Concrete Technology

Lecture: 2
Engr. Nawaz Ali
Lecturer Civil Engineering Department
BUITEMS

1
 General outline

Physical Properties of Portland Cement

Use of Admixtures in Concrete

-Mineral Admixtures
-Chemical Admixtures

Mixing Water for Concrete

2
Physical Properties of Portland
Cement
Fineness
Soundness
Consistency
Setting time
False set and flash set
Compressive strength
Heat of hydration
Loss on ignition
Density
Bulk density
 1. Fineness
95% of cement particles are smaller than 45 micrometer, with the
average particle around 15 micrometer.

Fineness of cement affects heat released and the rate of hydration.

More is the fineness of cement more will be the rate of hydration.

Thus the fineness accelerates strength development principally

during the first seven days.

Fineness tests indirectly measures the surface area of the cement

particles per unit mass.

Finer cement offers greater surface area.

 Fineness Testing
Fineness of cement is tested in two
ways
By sieving. (Sieving using No.
325 (45 m) sieve (ASTM C 430)
By determining specific surface.
(Wagner turbidimeter test (ASTM
C 115)) and (Blaine air-
permeability test (ASTM C 204))
 2. Soundness
Soundness is the ability of a hardened paste to retain its
volume after setting.

This test is used to ensure that cement does not show any
subsequent expansions.

A cement is said to be unsound (i.e. having lack of

soundness) if it is subjected to delayed destructive
expansion.

Unsoundness (abnormal expansion) of cement is due to

presence of excessive amount of hard-burned free lime or
magnesia.

Therefore magnesia content in cement is limited to 6%.

 2. Soundness Test
Soundness of a cement is determined by the following tests:

Le-Chatelier accelerated test Autoclave-expansion test (ASTM C 151)

3. Consistency of Cement
The standard consistency of a cement
paste is defined as that consistency
which will permit a Vicat plunger
having 10 mm diameter and 50 mm
length to penetrate to a depth of 33-35
mm from the top of the mould.

Used to find out the percentage of water

required to produce a cement paste of
standard consistency.

Consistency refers to the relative

mobility of a freshly mixed cement
paste or mortar or its ability to flow.
4. Setting Time of cement
This is the term used to describe the stiffening of the cement
paste.

Initial setting time

Final setting time

Setting time is to determine if a cement sets according to the

time limits specified in ASTM C 150.

Setting time is determined using either the Vicat apparatus

(ASTM C 191) or a Gillmore needle (ASTM C 266).
 Initial setting time
The time elapsed between
the moment that the water
is added to the cement, to
the time that the past start
losing its plasticity.
Normaly a minimum of
30min has maintained for
mixing and handling
operation.
It should not less than
30min.
Final setting time
The time elapsed between
the moment that the water is
added to the cement, and the
time when the past has
completely lost its plasticity
and has attained sufficient
firmness to resist certain
definite pressure.
It should not exceed
10hours.
So that it is avoided from
least vulnerable to damage
from external activities.
Setting Time
5. Early Stiffening (False Set and Flash Set)
Early stiffening is the early development of stiffening in
the working plasticity of cement paste, mortar or concrete.
This includes both false set and flash set
6. Compressive Strength
Compressive strength of cement is the most important
property.

It is determined by ducting compression tests on standard 50

mm mortar cubes in accordance with ASTM C 109.

In general, cement strength (based on mortar-cube tests) can

not be used to predict concrete compressive strength with great
degree of accuracy because of many variables in aggregate
characteristics, concrete mixtures, construction procedures,
and environmental conditions in the field.

Rates of compressive strength development for concrete, made

with various types of cement, are shown in Fig.
Compressive Strength Test
Strength Development of
Portland Cement mortar cubes
 7. Heat of Hydration
It is the quantity of heat (in joules) per gram of un-hydrated
cement evolved upon complete hydration at a given
temperature.

The heat of hydration can be determined by ASTM C 186 or

by a conduction calorimeter.

The temperature at which hydration occurs greatly affects the

rate of heat development.

Fineness of cement also affects the rate of heat development

but not the total amount of heat librated.

