coal) are quenched from combustion temperature down to
nearly 300 C. In this way carbon combustion ist interrupted and thus
also subsequent NO- and Co-formation. This low temperature bed T4 has
several functions* 1) as flue gas cooler, 2) as ash cooler, 3) as
halogen capturing device and 4) as reactivator for partly spent coarse
sorbent by reaction with water vapor from the flue gas. Because ot the
flue gas cooling inside of the pressure vessel, there are no temperature/
pressure problems in the flue gas duct.
Fluidizing velocity is kept constant in range T3, by pressure control
and flue-gas-exit-flow-control. Combustion air flow can be directed to 3
entrance ports depending on secondary air ratio. The fluidizing velocity
in every zone is fixed by setting the secondary air ratio. The excess
oxygen level is controled by coal feeding (screwfeeder). Temperature Tl
and Te near the coal inlet may sometimes be higher or lower than the
general combustion temperature T2 and T3, caused by the reactivity of the
fuel. Pressure inside and outside of the hot reactor-tubes is equalised
at air inlet port 3.
Operating the apparatus at higher pressures and air flows needs
still some further improvements and changes especially for heat removal.

2. RESULTS OF ATMOSPHERIC COMBUSTION

The results are presented in combined graphics, so that
interdependencies can be recognised.
At atmospheric pressure condition, fig. 3 shows the pollutant
emissions in mg/m3 for HF, HCL, NO , S0 2 , CO and also the carbon loss as -
a function of combustion time for several grain size fractions of coal,
fired one after the other.
Fluorine is captured mostly in the ash of the secondary fluidized
bed. Only 1 to 2 mg/m3 is emitted.
Chlorine emissions here amount to more than 90 % and depend on the
chlorine content of the fuel.
NO flue gas concentration ranges from 600 mg/m3 to 750 mg/m3
(5 % 0 2 -excess).
S0 2 is a matter of amount of sorbent addition and of sorbent quality.
Here a molar ratio of Ca/S = 1 is employed.
CO-emission and carbon-loss are parallel. A higher elutriable dust
content in the feed coal results in higher CO-emission and carbon loss.
The temperatures after starting up are rather constant at about
850 C, except for Tl, which is, about 50 C higher.

3. RESULTS OF 2,5 BAR COMBUSTION

For the combustion pressure of 2,5 bar fig. 4 presents the pollutant
emission levels and the carbon loss as a function of the secondary air
ratio ranging from 5 % to 50 % (left side) and as a function of the
temperature ranging from 780 to 920 C (right part). Fuel is Osterfeld
coal with 38 % ash, grain fraction 0,2 - 2 mm, a high volatile bituminous
coal, 32 % v. m. (Analyses: Table I ) .
Combustion conditions are 7 % 0 2 in flue gas, fluidizing velocity
1 m/s.
 126

NOx-concentration shows a strong decrease, from 550 mg to 300 mg

with increasing secondary air ratio. S0 2 countercurrently increases, but
only weakly. CO and carbon-loss increase in similar way as a result of
low oxygen concentration in the primary combustion zone. The secundary
air ratio has no relevant influence on halogen concentration.
^-concentration increases in the flue gas slightly with increasing
combustion temperature, as is expected. But this effect can't be
generalised, as can be seen in the next figure (fig. 5 ) . S02-emission
increases slowly with temperature.
Without limestone addition some 60 % of sulfur is emitted and 40 %
is retained in the coal's own ash (hollow points). Addition of cretaceous
limestone dust in a molar ratio Ca/S = 1 lowers S0 2 levels down to 400 to
500 mg/m3.
CO generation and carbon loss are strongly decreasing functions of
temperature, because of an increasing reaction rate. The release of HC1 -
is obviously much higher than that of HF. More then 90 % is emitted. With
addition of limestone dust - with a large size fraction in the range of
1 to 2 urn - (Ca/S = 1 ) , the HC1 emission is only a little bit lower.
The fluorine emission is more sensitive to temperature variation and
sorbent addition than the Cl-emission.
The next figure, (fig. 5) is based on combustion experiments with
Ensdorf coal with 53 % ash in this sample, a high volatile, bituminous
coal, about 36 % v. m. (Analyses: Table I)
NO decreases with increasing secondary air ratio, a rule without
exception. Surprising is the decrease with increasing temperature,
indicating that the combustion temperature is not the most important
factor for NO -generation.
S0 2 increasing with temperature is specific for this sorbent.
Without sorbent addition the S02-emission corresponds to about 65 % of
the coal's S-content.
The decrease of CO and carbon loss with temperature is normal. The
increase of fluorine and clorine with temperature is normal-too.
The influence of fluidising velocity on the emission levels of this
high-ash fuel is not yet understood.
Figure 6 presents the influence of the secondary air ratio at an
operating pressure of 2,5 bar on several coals from different deposits
covering a representative range of fuel quality in the FRG. The ash
content of the fuel is between 3 % and 8 %, the volatile matter between
about 36 % and < 10 % v. m. (daf) (Analyses Table II).
The decrease of NO with increasing secondary air ratio proves to be
the rule.
The CO concentration and carbon loss are running mostly parallel and
are both fairly high. This can be understood considering the loss of bed
material by elutriation which is not replaced in this case, due to the low
ash content of the fuel.
The HC1 concentration level in the flue gas is a matter of the
chlorine content of the fuel, which varies widely in these coals.
The low HF concentration level of 1 mg/m3 is to be seen in connection
with the low ash content, which is the source of the fluorine emission.

