Chapter 3
Unicellular organization does not allow division of
Cell Structure
Cells small structure
-physical framework w/in w/c a plants metabolism
occurs
(In plants)
Cell contains a box-like cell wall surrounding a mass of
protoplasm -> contains its own smaller parts
organelles (nuclei, mitochondria & chloroplasts)
Water & Salts absorbed from soil by root cells
-transported throughout the plant by cells of the
vascular tissue
Energy of sunlight used in leaf cells to convert CO2 &
H2O -> Carbohydrates
Plant reproduction based on cells & cell biology
Some cells in flowers produce pigments/nectar -
>attracts insects that carry pollen bet flowers ->
allowing sperm cells to contact egg cells
Differences bet organisms are due to diff. in
associations of their cells
Cell associations & minor modifications of the
cells change from tissue to tissue or organ to
organ
*Differences of cells are important
Multicellular organism organism composed of more
than one cell
-has several types specialized for diff tasks
Plant develops -> cells in various parts become
especially adapted for specific tasks = division of labor
Division of labor allows the entire organism to become
more efficient
-Each cell becomes more specialized -> depends more
on the others
-If a cell evolves toward having thick walls & offering
max protection -> rely on other cells for photosynthesis,
mineral absorption & reproduction
-Damage to one part result in the death of all cells; even
those not initially damaged
labor / specialization
-Each cell must perform all tasks: sensing the
environment, gathering nutrients, excreting wastes,
defense, movement & reproduction
-Cannot do any one well
-A cell dies only if it is damaged directly
Mutations makes a cell well adapted for protection
Selective advantage depends on environment:
Certain habitats: unicellular are better adapted
others: Multicellular survive better
Cell have a life span
Cell cycle (life cycle) cell size, shape & metabolic act
can change dramatically
-Cell is born as a twin when its mother cell divides;
producing two daughter cells
-Each daughter cell is smaller than the mother
-Sometimes, each grows until it becomes as large as
the mother cell
Cell absorbs water, sugars, amino acids & nutrients
-> assembles into new -> living protoplasm
Cell has grown to the proper size -> metabolism
shifts -> either -> prepares to divide or matures &
differentiates into a specialized cell
Growth & Development require a complex &
dynamic set of interactions involving all cell parts
Membranes
Eukaryotes (plants, animals, fungi & protists) contain
numerous organelles composed of membranes
Tasks in cell metabolism:
a. Regulates the passage of molecules into & out
of cells & organelles
b. Divide the cell into numerous compartments,
each w/ its own specialized metabolism -> acts
as surfaces that holds enzymes
Composition of Membranes:
Biological membranes composed of (60%) proteins &
(40%) two layers of phospholipid molecules
Phospholipids (if poured onto the surface of calm
water) -> forms single layer (monolayer ) -> due to their
hydrophilic ends -> forming hydrogen bonds to water
molecules & hydrophobic fatty acids projecting out of
the water
(if the water is agitated)
Lipid layer doubles (bilayer) in w/c all fatty acids are
away from water and all phosphate groups are in full
contact w/ it
Any break/tear in a bilayer membrane -> exposes
hydrophobic fatty acids to water -> membranes reseal
themselves after a rupture
Lipid bilayer very thin solution
If it contains several types of lipid, they diffuse laterally
throughout the membrane (not vertically from the
membrane -> surrounding solution) because they are
not bonded with each other
Most Proteins hydrophilic
-associate mostly w/ the phospholipid phosphates & w/
water
Other large hydrophobic proteins
-allows them to sink into the membrane
-associate w/ the fatty acids
Variations in proteins (hydrophilic & hydrophobic) ->
various proteins sit entirely on the membrane surface
(partly immersed) -> w/ either end projecting out of
opposite sides
^allows the protein to have its active site on either or
both sides of the membrane or within it
Protein may act as hydrophilic channel that permits
small hydrophilic molecules to pass through the
membrane
Intrinsic proteins proteins that are partially immersed
in the lipid bilayer
-contribute to the membranes fluid nature
-can diffuse laterally
Extrinsic proteins (peripheral proteins) located outside
the membrane
-lie next to it
Domains (complexes) interaction bet. Proteins &
adjacent proteins
-small discrete regions
-different from surrounding regions of the membrane
If all membrane components could freely diffuse
laterally, the membrane would become homogenous &
no differentiation could occur
Some proteins are bound to their neighbors,
membranes are heterogenous & patchy
(differentiation takes place)
Fluid mosaic membrane membrane that is a
heterogeneous liquid
8% -sugar in membranes
-occur as short-chain oligosaccharides (4-15 sugar
residues)
-bound to certain intrinsic proteins -> glycoproteins
-bound to lipids -> glycolipids (rare)
Properties of Membranes
1. They can grow
-Membranes are formed molecule by molecule
in certain regions of the cell; then entire pieces
of membrane are moved as small bubbles
(vesicles) to diff sites in the cell
When the vesicle of preformed membrane
arrives at the growing membrane -> the two
fuse
2. Membrane fusion
-allows the transport of material
