10/1/2016 Chapter2.

FouriersLawandItsConsequencesFundamentalsofHeatandMassTransfer

Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer

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Chapter 1. Introduction and Basic Concepts Chapter 3. General Dierential Equations for Heat Conduction

Chapter 2

Fouriers Law and Its Consequences

2.1 Introduction
Whilestudyingthesubjectofheattransfer,oneofourobjectivesistocalculatetherateofheattransfer.Fromthesecondlawof
thermodynamics,weknowthattheremustbeatemperaturegradientforheattransfertooccur,i.e.heatflowsfromalocationofhigh
temperaturetoalocationoflowtemperature.Fourierslawgivestherelationbetweentherateofheatflowandtemperaturegradient
andisthereforeconsideredtobethefundamentallawofconduction.

Inthischapter,wewillfirststudyFourierslawandtheassumptionsbehindthislaw.Then,followtwoimportantconsequencesof
Fourierslawthefirstonebeingthedefinitionofthermalconductivityanimportanttransportpropertyofmatter,andthesecond
onebeingtheconceptofthermalresistance.Wewillstudyaboutthethermalconductivityofsolids,liquidsandgasesandthevariation
ofthispropertywithtemperature.Thermalresistanceconceptsimplifiesthesolutionofmanypracticalproblemsofsteadystateheat
transferwithnointernalheatgeneration,butinvolvingheattransferthroughmultiplelayersorwhendifferentmodesofheattransfer
occursimultaneously.

2.2 Fouriers Law of Heat Conduction

Thisisthebasicrateequationforheatconductionwhichgivesarelationbetweentherateofheattransferandthetemperature
gradient.

Fourierslawstatesthatonedimensional,steadystateheatflowratebetweentwoisothermalsurfacesisproportionaltothe
temperaturegradientcausingtheheatflowandtheareanormaltothedirectionofheatflow.

ReferringtoFig.2.1,weget,

where, Q=heatflowrateinXdirection,W

A=areanormaltothedirectionofheatflow(notethiscarefully),
2
m

dT/dx=temperaturegradient,deg./m

k=thermalconductivity,apropertyofthematerial,W/(mC)orW/(mK)

ThisisthedifferentialformofFouriersequationwrittenforheattransferintheXdirection.NegativesigninEq.2.2requiressome
explanation.Weknowthatheatflowsfromalocationofhighertemperaturetoalocationoflowertemperature.ReferringtoFig.2.1,if
theheatflowrateQhastooccurinthepositiveXdirection,temperaturehastodecreaseinthepositiveXdirection,i.e.temperature

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mustdecreaseasXincreasesthismeansthattemperaturegradientdT/dxisnegative.Sincewewouldliketohavetheheatflowingin
thepositiveXdirectiontobeconsideredaspositive,anegativesignisinsertedinEq.2.2,sothatQbecomespositive.

FIGURE2.1Fourierslaw

LetusstatesuccinctlytheassumptionsandothersalientpointsregardingtheFourierslaw:

1.Fourierslawisanempiricallaw,derivedfromexperimentalobservationsandnotfromfundamental,theoretical
considerations.
2.Fourierslawisdefinedforsteadystate,onedimensionalheatflow.
3.Itisassumedthattheboundingsurfacesbetweenwhichheatflowsareisothermalandthatthetemperaturegradientisconstant,
i.e.thetemperatureprofileislinear.
4.Thereisnointernalheatgenerationinthematerial.
5.Thematerialishomogeneous(i.e.constantdensity)andisotropic(i.e.thermalconductivityisthesameinalldirections).
6.Fourierslawisapplicabletoallstatesofmatter,i.e.solid,liquidorgas.
7.Fourierslawhelpstodefinethermalconductivityi.e.fromEq.2.2wecanwrite,forsteadystateheattransferthroughaslabof
thicknessLanditstwosurfacesatconstanttemperaturesofT1andT2 ,(T1>T2 ).