4. FIRST RESULTS OF 4,5 BAR, 6 BAR AND 10 BAR COMBUSTION

Figure 7 shows the latest results with Osterfeld coal (38 % ash)
emissions and carbon loss as a function of secondary air ratio, round
points () show results with a fluidizing velocity of 1 m/s crosses those
(x) with 0,76 m/s (4,5 bar) and 0,71 m/s (6 bar), triangles such (A)
 127

where secondary air was provided at two levels (1 : 1 ) .

NOx-concentration is lower with the smaller fluidizing velocity, and
lowest with air supplied at three levels. But when minimising conditions
for N0 x , the emissions of S0 2 and CO begin steeply to increase, in
contrast to carbon loss, which does not so.
We see the reason for this in the oxygen deficiency in the primary
combustion zone, where mostly CO is generated and where S0 2 can't be
fixed to lime.
Florine- and chlorine-concentrations are only weakly influenced by
air ratio but more influenced by the fluidising velocity and by the
pressure.
At a pressure of 6 bar, N0 x is reduced already to 300 mg/m3 without
secondary air. It is lowered, to as low as 30 mg/m3 with 50 % secondary
air, but simultanesously CO and S0 2 increase steeply in the same way, as
at 4,5 bar pressure.
In figure 8, we try to give an overview on the dependencies of
emissions on pressure. Crosses (X) mark 50 % secondary air ratio. Because
of the increasing influence of the oxygen deficiency on CO-formation and
S02-capture in the primary combustion zone, the 50 % secondary air ratio
can't be taken as a standard condition. Air staging ratio is to be
optimized for higher pressures. As an example is selected the 25 %
secondary air ratio, which is marked by circles. The figure shows, that
the S0 2 and CO-concentrations in the flue gas are not critical, but NO -
concentrations are higher, although the tendency is decreasing with
increasing pressure.
Chlorine concentration is indifferent with increasing pressure, but
the increase in fluorine concentration we had not expected. Possibly it
is an effect of the increased temperature in the upper part of the
reactor.
The decrease of carbon loss with increasing pressure, is a well
known result, which is verified here once more.
For 10 bar experiments combustion conditions are not yet comparable
to those at 6 bar, i. g. oxygen in flue gas. First results at 10 bar show,
that NO decrease is not only a matter of high pressure but of high fuel
concentration or in other words: high "reaction density".

5. CONCLUSION
The operating conditions at elevated pressure are not so easy to
overview, as at atmopheric conditions. One problem is to spread the fuel
in the hot bed ash as quickly as possible, to avoid local overheating with
subsequent ash melting. Another problem is, not to blow the ash bed cold
and not to segregate the ash into several grain size zones. Therfore, some
improvements are needed to get a better backmixing of the ash, and to
extract the heat more efficiently at the higher heat generation conditions
with elevated pressure.
New problems reveal, for example the halogen recapture at elevated
pressure and the reactivation of coarse limestone. Nevertheless it is
proven, that NO emission, and other pollutant emissions, as well as
carbon loss can be reduced at elevated pressure.
 128

Table I High-ash coals (X raw)

C H N S F CI H20 Ash
% % % % % % % %

Osterfeld 52,5 3,47 JD.96 1,3 0,039 0,008 1,37 38

Ensdorf 33,5 2,44 0,72 1,05 0,033 0,160 1,52 53

Table I I Low-ash Coals (% raw)

C H N S F CI Hz0 Ash
% % % % % % % %

F Ensdorf 71,5 4,63 1,56 1,01 0,003 0,33 3,19 8,0

G Lohberg 77,9 4,96 1,61 1,51 0,004 0,14 2,04 5,8
H Radbod 85,4 4,72 1,55 0,90 0,001 0,01 1,19 1,6
I Friedr.- 82,3 3,89 1,46 0,92 0,007 0,06 1,17 6,1
Heinrich

K Ibbenburen 86,8 2,97 1,03 1,07 0,011 0,11 1,45 4,0

 Luftl Air 1
/Asche,\ i
-Kohle Coal
(Ash *J Kalk Sorbent

FIGURE 1 - Laboratory-scale PFB-Combustor (schematic)
FIGURE 2 - Lid with centrifugal separator and bubble
breaker. In order to suppress slugging to which slim
FB-combustors are particularly prone metal spirals
serving as bubble breaker are inserted. By means of
another insert serving as centrifugal separator the
freeboard can be despensed with. In this way the
reactor could be filled up and bed material splashed
upwards by bursting bubbles is captured to a great
extent and fed back into the bed.
 Kohle-KSrnungen p a r t i c l e size o f coal

rr71
f 2,5bar Mittelgut Osterfeld 38%Asche
[mm] 02-1 I 0-1 I 02-2 I 0-2 I 0-3 I 0-5 N02 ] "*" N02
mgF mg 400-
m 3 2- ^ s ^ < L O

m3
200-

^ m o
^ -
m* *

-M >* - w - II -w- c) 20 40 60 800 850 900 950

so2 8 S02
, ?*
mg 2000 mg 2 0 0 0
Ca/S-0
mgNp2 - 4 - ^- -w_
m3 m3
1000 1000
Ca/S-1
8
600
' I"
mqSQ2 20 40 60 8 0 0 850 9 0 0 9 5 0
mV*0O CO CO
mg 800 mg 800 .
200 'K
m3 m3
mgCO
"S3"60O
400
I=-t--
400
f
V "Vs.