-Volume inside the vesicle (lumen) may be filled
w/ substances that must be broken down at
vesicles destination
Exocytosis release of materials outside the cell
Endocytosis taking in of particles (produces
small invagination in the outer membrane)
3. Permeability
 -All biological membranes are selectively
permeable (differentially permeable) certain
substances cross the membrane more easily &
rapidly than others
-Membranes are more permeable to
hydrophobic subs than to anything that carries
an electric charge (due to large regions of lipid
in membranes)
-If charged compounds (inorganic salts, sugars
& amino acids) could not enter, cells would
starve
Facilitated diffusion
-movement of charged subs is assisted by large
intrinsic proteins that acts as hydrophilic
channels
Molecular pumps (proteins)
-bind to a molecule on one side of the
membrane -> w/ energy, the protein changes
shape & releases the molecule on the other side
Active transport active pumping
-cells accumulate subs until the interior
concentration of solute far exceeds the exterior
concentration
4. Compartmentalization
-formation of may compartments
-each specialized for a particular process
(producing a particular subs or using a
particular precursor)
Organelles compartments of cells
-surrounded by its own unique selectively
permeable membrane
-w/ different pumping capacities
*Protein channels & pumps made by nucleus
-their capacities & differences depend on the
nucleus
Freely permeable membrane allows
everything to pass through quickly
-useless for a cell
Impermeable membrane does not allow
anything to pass
-useless as well
5. Dynamic, constantly changing
-New components are constantly being inserted
& old ones removed
-Function of the cells = old & new components
are the same
-Changed function = newly inserted are
different from retracted ones
-Nature of the membrane changes -> nature of
the cells changes as well
Basic Cell Types
Prokaryotic cells simpler
-only in domains Bacteria (bacteria & cyanobacteria) &
Archaea (archaeans)
-does not have true nucles & membrane bound
organelles
-w/ one DNA w/o histone
Eukaryotic cells complex
-found in plants, animals, fungi & protists
-w/ true membrane bounded nucleus & organelles
(cause of diversity & complexity)
-w/ several DNA + histones
Plant cells
Cell develops -> certain organelles become modified &
more or less abundant -> none is lost completely
Protoplasm
-makes up all cells (pro or eu)
-mass of proteins, lipids, nucleic acids & water w/in a
cell
-everything in the cell except the wall
-protoplast protoplasm of a single cell
a. Plasma membrane (plasmalemma)
-completely covers he surface of the
protoplasm
-impermeable to harmful materials ; permeable
to beneficial materials = selectively permeable
 Molecular pumps in the p. membrane actively
transport needed molecules inward & pump others
outward for secretion
With different types of proteins in each sides (side
facing the environment & side facing the cell)
b. Nucleus (50%)
-permanent storage for DNA that carries
organisms genetic information
-carries out info retrieval by making copies of
specific parts of the DNA whenever that info is
needed
mRNA copy of specific parts of DNA that is needed
Nuclear envelope composed of an outer membrane &
an inner membrane
-separates nuclear material from the rest of the cell
-contains numerous nuclear pores
Nuclear pores involved in the transport of material
bet. the nucleus & the rest of the cell
-exert control over the movement of materials
If a nucleus is extracted from a cell & placed into water,
it swells -> pores prevent material from oozing out as
the nucleus absorbs water
Prokaryotes have no nuclear envelope; DNA is mixed w/
other cell content
Nucleoplasm complex association of DNA, enzymes &
other factors needed to maintain, repair & read DNA,
histone proteins (supports & interact w/ DNA), several
types of RNA & water and numerous subs (for nuclear
metabolism)
Nucleolus areas where the components of ribosomes
are synthesized & partially assembled
Each ribosome contains a large amount of rRNA copied
from ribosomal genes in the chromatin
c. Central Vacuole
-empty
-stores water, salts, visible crystals, starch,
protein bodies & granules materials
-expands until there is just one large central
vacuole as cell grows
-enlargement of vacuole causes the rapid
growth of the cell
-stores nutrients & waste products
Metabolic waste products are pumped across the
membrane & stored permanently in central vacuole
-digestive organelle (lysosome in animal cell)
-breaks down aged impaired organelles
Tonoplast vacuole membrane
Cytoplasm
a. Mitochondria (bet 1% & 25% of the cell volume)
-carries out cell respiration
-has its own DNA & ribosomes
Mitochondrial DNA circular
-lacks histones
Ribosomes small & resemble those found in
prokaryotes
ATP highly energetic & reactive
Cristae folds, large sheets/tubes
-for large number of enzymes
Matrix liquid
-where reactions that do not involve highly reactive
intermediates take place
Outer mitochondrial membrane gives shape & little
rigidity to the mitochondrion
-freely permeable
Inner mitochondrial membrane forms the cristae
-selectively permeable w/ numerous pumps & channels
b. Plastids
-group of dynamic organelles
-for plants & algae only
Photosynthesis green plastids chloroplasts
Diverse types of metabolism occur in other classes of
plastid: synthesis, storage & export of specialized lipid
molecules, storage of carbohydrates & iron, formation
of colors in some flowers & fruits