About 120 calories of heat is generated in hydration of 1 gm

of cement.
Heat of Hydration determined by ASTM C 186 (left) or
by a conduction calorimeter (right).
 Cont. on Heat of Hydration
The amount of heat generated depends upon the chemical composition
of cement. Following are the heat of hydration generated on hydration of
the four compounds of cement.

Compound Heat of hydration Remarks C3S 502 j/g--C2S 260

j/gMinimumC3A 867 j/g MaximumC4AF 419 j/g--C3S and C3A are the
compounds responsible for the high heat evolution.

The approximate amount of heat generated using ASTM C 186, during

the first 7 days (based on limited data) are as follows:
Type Name Heat of hydration (kj/kg)

I Normal 349
II Moderate 263
III High early strength 370
IV Low heat of hydration 233
V Sulfate resistant 310
 Cont. on Heat of Hydration
Cements do not generate heat at constant rate as illustrated in Figure
2-45 for a typical type I Portland cement

Stage 1: heat of wetting or initial hydrolysis

C3A and C3S Hydration. 7 min after
mixing.

Stage 2: dormant period related to initial set.

Stage 3. accelerated reaction of the hydration

products. That determine the rate of
hardening and final set.

Stage 4: decelerates formation of hydration

products and determines the rate of
early strength gain.

Stage 5: is a slow, steady formation of hydration

products.
 9. Density and Specific Gravity

Density is the mass of a unit volume of the solids or particles,

excluding air between particles. The particle density of
Portland cement ranges from 3.10 to 3.25 Mg/m3, averaging
3.15 Mg/ m3.

It is used in concrete mixture proportioning calculations.

For mixture proportioning, it may be more useful to express

the density as relative density (specific gravity). On an average
the specific gravity of cement is 3.15.
 Storage of Cement
Cement is moisture-sensitive material; if
kept dry it will retain its quality indefinitely.

When exposed to moisture, cement will set

more slowly and will have less strength
compared to cement that kept dray.

Atthe time of use cement should be free-

flowing and free of lumps.
Storage of Cement
Chemical Admixtures In Concrete
 What Are They?
Ingredients other than:
Cement
Water
Aggregates

Added before or during mixing.

 Why Are They Used?
Tomodify properties of fresh & hardened
concrete

To
ensure the quality of concrete during
mixing, transporting, placing & curing

To overcome certain unexpected

emergencies during concrete operations (ie,
set retarders)
 How Applied?
Most admixtures are supplied in a ready-to-
use form and added at plant or jobsite.

Pigmentsand pumping aids are batched by

hand in VERY small amounts
 5 Typical Functions of Admixtures:

Air entraining
Water-reducing
Retarders
Set Accelerators
Plasticizers (superplasticizers)

Some other specialty types exist:

Color, corrosion inhibitors, etc.
 Classification based on action

Chemical interaction in hydration (Accelerators and Retarders)

Adsorption on cement surface causing better particle dispersion,

(Plasticizers and Super plasticizers)

Affecting surface tension of water (Increased air entrainments)

Affecting rheology of water (viscosity modifier)

Special chemicals acting on hardened concrete, (corrosion

inhibitors and water repellent)
 Air Entraining admixtures
Air entraining admixtures allow a controlled quantity of small
uniformly distributed air bubbles to be introduced during mixing &
remained after hardening.

o The dosage is usually 0.2-0.4% on cement.

o Mainly used for freeze-thaw resistance.

Strength is reduced; 5-6% reduction for each 1% of additional air.

Improve cohesion & reduced tendency to bleed.

Increased stability of extruded concrete.

Frost damage at joints of a pavement
Frost induced cracking near
joints
 Scaled concrete surface
resulting from lack of
air entrainment, use of
deicers, and poor
finishing and curing
practices

The primary ingredients

used in air-entraining
admixtures are salts of
wood resin (Vinsol resin),
synthetic detergents, salts
of petroleum acids, etc.
 Water Reducers

used to reduce the quantity of mixing water required to

produce concrete of a certain slump, increase slump.

