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Published in IET Networks
Received on 7th June 2012
Revised on 30th August 2013
Accepted on 1st September 2013
doi: 10.1049/iet-net.2012.0115

ISSN 2047-4954

Optimised adaptive power on-demand routing


protocol for mobile ad hoc wireless network
Lawal Bello, Panos Bakalis, Predrag Rapajic, Kwashie A. Anang
Wireless and Mobile Communications Research Centre, University of Greenwich, Chatham, UK
E-mail: L.Bello@gre.ac.uk

Abstract: A technique is developed for ad hoc on-demand routing protocol. The protocol is based on the conventional on-
demand ad hoc routing protocols with the addition of power model. The algorithm design and development is aimed to
incorporate the transmitted power consumption function in such a manner that mobile nodes are able to evaluate their power
status to decide if they are t for packet forwarding and reception. This is illustrated through analytical approach supported by
computer simulations over mobile ad hoc wireless network containing 80 mobile nodes. The results showed that power
savings of 50% were achieved with no delay in the network and increased throughput performance by 60%, as compared to a
network with conventional ad hoc on-demand distance vector and dynamic source routing protocols.

1 Introduction 2 Related work


A mobile ad hoc network (MANET) is a collection of Every research faces shortcomings in one way or another,
wireless mobile nodes dynamically forming a temporary either in the form of a technical aw or as some basic
network without the use of any xed network infrastructure assumptions which are not always guaranteed. In the
or centralised administration. However, power is consumed literature [7], an increase in network size and the network
in this network due to frequent and unpredicted topology trafc will affect the efciency of the protocol, and there is
changes associated with the mobile nodes, movements, as no indication as to the metrics to be used in transferring the
well as excessive utilisation during network routing cluster leaders (CL) role among the nodes as the power
operations. Thus, a mobile node may cease to function as a management mode is initiated. As the work in [8] is not
result of power depletion. This problem consequently leads conclusive and appears like a theoretical declaration, the
to mobile nodes dying early, which also result in mobile authors in [9] made the following assumptions:
nodes not cooperating in routing operations and becoming a
critical mobile node, thus affecting the entire performance (1) Transmission radius is constant
of the network [1]. In [2, 3], critical mobile nodes were (2) Nodes are equipped with omnidirectional antenna
described as nodes that lack network resources such as (3) Network nodes are time-synchronised so that time slots
transmit power and bandwidth to carry out their network of nodes are aligned.
operation. On the other hand, critical mobile nodes are
nodes participating in routing operations but may not be It is obvious that multiple assumptions could undermine
willing to use their computing and power resources to the fundamental existence of MANET, and all the
forward packets. They may be dropping packets instead of assumptions should be put in place for the researches to go
forwarding them to their respective destinations. forward; the cost may be enormous leading to a more
The applications of MANETs are used in areas where expensive implementation. However, in [10], the researcher
infrastructure is not possible, owing to not having any only considered asymmetric transmission power as the
centralised administration, such as disaster areas, battleeld, primary cause of losses in power for unidirectional links,
emergency and rescue places. These areas are severely while others such as collision, noise and interference were
affected by different environmental conditions such as hill omitted at various nodes. Also in the constant bit rate data
shade, which consequently affects the wireless session, only the power used to transmit information is
communication channel and network routing operation [4]. considered. But in [11], the basic assumption is that power
Different routing protocols have been proposed. These consumption is the same for all nodes homogeneity.
protocols can be classied either as reactive or proactive However, the general issues with the medium access control
protocols [5]. Yuvaraju and others [14, 6] reported that (MAC) protocol sleepwake power management schemes is
proactive routing protocols consume more power compared that, energy expended in bootstrapping the device is high.
to reactive routing protocols, which is due to a continuous And if the device did not sleep long enough, the wake-up
periodic update of the proactive routing protocols. energy may be greater than the energy saved which will