Q=kAdT/dx
=kA(T2 T1)/L
=kA(T1T2 )/L

Wecansaythat

2
Q=<k>whenA=1m ,dT=1deg.,dx=1m,

2
i.e.thermalconductivityofamaterialisnumericallyequaltotheheatflowratethroughanareaofonem ofaslabofthickness1m
withitstwofacesmaintainedatatemperaturedifferenceofonedegreecelcius.

Therefore,theunitofthermalconductivityisobtainedfrom:

NotethatW/(mC)andW/(mK)meanthesamethinginEq.2.3,(T1T2 )isthetemperaturedifferencewhichisthesamewhetheritis
deg.Cordeg.K.

2.3 Thermal Conductivity of Materials

WestateFourierslawagain:

Q=kAdT/dx
1 2
=kA(T T )/L.

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Here,kisthethermalconductivity,apropertyofthematerial.Itsunits:W/(mC)orW/(mK).Thermalconductivity,essentially
dependsuponthematerialstructure(i.e.crystallineoramorphous),densityofmaterial,moisturecontent,pressureandtemperature
ofoperation.

Thermalconductivityofmaterialsvariesoverawiderange,byabout4to5ordersofmagnitude.Forexample,thermalconductivityof
Freongasis0.0083W/(mC)andthatofpuresilverisabout429W/(mC)atnormalpressureandtemperature.

Fig2.2showstherangeofvariationofthermalconductivityofdifferentclassesofmaterials:

Table2.1givesvaluesofthermalconductivitiesforafewmaterialsatroomtemperature.

2.3.1 Thermal Conductivity of Solids

Thermalconductivityofsolidsismadeupoftwocomponents,

FIGURE2.2Rangeofthermalconductivitiesofvariousmaterials

1.duetoflowoffreeelectrons,and
2.duetolatticevibrations.

Firsteffectisknownaselectronicconductionandthesecondeffectisknownasphononconduction.

2.3.1.1 Metals and Alloys.

Incaseofpuremetalsandalloys,

1.Thereisanabundanceoffreeelectronsandtheelectronicconductionpredominates.Sincefreeelectronsarealsoresponsible
forelectricalconduction,itisobservedthatgoodelectricalconductorsarealsogoodthermalconductors,e.g.copper,silveretc.
2.Anyeffectwhichinhibitstheflowoffreeelectronsinpuremetalsreducesthevalueofthermalconductivity.Forexample,with
ariseintemperature,thelatticevibrationincreasesandthisoffersaresistancetotheflowofelectronsandtherefore,forpure
metalsthermalconductivitydecreasesastemperatureincreases(uraniumandaluminiumareexceptions).Fig.2.3showsthe
variationofthermalconductivitywithtemperatureforafewmetals.

TABLE2.1Thermalconductivityofafewmaterialsatroomtemperature

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Material k,W/mC

Diamond 2300

Silver 429

Copper 401

Gold 317

Aluminium 237

Iron 80.2

Mercury(l) 8.54

Glass 0.78

Brick 0.72

Water(l) 0.613

Wood(oak) 0.17

Helium(g) 0.152

Refrigerant12 0.072

Glassfibre 0.043

Air(g) 0.026

FIGURE2.3Variationofthermalconductivitywithtemperatureforafewmetals

3.Alloyingdecreasesthevalueofthermalconductivitysincetheforeignatomscausescatteringoffreeelectrons,thusimpeding
theirfreeflowthroughthematerial.Forexample,thermalconductivityofpurecoppernearaboutroomtemperatureis401
W/(mC)whilepresenceoftracesofarsenicreducesthevalueofthermalconductivityto142W/(mC).

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4.Heattreatment,mechanicalformingandcoldworkingreducethevalueofthermalconductivityofpuremetals.
5.Thermalconductivityofalloysgenerallyincreasesastemperatureincreases.Fig.2.4belowconfirmsthistrendforafewalloys.
6.Sincethephenomenonofelectronconductionisresponsibleforboththermalconductionandelectricalconduction,itis
reasonabletopresumethattheremustberelationbetweenthesetwoquantities.Infact,WeidemannFranzlawgivesthis
relation.Thislaw,basedonexperimentalresults,statestheratioofthermalandelectricalconductivitiesisthesameforall
metalsatthesametemperatureandthisratioisdirectlyproportionaltotheabsolutetemperatureofthemetal.