Allows for reduction of water/cement ratio while

maintaining workability (increased strength)

Can reduce water requirement at least 5-10%

Obtain higher slump without adding water

Mid-range water reducers result in at least 8%

 Superplasticizers
Also known as high-range water reducers (HRWR)

Reduce water requirement by 12-30%

Can make low slump concrete flow like high-slump mix

Makes mix highly fluid and can be placed with little or no

vibration or compaction

Areas of closely spaced and congested reinforcing steel,

Usually added at jobsite

Water Reducesing agents
Flowable concrete with high
slump
Is easily placed
Even in areas of heavy
reinforcing steel congestion
 Low water to cement
ratio concrete with low
chloride permeability---
easily made with high-
range water reducers- is
ideal for bridge decks
 Set Retarders
used to retard the rate of setting of concrete at high
temperatures of fresh concrete (30C or more).
Slows curing rate
Used to counteract hot weather conditions that cause increased
rate of hardening.
This makes placing and finishing difficult

Temperature has effect and shall be accounted.

The dosage is 0.2-0.6%.
Retarder are common in RMC.
Blocking mechanism where admixture is adsorbed strongly on
the cement surface slowing formation of silicate hydrates.
 Set Accelerators
used to accelerate strength development of concrete at an early age.
Speeds up start of finishing operations
Used for speeding curing rate in cold weather concreting

Accelerating admixtures are divided into two groups as set accelerating and
hardening accelerator.
- The set accelerator reduce the time of transition from plastic state to solid
state, extent varying as required.
o Hardening accelerator enhance the rate of strength gain.
Dosage is 0.5-2.0% on cement & usually are inorganic compound.
Set accelerator possibly accelerate the formation of ettringite.
Hardening accelerator increase the rate of dissolution of calcium silicate thus
increase CSH formation at early stage.
Hardening accelerator are useful where early de-shuttering, pre-stressing is
desired.
Shrinkage-Reducing Admixtures
Shrinkage cracks, such
as shown on this bridge
deck, can be reduced
with the use of good
concreting practices and
shrinkage reducing
admixtures.
Coloring admixtures (Pigments)

Red and blue pigments

were used to color this
floor
Use of Mineral Admixtures
in Concrete
 Mineral Admixtures

-Pozzolanic (Low-calcium FA)

-Cementitious (Granulated iron blast-furnace slag)

-Both pozzolanic and cementitious (High-calcium FA)

-Natural materials (Volcanic Ash)

-By-product Material
 Fly Ash
Photo

Fly ash is a by-product of the

combustion of pulverized coal in
thermal power plants. The dust
collection system removes the fly
ash, as a fine particulate residue,
from the combustion gases before
they are discharged into the
atmosphere.
-Class C: Containing more than 10% CaO (Normally produced from lignite
or subbituminous coal. This class of fly ash, in addition to having
pozzolanic properties, also has some cementitious properties.)

SiO2, Al2O3, and CaO are the major constituents of most fly ashes. One
of the important characteristics of fly ash is the spherical form of the
particles, which can improve the concrete flowability.
Effect of fly ash on properties
of fresh concrete

Concrete using fly ash is

generally reported to show
reduced segregation and
bleeding and to be more
satisfactory than plain
concrete when placed by
pumping.
Effect on Heat of Hydration

Replacement of cement
by fly ash results in a
reduction in the
temperature rise in fresh
Concrete. This is
particular importance in
mass concrete where
cooling, following a large
temperature rise, can lead
to cracking.
Effect of fly ash on the structural
properties of hardened concrete

At early ages fly ash exhibits very

little cementing value, at later ages
cementing activity becomes
apparent and a considerable
Contribution to strength may
results.

Important variables influence

strength development:
-properties of fly ash
-chemical composition
-particle size
-reactivity
-the temperature and other curing conditions
Advantage in high temperature

In contrast to the loss

of strength that occurs
with ordinary Portland
cement, fly ash
concrete show
strength gains as a
consequence of
heating.
 Effect of fly ash on the durability
of concrete

Fly ash greatly

improved sulphate
resistance.

Sulphate expansion of concretes containing low-calcium fly ash

 Blast-Furnace Slag

Blast furnace slag is a by-product of pig iron

manufacture. When quenched rapidly with water or
air to a glassy state and finely ground, it develops
the property of latent hydraulicity.

Blast furnace slag has chemical component similar

to that of Portland cement. Due to hydraulicity,
therefore, its use contributes not only to
improvement in concrete performance, but also to
resource and energy savings.
 Performance of concrete
containing blast furnace slag

Fresh concrete

The unit water content

necessary to obtain the
same slump decreases
with the increase in the
slag content.
 Hardened concrete
The strength development is greatly affected by the
quality and replacement ratio of blast furnace slag,
and curing condition.