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make the scheme counter-productive. Then again, for nodes base station and the mobile nodes. However, the technique
to sleep too long, it means that the basic aim of networks proposed can only work for the infrastructure network
which is to get devices interconnected is at risk. where mobility of mobile nodes is less. For this, the
Anderegg and Eidenbenz [12] proposed an energy-efcient technique is not suitable for MANETs. In [20, 21] the
routing protocol (ad hoc VickreyClarkeGroves (VCG) authors reported that the power-aware routing algorithm
protocol) for detecting critical mobile nodes. This is to proposed, which claims to maximise the network life by
ensure that packet from a source node to destination gets minimising the power consumption during routing
routed along the most energy-efcient path via intermediate processes, was incorporated to AODV protocol only and
nodes. The ad hoc VCG protocol proposed by Anderegg not tested on DSR protocol and they also assumed that the
and Eidenbenz works efciently for networks where the power consumption at idle state was 0.0 W, whereas [22]
communication session between mobile nodes does not observed that at idle state, energy dissipation dominates the
change frequently. Therefore, considering the nature of total energy dissipation in an IEEE 802.11 networks.
MANETs, where mobile nodes are free to move randomly Therefore, the main contribution of this paper is to develop
and network topology changes rapidly and unpredictably. a novel technique for MANETs that computes and
Thus, this routing protocol is not suitable for practical conserves power adaptively by selecting the best route with
applications in MANETs. However, there are two enough power for proper transmission and reception of data
techniques called WATCHDOG and PATHRATER packet.
proposed by [13] for detecting critical mobile nodes within From the review, there is considerable effort in reducing
a network. These techniques are combined with the ad hoc power consumption in MANETs, but there is need for clear
reactive routing protocols in MANETs and the critical requirement solutions to the unresolved issues like:
mobile nodes are recognised by listening to the next nodes
to observe if the packets are forwarded. If not, the node is (1) Complex issues like mathematical computational model
marked as a critical node after some time. However, seem a challenging task, particularly when network size
WATCHDOG and PATHRATER techniques are detective grows and feasibility of implementation becomes very
rather than preventive techniques, they might not detect difcult.
critical mobile nodes in the presence of limited transmission (2) The route delay is increased, and the assumption that the
power, network congestions and partial dropping of packets suspected selsh/malicious node is not the legitimate
due to link or routing failure. Nie and Zhou [14] proposed a destination node whose energy/power level has depleted
model that detects critical nodes and forced them to below a participating level.
cooperate. Forcing a mobile node with limited network
resources to cooperate can affect other cooperative mobile 3 Overview of on-demand routing protocols
nodes in the network. Research carried out by Yuvaraju
et al. [1] and Ramachandran and Shanmugavel [6] showed 3.1 DSR protocol
that as network capacity increases, the total power
consumption increases concurrently. This is because more DSR is a simple, efcient and an on-demand routing protocol
routes are required to reach the destination, consequently designed specically for use in multi-hop wireless ad hoc
increasing the end-to-end delay. Routings are distributed networks of mobile nodes that use source routing rather
over all the participating nodes and this can be critical than the hop-by-hop routing approach [23]. Each packet to
under resource consumptions, especially when the network be routed carries in its header a complete ordered list of
size increases [15]. However, considering the nature of the nodes through which the packet passes. The advantage of
MANET, mobile nodes move randomly and keep changing this protocol is that intermediate nodes do not need to
location unpredictably. Therefore, to ensure the the best maintain up-to-date routing information in order to route the
route with enough power are selected for packet packets. Owing to the on-demand characteristics of DSR,
transmission, there is a need for an adaptive power routing periodic route updates and neighbour detection are
in the network, which can keep up to date the available eliminated to minimise bandwidth consumption [5, 24].
power in the network. DSR has two basic mechanisms of operations: a route
Other research works show immense effort in creating discovery process by ooding the network with route
some basic and essential steps in directing future research request (RREQ) packets to all its neighbouring nodes
towards the power hungry electronic components and containing the IP address of both sender and receiver in the
providing a better understanding of the system behaviour. packet header, whereas route reply returns the route reply
An effort in improving energy efcient was also discussed messages (RREP). The route reply contains the list of the
in [16]. The simulation results show considerable best routes from the source initiator to the target destination.
improvement under different mobility speed. While [17]
proposed a generic energy algorithm by selecting the 3.2 AODV protocol
appropriate values for parameters such as crossover,
mutation as well as population of the communicating AODV is an on-demand routing protocol that combines the
mobile nodes size but with minimum computation time in a capabilities of both DSR and destination-sequenced distance
dynamic environment, in their previous work of [18], the vector (DSDV). It uses the on-demand mechanisms of route
authors consider only dynamic source routing (DSR) discovery and route maintenance from DSR, in addition to
protocol without examining ad hoc on-demand distance the hop-by-hop routing sequence numbers and periodic
vector (AODV) protocol and analytical approach to conrm beacons from DSDV as described by [25]. Mobile nodes
the results. Other researches conducted by [19] reported that requesting to forward packets to other mobile nodes will
the only way to reduce power consumption in radio broadcast the RREQ packet to its neighbours, which then
communications is to shut them off and use this observation forward the request to their neighbours until either the
to propose a power-efcient MAC layer protocol which is destination or an intermediate mobile node(s) with route(s)
suitable for use within one cell for communication between to the destination is located. AODV uses destination