(OO 0 0 *,r
20 40 60 800 850 900 950
% C - 18- CL CL
Verlust mg 100 a mg 100 -aU. O
xc- m.3 i : * "m3"
RHa
10S8 10 50 50
2 i t ~i 6 7
Betriebszeit Chi
operation time (h) 0 0
20 40 60 800 850 900 950
F F
mg 10 mg 10 t I
m3 m.3
/
J Ca/S-0
|
5 o 5
Ca/S-1
"Zo;^L^
0
20 40 60
0
800 850 900 950
I
C C
o
%- 10
- _ j - *
%- 10
Verlust Verlust
1 5 6
Betriebszeit th] xc- 5
XC-
loss
5 ""f"
Fig. 3 : Ataospheric pressure combustion of Osterfeld high ash
coal. Conditions: 5 X 0 , in flue gas, 43 X sec. air rati 0 20 40 60 800 850 900 950
1 ml a fluid, vel., sorbent "Mikrosohl" Ca/S = 1 REZa % Sekundar-Luft WS-Temperatur [C]
sec. a i r r a t i o X FB-temperature (T-J
Fig. 4
 2,5bar Mittelgut Ensdorf 53%Asche
NO z g75m/s N
2 2,5 bar F H K
mg 400 mg 400
, ^. *"*. N02
1m/s
m3 m3 1m/s
mg 400 N,
200 200 m3 s* ^ ^ ^

200
0
SO;, 3000 20 40 60 800 850 900 950
S02 0
mg 0 30 60 0 30 60 0 30 60 0 30 60 0 30 60
mg 2000 S02
m3 2000 Ca/S-0
m3 mg '1200-
1000 / m3
500 " Ca/S-1 800
0 0
20 40 60 800 850 900 950 400
CO CO 0 30 60 0 30 60 0 30 60 0 30 60 0 30 60
mg 800
0,75rn/s mg 800 V
\ CO
800-
m3 i* x m3 mg
400
#*= Tm/s
400 VX m3
400-
0 0
20 40 60 800 850 900 950 0-
CL CL
400 400 0 30 60 0 30 60 0 30 60 0 30 60 0 30 60
mg mg CL
m3 m3 mg 400
200 < ( 200 m3
200
0 0
20 40 60 800 850 900 950
F F 0
8 0 30 60 0 30 60 0 30 60 0 30 60 0 30 60
mg mg 8 F
1m/s
m3 2
m3 mg
4-
4 . m3
x.
. y- 1
0,75m/s
0 ***
0 20 40 6 0 800 850 900 950 0
C C 0 30 60 0 30 60 0 30 60 0 30 60 0 30 60
8- 8-
56- 56-
40
Verlust x ^ *i* Verlust 56
XC- 4 *x 4- Verlust
xc-
20 T=* "
loss xc-
0-
C) 20 4 3 6 800 850 900 950 loss
REfa i
'6 Sel.unda r-Lu 0 WS-Temperatur [C] 0 30 60 0 30 60 0 30 60 0 30 60 0 30 60
Fig. 5 8 6 C . air raitio t RET. a 56 Sekundar-Luft sec. air ratio
Fig. 6 For coal analyses see tab. I I
 <t,S bar 6 bar
N02 N02 N02
mg
^ mg 400 \ o-^
X mg 400 "o
ma" N> niS' ma"
\.
fr 200 "N 200 ^=^5 >
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0-- 0
20 40
s 60
0
' > Ai*
e
i

3 (3 10
so 2 S02 S02
/\
mg 800 mg 800
mg 800 m3" ma"
/ \
y \
400 ir 400

0
400

)
20 40 60 20 40 60 1 2 4 6 8 10
CO 0 CO CO
mg
,/.
mp
mg 800 1 mg
/
m " 800
3
B * ma
m
400
1 1 m3
/
400 S^ y "fi . 0 ^ "
0 - x < - --'
0 20 40 60 20 40 60 2 4 6 8 10
CL CL
CL mg 400- to
mg ^OO- * fr* X 1 1-< mg 'lOO- K_ . - . ,)
rnS" SO SO
so-
20 40 60 20 40 60 12 4 6 8 10

mg mg. mg
] m3
!
4 4
<"'*
o^- ~z
8
0 0
20 40 60 0 20 40 60 1. 2 AL 6 8 10
C C C
>.
%- 56- 8 56- 8
Verlust \ferlust Verlust ^
xc- gS XC- 4 XC- 4 ^ ^
loss 108S ; ..__,. loss
N P
0
0 20 40 60 0 20 40 60 12 4 6 8 10
36 Sekundar-Luft 56 Sekundar-Luft WS-Druck [bar(absoiut)]
sec. air ratio sec. air ratio Fig. 8 combustion pressure
Fig. 7
 133

CONTROL OF NITROGEN OXIDES IN PRESSURISED FLUIDISED BED SYSTEMS

Authors A.J. MINCHENER, G.J. KELSALL

Contract number EN 3F . 0034 . UK(H)

Duration 30 months 1 June 1986 - 30th November 1988

Total budget ECU 513.355 CEC contribution ECU 256.677

Head of project Mr. J. Highley, Coal Research Establishment

Contractor British Coal Corporation

Address Coal Research Establishment

Cheltenham
Glos. GL52 4RZ
U.K.

Summary

A programme of work is being undertaken on the pressurised fluidised

bed combustion (PFBC) Facility at the Coal Research Establishment of
the British Coal Corporation. The programme is designed to aid the
development of sufficient understanding of the NO formation process
to enable confident predictions to be made of the emission levels
for commercial FFBC plant. The planned studies will provide
considerable information on the effect of operating parameters on
NO emissions from a FFBC. An experimental evaluation of the effect
of changes in operating mode for reduction in NO emission levels
will also be carried out.