Heat of hydration of concrete containing slag

powder decreases with the increase in the slag
power content.

Concrete containing slag as a mineral admixtures

generally offers better chemical resistance due to
improved watertightness, since the concrete texture
becomes dense.
 Silica Fume

Silica fume is an industrial by-product consisting

of ultrafine particle(0.01m). It is recovered from
electric furnace by means of dust collectors from
the waste gas emitted during the production of
ferro-silicon metal.

Silica fume is a highly pozzolanic materials.

Difficult to handle so necessary to use

(highrange) water-reducing admixture
Comparison of particle size
distributions of Portland cement, fly
ashes, and condensed silica fume
 Rice Husk Ash
Rice husk ash is obtained by burning rice husk.

Highly pozzolanic characteristic.

The properties are greatly affected by the burning

conditions. The large amount of unburnt carbon due to the
incomplete combustion exist and make the color of rice
husk ash is black, whereas, the burning is done under
enough air supply condition the rice husk ash become gray
and white.

The white rice husk ash has better quality compared to the
black rice husk ash due to the existence of carbon affecting
adversely on the reactivity.
Multicomponent Blended Cement

Is developed by mixing two or more kinds of mineral

admixtures with the aim of further improving the
performance of blended cement.

This cement helps provide higher fluidity, higher

strength, higher density, higher durability, lower hear
evolution, and increase resistance to alkali aggregate
reaction of concrete and is mainly used for massive
structure including the foundation for piers of long,
large bridges and dam.
Improved Concrete Quality with Combination
of Fly Ash and Silica Fume

Adding relatively small amount of silica fume to fly

ash concretes with w/c of 0.40 to 0.45, results in
concretes with satisfactory strength and very low
permeability at 28 days.

With concretes containing a combination of fly ash

and silica fume, increasing the early curing
temperature (up to 38 C) and duration of moistcuring
reduces the chloride permeability, other conditions
remaining the same.
Mixing Water for Concrete
 Mixing Water for Concrete
The requirements of mixing water for concrete
Almost any natural water that is drinkable and has no pronounced taste or odor
can be used as mixing water for making concrete.

Drinkable Water is good for making concrete

Some waters that are not fit for drinking may be suitable for concrete making
provided that they satisfy the acceptance criteria laid by ASTM C 94 (Table)

Table. Acceptance Criteria for Questionable Water Supplies (ASTM C 94)

Limits Test method

Compressive Strength, 90 ASTM C 109 or T
minimum percentage 106
of control at 7 days
Time of set, deviation From 1:00 earlier ASTM C 191 or T
from control, hr:min to 1:30 later 131
 Effects of Impurities in Mixing Water
Excessive impurities in mixing water affect setting time and concrete strength and also
cause efflorescence (deposits of white salts on the surface of concrete), staining, corrosion
of reinforcement, volume changes, and reduced durability

Use of Questionable Waters as Mixing Water

Impurity Effects
1. Alkali carbonate and bicarbonate Acceleration or retardation of setting time. Reduction in strength
2. Chloride Corrosion of steel in concrete
3. Sulfate Expansive reactions and deterioration of concrete. Mild effect on
corrosion of steel in concrete
4. Iron salts Reduction in strength
5. Miscellaneous inorganic salts Reduction in strength and large variations in setting time
(zinc, copper, lead, etc)
6. Organic substances Reduction in strength and large variations in setting time
7. Sugar Severely retards the setting of cement
8. Silt or suspended particles Reduction in strength
9. Oils Reduction in strength
Sea Water
Seawater containing up to 35,000 ppm of dissolved salts is
generally suitable as mixing water for plain concrete

Seawater is not suitable for use in making steel reinforced

concrete and prestressed concrete due to high risk of steel
corrosion

Acid Waters
Acid waters may be accepted as mixing water on the basis of
their pH values.

Use of acid waters with pH values less than 3.0 should be

avoided.

Organic acids, such as tannic acid can have significant effect

on strength at higher concentrations.
Alkaline Waters

Waters with sodium hydroxide concentrations up to

0.5 % and potassium hydroxide in concentrations up to
1.2 % by weight of cement has no significant effect on
strength.