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sequence numbers and broadcast IDs on each node to ensure Payload Length eld denes the total length of all options
all routes are loop-free and contain the most recent route carried in the AODV and DSR options header, such as a
information. However, performance evaluation conducted route request option and route reply option.
on both AODV and DSR protocols in [23, 2629] showed
that AODV performs better than DSR and other proactive 4 Convention AODV and DSR protocols
protocols in terms of throughput, end-to-end delay and
packets drop. The DSR performance is attributed to its Routing protocol is responsible for routing packets from the
characteristics of having multiple routes to other IP datagram between mobile nodes, and also veries if the
destinations. In case of link failure, it does not require a packet is coming from the upper layer or lower layer of
new route discovery process. For this reason, end-to-end the network protocol stack and makes a decision as to
delay is reduced, less packet dropping and less energy where to forward the packet protocol. AODV and DSR
consumption; whereas in a high-complex network where protocols are implemented at the network layer; IP dispatch
mobility is very high, the DSR has high energy is the root process for network layer, and has as a child
consumption in the entire network compared to its process as well as MANET manager which acts as manager
counterpart AODV, which losses energy due to process for AODV or DSR and provides an interface to
broadcasting hello messages to update its routes. The routing protocols.
proactive routing protocols use routing tables which are
maintained via periodic updates from all other mobile nodes
in the network, irrespective of the fact that the network may 4.1 Modication cost of AODV and DSR protocols
not be active in terms of data trafc. Hence, AODV and
Doshi et al. [3] gave the modication cost for the existing
DSR protocols were chosen as a genial candidate for
DSR protocol. The authors in [3] considered the minimum
carrying out this research.
route maintenance energy, which involved the modication
of routing software and 802.11, without considering the
3.3 Conventional AODV and DSR packets format proper modication of AODV and DSR algorithm and
transmits power control. Also, to the best of our knowledge,
To improve the communication performances and reliability, this modication has not been applied to the existing
trafc data sent between mobile nodes are subdivided into versions of the AODV and radio hardware of DSR protocol
packets headers. The AODV and DSR protocol uses to achieve an optimised quality of service. The routing
specic headers to carry information. The header must be a algorithm modication cost involves the cost of changes
multiple of four bytes in case other headers follow the DSR made to the existing routing algorithm. In our work, we
options header. The DSR header format is given in Table 1. considered modication of the routing algorithm and power
control.
3.4 AODV and DSR packet format with power
values 5 Proposed adaptive power on-demand
In this section, we describe changes made to the conventional
routing protocol
AODV and DSR packet format. We added four power values, Considering current MANET applications, it is important for
which includes transmit power level, received power level, the existing routing algorithm for MANET to be modied to
minimum transmit power level and minimum receive power specically accommodate power values for better routing in
level, as shown in Table 2. For successful transmission and the network. Our proposed technique can be used on any of
reception of data packets, the minimum transmit and the reactive routing protocols. For this research, AODV and
minimum received power levels are required. These power DSR protocols were chosen to incorporate the power model
values are made available to the AODV and DSR protocols. into the routing protocols. Our proposed power on-demand
The packets formats are dened as follows: routing protocol is a combination of the original AODV and
DSR protocols with the addition of separate power values.
Next Header: The size of the Next Header eld is 8 bits. These values are to be shared between physical layer, MAC
The Next Header eld shows either the type of the rst layer and network layer. The physical layer, wireless MAC
extension (if any extension header is available) or the layer, sends the adaptive power values, that is, transmit
protocol in the upper layer such as TCP, UDP. power, minimum transmit power, received signal power and
Payload Length: Species the length of the payload, in the minimum received signal power to the network routing
bytes, that the packet is encapsulating. The value of the layer, where it is stored and used for routing
decision-making process.
Table 1 Conventional DSR headers
5.1 Flowchart of the algorithm
Next Header Reserved Payload Options Data
bits 8 bits 16 bits 0 bits 0 bits
The owchart depicts the steps involved in the algorithm
pseudo-code in a diagrammatic representation, and gives a
pictorial understanding of the algorithm. At the beginning
of the network operation, the communicating mobile node
Table 2 Modified DSR packet format
initiates and computes the power quantities needed to
Header Reserved Payload Options Data participate in the routing operations. The mobile node
bits 8 bits 16 bits 0 bits 0 bits evaluates control statement. If the statement is true, then the
Rx Power Tx Power Min Tx Min Rx mobile node will participate in the routing operation and
(W) (W) Power (W) Power (W)
8 bit 8 bit 8 bit 8 bit sends the packets to the desired destination, else the mobile
node re-compute the power values again. The process