FIGURE2.4Variationofthermalconductivitywithtemperatureforafewalloys

where k=thermalconductivityofmetal,W/(mK)

1
=electricalconductivityofmetal,(ohm.m)

C=Lorentznumber,aconstantforallmetals

8 2
=2.4510 WOhms/K

AnimportantpracticalapplicationofWeidemannFranzlawistodeterminethevalueofthermalconductivityofametalatadesired
temperature,knowingthevalueofelectricalconductivityatthesametemperature.Notethatitiseasiertomeasureexperimentallythe
valueofelectricalconductivitythanthatofthermalconductivity.

2.3.1.2 Non-metallic Solids.

Incaseofnonmetallicsolids,

1.Fordielectrics,therearenofreeelectronsandthethermalconductivityvaluesaremuchlowerthanthoseofmetals.Forheat
insulatingmaterials,generalrangeofvaluesofkarefrom0.023W/(mC)to2.9W/(mC).Thermalconductivityincreaseswith

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temperatureforinsulatingmaterialsasshowninFig.2.5.

FIGURE2.5Variationofthermalconductivitywithtemperatureforinsulatingmaterials

2.Forporousheatinsulatingmaterials(brick,concrete,asbestos,slag,etc.),thermalconductivitydependsgreatlyondensityof
thematerialandthetypeofgasfillingthevoids.Forexample,kofasbestosincreasesfrom0.105to0.248W/(mC)asdensity
3
increasesfrom400to800kg/m isduetothefactthatthermalconductivityofairfillingthevoidsismuchlessthanthatof
thesolidmaterial.
3.Thermalconductivityofporousmaterialsalsodependsonthemoisturecontentinthematerialkofadampmaterialismuch
higherthanthatofthedrymaterialandwatertakenindividually.
4.Thermalconductivityofgranularmaterialsincreaseswithtemperaturesincewithincreasingtemperature,radiationfromthe
granulesalsocomesintopicturealongwithconductionofmediumfillingthespaces.
5.Variationofthermalconductivityofsolidswithtemperature:Inheattransfercalculations,generallyweassumektobe
constantwhenthetemperaturerangeissmallhowever,whenthetemperaturerangeislarge,itisnecessarytotakeintoaccount
thevariationofkwithtemperature.

Usually,forsolids,alinearvariationofthermalconductivitywithtemperaturecanbeassumedwithoutlossofmuchaccuracy.

k(T)=k0(1+T)(2.5)

where, k(T)=thermalconductivityatdesiredtemperatureT,W/(mC)

k0=thermalconductivityatreferencetemperatureof0C,
W/(mC)

FIGURE2.6Variationofthermalconductivitywithtemperatureforafewpuremetals

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TABLE2.2Representativevaluesofk0andinEq.2.5

4
Material k 0(W/mC) 10 ,(1/C)

Metalsandalloys

Aluminium 246.985 2.227

Chromium 97.123 5.045

Copper 401.5275 1.681

Stainlesssteel 14.695 +10.208

Uranium 26.679 +8.621

Insulators

Fireclaybrick 0.76 0.895

Redbrick 0.56 0.66

Sovelite 0.092 0.12

85%Magnesia 0.08 0.101

Slagwool 0.07 0.101

Mineralwool 0.042 0.07

=atemperaturecoefficient,1/C

T=temperature,C

Fig.2.6showsthevariationofkwithtemperatureforafewpuremetals.ItmaybenotedthatthevariationislinearasindicatedinEq.
2.5.

InEq.2.5,valueofmaybepositiveornegative.Generally,isnegativeformetals(exceptionbeinguranium)andpositivefor
insulatorsandalloys.Table2.2givesrepresentativevaluesofk0andforafewmaterials.

2.3.2 Thermal Conductivity of Liquids

2.3.2.1 Non-metallic Liquids.

Heatpropagationinliquidsisconsideredtobeduetoelasticoscillations.Asperthishypothesis,thethermalconductivityofliquidsis
givenby,

where, cp=specificheatofliquidatconstantpressure

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=densityofliquid

M=molecularweightofliquid

A=constantdependingonthevelocityofelasticwavepropagationintheliquiditdoesnotdependon
natureofliquid,butontemperature.