The possibility for increased alkali-aggregate

reactivity should be considered before using the
alkaline water as mixing water.

Tannic acid can have significant effect on strength at

higher concentrations.
 Wash Waters
Wash waters may be reused as mixing water in concrete if they
satisfy the limits in Tables

Table; Chemical Limits for Wash Water used as Mixing water (ASTM C 94)
Chemical or type of Maximum Test Method
construction concentration, ppm

Chloride, as Cl ASTM D 512

Prestressed concrete or 500
concrete in bridge decks
Other reinforced concrete 1000
Sulfate, SO4 3,000 ASTM D 516
Alkalies, as 600
(Na2O+0.658 K2O)
Total solids 50,000 AASHTO T 26
 Industrial Wastewaters

Industrial wastewaters may be used as mixing water in concrete as

long as they only cause a very small reduction in compressive
strength, generally not greater than 10 % to 15 %.

Wastewaters from paint factories, coke plants, and chemical and

galvanizing plants may contain harmful impurities. Thus such
wastewaters should not be used as mixing water without testing.

Sanitary Sewage
The sanitary sewage may be safely used as mixing water
after treatment or dilution of the organic matter.
Aggregates For Concrete
 Aggregates For Concrete

Aggregate is a rock like material which used in many

civil engineering and construction applications
including:

Portland cement concrete

Asphalt concrete
Base materials for roads
Ballast for railroads
Foundations
Plaster, mortar, grout, filter materials, etc.
 Aggregates Types

GRAVEL
Naturally occurring, water born pieces of rock, in buried or current
stream beds.

Normally rounded with smooth surfaces, other properties dependent on

parent rock.

Crushed gravel is larger gravel particles that have been reduced in size
by a crusher.

May be washed to remove undesirable material.

May be screened to divide into desired size groupings.

5SANDS

Naturally occurring, water or wind born pieces of rock in

buried or current stream beds or dunes.

Often rounded with smooth surfaces, other properties

dependent on parent rock.

May be washed to remove undesirable material.

May be screened to divide into desired size groupings.

 Classification of Natural Aggregates

Rocks are classified according to origin into three major groups:

1. Natural Mineral Aggregates - Sand, gravel, and crushed rock derived

from natural sources.
(a) Igneous Rocks - formed on cooling of the magma (molten rock matter).
Granite, basalt: hard, tough, strong ------ Excellent
Aggregates

(b) Sedimentary Rocks - Stratified rocks (cost effective near the surface;
about 80% of aggregates; Natural sand and gravel)
Limestone, sandstone ------- Excellent to poor

(c) Metamorphic Rocks - Igneous or sedimentary rocks that have changed

their original texture, crystal structure, or mineralogy composition due to
physical and chemical conditions below the earths surface.
Marble, schist, slate Excellent to poor
2. Synthetic Aggregates

Thermally processed materials, i.e. expanded clays and

shale.
Aggregates made from industrial by-products, i.e. blast-
furnace slag & fly ash.

3. Recycled Aggregates

Made from municipal wastes and recycled concrete from

demolished buildings and pavements.

Problems: Cost of crushing, grading, dust control, and

separation of undesirable constituents.
Normal Weight
Gravels, Sands, Normal Crushed Stone, Bulk Specific Gravity
- 2.4 to 2.9, Bulk Density (of Bulk Unit Weight) - 1520 to 1680
kg/m3, Most commonly used.

Light Weight
Manufactured or Natural, Bulk Density Less than 1120 kg/m3.
Most commonly used in lightweight concrete, many must be
screened to get the desired size distribution, and some must
be crushed.

Heavy Weight
Aggregates weighing more than 2080 Kg/m3 are called
heavyweight.
Concrete Aggregates

It is economical to put as much aggregate into a concrete mix as possible

while not sacrificing other properties.
However, Economy is not the only reason for using aggregate; it also
confers greater volume stability and better durability than cement paste
alone.
Concrete Aggregates Influences dimensional stability, elastic modulus,
durability, workability, and cost of concrete.