1. INTRODUCTION
The effect of nitrogen oxide (NO ) emissions on the environment is
an area of increasing concern. While at present in the United Kingdom
(UK) there is no legislation defining maximum permissable levels, several
proposals for restriction of NO emissions have been made. In the most
recent European Economic Community (EEC) proposals, contained in a
revised draft of Directive 704, power station NO emission limits of 650
mg/m 3 from 1985 and 200 mg/m 3 from 1996 are specified. These correspond
to NO Concentrations (at 3% 0) of 325 ppm and 100 ppm respectively.
The Industrial Air Pollution Inspectorate has recently proposed that the
UK should adopt a NO emission limit based on the performance recently
achieved in the trials at Fiddlers Ferry Power Station. The proposed
limit is 250 ppm.
Pressurised fluidised bed combustion (PFBC) is a new coal burning
system which gives improved power generation efficiency through the use
of a combination of a gas turbine and a steam turbine. Thus there is a
reduction in all emissions per unit of electricity produced. In terms of
the limits outlined previously, during an experimental study at the
Grimethorpe PFBC Establishment, the NO emissions with Kiveton Park coal
(1.7% N, daf) ranged from 130 ppm to 350 ppm for flue gas oxygen
 134

concentrations in the range 3% to 11% (1,2,3). Thus the performance

achieved was within the proposed EEC 1985 limit but not within the 1996
limit.
The mechanism of NO formation in FBC is complicated and depends on
many factors, including coal volatile content and the devolatilisation
rate, operating pressure, excess air level, bed temperature, carbon
monoxide and sulphur oxide concentrations in the emulsion phase of the
bed, sorbent concentration in the bed, and bed hydrodynamics. At present
there is a wealth of contradictory data from a large number of AFBC and
some PFBC facilities. Such data show considerable scatter, further
reducing the significance of any interpretation so made. This scatter is
not considered to be merely a result of inaccurate measurement; it is
believed that it reflects the sensitivity of NO emission to various
characteristics of the fluidised bed environment.
Therefore a programme of work has been designed to be undertaken on
the PFBC Facility at the Coal Research Establishment of the British Coal
Corporation. The aim is to aid the development of sufficient understand-
ing of the NO formation processes to enable confident predictions to be
made of the performance of commercial plant. The information obtained
will assist power generation companies and their boiler suppliers in
designing PFBC plants to comply with the required emission standard for
nitrogen oxides. The programme comprises two phases. The first phase of
the proposed programme of work will provide a better understanding of NO
formation in PFBC systems through investigating the effect of the key
factors responsible for variations in NO emissions. The second phase
will investigate possible means of reducing NO emissions.
The programme is described, with some results obtained so far
presented and the remainder of the studies being outlined.

2. EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAMME
2.1 Objectives
This project has two main objectives:

1) To assess the effect of process and operational variables on NO

emissions from a pressurised fluidised bed combustor (PFBC) in x
conventional operating mode.
2) To investigate the ability to reduce the emission of NO by making
modifications to the design and the operating mode.

2.2 Description of CRE PFBC Facility

The general arrangement of the PFBC Facility is shown in Figure 1.
The main part of the Facility is the combustor, which consists of a
refractory lined pressure vessel providing a fluidised bed with a cross
section of 0.3m x 0.3m. The bed and freeboard together occupy a height
of 4.8m. Fluidising air is admitted through a sparge type distributor at
the base of the bed. Coal and sorbent are fed pneumatically using a
dilute phase system. Immersed within the bed is a tube bank comprising
numerous water cooled and uncooled tubes. Bed level is maintained by the
continuous removal of material (ie. coal ash and partially sulphated
sorbent) past the sparge tubes of the distributor and through a cooler.
The offtake rate is controlled by a screw conveyor feeding into a lock
hopper. Hot combustion gases pass from the freeboard through a primary
cyclone dust collector and then along high temperature ducting in which
are installed gas and dust sampling points. The gases are then water
quenched and passed through a pressure let down valve to the stack. Most
of the entrained dust is collected by the cyclone and is discharged
 135

through an isolating valve into a lock hopper. The remainder is

separated from the quench water after thickening.
Details of the main systems and operational considerations are given
below:

The Combustor
The pressure shell, which is 7.5m high with an external diameter of
0.76m, is designed for a pressure of 25 bar and a temperature of 125C.
It is constructed from 10mm thick mild steel. The 0.3m x 0.3m cross
section of the combustor was formed by casting refractory inside the
pressure shell. The shell and refractory have numerous penetrations for
in-bed tube arrays and for instrumentation.

Tube Bank
The tube bank comprises an array of 25mm O.D. tubes which can be
either water cooled or uncooled. The arrangement and number of tubes can
be readily changed to accommodate the nominated operating conditions.
The maximum number of tubes (119) forms an array of elements on a 75mm
horizontal and 63mm vertical pitch, and occupies 9.2% of the bed volume
within the tube bank. Alternate pairs of horizontal rows penetrate the
refractory from opposite sides of the combustor. Each pair consists of a
row of 3 tubes and a row of 4 tubes.