-site of synthesis of amino acids:
a. isoleucine, valine
b. phenylalanine, tryptophan & tyrosine
(contain aromatic rings)
c. lysine, threonine, methionine (derived from
aspartate)
Inner membrane
Outer membrane
w/ ribosomes & circular DNA w/o histones
Proplastids plastids of young
Chloroplasts proplastids exposed in sunlight
-green owing to the presence of the photosynthetic
pigment chlorophyll
Thylakoids membrane sheets
-project into the stroma
-where light dependent rx of photosynthesis occur
Granum stack of vesicles formed by thylakoids
-accumulates the protons (active transport of these is
the key feature of photosynthesis) from the stroma
Stroma inner fluid
-where light independent rx of photosynthesis occur
-where actual conversion of CO2 to carbohydrates
Chloroplasts larger than mitochondria
-50 chloroplasts per indiv leaf cell
-produce sugar faster (than the cell can use) when
photosynthesized; thus it is temporarily polymerized
into starch grains
Amyloplasts proplastids that cannot photosynthesized
-accumulate sugar & store it as starch that fills the
stroma
-can be converted to chloroplasts when exposed to
sunlight
Chromoplasts highly colored
-bright red, yellow or orange lipids
Plastoglobuli extensive, undulate system is present
-w/o grana
-lipid pigment present as discrete droplets
Leucoplasts w/o lipid pigments or chlorophyll
-colorless plastid (proplastids & amyloplasts)
Phytoferritin where iron in plants are stored
-stored in plastids
c. Ribosomes for protein synthesis
Polysome cluster of ribosomes bound by
mRNA
d. Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
-carries large molecules (proteins)
-system of narrow tubes & sheets of membrane
that form network throughout the cytoplasm
RER w/ ribosomes for protein synthesis
SER w/o ribosomes but with enzymes for lipid
synthesis
-abundant in cells that produce large amounts of fatty
acids
e. Dictyosomes modifies the materials secreted
by the cell
-stack of thin vesicles held together in a flat or
curved array
Cisterna wide thin vesicle
-formed when ER vesicles accumulate on one side of the
dictyosome then fuse together
-attached to dictyosome
Forming face first cisterna that is embedded deeply
Maturing face-where vesicles are released (contents
have been processed)
Golgi body / Golgi apparatus cup-shaped structure
-formed by several dictyosomes
inside: maturing face
outside: forming face & accumulated ER
Types of processing that may occur:
a. modification of the vesicles membrane or its content
b. alteration of the vesicles contents involves addition
of sugars to proteins -> glycoproteins
c. polymerization of sugars to polysaccharides used in
cell wall
Endomembrane System
-constituted by all membranes of the cell except the
inner mem of mitochondria & plastids
f. Microbodies
 1. Peroxisome
2. Glyoxysomes
-both isolate reactions that either produce or
use dangerous compound peroxide
-contains enzyme catalase (detoxifies peroxide
by converting it to water & oxygen)
Peroxisome involved in detoxifying certain by-products
of photosynthesis
-associated w/ chloroplasts
Glyoxysome only in plants
-involved in converting stored fats into sugars
-important during germination of fat-rich, oily seeds
(peanut, sunflower & coconut)
g. Cytosol (hyaloplasm)
-volume of cytoplasm
-mostly water, enzymes & numerous
precursors, intermediates & products of