ItisnotedthattheproductA.cpisnearlyconstant.Astemperaturerises,densityofaliquidfallsandasperEq.2.6thevalueofthermal
conductivityalsodropsforliquidswithconstantmolecularweights.(i.e.fornonassociatedorslightlyassociatedliquids).Thisis
generallytrueasshowninFig.2.7.

Notableexceptionsarewaterandglycerin,whichareheavilyassociatedliquids.Withrisingpressure,thermalconductivityofliquids
increases.Forliquids,kvaluerangesfrom0.07to0.7W/(mC).

FIGURE2.7Thermalconductivityofnonmetallicliquids

2.3.2.2 Liquid Metals.

Liquidmetalslikesodium,potassiumetc.areusedinhighfluxapplicationsasinnuclearpowerplantswherealargeamountofheat
hastoberemovedinasmallarea.Thermalconductivityvaluesofliquidmetalsaremuchhigherthanthosefornonmetallicliquids.
Forexample,liquidsodiumat644Khask=72.3W/(mK)liquidpotassiumat700Khask=39.5W/(mK)andliquidbismuthat
589Khask=16.4W/(mK).

2.3.3 Thermal Conductivity of Gases

1.HeattransferbyconductioningasesatordinarypressureandtemperatureisexplainedbytheKineticTheoryofGases.
Temperatureisameasureofkineticenergyofmolecules.Randommovementandcollisionofgasmoleculescontributetothe
transportofkineticenergy,and,therefore,totransportofheat.So,thetwoquantitiesthatcomeintopicturenoware:themean
molecularvelocity,Vandthemeanfreepath,l.Meanfreepathisdefinedasthemeandistancetravelledbyamoleculebeforeit
collideswithanothermolecule.

Thermalconductivityofgasesisgivenby,

where, V=meanmolecularvelocity

l=meanfreepath

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cv=specificheatofgasatconstantvolume

=density

2.Aspressureincreases,densityincreases,butthemeanfreepathldecreasesalmostbythesameproportionandtheproductl
remainsalmostconstant,i.ethethermalconductivityofgasesdoesnotvarymuchwithpressureexceptatverylow(lessthan20
mmHg)orveryhigh(morethan20,000bar)pressures.
3.Astotheeffectoftemperatureonthermalconductivityofgases,meanmolecularvelocityVdependsontemperatureasfollows,

where G=Universalgasconstant=8314.2J/kmolK

M=molecularweightofgas

T=absolutetemperatureofgas,K

i.e.meanmolecularvelocityvariesdirectlyasthesquarerootofabsolutetemperatureandinverselyasthesquarerootof
molecularweightofagas.Specificheat,cvalsoincreasesastemperatureincreases.Asaresult,thermalconductivityofgases
increasesastemperatureincreases.

4.Forthereasonstatedabove,gaseswithlowermolecularweightssuchasheliumandhydrogenhavehighervaluesofthermal
conductivities(almostby5to10times)ascomparedtogaseswithhighermolecularweightssuchasair.
5.Generally,thermalconductivityvaluesforgasesvaryintherange0.006to0.6W/(mC)
6.Thermalconductivityofsteamandotherimperfectgasesdependverymuchonpressureunlikethatofperfectgases.

Fig.2.8andFig.2.9showthevariationofkwithtemperatureforafewgases.

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FIGURE2.8Variationofkwithtemperatureforafewgases

FIGURE2.9Variationofkwithtemperatureforhydrogenandhelium

2.3.4 Insulation Systems

Itisappropriateheretoconsiderinsulationsystemsgenerallyused.Inindustrieswherehugeamountofthermalenergyisdealtwith,
beitforhightemperatureorlowtemperatureapplication,itisnecessarytoseethatthemostsuitableinsulationisadopted.Thishas
becomeparticularlyimportantnow,sincethereiswidespreadawarenessabouttheenergycrunchandthecostofenergy.

