CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND

Milk is defined as the lacteal secretion obtained by the complete milking of one or more

mammalian animals. Although in other parts of the world a variety of animals are used for

sourcing of milk. In the U.S, almost all commercial milk comes from the cows. Milk is valued

because it is an important source of many nutrients required for the development and

maintenance of human body. (wadiary.com).

Milk is one of the most regulated foods available and one of the effective instruments used (in

the U.S) for assuring the quality and purity of milk is pasteurized milk ordinance(PMO) a set of

recommendations from the U.S public health service and the food and drug administration

(FDA).

The total world production of milk is estimated to grow from 692 million tons to 827

million tons by 2020, a 19% increase according to the global diary outlook report 2012. Figure

1.1 below shows the production map of milk as at 2010 reported by global diary report 2012.

Production is not expected to shift significantly. The U.S, India and the E.U member states are

the largest producers of milk in 2010 and are expected to remain so in 2020, while Russia, China

and Mexico are the largest importers of milk. U.S dairy farmers produced a record of 200

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 Figure1.1 showing the production of milk by the continents in the world (courtesy

of PMMI)

million tons of milk in 2012 due to their ability to successfully manage large herds and increase

per cow milk production. Milk production at diary operations are increasing due to some of the

following reasons ;

Advancements in equipment design

Access to higher quality yield

Changes in herd size and management

However, increase in automation and new technology have resulted in greater efficiencies and

economics of business scale at large dairy farms.

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 Some of the products produce during milk processing are as follows

Cheese

Yoghurt

Flavored milk

Evaporated milk

Condensed milk

Powdered milk

1.2 TYPES OF MILK

In the U.S the national milk processing board classified milk into the following ;

1.2.1 Reduced fat milk

Reduced fat milk is whole milk in which the milk fat level has been reduced from 3.25% to

2% (hence its popular name, 2% milk). Reduced fat milk contains about 38% less fat

than an equal serving of whole milk. Like whole milk, it must contain not less than 8.25%

milk solids not fat and is approximately 87%water. Reduced fat milk contains 120

calories and 5g of fat per 8-fluid oz. serving. Vitamins A and D are removed with the milk

fat, so they are added back to reduced fat milk (see Fortified milk, below).

1.2.2 Low fat milk

Low fat milk is whole milk in which the milk fat level has been reduced from 3.25% to 1%

(hence its popular name, 1% milk). Low fat milk contains about 69% less fat than an equal

serving of whole milk. Like whole milk, it must contain not less than 8.25% milk solids not fat

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and is approximately 87% water. Low fat milk contains 100 calories and 2.5g of fat per 8-fluid

oz. serving. Vitamins A and D are removed with the milk fat, so they are added back to low fat

milk (see Fortified milk, below).

1.2.3 Fat-free milk

Fat-free milk is often referred to as skim milk. Like whole milk, Fat-free milk is whole milk in

which the milk fat level has been reduced from 3.5% to essentially none (the PMO allows milk

fat residuals of up to .5%). Fat-free milk is often referred to as skim milk. Like whole milk, it

must contain not less than 8.25% milk solids not fat and is approximately 87% water. Fat-free

milk contains 80 calories and 0g of fat per 8-fluid oz. serving. Vitamins A and D are removed

with the milk fat, so they are added back to fat-free milk (see Fortified m

1.2.4 Flavored milk

Flavored milk is milk to which a flavoring such as cocoa or cocoa powder, strawberry or

vanilla extract and a sweetener have been added. Some manufacturers of flavored milk also

add stabilizers or thickening agents to improve taste and texture. Flavored milks are available in

whole, reduced fat, low fat and fat-free varieties. The addition of sweeteners adds calories to

flavored milk; for example, chocolate milk contains about 60 calories more than unflavored milk

per 8-fluid oz. serving. Like unflavored milk, flavored milk must contain not less than 8.25%

milk solids not fat and is approximately 87% water. It may also feature added Vitamins A

and/or D. There is no scientific evidence that the sweeteners in flavored milk contribute to

hyperactivity in children (Glinsmann, Irausquin and Park, Evaluation of health aspects of sugars

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contained in carbohydrate sweeteners, J. Nutr., 116(Suppl.), 1, 1986; White and Wolraich, Effect

of sugar on behavior and mental performance, Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 62(Suppl.), 242, 1995).

1.2.5 Cultured Buttermilk

Pasteurized or ultra-pasteurized fat-free or low fat milk with added fat-free dry milk solids can

also be made with whole fluid milk or reconstituted fat-free dry milk. (In the past, buttermilk was

a by-product of churning cream into butter.) Buttermilks pleasantly tart taste and smooth body is

produced by adding a safe, lactic acid-producing bacterial culture (usually Streptococcus lactis)

and incubating it at 68-72 degrees F until its acidity reaches 0.8-0.9% (pH 4.6). Salt in quantities

of 0.01-0.15% and citric acid or sodium citrate in amounts up to 0.2% may be added to enhance

taste. Buttermilk cultured with Lactobacillus bulgaricus for increased tartness is known as

Bulgarian buttermilk. Its name does not mean that it was manufactured in Bulgaria.