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continues till the end of the simulation time. This is very on the distance between mobile nodes, signal path loss and
important because the nodes will make their decisions the type of application running.
concerning their participation in transmission at this stage
and help to avoid power drainage by maintaining a certain Powerloss [W ] = Ptx PRx (3)
level of power in all possible routes in the network.
threstx = Ptx b0 h0 GTx GRx (4)
5.2 Analytical power model thresrx = PRx b0 h0 GTx GRx (5)
The setback to power management in ad hoc mobile
where 0 is the signal-to-noise ratio, 0 is ambient noise level
communications is choosing transmit power. The transmit
strength, GTx and GRx is the transmitter and receiver antenna
power level determines the quality of the received signal.
gains, Ptx is the minimum transmit power and PRx is the
Most of the transmit power is consumed during the network
minimum received power.
routing processes. The idea behind power routing is to
avoid unnecessary waste of packets as well as power
consumption that can make nodes die very early, which can 6 Simulation model
lead to poor network performance. At the network layer,
the power decision algorithm was incorporated into the OPNET Modeller (version 17.1), developed by OPNET
routing protocols to ensure the routes with sufcient power Technologies, is used for all our simulations [38]. Details
are selected. about the simulation model and environment are presented
in the rest of this section.
5.3 System and propagation model
6.1 Simulation parameters
In this section, we describe the system model and outline the
basic assumptions used for the analysis. The radio To characterise the power conserving behaviour of our
environment is characterised by: (i) path loss, (ii) proposed protocol, we conducted extensive simulations
shadowing and (iii) multipath fading. In this work, only where we compared the power expended by AODV and
path loss is considered as we assume a scenario in which an DSR protocols without power model and with power
efcient antenna diversity-combining system is employed at models. The simulation time was 3600 s real time. Each
the transmitting nodes to eliminate the effects of multipath simulation scenario was repeated six times, which enabled
fading. Path loss occurs due to the decay of the intensity of the simulation to converge for an accurate result. In the
a propagating radio-wave and it requires an accurate simulations, we used xed size packets (4096 bits) within a
estimation for proper determination of the electric eld topology area of 700 500 m2. The basic parameters used
strength, signal-to-noise ratio, carrier-to-interference ratio, for the simulations are summarised in Table 3.
and so on [30]. Also, we only consider the free space path
loss model, because other models, such as Okumura-Hata, 6.2 Performance metrics
COST 231-Hata, Walsh-Ikegami, COST 231-Walsh-
Ikegami and Erceg used for predicting path loss in mobile The following metrics to compare the performance of AODV
wireless systems are designed to operate in the frequency and DSR protocols with proposed adaptive power on-demand
band from 100 to 2000 MHz [3135]. Assuming no protocol to conventional AODV and DSR protocols were
obstruction exists between a transmitter and a receiver, dened.
signals will be transmitted through free space to the receiver
located at a distance d [m]. The free space path loss model Throughput: represents the total number of successful
used in this analysis is given by [36] as packets in (bits/s) received from all mobile nodes of the
network.
 2 Delay: represents the end-to-end delay of all the packets
l
Pd = Pt GTx GRx (1) received by the wireless LAN of the mobile nodes in the
4pd entire network.

