AN INTRODUCTION TO

GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING
Second Edition

Robert D. Holtz, Ph.D., P.E., D.GE

University of Washington

William D. Kovacs, Ph.D., P.E., D.GE

University of Rhode Island

Thomas C. Sheahan, Sc.D., P.E.

Northeastern University

PEARSON

Upper Saddle River Boston Columbus San Francisco New York

Indianapolis London Toronto Sydney Singapore Tokyo Montreal
Dubai Madrid Hong Kong Mexico City Munich Paris Amsterdam Cape Town
Contents

Preface 8

Chapter 1 Introduction to Geotechnical Engineering 11

1.1 Geotechnical Engineering 11

1.2 The Unique Nature of Soil and Rock Materials 13

1.3 Scope of this Book 14

1.4 Historical Development of Geotechnical Engineering 15
1.5 Suggested Approach to the Study of Geotechnical Engineering
1.6 Notes on Symbols and Units 16

1.7 Some Comments on How to Study in General 17

Problems 18

Chapter 2 Index and Classification Properties of Soils 19

2.1 Introduction 19
2.2 Basic Definitions and Phase Relations for Soils 20
2.3 Solution of Phase Problems 25

2.4 Soil Texture 41

2.5 Grain Size and Grain Size Distribution 42
2.6 Particle Shape 49
2.7 Atterberg Limits 49

2.8 Introduction to Soil Classification 57

2.9 Unified Soil Classification System (USCS) 58

2.10 AASHTO Soil Classification System 71
Problems 71

Chapter 3 Geology, Landforms, and the Origin of Geomaterials

79
3.1 Importance of Geology to Geotechnical Engineering
3.2 The Earth, Minerals, Rocks, and Rock Structure 81

3.3 Geologic Processes and Landforms 86

3.4 Sources of Geologic Information 127
Problems 129
4 Contents

Chapter 4 Clay Minerals, Soil and Rock Structures,

and Rock Classification 132

4.1 Introduction 132

4.2 Products of Weathering 132
4.3 Clay Minerals 133
4.4 Identification of Clay Minerals and Activity 141
4.5 Specific Surface 143
4.6 Interaction Between Water and Clay Minerals 144
4.7 Interaction of Clay Particles 148
4.8 Soil Structure and Fabric of Fine-Grained Soils 149
4.9 Granular Soil Fabrics 157
4.10 SoilProfiles, Soil Horizons, and Soil Taxonomy 160
4.11 Special Soil Deposits 161
4.12 Transitional Materials: Hard Soils Versus Soft Rocks 162
4.13 Properties, Macrostructure, and Classification of Rock Masses 164

Problems 171

Chapter 5 Compaction and Stabilization of Soils 173

5.1 Introduction 173

5.2 Compaction and Densification 174
5.3 Theory of Compaction for Fine-Grained Soils 174
5.4 Structure of Compacted Fine-Grained Soils 182
5.5 Compaction of Granular Soils 183
5.6 Field Compaction Equipment and Procedures 188
5.7 Specifications and Compaction Control 200
5.8 Estimating Performance of Compacted Soils 216
Problems 220

Chapter6 Hydrostatic Water in Soils and Rocks 224

6.1 Introduction 224

6.2 Capillarity 225
6.3 Groundwater Table and the Vadose Zone 237
6.4 Shrinkage Phenomena in Soils 240
6.5 Expansive Soils and Rocks 246
6.6 Engineering Significance of Shrinkage and Swelling 254
6.7 Collapsible Soils and Subsidence 256
6.8 Frost Action 259
6.9 Intergranular or Effective Stress 267
6.10 Vertical Stress Profiles 272
6.11 Relationship Between Horizontal and Vertical Stresses 276
Problems 277
Chapter 7 Fluid Flow in Soils and Rock 282

7.1 Introduction 282

7.2 Fundamentals of Fluid Flow 283

7.3 Darcy's Law for Flow Through Porous Media 285

7.4 Measurement of Permeability or Hydraulic Conductivity 287

7.5 Heads and One-Dimensional Flow 295

7.6 Seepage Forces, Quicksand, and Liquefaction 304

7.7 Seepage and Flow Nets: Two-Dimensional Flow 316

7.8 Seepage Toward Wells 331

7.9 Seepage Through Dams and Embankments 335

7.10 Control of Seepage and Filters 337

Problems 348

Chapter 8 Compressibility of Soil and Rock 355

8.1 Introduction 355

8.2 Components of Settlement 357
8.3 Compressibility of Soils 357
8.4 One-Dimensional Consolidation Testing 360

8.5 Preconsolidation Pressure and Stress History 362

8.6 Consolidation Behavior of Natural and Compacted Soils 367

8.7 Settlement Calculations 374

8.8 Tangent Modulus Method 387

8.9 Factors Affecting the Determination of a'p 390

8.10 Prediction of Field Consolidation Curves 390

8.11 Soil Profiles 398

Methods and Typical Values of Compression Indices
8.12 Approximate
8.13 Compressibility of Rock and Transitional Materials 405