1.2.6 Evaporated milk

Evaporated milk is made by heating homogenized whole milk under vacuum to remove about

60% of its water, fortifying it with Vitamin D, standardizing its nutritive components to required

levels, canning and stabilizing. It is heat-treated (at 240-245 degrees F for 15 minutes) to sterilize

it for prolonged storage. The addition of Vitamin A is optional. Evaporated milk must contain

not less than 7.5% milk fat and 25% milk solids not fat. Evaporated milk requires no

refrigeration until its can is opened. Evaporated fat-free milk is similar to evaporated whole milk

except that it is made with fat-free milk and must contain not more than 0.5% milk fat or less

than 20% milk solids not fat.

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1.2.7 Sweetened condensed milk

Sweetened condensed milk is whole or fat-free milk with about 60% of its water removed and to

which a nutritive sweetener (usually sucrose)has been added. The sweetener amounting to 40-

45% by volume acts as a preservative. Sweetened condensed milk is typically used in candy

and dessert recipes. Since evaporated milk contains no sweetener, it cannot be substituted for

sweetened condensed milk. The latter must contain not less than 8% milk fat and not less than

28% milk solids not fat. Sweetened condensed fat-free milk (0.5% milk fat, 24% milk solids

not fat) is also available.

1.2.8 Whole dry milk

Whole dry milk is pasteurized whole fluid milk from which the water has been removed. On a

dry weight basis, whole dry milk contains between 26% and 40% milk fat and not less than 5%

moisture on a milk solids not fat basis. It has added Vitamin A and may also contain added

Vitamin D. Except for some loss of ascorbic acid, Vitamin B-6 and thiamin, drying has no

appreciable impact on the nutritive characteristics of the milk. Whole dry milk has limited retail

distribution; it is used mainly in processed foods such as infant formula, chocolate and candy.

Low fat dry milk is similar to whole dry milk except that it contains between 5% and 20% milk

fat on a dry weight basis. Fat-free dry milk (or non-fat dry milk) is pasteurized fat-free milk from

which the water has been removed. On a dry weight basis, fat-free dry milk contains not more

than 1.5% milk fat and not less than 5% by weight of moisture. Fat-free dry milk contains about

half of the calories of whole milk. Almost all fat-free dry milk is fortified with Vitamins A and

D. Instant fat-free dry milk is made of larger particles that dissolve more easily in water. To

earn the U.S. Extra Grade designation, instant fat-free dry milk must have a sweet, pleasing

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flavor and a natural color. It must also dissolve immediately upon contact with water. The low

moisture content of fat-free dry milk inhibits the multiplication of microorganisms so it can be

stored for longer periods.

1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE REPORT

The main objective of this report is to review the milk processing industry and with special

attention to the yoghurt production industry based on the available literature and industry

manuals.

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 CHAPTER TWO

2.1 MILK PROCESSING

2.1.1 Heat Treatments and Pasteurization

According to Pasteurized Milk Ordinance (PMO) of the US, Pasteurization is the high

temperature treatment technique that is applied to milk in order to increase its longevity,

denature harmful pathogens present within the milk and for further processing production

processes such as the production of yoghurt and cheese.

Pasteurization is carried out for the following reasons;

1. To increase milk safety for the consumer by destroying disease causing microorganisms

(pathogens) that may be present in milk.

2. To maintain the quality of milk products by destroying spoilage organisms and enzymes that

contribute to the reduced quality and shelf life of milk.

2.1.1.1 Pasteurization Conditions

Minimum pasteurization requirements for milk products are shown in table 1 below, and are

based on regulations outlined in the Grade A Pasteurized Milk Ordinance (PMO). These

conditions are determined to be the minimum processing conditions needed to kill Coxiella

burnetii, the organism that causes Q fever in humans , which is the most heat resistant pathogen

currently recognized in milk. Milk can be pasteurized using processing times and temperatures

greater than the required minimums.

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Pasteurization can be done as a batch or a continuous process. A vat pasteurizer consists of

temperature-controlled, closed vat. The milk is pumped into the vat, the milk is heated to the

appropriate temperature and held at that temperature for the appropriate time and then cooled.

The cooled milk is then pumped out of the vat to the rest of the processing line. Batch

pasteurization is still used in some smaller processing plants. The most common process used for

fluid milk is the continuous process.