Insulationisrequiredforhightemperaturesystemsaswellaslowtemperaturesystems.Inhightemperaturesystems,anyleakageof
heatfromboilers,furnacesorpipingcarryinghotfluidsrepresentsanenergyloss.Similarly,inlowtemperature/cryogenicsystems,
anyheatleakageintothelowtemperatureregionrepresentsanenergylosssincefromthermodynamicsweknowthattopumpouta
givenamountofheatfromalowtemperatureregionwouldneedadisproportionatelylargeamountofworktobeputinatroom
temperature.

Insulationsystemsmaybeclassifiedas,

1.fibrous
2.cellular
3.powder
4.reflective.

Sinceinnonhomogeneousinsulationmaterials,acombinationofconduction,convectionorradiationisinvolved,theyare
characterisedbyaneffectivethermalconductivity.Solidmaterialshavecellsofspacesformedinsidethembyfoaming.Theremay
beairorsomeothergasinsidethesevoids.Typeofgasusedaffectsthepropertyofthematerial.Obviously,densityofthesesystems
playsanimportantroleindeterminingtheeffectivethermalconductivity.Sometimes,theinterveningspacesareevacuatedtoreduce
theconvectionlosses.TogetextremelylowvaluesofthermalconductivityoftheorderofafewW/(mK)multiplelayersofhighly
reflectivematerialsareintroducedinbetweentheinsulationlayers.Thesearecalledsuperinsulationsandareusedincryogenicand
spaceapplications.

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FIGURE2.10Conductionheatflowthroughaslabthermalresistance

Table2.3givesdetailsaboutsomeofthecommoninsulationsusedinindustry.

TABLE2.3CommonInsulationsusedinIndustry

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2.4 Concept of Thermal Resistance

2.4.1 Conduction
ConsideraslabofthicknessL,constantthermalconductivityk,withitsleftandrightfacesmaintainedattemperaturesT1andT2 .IfT1
isgreaterthanT2 ,weknowthatheatwillflowfromlefttorightandtheheatflowrateisgivenbyFourierslaw,

Q=kA(T1T2 )/L(2.9)

Now,considerthis:inapipecarryingafluid,theflowoccursunderadrivingpotentialofapressuredifferenceandthereisresistance
toflowduetopipefrictioninanelectricalconductor,flowofelectricityoccursunderthedrivingpotentialofavoltagedifferenceand
thereisaresistancetotheflowofelectriccurrent.Similarly,consideringEq.2.9,wecansaythatflowofheatQoccursintheslabby
conductionunderadrivingpotentialofatemperaturedifference(T1T2 )andthematerialoffersathermalresistancetotheflowof
heat.So,wecanwriteEq.2.9as,

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RthL/(kA)isknownasThermalresistanceoftheslabforconduction.

Itisseenthatthereisaclearanalogybetweentheflowofheatandflowofelectricity,asshownbelow,

Fig.2.10aboveshowsthethermalcircuitforthesituationofflowofheatthroughaplaneslabbyconduction.Fortheslab,wewrite,

Rcond=L/(kA)(2.11)

Notethatunitsofthermalresistanceis(C/W)or,K/W.

2.4.2 Convection
ConsiderthecaseofafluidflowingwithafreestreamvelocityUandfreestreamtemperatureTf,overaheatedsurfacemaintainedata
temperatureTs.Lettheheattransfercoefficientforconvectionbetweenthesurfaceandthefluidbeh.Then,theheattransferratefrom
thesurfacetothefluidisgivenbyNewtonsrateequation,

Q=hA(TsTf)

Thiscanbewrittenas,
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Again,notetheanalogybetweenflowofelectricityandtheflowofheat(seeFig.2.11).

FIGURE2.11Convectionheattransferthermalresistance

So,forheattransferbyconvection,wewrite,

Notethattheunitsare(C/W)or(K/W).

2.4.3 Radiation
Forthecaseofheattransferbetweentwofinitesurfaces,attemperaturesT1andT2 (Kelvin),netradiationheattransferbetweenthem
isgivenbyequation,

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where,F 1isknownasshapefactororviewfactor,whichincludestheeffectsoforientation,emissivitiesandthedistancebetweenthe
surfaces.sistheStefanBoltzmannconstant.