Sampling
Figure 2 indicates the locations of the Various sampling points in
the Facility.
Coal and sorbent feeds are sampled incrementally from the feed
streams to the hoppers.
Bed material is sampled from a* side-arm at a point 0.5m above the
air distributor (Position 20). In addition, samples of material with-
drawn through the bed offtake system (Position 18) can be taken manually
from the filter bag collection system. Traversing probes (Position 21)
can be used to collect samples of bed material or gas from two positions
within the bed.
Cyclone dust is sampled each time the lock hopper (Position 13)
empties and is bulked over the test periods.
There are several locations above the bed for gas and dust sampling
(Positions 4,6,7,8,9).' The primary hot gas sampling point (Position 8)
is sited in the horizontal duct between the primary cyclone and the water
quench system. A secondary point (Position 6) is located above the
primary cyclone. In addition it is possible to sample for oxygen at a
location beyond the water quench system (not shown in Figure 3 ) . Dust is
normally sampled isokinetically at Position 9, in the duct between the
primary cyclone and the water quench system. Sampling specifically for
alkali in the gas stream can be undertaken at two locations (Positions 7
and 9 ) .

Operational Considerations
The CRE PFBC Test Facility is designed to operate over a wide range
of temperatures, pressures, fluidising velocities and excess air levels.
For each combination of these parameters, it is necessary to remove a
specific amount of heat by in-bed cooling in order to maintain the bed at
the required temperature. This is achieved by installing the appropriate
number of water-cooled tubes in the bed, the remainder of the tube bank
comprising uncooled tubes.
It is possible to change the cooling load by using a different
 136

number of cooled tubes in the bed but changes can be made only when the
plant is not running. Thus the heat removal characteristics of the bed
are constant throughout an operating period. To provide operating
flexibility the CRE PFBC system is provided with the means to preheat the
main fluidising air flow. This allows limited changes to be made to the
operating parameters during a period of operation without the need to
shut down the rig.

Control and Data Monitoring System

The CRE PFBC is controlled using a Rosemount "Diogenes" process
computer. An associated Trending and Graphics Unit (TGU) is used to
display plant operating systems and trends. These comprise an operator's
console, two operator keyboards, the process computer, back-up control
units, a multiplexer, a visual display unit (VDU) screen and a printer.
The operators console provides the main access with the configurational
software and the operating systems. A second VDU and the printer are
used to view process variables.
This system differs from conventional control instrumentation in
that the control functions are set up using software linked to the
computer. ' The displays of a conventional instrumentation and control
system are still present in the computerised system but in modified form.
The recording function is carried out by the Trending and Graphics Unit
of Diogenes where the information is stored on floppy discs. Hard copy
of the data displayed on the VDU screen can be obtained from the on-line
printer. The control system is linked to an IBM XT computer which is
used to log all relevant data and to compute and display 'certain
operating parameters. The logged data is transferred to a second IBM XT
computer via a serial link, to ensure continual on-line backup of data.
The data are also stored on magnetic tape and an optical laser disc.

2.3 Phase 1 - Systematic investigation of the effect of process and

operational variables on NO emissions
c x
2.3.1 Test conditions achieved
The CRE PFBC Facility (Figure 1) has been used in conventional
operating mode to investigate the effect of process and operating
variables on NO emissions.
The variables examined included excess air, bed temperature, bed
height and operating pressure, as follows:

Coal - Kiveton Park

Sorbent - Middleton limestone
Excess air - 25%, 35%, 50%, 70%
Bed temperature - 800C, 850C, 900C
Bed height - 1.5m, 2.8m
Operating pressure - 10 bar, 12 bar, 16 bar

It should be noted that the measurements of NO have been made while

the British Coal Corporation have been operating the PFBC to investigate
other aspects of PFBC technology. Information on coal and sorbent
specifications, plant operating conditions, and NO emissions are
presented in Tables 1 to 3. For consistency, the test conditions are
identified by the identification numbers appropriate to other studies
referred to above. The NO data given in Table 3 are quoted both on an
as measured basis and as corrected to a standard condition.
 137

2.3.2 Assessment of results

Data assessment and evaluation has commenced. On the basis of the
results obtained, the NO concentration is determined primarily by the
oxygen content of the ofr-gas, ie. the excess air level, see Figure 3.
This trend is consistent with that found in previous work at Grimethorpe.
In those studies, coal nitrogen content and flue gas oxygen content were
found to be the key factors affecting NO emission levels (1,2,3). There
are indications that some other parameters may have an effect but
statistically significant correlations have not yet been identified.
Results suggest that NO emission levels are independent of mean bed
temperature over the range 750-850C but may decrease (by perhaps 40%) at
temperatures in excess of 900C. There is also some indication that for
the range 10-16 bar, the NO levels may decrease slightly with increase
in pressure above 12 bar.

2.4 Phase 2 - Modifications to plant design and operational procedures

to reduce NO emissions
Modifications to the PFBC Facility have been defined:

1) A secondary combustion air system for the purpose of injecting high

pressure air at a point midway between the existing air distributor
and the level equivalent to the full bed depth of 2.8m.
2) The capability to inject high pressure ammonia at three locations
within the fluidised bed, ie. near to the existing air distributor,
close to the secondary air fluidising system, and at a level
equivalent to just below the full bed depth.

For this phase of the programme it is intended to undertake a series

of tests to determine the effect of operation in the staged combustion
mode. The effect of the injection of ammonia, in both staged and
conventional operating mode, will also be examined.
The design of both modifications has been completed and construction
of the equipment is well advanced. In the case of the staged combustion
system, the components have been installed on the Facility and commission-
ing has commenced.

