27/1/2015 "Heroic"RapeImagery

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ExcerptsfromDianeWolfthal

ImagesofRape:The"Heroic"TraditionanditsAlternatives

p.7:Tomostarthistorianstheword"rape"bringstomindPoussin'sRapeofthe
Sabines,Titian'sRapeofEuropa,orsomesuchdepictioninwhichtheassailantisa
GreekorRomangodorhero.Thistypeofimage,whichSusanBrownmillerterms
"heroic"rape,hasalwaysreceivedconsiderableattention.HorstJanson'spopular
introductorytextincludesninerapescenesallbutoneareofthe"heroic"type.
FrederickHartt'sHistoryofItalianRenaissanceArtdiscussesseven,all"heroic."
Notonlyundergraduatetextsbutalsoscholarlypublicationshavefocusedonthis
typeofrepresentation.EvenrevisioniststudiesofthelastdecadesuchasMargaret
Carroll'sarticleonRuben'sDaughterofLeucippusandJamesSaslow'sbookon
Ganymedecontinuethispractice.Thesubjectof"heroic"rapeimageryisextremely
complexandthischapterwillexploreonlytwoaspects.Thefirstsectionwill
examinehowtheseglorify,sanitize,andaestheticizesexualviolencethesecond
sectionwillinvestigatehowarthistorianshavereinforcedthisconstruction.

TheImages

Poussin'sRapeoftheSabines

Poussin'sRapeoftheSabines,paintedinthe
1630sandtodayintheNewYorkMetropolitan
Museum,maywellbetherapeimagemost
familiartoAmericanarthistorians.Itillustrates
anepisodefromtheearlyhistoryofancient
Rome.TheRomans,unabletoobtainwives
peacefully,stagedafestival,invitedthe
neighboringSabines,and,atasignalfrom
Romulus,eachviolentlyseizedaSabine
woman.Arthistorians/p.8:generallyfocuson
Poussin'sclassicalstyleorhissourcesinancientartandliterature.Thepaintingis
oftentermed"heroic"orcitedasanembodimentofPoussin'sbeliefthatthe
highestgoalofartisthedepictionofnoblehumanaction.AvigdorArikha,for
example,findsthework"sublime...heroic...divine"andarguesthat"Poussinlooked
fornobilityinhissubject."

CertainlyinItaly,inthefourteenththroughtheseventeenthcenturies,theincident
wasviewedasaheroic,patrioticact.TheSabinewomenwerereveredasthe
mothersofthefirstRomans.Theirstoryadornedweddingbanners,marriage
chests,andtheapartmentsofnoblewomen.ThenameTalassius,thatofaRoman
whoobtainedanespeciallybeautifulSabine,becameaweddingmotto.TheSabine
legendwasconsideredessentialtothefoundingofRomanfamilylifeandtothe
futureofthenation.Inthelatesixteenthcenturyitwasincludedinpaintingcycles
illustratingheroiceventsfromRomanhistory.Giambologna'sstatueof1583,
christenedtheRapeoftheSabineWomansoonafteritscompletion,wasdisplayed
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inthemainpublicsquareinFlorence,thePiazzadellaSignoria.

/p.9:PoussinmakesclearthattheRomansareseizingwomen
againsttheirwill.SeveralRomanshavedrawntheirswordssome
chase,grab,orholdthewomen.TheSabines'expressionsare
anguished.Theykick,struggle,trytoescape.Otherfiguresunderline
theterroroftheevent.Infantslifeabandonedonthebareearth.A
distraughtoldwomanandanagedfathercompletetheforeground
frieze.ClearlyPoussinissuggestingherthatwomen,children,and
theelderlypaythepriceforthe"heroic"foundingofRome.
Nevertheless,Poussinjustifiestheincident.

NotonlydoestheartistreflectRomanattitudesbyidealizingthe
crimesoftheirancestors,healsoacceptstheRomanconceptofraptus,whichwas
quitedifferentfromthemoderndefinitionofrape.InancientRome,raptusmeant
"carryingoffbyforce"itwasacrimeofpropertyandincludedtheftsofallkinds.If
violencewasanecessarycomponentofthiscrime,sexualintercoursewasnot.
Similarly,inPoussin'spainting,althoughthesexualaspectisimplied,intercourseis
notexplicitlydepicted.Romanlawdidnotviewthecrimefromthewoman'spoint
ofview.Ratherraptuswasacrimeagainstthewoman'shusbandorguardian.
Poussinreflectsthisviewofrapeinthemajorfiguregroupontheright,which
showsaSabinefatherstrugglingagainstaRomanabductor.