8.14 Burland's Intrinsic Compressibility Properties 405

8.15 In Situ Determination of Compressibility 408

Problems 409

Chapter 9 Time Rate of Consolidation 414

9.1 Introduction 414

9.2 The Consolidation Process 415
9.3 Terzaghi's One-Dimensional Consolidation Theory 417

9.4 Determination of the Coefficient of Consolidation ct 437

9.5 Determination of the Coefficient of Permeability 442

of Consolidation cv 443
9.6 Typical Values of the Coefficient
9.7 In Situ Determination of Consolidation Properties 444

9.8 Evaluation of Secondary Settlement 445

Problems 452
6 Contents

Chapter 10 Stress Distribution and Settlement Analysis 460

10.1 Introduction 460

10.2 Settlement 461
Analysis of Shallow Foundations
10.3 Stress Distribution 464
10.4 Immediate Settlement 482
10.5 Vertical Effective Overburden and Preconsolidation Stress Profiles 487
10.6 Settlement Analysis Examples 489
Problems 502

Chapter 11 The Mohr Circle, Failure Theories, and Strength Testing

of Soil and Rocks 507

11.1 Introduction 507

11.2 Stress at a Point 508
11.3 Stress-Strain Relationships and Failure Criteria 517
11.4 The Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criterion 518
526
11.5 Laboratory Tests for the Shear Strength of Soils and Rocks
11.6 In Situ Tests for the Shear Strength of Soils and Rocks 546
Problems 546

Chapter 12 An Introduction to Shear Strength of Soils and Rock 550

12.1 Introduction 550

12.2 Angle of Repose of Sands 552

12.3 Behavior of Saturated Sands During Drained Shear 553

12.4 Effect of Void Ratio and Confining Pressure on Volume Change 555

12.5 Factors that Affect the Shear Strength of Sands 563

12.6 Shear Strength of Sands Using In Situ Tests 568
12.7 The Coefficient of Earth Pressure at Rest for Sands 570
12.8 Behavior of Saturated Cohesive Soils During Shear 573
12.9 Consolidated-Drained Stress-Deformation and Strength
Characteristics 574

12.10 Consolidated-Undrained Stress-Deformation and Strength

Characteristics 580
12.11 Unconsolidated-Undrained Stress-Deformation and Strength
Characteristics 588
12.12 Sensitivity 601

12.13 The Coefficient of Earth Pressure at Rest for Clays 602

12.14 Strength of Compacted Clays 606
610
12.15 Strength of Rocks and Transitional Materials
12.16 Multistage Testing 611
12.17 Introduction to Pore Pressure Parameters 616

Problems 620
 Contents 7

Chapter 13 Advanced Topics in Shear Strength of Soils and Rocks 624

13.1 Introduction 624

13.2 Stress Paths 626
13.3 Pore Pressure Parameters for Different Stress Paths 637
13.4 Stress Paths During Undrained LoadingNormally and Lightly
Overconsolidated Clays 639
13.5 Stress Paths During Undrained Loading-Heavily
Overconsolidated Clays 654
13.6 Applications of Stress Paths to Engineering Practice 657
13.7 Critical State Soil Mechanics 662
13.8 Modulus and Constitutive Models for Soils 673
13.9 Fundamental Basis of the Drained Strength of Sands 685
13.10 Behavior of Saturated Sands in Undrained Shear 692
13.11 Plane Strain Behavior of Sands 706
13.12 Residual Strength of Soils 712
13.13 Stress-Deformation and Shear Strength of Clays: Special Topics 715
13.14 Strength of Unsaturated Soils 741
13.15 Properties of Soils Under Dynamic Loading 747
13.16 Failure Theories for Rock 760
Problems 764

Appendix A Application of the SI System of Units

to Geotechnical Engineering 775

Appendix B.1 Derivation of Laplace's Equation 788

Appendix B.2 Derivation and Solution of Terzaghi's

One-Dimensional Consolidation Theory 790

Appendix B.3 Pore Pressure Parameters 796

Appendix C The Method of Fragments 805

References 816

Index 850