The milk is pumped from the raw milk silo to a holding tank that feeds into the continuous

pasteurization system. The milk continuously flows from the tank through a series of thin plates

that heat up the milk to the appropriate temperature. The milk flow system is set up to make sure

that the milk stays at the pasteurization temperature for the appropriate time before it flows

through the cooling area of the pasteurizer. The cooled milk then flows to the rest of the

processing line. There are several options for temperatures and times available for continuous

processing of refrigerated fluid milk. Although processing conditions are defined for

temperatures above 200oF, they are rarely used because they can impart an undesirable cooked

flavor to milk.

Table 2.1: Pasteurization conditions used for milk products.

Pasteurization Typical Product Typical Storage Temperature Holding Time

Type

Batch,vat Viscous Refrigerated 145oF 30 minutes

products, or (62.8oC)

products with

more than 10%

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 fat or added

sweetener

Batch,vat 30 minutes

Batch,vat 30 minutes

Continuous, high 15 seconds

temperature short

time(HTST)

Continuous, high 15 seconds

temperature short

time(HTST)

Continuous, high 25 seconds

temperature short

time(HTST)

Continuous, high 15 seconds

temperature short

time(HTST)

Continuous, 15 seconds

higher heat

shorter time

(HHST)

Continuous, 1 second

higher heat

shorter time

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(HHST)

Continuous, 0.5 seconds

higher heat

shorter time

(HHST)

Continuous, 0.1 seconds

higher heat

shorter time

(HHST)

Continuous, 0.05 seconds

higher heat

shorter time

(HHST)

Continuous, 2 seconds

Ultra-

Pasteurization

Aseptic, ultra 4-15 seconds

high temperature

(UHT)

Sterilization 20 minutes

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2.1.2 Standardization

The fat content of milk varies with species (cow, sheep, goat, water buffalo), animal breed, feed,

stage of lactation, and other factors. In order to provide the consumer with a consistent product,

most milk in the US is standardized.

To achieve standardization, milk is processed through centrifugal separators to create a skim

portion and a cream portion of the milk. Separation produces a skim portion that is less than

0.01% fat and a cream portion that is usually 40% fat, although the desired fat content of the

cream portion can be controlled by changing settings on the separator. The cream portion is then

added back to the skim portion to yield the desired fat content for the product.

Common products are whole milk (3.25% fat), 2% and 1% fat milk, and skim milk (<0.1% fat).

2.1.3 Homogenization

The fat in milk is secreted by the cow in globules of non-uniform size, ranging from 0.20-2.0

micro meter. The non-uniform size of the globules causes them to float or cream to the top of the

container. Milk that is not homogenized is sometimes referred to as cream line milk.

Pasteurized milk does not necessarily need to be homogenized. However, homogenized milk

should be pasteurized to inactivate native enzymes that deteriorate fat (lipases) and cause

rancidity, which results in off-flavors and reduced shelf life in milk. The purpose of

homogenization is to reduce the milk fat globules size to less than 1.0 micro meter which allows

them to stay evenly distributed in milk. Homogenization is a high pressure process that forces

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milk at a high velocity through a small orifice to break up the globules. The result of

homogenization is the creation of many more fat globules of a smaller size. The native milk fat

globules are covered in a protein membrane that stabilizes the fat phase in the aqueous (water)

phase of milk. Although the milk fat globule membrane is disrupted during the homogenization

process, it spontaneously migrates back to the fat globules after homogenization. The new

globules created during homogenization are spontaneously coated by proteins in the skim phase

from the original milk fat globules.

2.1.4 Vitamin Fortification

Fluid milk is often fortified with vitamin A and vitamin D. The package label must declare when

milk is fortified.

Whole milk is considered a good source of vitamin A. Vitamin A is a fat soluble vitamin that is

found in the phase of milk. The vitamin A content that occurs naturally in 2%, 1% and skim milk

is less than in whole milk because of the lower fat levels. Nutritional concerns about

consumption of lower fat milk in the late 1970s led to the required fortification of vitamin A in

lower fat milks. To achieve the nutritional equivalence of whole milk, lower fat milks should be

fortified to 300 IU vitamin A per 8 oz serving. The FDA encourages fortification to a level of

500IU of vitamin A per 8 oz serving.

Vitamin D is a fat soluble vitamin that occurs naturally in milk but at low levels. Because milk is

not considered an important natural source of vitamin D in the diet, vitamin D fortification is

voluntary.

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Vitamin D helps with calcium absorption and is necessary for human health. It also has an

important role in bone health and has a protective effect in cancer.

CHAPTER THREE

3.0 YOGHURT PRODUCTION

3.1 Background

Yogurt is a dairy product, which is made by blending fermented milk with various ingredients

that provide flavor and color. Although accidentally invented thousands of years ago, yogurt has

only recently gained popularity in the United States.

It is believed that yogurt originated in Mesopotamia thousands of years ago. Evidence has shown

that these people had domesticated goats and sheep around 5000 B.C. The milk from these

animals was stored in gourds, and in the warm climate it naturally formed a curd. This curd was

an early form of yogurt. Eventually, a process for purposely producing yogurt was developed.