WhilemostofthewomenresisttheRomansandstraintowardtheright,thereis
one,inthemiddleground,whodoesnot.Rather,sheturnstohercompanion,
apparentlylisteningtohim,astheystrollofftogethertowardtheleft.Several
factorsdrawoureyetoher:herposition,justleftofcenterthearcofemptyspace
toherrightandthecolorofherrobe,thesamebluewornbythelargeSabine
womenintheforeground.WiththiscouplePoussinremindstheviewerthat,as
Plutarchhadrelated,theSabinessoonacceptedtheirhusbands.Thiscoupleserves
todownplaytheuglinessoftheevent.Infact,Poussin'sstylehisfrozenaction,
controlledemotionalexpression,andcarefullyorderedcompositionservesto
distancetheviewerfromthehorroroftheevent.ThisworkechoestheRoman
attitude,typifiedbyOvid'sremarkconcerningtherapeoftheSabines:"Grantme
rewardssuchasthese,[and]Iwouldenlistforthewars."

MarriageasRapeinRenaissanceItaly

ThesefeaturesofPoussin'sRapeoftheSabineWomenaestheticizationofrape
thesanitizationoftheviolentandsexualaspectsofthethemethefocusonthe
pointofviewoftherapistandthemalerelativesofthevictimthesuggestionofa
happyendingaretypicalofearlymodern"heroic"rapeimagery.Butthecontext
inwhichsuchimagesarefound/p.10:varies.Thethreeprimaryfunctionsof
"heroic"rapeimageryproducedduringthefifteenththroughseventeenthcenturies
weretoelucidatemaritaldoctrine,toserveaseroticstimulation,andtoassertthe
politicalauthorityofaristocraticpatrons.

Theearliestofthesecontextstoemergewasthemarital.Fromabout1465to
1520,"heroic"rapethemesadornedtwotypesofartthatwerecommissionedby
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leadingTuscanfamiliesontheoccasionofason'swedding:panelsoncassoni(i.e.
woodenchests)andspalliera(i.e.shoulderhighwalldecorationsmadefora
domesticsetting).ThemostfamousexampleofthistypemaywellbeBotticelli's
Primavera,commissionedtocommemoratethemarriageofLorenzodi
Pierfrancescode'MedicitoSemeramided'AppianiinMay1482.

Atthefarrightofthiscomposition,the
westwindZephyrustriestoseizethe
nymphChloris.Ovid'sFastirelatesthat
ZephyrusrapedChloris,marriedher,and
thentransformedherintoFlora,whom
BotticellidepictstotheleftofChloris.
Typicalof"heroic"rapeimagery,it
depictsneitherovertviolencenorsexual
intercourse.Indeed,Chlorisseemsto
suffernogreatharm....

/p.12:Maritalpaintingsweredecoratedwitharangeof"heroic"rapesubjects,not
onlytheRapeoftheSabines,butalsothoseofEuropa,Io,Leda,Proserpina,and
theattemptedrapeofDaphne.Whatwasthemessageofsuchpaintings?Inpart,
asseveralscholarshaveshown,theyfunctionedaslessonsforthebride:they
servedtovisualizetheidealtraitsthatwereexpectedofanewwife.Chiefamong
thesewaschastity,butimagessuchastheRapeandReconciliationoftheSabines
alsoidealizedsubmissivenesstohusband,sacrificeforfamilyandcountry,and
woman'sroleaspeacemakerwithinthefamily.

Onemotifthatappearsinmost"heroic"rapescenesmadeforamaritalcontext,
includingBotticelli'sPrimavera...,hasneverbeenfullyexplored:thatofthewoman
runningfranticallyawayfromherpursuer.Whatwasthemeaningofthismotif?
Certainly,ononelevel,itindicatesthewoman'sdesireforchastity,sincesheflees
amanwhopursuesherforsexualreasons.Onanotherlevel,itsuggeststhe
reluctancethatmanyRenaissancebridesmusthavefelt,sincetheyhadlittlesayin
whomtheywouldmarry.Butthemotifalsoreinforcestheideaofsexualrelations
asakingofhunt....

/p.15:Romanculturecontinuedtolinkmarriageand"heroic"rape.A
sarcophagus,datedshortlybeforethesecondcenturyB.C.E.andwellknown/p.
16:inRenaissanceFlorence,showstherapeofthedaughtersofLeucippusbythe
Dioscoridesonthefrontandtheirmarriageonthesides.Onthemainreliefa
frightenedcompanionofthevictimsmarksthecenteroftherelief.Theseizureof
thewomenisshownintwogroups,toeitherside.Typicalof"heroic"rapeimagery,
theDiocoridesarenotshownintheactofsexualintercourse,nordotheyuse
weapons.Butthevictims'thrashingheadsandflailingarmsmakecleartheirlack
ofconsent....