where Pd[W] is the path loss in a free space, Pt[W] are the
transmitted signal power, GTx and GRx are the transmitter Table 3 Simulation parameters
and receiver antenna gains and is the carrier wavelength. Parameters Values
From [37], the received signal power, PRx, can be written as
channel type wireless channel
PRx = Ptx GTx GRx Pd (2) physical characteristics 802.11 g
data rate 2.0 Mbs
topology 700 m 500 m
where Ptx is the transmitted signal power. However, owing to routing protocols AODV, DSR
frequent topology changes associated with movements of number of nodes 80
mobile nodes in the network, the transmit power level for transmit power 0.1 W
each mobile node is not the same. The minimum transmit packet size 4096 bits
and receive power, Mintx and Minrx, must be greater than or mobility model random way point
simulator OPNET 17.1 version
equal to the expression in (4) and (5) for successful simulation time 3600 s
transmission and reception of data/control packets. The traffic source CBR
power loss during the routing operation is computed as the speed 020 m/s
difference between the transmitted signal power Ptx and the ambient noise level 1.0 1026
number of trial six (6)
received signal power PRx as shown in (3). The total power packet inter-arrival time 0.5 s
consumption and the received signal power strength depend

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Fig. 1 Throughput comparison with and without the power model for the two networks congured with AODV and DSR protocols
(1) Throughput of AODV-network congured with power model
(2) Throughput of AODV-network congured without power model
(3) Throughput of DSR-network congured with power model
(4) Throughput of DSR-network congured without power model

Power loss (watt): this measures how much power is lost The signicant difference between the traditional and
during network routing operation over each period of time. modied DSR protocol is that the delivery of the packets
depends on the stated power condition. If the condition
becomes true, then the packets will be delivered. However,
7 Results and discussion the conventional DSR will continue to operate whether the
condition is met or not. Therefore, packets will be dropped
The goal of the evaluation is to show the effectiveness of the due to the inefciency of the power resource of the mobile
proposed technique. The performance evaluation was studied node to convey the packets to the desired destination.
at every 500 real seconds of time for the entire network, not Also, Fig. 1 shows the performance of a network
on an individual mobile node basis. The power model is congured with AODV protocol with and without the
incorporated into the RREQ packet for the two protocols power model. The network with power model delivered an
that is, AODV and DSR protocols. average throughput of 20 000 bits for the entire simulation
In Fig. 1, the throughput performance with and without the time, compared to the traditional network which delivered
APRP power model with DSR protocol was compared. At the an average of about 5000 bits for the entire simulation time
beginning of the simulation, the network with power model as well. As described earlier, the margin of difference is
delivered up to 1550 bits of packets successfully, compared attributed to the work of the power model employed to the
to the conventional network which delivered on average routing protocol. However, compared to the network with
500 bits of packets. The initial rise of throughput by the DSR protocols performance, network with AODV protocol
network is due to a route discovery process initiated by the outperformed the network with DSR and this is due to the
DSR protocol. But when the network stabilised, the fact that only the stable route(s) are used by the AODV
throughput performance dropped to an average of 1000 bits, forwarding algorithm for routing the packets.
compared to the conventional network of 200 bits, and Fig. 2 shows the power saved in the network at every 500 s.
remains stable for the entire simulation time. It can be seen that the proposed power model reduces power