3. CONCLUSIONS
The planned programme of work will provide considerable information
on the effect of operating parameters on NO emissions from a PFBC. An
experimental evaluation of the effect of changes in operating mode for
reduction in NO emission levels will also be carried out. This work
x
will aid considerably the assessment of the capability of PFBC to meet
future NO emission legislation.

4. REFERENCES
(1) NCB (IEA Grimethorpe) Ltd, Test Series 2.1 Report (March 1984)
Volume 1 : Main Report. GEF/U/83/8.
(2) NCB (IEA Grimethorpe) Ltd, Test Series 2.2 Report (April 1985)
Volume 1 : Main Report. GEF/U/84/12.
(3) NCB (IEA Grimethorpe) Ltd, Test Series 2.3 Report (May 1985)
Volume 1 : Main Report. GEF/U/84/23.
 138

Table 1

Typical Chemical Analysis of Kiveton Park Coal

Proximate analysis

Moisture % as received 5.8

Ash " 17.9
Volatile Matter " 30.8

Ultimate analysis

Carbon % dry basis 62.1

Hydrogen " 4.0
Nitrogen " 1.4
Sulphur " 2.1
Carbonate " 0.7
Oxygen " 6.2
Chlorine " 0.25

Ash analysis

Na.O % on ash 1.1

K.6 2.5
CaO 2.8
MgO 1.5
Fe 0 16.2
21.5
SiO.J 51.3
SO, " 2.1

Table 2

Typical Chemical Analysis of Middleton Limestone

Na 0 % a.r. 0.08
K 0 *' 0.03
CaO ' 55.1
MgO 0.3
Fe 0.1
A 23 :
0.2
Y3
SiO J
0.4
so ' 0.2
3 :
Carbonate 43.5
 139
Table 3

Test conditions achieved in the Phase 1 programme

Coal Kiveton Park

Sorbent Middleton limestone
Fluidising velocity 1 m/s

Run Period 6A 6B(1) 6B(2) 6C 6D 6E* 6F

Operating pressure (bar) 16 16 16 12 12 12 12

Mean bed temperature (C) 834 826 795 846 835 846 801
Ca:S mole ratio 1.6 1.4 1.7 1.7 1.9 1.5 1.8
Flue gas 0 level (%) 7.2 8.0 7.4 7.0 7.2 10.1 7.4
NO level tppm) 167 212 192 190 175 199 194
N0 X level at 3% 0 (ppm) 218 294 254 244 228 329 257

Run Period 6G 6H 6J 7F 7G 7J

Operating pressure (bar) 10 12 12 16 16 12

Mean bed temperature (C) 797 796 835 796 822 844
Ca:S mole ratio 1.6 1.4 1.6 1.8 1.5 2.0
Flue gas 0_ level (%) 6.7 8.8 7.0 7.8 6.9 5.2
NO level Tppm) 204 205 196 169 169 194
N0 X level at 3% 0. (ppm) 257 302 252 230 216 221

Run Period 8B 8C 8D 8E 8F

Operating pressure (bar) 12 16 12 16 12

Mean bed temperature (C) 744 769 762 752 855
Ca:S mole ratio 1.4 1.7 1.6 1.6 1.7
Flue gas 0_ level (%) 6.5 8.0 4.6 7.2 8.3
NO level tppm) 200 195 166 208 180
N0 X level at 3% 0. (ppm) 248 270 182 271 255

Bed height 1.5m. For all other run periods bed height 2.8m.
**
Ca:S mole ratios are provisional.
 140

'CRE' PFBC FACILITY

FIGURE 1 GENERAL ARRANGEMENT OF THE CRE PFBC FACILITY

 141

TUBE BANK

SPARGE TYPE DISTRIBUTOR

COAL NOZZLE
FREEBOARD SAMPLE POINT
CYCLONE DUST COLLECTOR
SECONDARY GAS & SO3 SAMPLING
CYCLONE OUTLET SAMPLE PONT
PRIMARY GAS SAMPLING POINT
DUST SAMPLING POSITION
10. OFF GASES TO WATER OUENCH
11 SLEEVED EXPANSION BELLOWS
12. HIGH TEMPERATURE BALL VALVE
13. LOCK HOPPER FOR CYCLONE DUST
14. BED MATERIAL OFF TAKE COOLER
15 BED MATERIAL SCREW CONVEYOR
16. SCREW CONVEYOR DRIVE & MOTOR

17. HIGH TEMPERATURE BALL VALVE

18 BED ASH LOCK HOPPER

19. ACCESS PORT FOR START UP IGNITER

20 BED SAMPLE POSITION

21. IN BEO SAMPLE POSITIONS

22. FREEBOARD SAMPLE POINT

23. FREEBOARD SAMPLE POINT

24 AMMONIA INJECTION POSITIONS

LOW TEMPERATURE 02 ANALYSIS

POINT NOT SHOWN

FIGURE 2 SCHEMATIC OF CRE PFBC FACILITY

SHOWING SAMPLING LOCATIONS
 375

B
300 -
P.
P.

e
60
>> 225 -
X
o
6-8

4J
m
n
e 150 -
o
H
(0 P>.
01 to
H
6
oi
75
O

12. 5

Flue Gas Oxygen (%)

i

8 - 1 2 bar : 790 - 850 deg C

FIGURE 3 NO emissions at 3% Oxygen (ppm) vs Flue Gas Oxygen (%)

 143

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE WORK

Fluidized bed combustion has many attributes but that which is of

increasing importance is its potential for reducing atmospheric
emissions. The adoption by many countries of more stringent
regulations places even greater importance on development work
aimed at improving FBC performance in this respect.