Classification

Coarse Aggregate (CA)

Size: 4.75 mm (3/16 in.) to 50 mm (2 in.) (retained on
No. 4 sieve)
Fine Aggregate (FA)
Size: <4.75 mm; >75 m (0.003 in.) (retained on No.
200 sieve)
Mass concrete may contain up to 150-mm (6 in.) coarse aggregate.
Aggregate Characteristics Affecting Concrete
Behavior

1. Characteristics controlled by porosity

A. Density

I) Apparent specific gravity: Density of the material including

the internal pores.

II) Bulk density (dry-rodded unit weight) weight of aggregate

that would fill a unit volume; affects the following concrete
behavior: mix design, workability, and unit weight.
Free Moisture and Absorption of Aggregates
The moisture content and absorption of aggregates are important in
calculating the proportions of concrete mixes since any excess
water in the aggregates will be incorporated in the cement paste
and give it a higher water/cement ratio than expected.

All moisture conditions are expressed in terms of oven dry unit

weight.
B. Absorption and Surface Moisture
Moisture conditions of aggregates:

Oven-dry Condition: All free moisture, whether external surface

moisture or internal moisture, driven off by heat.

Air dry: No surface moisture, but some internal moisture

remains.

Saturated-surface dry condition (SSD): Aggregates are said to

be SSD when their moisture states are such that during mixing
they will neither absorb any of the mixing water added; nor will
they contribute any of their contained water to the mix. Note that
aggregates in SSD condition may possess bound water (water
held by physical chemical bonds at the surface) on their surfaces
since this water cannot be easily removed from the aggregate.

Damp or Wet condition: Aggregate containing moisture in

excess of the SSD condition.
The Free Water, which will become part of the
mixing water, is in excess of the SSD condition of
the aggregate.
Absorption and surface moisture affects the following concrete
behaviors: mix-design, strength
2. Characteristics dependent on prior exposure
and processing factors

A. Aggregate Size distribution

Fineness Modulus (FM)
Index of fineness of an aggregate.
The fineness modulus of the fine aggregate is required for mix design
since sand gradation has the largest effect on workability. A fine sand
(low FM) has much higher effect paste requirements for good workability.
The FM of the coarse aggregate is not required for mix design purposes.
It is computed by adding the cumulative percentages of aggregate
retained on each of the specified series of sieves, and dividing the sum by
100 [smallest size sieve: No. 100 (150 m)].

For concrete sand, FM range is 2.3 to 3.1

Note: The higher the FM, the coarser the aggregate.

It is important to note that the fineness modulus is
just one number which only characterizes the average size of the
aggregate, and different grading may have the same fineness modulus.
Maximum Aggregate Size (MSA)

Definition (ASTM): It is the smallest sieve opening through which

the entire sample passes (or in practice only 5% retained on this
sieve.

MSA < 1/5 of the narrowest dimension of the form in which

concrete is to be placed.

Also: MSA < 3/4 of the minimum clear distance between the re-
bars

Nominal Max Size the largest size particle present significantly to affect
concrete properties.

It affects the paste requirements, optimum grading depends on MSA and

nominal max. size. The higher MSA, the lower the paste requirements for the
mix.

Aggregate size affects the following concrete properties: water demand,

cement content, microcracking (strength).
Surface Texture

The degree to which the aggregate surface is smooth or rough-

(based on visual judgement).
Depends on: rock hardness, grain size, porosity, previous exposure.
Aggregate shape and texture affect the workability of fresh concrete through
their influence on cement paste requirements.
Sufficient paste is required to coat the aggregates and to provide lubrication
to decrease interactions between aggregate particles during mixing.
Ideal particle is one close to spherical in shape (well rounded and compact)
with a relatively smooth surfaces (natural sands and gravels come close to
this ideal).
More angular shapes - rough surfaces interfere with the movement of
adjacent particles (less workable) They also have a higher surface to
volume ratio more paste.
Flat or elongated aggregates should be avoided.
Rough surface requires more lubrication for movement (crushed stone).
Shape can influence strength by increasing surface area available for bonding
with the paste.
Rough surfaces improve mechanical bond.
Irregular aggregates (angulars) higher internal stress concentrations
easier bond failure.
C. Soundness
Aggregate is considered unsound when volume changes in the
aggregate induced by weather, such as alternate cycles of wetting and
drying or freezing and thawing, result in concrete deterioration.
It Depends on: porosity and contaminants.

Pumice- (10% absorption) - no problem with freezing and thawing.