/p.17:Thesidesofthesarcophagusrevealthe"happyending"ofthestory:the
marriageoftheDiocoridestothedaughtersofLeucippus.Thewomen,now
dressedinbridalveils,calmlyaccepttheirfate.Asinsomanyimagesof"heroic"
rape,theyhaveapparentlysufferednogreatharm.Allevidenceofsexualityis
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eradicatedintheweddingscenes.Althoughonthefront,thewomen'sdraperyhad
slippeddown,revealingtheirbreasts,onthesidesofthesarcophagus,theirbodies
andhairaredecorouslycovered....

"Heroic"RapeasErotica

GuidoRuggierohasconcludedthatbeginningintheHighRenaissance,therearose
an"aversiontomarriageandacommoncelebrationofsexualfreedomformales
beyondthemoralityofsocietyandreligion.Per/p.18:hapsitisnocoincidence
thenthatafter1500asecondtypeof"heroic"rapeimagedeveloped,which
functionedaseroticaforthemaleviewer.

PoemspublishedontheoccasionoftheunveilingofGiambologna's
RapeoftheSabineWomanimagineyoungmenluredtothestatueby
theSabinewoman.Onepoet,BernardoDavanzati,writes:"This,my
Giambologna,isyourSabinefromwhomyouburnedwithdesire...."

Thereweretwoprimarywaysinwhich"heroic"rapeimageswere
constructedtoappealtotheerotictastesofthemaleviewer.Some
artistssimplydisregardedthestandardliteraryversionsofthemyth
anddepictedtherapeasifitwereaseduction.Forexample,
Correggio'sJupiterandIo,paintedintheearly1530sfor
FrederigoIIGonzaga,thenmarquisofMantua,fallsinto
thiscategory.Bestknownforitssensualqualities,the
canvasshowsJupiter,disguisedasadarkcloud,
embracingIo.Commissionedasoneofaseriesofcanvasesdepicting
theeroticpursuitsoftheRomangods,itsrichtones,hazyatmosphere,
andthesoftwarmfleshofabeautifulwomancontributetoitssensual
mood.

SusanBrownmillerobservedthatgoddessesandmortalwomenraped
byancientGreekorRomangodsorheroes"rarelysufferedserious
consequences."Indeed,whenwelookatCorreggio'spainting,wefeel
no/p.19:pain,terror,orrevulsion.Althoughcontemporarymaritalpaintingsshow
JupiterchasingaterrifiedIo,Correggioshowsnoviolence.ThiscontradictsOvid,
whorelatedthatJupiter"caughtthefleeingmaidenandravishedher."Correggio
insteaddepictsJupiterasatenderloverwhomIowelcomes.Herheadrollsbackin
aswoonherlipspartinecstasyher/p.20:armsembracethegod.Correggio's
image,likesomany"heroic"rapedepictions,servestoblurthedistinctionbetween
aneroticinterludeandrape.Typicalof"heroic"rapeimagery,theartistavoidsany
explicitdepictionofsexualintercourse.Rather,CorreggioreinforcesancientRoman
attitudesbyidealizingtherape.Thepainter,insearchofaneroticsubject,chosea
"heroic"rapemythandthensubverteditsnarrativesothatthevictimis
constructedasawillinglover.

Othereroticized"heroic"rapeimagesrevealanundercurrentofviolence.For
exampleinGiambologna'sstatue,theSabinewomanpullsawayfromherRoman
assailant,attemptingtofreeherselffromhisgrasp.Herarmsflailinprotesther
browisfurrowedherdownturnedmouthisopenedasiftocryout.UnlikeIo,she
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isclearlynotawillinglover.Cinquecentoviewerswouldhaveinterpretedthis
sculptureasarapescene.Rapevictimswererequiredtoproveincourtthatthey
hadresistedandcriedoutpreciselytheactionsoftheSabinewoman.
Furthermore,apoemwrittenontheoccasionoftheunveilingofthestatuenotes
thatitsRomanviolatorwouldhavebeenarrestedforacriminaloffensehadhis
actionoccurredinsixteenthcenturyFlorence....

/p.22:ThePoliticalContextofEroticized"Heroic"RapeImagery

"Heroic"rapeimagerywasoftenmultivalent.Maritalimagesattimesservedan
eroticfunction,asaglanceatthePrimaverasuggests,anderoticrepresentations
oftenoperatedonapoliticallevelaswell.Recentscholarshiphasestablishedthat
classwasadeterminantfactorinpatronagepatternsforeroticimagesof"heroic"
rape.Inparticular,princesthroughoutEuropeassertedtheirpoliticalauthority
throughsuchworks.

CharlesHopehasnotedthatTitianproducedtwotypesoferotica.Some,suchas
hisRapeofEuropa,paintedforPhilipIIovertheyears
155962,showedmythologicalsubjects.Thesewere
viewedas"high"artandcommissionedbyaristocratic
patronswholivedoutsideVenice.Othereroticpaintings,
lackingaclassicalveneer,wereproducedforlesspatrons,
generallyVenetian.AllacrossEurope,fromFlorenceto
Prague,courtlypatronscommissioned"heroic"rape
imagerythiswasanactivitythatwasexpectedofa
prince....