STAGED COMBUSTION

Work on staged combustion is therefore very relevant. The test

programmes on "bubbling bed" combustors have shown that a
significant reduction of NOx emission can be achieved in this way.
Unfortunately, at least for AFBC, it seems to be well established
that both sulphur retention and combustion efficiency are lower
when part of the air is fed to the bottom of the bed and the
remainder is fed above the bed, rather than when all of the air is
fed to the bottom of the bed.

It is important therefore that in future work means for restoring

high combustion and sulphur retentions should be investigated.
Recycle of material elutriated from the bed is a strong
possibility. Major improvements in both combustion and sulphur
retention efficiencies have been demonstrated in single stage
combustors by using recycle rates approaching three times the coal
feed rate. It would be logical to expect therefore that recycle
would have a beneficial effect with two-stage combustion.

Future investigations should preferably be carried out in

equipment where elutriated material can be recycled continuously
and where the quantity being recycled can be measured.

Major engineering problems are however involved in large

combustors in obtaining satisfactory mixing of the secondary air
into the combustion gases from the first stage. This may limit
the size of plant to which two-stage combustion can economically
be applied.

An alternative to two-stage combustion as a means for reducing NOx

emission from single stage bubbling beds is to inject ammonia. An
uptodate review of the status of the technology would be helpful
in assessing what further work might usefully be done in this
field.
 144

USE OF WASTE FUELS

FBC has been shown to be a more effective way than conventional

combustion systems for burning many waste fuels.

The test work reported at this meeting has, along with work
elsewhere, shown that temperatures above the optimum for sulphur
retention by lime added to the bed are often needed in order to
achieve high combustion efficiencies. Where rigorous atmospheric
emission regulations apply investigations need to be carried out
to see how best to improve performance. Again, recycle of
elutriated material may be the most suitable approach.

CIRCULATING FLUIDIZED BED COMBUSTION

The published data indicate that circulating bed combustors can

achieve low NOx emissions and high sulphur retention efficiencies,
without the penalty of low combustion efficiency. The capital
costs of circulating bed combustors are generally significantly
higher than that of bubbling bed combustors. Investigations aimed
at reducing capital cost should therefore be encouraged.

The external heat exchangers featured in some designs of

circulating fluidized beds provide more benign operating
conditions for immersed tubes, and hence metal wastage is unlikely
to be as great a problem as with bubbling beds.

METAL WASTAGE

This is a widespread problem with bubbling bed combustors, and

justifies major effort to find economic solutions. It should be
recognised, however, that in order to demonstrate a significant
advance towards a solution of the problem the design of combustor
rigs and the financial support must be sufficient for long periods
of operation, eg, 500-1000 hours. Test runs of short duration in
small plant can give misleading results.

Tests in large cold models have also been shown to be a useful

means for providing an indication of the effect on the rate of
material loss of changes in combustor geometry, and until a
solution is found to the metal wastage problem, expansion of this
type of activity appears to be justified.

It is in the general interest that a solution is found to the

problem as expeditiously as is possible, otherwise the
exploitation of the technology will be hindered. Bringing new
rigs into operation and establishing datum performance for
comparison with the consequences of subsequent changes in design
and operating conditions is time consuming and expensive.
There is a need, therefore, to make the best possible use of
existing facilities for collaborative programmes and to make the
data obtained available with a minimum of delay.
 145

FINAL REMARK

Laboratory scale combustors can provide Important basic data, but

more emphasis should be given in the interpretation of such data
to showing how inferior performance might be improved.
Investigations aimed at obtaining data on the effect on
performance of changes in combustor geometry need to be carried
out on a sufficiently large scale for the results to have
practical application. With full recognition of the value of
laboratory scale combustors to investigate basic phenomena and to
act as training facilities for future scientists and engineers, it
may be foreseen that in a follow-up programme more emphasis will
be given to larger experimental facilities with a lower scaling
factor towards commercial size installations.
 147

LIST OF P A R T I C I P A N T S

ALKHOJA, J. FISHER, M.J.

Universite technique de Compiegne British Coal Corporation
c/o CERCHAR - Tour Albert ler, Coal Research Establishment
65, av. de Colraar Stoke Orchard
F - 92507 RUEIL MALMAISON CEDEX UK - CHELTENHAM, Glos GL52 4RZ

ANABTAWY, M. FITZPATRICK, J.A.

National Institute for Higher University of Dublin
Education Department of Mechanical and
Plassey Technological Park Manufacturing Engineering
IRL - LIMERICK Trinity College
IRL - DUBLIN 2
BIEMOND, J.
W.K. Crone B.V. FOSTER, P.
le Tochtweg 39 University of Sheffield
NL - 2913 LN NIEUWERKERK A/D Department of Chemical
IJSSEL Engineering and Fuel Technologies
Nappin Street
BONN, B. UK - SHEFFIELD S13 JD
Bergbau Forschung GmbH
Franz-Fischer-Weg 61 GARBETT, E.S.
D - 4300 ESSEN 13 University of Sheffield
Department of Chemical
DELEBARRE, A. Engineering and Fuel Technologies
CERCHAR - Tour Albert ler Nappin Street
65, av. de Colmar UK - SHEFFIELD S13 JD
F - 92507 RUEIL MALMAISON CEDEX
GUIGON, P.
DUERFELD, H. Universite de Technologie de
L. & C. Steinmueller GmbH Compiegne
Fabrikstrasse 1 c/o CERCHAR - Tour Albert ler,
D - 5270 GUMMERSBACH 1 65, av. de Colmar
F - 92507 RUEIL MALMAISON CEDEX
DURAO, D.F.G.,
Instituto Superio Tecnico - 1ST HEITOR, M.
Av. Rovisco Pais Instituto Superior Tecnico
P - 1096 LISBOA CODEX Av. Rovisco Pais
P - 1096 LISBOA CODEX
FAILING, K.H.
L. & C. SteinmUller GmbH HOLM, E.L.
Fabrikstrasse 1 Aalborg Boilers A/S
D - 5270 GUMMERSBACH 1 P.O.B. 661
DK - 9100 AALBORG