enzymatic reactions
-w/ free ribosomes & skeletal structures
(microtubules & microfilaments)
h. Microtubules
-acts as cytoskeleton holding certain regions of
the cell surface back while other parts expand
-assemble into arrays like an antenna w/c either
catch vesicles & guide them to specific sites or
cover a region, thereby excluding the vesicles
-motility for both organelles & cell
Two Types of protein w/ globular tertiary structure:
1. Alpha-tubulin
2. Beta-tubulin
Associate as dimers called tubulin crystallize into a
straight tubule
Reversible process: When a microtubule is no longer
needed, it depolymerizes back into its component
monomers, w/c disperse into the cytosol until the cell
needs to assemble a new microtubule
Centriole made up of nine sets of three short
microtubules held together by protein spokes
-for organization & polymerization of the spindle
microtubules
-absent in plants
Cilia-shorter, in group
Flagella longer compared to cilia, single or sets of 2 or
4
-only the sperm cells have flagella (In plants)
Dynein arms convert chem energy of ATP into kinetic
energy
Cilia & Flagella both associated w/ basal body
Basal body appear to be identical to centrioles by
electron microscopy
-organize the formation of flagellar microtubules
i. Microfilaments constructed by assembly of
globular proteins (actin)
-narrower than microtubules
Storage Products:
-calcium oxalate
-calcium carbonate
Cell wall in all plant cells
-sperm cells of some seed plants lack one
-provides protection to protoplasm inside
-dynamic organelle
-non living portion in a plant cell (protoplasm living
portion)
-contains cellulose (insoluble) crystallizes ->microfibrils
Hemicellulose bound cellulose microfibrils & other
polysaccharides together
-produced in dictyosome & brought by dictyosome
vesicles
-deposited between the cellulose microfibrils & bind to
cellulose w/ hydrogen bonds -> solid structure that
resembles reinforced concrete
Middle lamella cementing substance between two
cells
-adhesive layer
-composed of pectic substances (3rd class of
polysaccharides)
Primary cell wall-thin wall
Secondary cell wall-deposited by protoplast
-bet the primary cell wall & the plasma membrane
-much thicker, impregnated w/ compound lignin (makes
the wall even stronger)

Lignin + hemicellulose > hemicellulose

Fungal Cells

1. Do not contain plastids of any type

2. Their walls contain chitin not cellulose

Chitin similar to cellulose (tough, inflexible & insoluble)

-contains nitrogen
-synthesized by a diff mechanism
-extremely narrow, long tubes w/ many tiny nuclei

Associations of Cells

-in multicellular organisms

Methods:

1. (Used by unicellular) A cell secretes specific

compounds that inform the surrounding cells
of what it is doing metabolically &
developmentally
2. Connections bet the cells

Plamodesmata intercellular bridges

Primary pit field particularly thin (clustered

plasmodesmata)

Symplast one interconnected mass

Water moves through cell walls by capillary action

Intercellular spaces causes the cells to not abut each

other

Apoplast spaces + cell wall

-acts as series of channels & spaces that permit the
rapid diffusion of gases (needed bec plants do not have
lungs)

Diffusion of gas-filled space is 10,000 times faster than

liquid-filled space

Apoplast + Symplast = entire plant