Limestone - breaks: use smaller aggregates (critical size) (critical

aggregate size: size below which high internal stresses capable of
cracking the particle will not occur)

Durability of Aggregates
Any lack of durability of the aggregate will have disastrous consequences
for the concrete.
Durability can be divided into physical and chemical causes.
Physical durability exposure to freezing and thawing, wetting and drying,
physical wear.
Chemical durability various forms of cement aggregate reactions (alkali
silica attack).
Physical Durability

Soundness: if volume changes accompanied with

environmental changes lead to the deterioration of
concrete unsoundness.
Volume changes: alternate freezing and thawing,
repeated wetting and drying internal stresses volume
increase.
Wear resistance: resistance to surface abrasion and
wear.

Chemical Durability

It results from a reaction between reactive silica in

aggregates and alkalis compounds contained in the
cement alkali-aggregate reaction.
 Tests on Aggregates

Bulk Density (ASTM C 29)

Defined as the weight of the aggregate particles that

would fill a unit volume. The term bulk is used since the
volume is occupied by both the aggregates and voids.
The typical bulk density used in making normal concrete
ranges from 1200 to 1750 kg/m3.

The void contents range between 30% to 45% for coarse

aggregate and 40% to 50% for fine aggregate. Void
content increases with angularity and decreases with
well graded aggregate.
Relative Density (Specific Gravity)

The relative density of an aggregate (ASTM C 127 and C

128) is defined is the ratio of its mass to the mass of an
equal absolute of water. It is used in certain computations
for mixture proportioning and control. Most natural
aggregates have relative densities between 2.4 and 2.9
(2400 and 2900 kg/m3).

The density of aggregate used in mixture proportioning

computations (not including the voids between particles) is
determined by multiplying the relative density of the
aggregate times the density of water (1000 kg/m3).
Absorption and Surface Moisture

The absorption and surface moisture of aggregates should be

determined using ASTM C 70, C127, C128, and C 566 so that the total
water content of the concrete can be controlled and the batch weights
determined. The moisture conditions of aggregates are:

1. Oven dry
2. Air dry
3. Saturated surface dry (SSD)
4. Damp or wet
Absorption levels
Aggregates Moisture content at SSD (%) Free water content (%)

Course 0.2 - 4 0.5 - 2

Fine 0.2 - 2 2-6

Wetting and Drying

Alternate wetting and drying can develop sever strain in

some aggregates, and with certain types of aggregate this
can cause a permanent increase in volume of concrete and
eventual breakdown. Clay lumps and other friable particles
can degrade when subjected to wetting and drying cycles.
Also, moisture swelling of clay and shales can cause
popouts in concrete.
Abrasion and Skid Resistance (ASTM C 131)

Abrasion resistance of an aggregate is used as a general index of

its quality. This characteristic is important when concrete is
going to be subjected to abrasion, as in heavy duty floors or
pavements.

Low abrasion resistance may increase the quantity of fines in the

concrete during mixing; and hence increases the water
requirement and require an adjustment in w/c ratio.

Los Angeles abrasion test as per ASTM C 131 is the most

common test for abrasion test.
Resistance to Acid and other Corrosive
Substances

Acid solutions (pH less than 6.0) attack the calcium

compounds of the cement paste, the rate of attack depends
on the acidity of the solution. Siliceous aggregates may not
be attacked by acidic solutions, however, calcareous
aggregates often reacts with acids resulting in reduction of
the solution acidity.

Other gases and salts may attack and disintegrate concrete.

Therefore, concrete structures subjected to harsh conditions
should be protected and aggressive agents should be
prevented from coming into contact with the concrete by
using protective
Fire Resistance and Thermal Properties
The fire resistance and thermal properties of concrete depend on
the mineral constituents of the aggregates. Lightweight
aggregates are more fire resistance than normal weight
aggregates due to their insulation properties.

Concrete containing calcareous coarse aggregates performs

better under fire exposure than siliceous aggregate (granite or
quartz).
Potentially Harmful Materials
Aggregates are potentially harmful if they contain compounds
known to react chemically with Portland cement and produce:

Volume change of the paste, aggregates, or both.

Affect the normal hydration of cement.

Harmful byproducts.

Harmful materials present in aggregates are listed in the below

Table.