/p.23:Whydidthistypeoferoticaappealtotheupperclasses?Contemporary
sourcesmakeclearthat"heroic"rapeimageryarousednotonlysexualdesirebut
alsofeelingsofomnipotence.Ginzburgtracesonerootofthisideafromancient
RometosixteenthcenturyItaly.InTerence'sTheEunuch,ayoungman,upon
viewingapaintingofJupiterandDanainthehomeofawomanheloves,becomes
sexuallyaroused.Asavoyeurobservinganeroticimage,heimagineshimselfin
Jupiter'splace.Merelyanordinaryman("ameremanikan,"ashedescribes
himself),throughhisgazeheisabletoidentifywiththemostpowerfulofgods.
Thisidentificationisnotpurelysexualtheyoungmanremarksonthegod's
tremendouspower,he"whosethundershakesthehighestrealmsofheavens."
ThroughsexualintercoursetheyoungmanfeelsclosertoJupiter'simmense
power....Throughthemaleviewer'sidentificationwithadivineorheroicassailant,
eroticizedpaintingsof"heroic"rapeimageryservedtoarousefeelingsofmoth
sexualexcitementandomnipotentpower....

Similarly,intheearlymodernperiod,asMargaretCarrollhasshown,forcinga
womantosubmitsexuallywasviewedasparalleltodominatingone'ssubjects
politically.Citingawiderangeofsources,Carrollhasconvincinglyshownthat
aristocraticrulersidentifiedwithRomangodsandheroeswhopossessedabsolute
powerandoperatedabovethelaw.Relyingonaction,notthoughtfulreflection,
theseclassicalfigureswereabletoviolentlysubjugateothers.Although"heroic"
rapeimageryattimessuggeststhedestructiveresultsofthissubjugation,it
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neverthelessconstructstheheroasanadmirablefigure,virile,strong,and
courageous,whosefamerestsinpartonhisactsofsexualviolence.Walter
FriedlaenderremarkedthatGiambologna'sstatue"servedto
exemplifythemuchadmiredpatriotismandresolutionsofearlyRome
thatpermittedanyact,evenaruthlessorbarbarousone,which
wouldassurethefutureofthenation."

/p.24:Whilemost"heroic"rapepaintingsbelongedtoprinces'
privatecollections,atleastone,Giambologna'sRapeoftheSabine
Woman,wasdisplayedpublicly.GrandDukeFrancescode'Medici
ordereditinstalledintheLoggiadeiLanzi,
whichissituatedonthesouthsideofthe
mainsquareinFlorence,thePiazzadella
Signoria,andatrightanglestothePalazzo
Vecchio,theseatofpoliticalpower.Herethe
sculpturepubliclyproclaimedthepoweroftheMedici
dynasty.ButCarrollhasalsoproposedthatthestatue
suggested"thedominion"allmenenjoyed"overthe
womenintheirownhomes."Inthisway,thesculpture"helpedcreatean
empatheticbondbetweenrulerandruledthatspan[ned]classdivisions."Clearly
feelingsofomnipotencewerenotconfinedtoaristocraticcircles.Rather,"heroic"
rapeimagerycouldarousesimilarfeelingsintheordinarymalecitizenofFlorence.
Indeed,thisthirteenfoothighsculptureshowingamanseizingawomanagainst
herwillwasgreetedwithtremendousenthusiasminsixteenthcenturyFlorence,as
thenumerouscopiesandpoemsinitshonordemonstrate....

/p.25:Itisstrikingthatnowomanartist,tomyknowledge,produceda"heroic"
rapeimageduringtheRenaissanceorBaroqueperiods.ButArtemisiaGentileschi
didpaintimagesofsexualviolence,suchsthoseofSusannah,which,MaryGarrard
hasdemonstrated,constructedSusannahquitedifferently
fromthosebycontemporarymaleartists.Expressinga
subversivevoice,theartistsympathizedwiththevictim,
andmovinglydepictedhervulnerabilityandtheanguishof
sexualviolence.Invertingtheusualreadingofsuch
legends,sherefusedtoshowSusannahasaseductressor
anobjectofsexualdesire....

[A]glanceatthecanonical"heroic"rapeimagesby
Poussin,Titian,Correggio,andGiambolognasupports
HelenHazen'sassertionthat"rapeisasignificantand
oftenevenagrandactinmythandliterature[although]it
isgenerallyaverysordidandterribleoneinlife."Images
havepowertheydon'tsimplyreflectreality,butcan
influenceattitudesandthiswayaffectactualevents.To
citebutoneexample,theblurringofseductionandrape,whichweexploredin
Correggio'sIo,wasnotconfinedtotheculturaldomainbutspilledoverintothe
legalarena.
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