HOY, R.
Expert
Commission of the European
Communities, DG "Science,
Research and.Development"
200, rue de la Loi
B - 1049 BRUSSELS
JONES, R. ^ Communities, DG "Science,
Departamento de Energios
convencionais - LNETI
Edificio J. Azinhaga
Dos Laneros a estrada do Paco
Lumeiar
P - 1699 LISBOA CODEX
LANGERAAR, G.
Foster Wheeler Power Products Ltd
Greater London House
Hampstead Road
UK - LONDON NW1 7QN
MARSHALL, A.R.
Babcock Power
165, Great Dover Street
UK - LONDON SE1 4YA
MUENZNER, H.
Bergbau Forschung GmbH
Franz-Fischer-Weg 61
D - 4300 ESSEB 13
MURRAY, D.B.
University of Dublin
Department of Mechanical and
Manufacturing Engineering
Trinity College
IRL - DUBLIN 2
NOMINE, M.
Expert
Commission of the European
Communities, DG "Science,
Research and Development"
200, rue de la Loi
B - 1049 BRUSSELS
POERSCH, W.
Deutsche Babcock Werke AG
Duisburger Strasse 375
D - 4200 OBERHAUSEN 1
RENKEMA, A.J.
Holland Energy Technology B.V.
P.O.B. 14116
NL - 3508 SE UTRECHT
148
ROGERS, E.A.
British Coal Corporation
Coal Research Establishment
Stoke Orchard
UK - CHELTENHAM, Glos GL52 4RZ
SENS, P.F.
Commission of the European
Research and Development"
200, rue de la Loi
B - 1049 BRUSSELS
STONEBRIDGE, R.W.
Foster Wheeler Power Products Ltd
Greater London House
Hampstead Road
UK - LONDON NW1 7QN
TOSSAINT, H.H.
Stork Boilers
P.O.B. 20
NL - 7550 GB HENGELO
VAN DER LAKEN, R.A.
Holland Energy Technology B.V.
P.O.B. 14116
NL - 3508 SE UTRECHT
VAN NORDEN, P.
Stork Boilers
P.O.B. 20
NL - 7550 GB HENGELO
VERNOTTE, V.
CERCHAR - Tour Albert ler,
65, av. de Colmar
F - 92507 RUEIL MALMAISON CEDEX
WIDELL, K.E.
Aalborg Boilers A/S
P.O.B. 661
DK - 9100 AALBORG
WILKINSON, J.K.
Commission of the European
Communities, DG "Energy"
200, rue de la Loi
B - 1049 BRUSSELS
 149

INDEX OF A U T H O R S

ALKHOJA, J., 50 JONES, R., 27

ANABTAWI, M.Z., 92
AZEVEDO, J., 27
KELSALL, G.J., 133
KONIUTA, A., 56
BANNARD, J., 92
BIEMOND, J., 100
BORDALO, C , 27 LANGENAAR, G., 60
BRAMER, E.A., 106 LARGE, J.F., 50

CARROLA, J., 27 MARSHALL, A.R., 114

CARVALHO, M.H., 27 MINCHENER, A.J.,' 133
MOGHADDAM, E., 92
MONTEIRO, A., 27
DELEBARRE, A., 56 MOREIRA, L., 27
DURAO, D.F.G., 27 MUNZNER, H., 124
DURRFELD, H., 85

PEREIRA, J., 27
FAILING, K.H., 85 POERSCH, W.W., 71
FERRAO, P., 27
FISHER, M.J., 40
FITZPATRICK, J.A., 37 RENKEMA, A.J. 8
FOSTER, P., 27 ROGERS, E.A., 2

GARBETT, E., 27 SILVA, M., 27

GUIGON, P., 50 STONEBRIDGE, R.W., 60, 70
GULYURTLU, I., 27 SUMMERFIELD, I.R., 2

HEITOR, M., 27 TOSSAINT, H.H.J., 18, 106

HOLM, E.L., 91

VALK, M., 106

ILES, A.E., 40 VAN DER LAKEN, R.A., 8
VERNOTTE, V., 50
VICKERS, M.A., 40
Proceedings of a contractors' meeting organized by the
Commission of the European Communities (CEC), Directorate-
General for Science, Research and Development, held at
Brussels, Belgium, 18-19 May 1987. This book represents the
first publication originating from the energy R and D
programme carried out under the supervision of the
Directorate-General XII for Science Research and Develop-
ment of the CEC. The 'Utilization of Solid Fuels' programme
addresses the following issues:
fluidized bed combustion
coal/water mixtures
burner development
solid fuels in integrated cycles
environmental aspects
transportation and handling
basic studies of solid fuel combustion and properties.
Fluidized Bed Combustor Design, Construction and Opera-
tion contains reports on 19 contracts presented by 14 different
contractors. The book is split into three main areas covering:
Generic studies, FBC Technology and FBC Operation for
Emission Control. Conclusions and recommendations for
future work are also presented.

ISBN 1 85166184 0