Writetheaboveequationinthefollowingform,

Clearly,theradiationthermalresistancemaybewrittenas,

2.4.4 Practical Applications of Thermal Resistance Concept

Therearetwoimportantpracticalapplicationofthethermalresistanceconcept:

1.Toanalysetheproblemswhereoneormoremodesofheattransferoccursimultaneously.Forexample,inaheatexchanger
platewhenahotfluidflowsononesideandacoldfluidontheotherside,wehaveheattransferoccurringateithersurfaceby
convectionandthroughtheplateitselfbyconduction.Obviously,thethermalresistancesinthiscaseareallinseriesandthe
rulesofseriesresistancesinanelectricalcircuitapply,i.e.totalthermalresistanceisthesumofthethreeresistances.

i.e.Reff=Rconv1+Rcond+Rconv2

Butinsomeothercases,thethermalresistancesmaybeinparallelforexample,aheatedwallofafurnacemayloseheatto
ambientbyconvectionaswellasradiation,i.e.heattransferoccursfromthewallbythesetwomodessimultaneouslyin
parallel.Thenweapplytheruleforparallelresistances,i.e.effectiveresistanceisgivenby,

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2.Toanalysetheproblemswheremultiplelayersofmaterialsofdifferentthermalconductivitiesareusede.g.infurnacewalls
whicharelaggedwith2or3layersofinsulation,insulationofwallsofhousesincoldweather,laggingofpipes,etc.Sincethe
thermalconductivitiesandthicknessesofmaterialsusedmaybedifferent,thermalresistancesofindividuallayersaredifferent
anditbecomesconvenienttousethethermalresistanceconcepttofindoutthetotalresistanceandhencetheheatflowrate.

2.4.5 Limitations for the Use of Thermal Resistance Concept

Thermalresistanceconceptcanbeusedonlywhenallthefollowingconditionsaresatisfied.

1.Onedimensionalconduction
2.Steadystateconduction
3.Nointernalheatgeneration.

Note:Inthischapter,wehavejustintroducedtheconceptofthermalresistance.Wewillstudymoreaboutthisconceptandapplyitto
analyseheattransferincompositeslabs,cylindersandspheresandalsotosituationswheremorethanonemodeofheattransferexist
simultaneously,inChapter4.Therein,weshallalsosolveseveralnumericalproblemstoillustratetheapplicationsofthisconcept.

2.5 Thermal Diusivity ()

Often,duringheattransferanalysis,particularlywhiledealingwithtransientconductionproblems,wecomeacrossaquantitycalled
Thermaldiffusivity,definedas,

where, k=thermalconductivityofthematerial,W/(mC)

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3
=density,kg/m

cp=specificheatatconstantpressure,J/(kg.C)

2
Notethatunitofism /s.

Letusconsiderthephysicalsignificanceofthermaldiffusivity,:Thermalconductivity(k)ofamaterialisatransport
propertyanddenotesitsabilitytoconductheathigherthevalueofk,bettertheabilityofmaterialtoconductheat.Theproduct(cp)
3
isknownasvolumetricheatcapacity,hasunitsofJ/(m K),anddenotestheabilityofthematerialtostoreheat.Higherthevalueof
(cp),largertheheatstoragecapacity.Generally,solidsandliquidswhicharegoodstoragemediahavehighervolumetricheat
3 3
capacity(>1MJ/m K)ascomparedtogases(about1kJ/m K),whicharepoorheatstoragemedia.Therefore,thermaldiffusivity,
i.e.theratioofkto(cp)givestherelativeabilityofthematerialtoconductheatascomparedtoitsabilitytostoreheat.Largerthe
valueof,fasterthepropagationofheatintothematerial.Inotherwords,representstheabilityofthematerialtorespondto
changesinthethermalenvironmentlargerthevalueof,quickerthematerialwillcomeintothermalequilibriumwithits
surroundings.Valuesofformaterialsvaryoverawiderange.Forexample,forcopperatroomtemperature,itsvalueisapprox.113
6 2 6 2
10 m /s,whereasforglassitisabout0.3410 m /s.