Fig. 2 Power loss comparison with and without the power model Fig. 3 Power loss comparison with and without the power model
for DSR protocol performance measure for AODV protocol performance measure
(1) Power loss DSR-network congured with power model (1) Power loss AODV-network congured with power model
(2) Power loss DSR-network congured without power model (2) Power loss AODV-network congured without power model

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Fig. 4 Delay comparison with and without the power model for DSR protocol performance measure
(1) Delay DSR-network congured without power model
(2) Delay DSR-network congured with power model

Fig. 5 Delay comparison with and without the power model for AODV protocol performance measure
(1) Delay AODV-network congured without power model
(2) Delay AODV-network congured with power model

consumption by almost 50% for the entire simulation time, that there was frequent link failure in the network which
compared to the network with the traditional DSR protocol. causes the protocol to initiate fresh route request operation
The reason for this saving is that the best routes with and leads to high delay in the network. Also in Fig. 5, less
enough power are computed adaptively and selected for delay was observed in the network using AODV protocol.
transmission and reception. From the delay curves, the network with the power model
As compared to the normal operation of the network with recorded less delay as compared to the network without the
the conventional DSR protocol whereby mobile nodes power model. In comparison with the network with DSR
participate in the routing operations whether they are protocol, the network with AODV protocol recorded a
capable or not. Therefore, the ones that are not capable will delay almost two and a half (2 1/2) times less than the
eventually drop the packet and power is wasted in the network with DSR protocol. In general, based on the
course of transmitting the packets. However, Fig. 3 simulation results, the proposed model has no effect on
compared the performance of the network congured with quality of service looking at the less delay recorded for
AODV protocol with and without the power model. The different network scenarios as well as performance
simulation results showed that network with power model throughput of the network.
reduces power consumption by 48% for the entire
simulation time as well. As described earlier, the margin of
difference is attributed to the work of the power model 8 Conclusion and future work
employed to the protocol. Generally, the network
congured with AODV protocol outperformed the network In this paper, an adaptive approach was used to develop
with DSR protocol and this is because only the stable route model for calculating power metrics in MANETs. It has
(s) is used by the AODV forwarding algorithm for routing been shown that the network congured with the proposed
the packets. However, compared to the DSR protocols power model conserved more power than the conventional
performance, AODV outperformed the DSR and this network with no delay effect in the network. The technique
because only the stable route(s) is used by the AODV is based on the modication of the conventional on-demand
forwarding algorithm for routing the packets. Fig. 4 shows routing protocols with the addition of power model in the
the delay for the network with DSR protocol with and routing protocol. The most important part of this paper is
without the power model. At the start of the simulation, the that the mobile node(s) conserves power adaptively and
network experienced a huge delay of an average of about enhances throughput whereby mobile nodes send out a
70 s for the two networks, and this is due to the initial stage route request, as well as data packets, if they have enough
of route discovery processes of the routing protocol. power to carry out the routing operations. This is achieved
However, as the network stabilised, the delay dropped to by comparing the proposed model with the conventional
50 s for the network with the power model and remained model via computer simulations. The proposed model is
stable for the entire simulation time, compared to 55 s delay incorporated into the AODV and DSR protocols. The
with the conventional network. The results further show results showed that power savings of 50% were achieved

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