Table2.4showstypicalvaluesofthermaldiffusivityforafewmaterials.

2.6 Summary
Inthischapter,westudiedFourierslawforonedimensionalconduction.Thisisaveryimportanttopicandstudentmustbeclear
abouttheassumptionsbehindthislawparticularly,youshouldnotethattheareausedinapplyingthislawistheareanormaltothe
directionofheatflow.Fourierslawopensthedoorforfurtherlearningaboutconductionwewilluseitimmediatelyinthenext
chaptertoderivethegeneraldifferentialequationforconductionheattransfer.Inthischapter,wealsostudiedtwoimportant
consequencesofFourierslaw:firstly,definitionofthermalconductivityanimportanttransportpropertyofmaterialand,secondly,
conceptofthermalresistance.Westudiedinsomedetailaboutthethermalconductivityofsolids,liquidsandgasesandthevariation
ofthermalconductivitywithtemperature.Thermaldiffusivityasignificantpropertywhilestudyingtransientconductionwas
mentionedanditsphysicalsignificanceexplained.

TABLE2.4Typicalvaluesofthermaldiffusivity()forafewmaterialsatroomtemperature
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6 2
Material 10 ,(m /s)

Silver 149

Gold 127

Copper 113

Aluminium 97.5

Iron 22.8

Mercury(l) 4.7

Marble 1.2

Ice 1.2

Concrete 0.75

Brick 0.52

Glass 0.34

Glasswool 0.23

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Water(l) 0.14

Beef 0.14

Wood(oak) 0.13

Inthenextchapter,weshallderivethegeneraldifferentialequationforconductionwhich,whensolved,willgivethetemperature
distributioninamaterialknowingthetemperaturedistribution,wecaneasilydeterminetheheattransferratebyapplyingthe
Fourierslaw.

Questions

1.StateandexplainFourierslawforonedimensionalconduction.Whataretheunderlyingassumptions?
2.WhataretheimportantconsequencesofFourierslaw?
3.Definethermalconductivity.Whatarethefactorsaffectingthethermalconductivityofamaterial?
4.Writeashortnoteonthermalconductivityofsolids,liquidsandgases.
5.Howdoesthermalconductivityvarywithtemperatureformetals,alloysandinsulators?
6.Namethedifferentinsulationsusedinindustryandmentionthespecificpurposeforwhicheachisused.
7.Explaintheanalogybetweenflowofheatandflowofelectricity.
8.Explaintheconceptofthermalresistance.Whatarethepracticalusesofthisconcept?
9.Whatdoyouunderstandbythetermthermaldiffusivity?Explainitsphysicalsignificance.
10.Onacold,wintermorning,thealuminiumhandleofthefrontdoorofyourhousefeelscoldtotouchascomparedtothe
woodendoorframe,eventhoughbothwereexposedtothesamecoldenvironmentthroughoutthenight.Explainwhy?
11.Theinnerandoutersurfacesofa5m6mbrickwallofthickness30cmandthermalconductivity0.69W/(mC),are
maintainedattemperaturesof20Cand35C,respectively.Determinetherateofheattransferthroughthewall.
12.Inanexperimenttofindoutthethermalconductivityofamaterial,anelectricheaterissandwichedbetweentwoidentical
samples,eachofsize(10cm10cm)andthickness0.5cm,andallthefourouteredgesarewellinsulated.Atsteadystate,itis
observedthattheelectricheaterdraws35Wofpowerandthetemperatureofeachsamplewas90Contheinnersurfaceand
82Contheoutersurface.Determinethethermalconductivityofthematerialattheaveragetemperature.
2

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10/1/2016 Chapter2.FouriersLawandItsConsequencesFundamentalsofHeatandMassTransfer

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13.Byconduction,3kWofenergyistransferredthrough0.5m sectionofa5cmthickinsulatingmaterialofthermalconductivity
0.2W/(mC).Determinethetemperaturedifferenceacrossthelayer.

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