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While yogurt has been around for many years, it is only recently (within the last 30-40 years)

that it has become popular. This is due to many factors including the introduction of fruit and

other flavorings into yogurt, the convenience of it as a ready-made break-fast food and the image

of yogurt as a low fat healthy food.

Manufacturers have responded to the growth in the yogurt market by introducing many different

types of yogurt including low fat and no-fat, creamy, drinking, bio-yogurt, organic, baby, and

frozen. Traditional yogurt is thick and creamy. It is sold plain and in a wide assortment of

flavors. These are typically fruit flavors such as strawberry or blue-berry however, newer, more

unique flavors such as cream pie and chocolate have also been introduced. Cereals and nuts are

some-times added to yogurts. Yogurt makers also sell products with a varying level of fat. Low

fat yogurt, which contains between 0.5% and 4% fat, is currently the best selling. Diet no-fat

yogurt contains no fat at all. It also contains artificial sweeteners that provide sweetness whilst

still reducing calories. Creamy yogurt is extra thick, made with whole milk and added cream.

Drinking yogurt is a thinner product, which has a lower solids level than typical yogurt. Bio-

yogurt is made with a different type of fermentation culture and is said to aid digestion. Yogurt

that is made with milk from specially fed cows is called organic yogurt. This type of yogurt is

claimed to be more nutritious than other yogurts. Other types of yogurts include pasteurized

stirred yogurt that has extended shelf life, baby yogurt made specifically for children, and frozen

yogurt.

The yogurt itself has a generally aldehydic flavor, which is a result of the fermentation process.

Since it is made from milk, yogurt is rich in nutrients. It contains protein and vitamins and is a

rich source of calcium. In fact, a small container of yogurt contains as much calcium as a third of

a pint of milk. In addition to these nutritional characteristics, yogurt is also thought to have

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additional health benefits. One of the suggested benefits of yogurt is that it acts as a digestive

aid. In the body, it is thought that yogurt can encourage the growth of beneficial bacteria in the

gut. These organisms help to digest food more efficiently and protect against other, harmful

organisms. Another health benefit of yogurt is for people that are lactose intolerant. These people

have difficulty digesting milk products however, they typically can tolerate yogurt.

3.1.1 Raw Materials

In general, yogurt is made with a variety of ingredients including milk, sugars, stabilizers, fruits

and flavors, and a bacterial culture

Figure 3.1 Schematic representation of milk processing

When the milk arrives at the plant, its composition is modified before it is used to make yogurt.

This standardization process typically involves reducing the fat content and increasing the total

solids. Once modification occurs, it is pasteurized to kill bacteria and homogenized to

consistently disperse fat molecules.

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When the milk arrives at the plant, its composition is modified before it is used to make yogurt.

This standardization process typically involves reducing the fat content and increasing the total

solids. Once modification occurs, it is pasteurized to kill bacteria and homogenized to

consistently disperse fat molecules (Lactobacillus bulgaricus).During fermentation, these

organisms interact with the milk and convert it into a curd. They also change the flavor of the

milk giving it the characteristic yogurt flavor of which acetaldehyde is one of the important

contributors. The primary byproduct of the fermentation process is lactic acid. The acid level is

used to determine when the yogurt fermentation is completed which is usually three to four

hours. The suppliers of these yogurt cultures offer various combinations of the two bacterial

types to produce yogurts with different flavors and textures.

To modify certain properties of the yogurt, various ingredients may be added. To make yogurt

sweeter, sucrose (sugar) may be added at approximately 7%. For reduced calorie yogurts,

artificial sweeteners such as aspartame or saccharin are used. Cream may be added to provide a

smoother texture. The consistency and shelf stability of the yogurt can be improved by the

inclusion of stabilizers such as food starch, gelatin, locust-bean gum, guar gum and pectin. These

materials are used because they do not have a significant impact on the final flavor. The use of

stabilizers is not required however, and some marketers choose not to use them in order to retain

a more natural image for their yogurt.

To improve taste and provide a variety of flavors, many kinds of fruits are added to yogurt.

Popular fruits include strawberries, blueberries, bananas, and peaches, but almost any fruit can

be added. Beyond fruits, other flavorings are also added. These can include such things as

vanilla, chocolate, coffee, and even mint. Recently, manufacturers have become quite creative in

the types of yogurt they produce using natural and artificial flavorings.

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3.2 The Manufacturing Process

The general process of making yogurt includes modifying the composition of and pasteurizing

the milk; fermenting at warm temperatures; cooling it; and adding fruit, sugar, and other

materials.

3.2.1 Modifying milk composition

1 When the milk arrives at the plant, its composition is modified before it is used to make

yogurt. This standardization process typically involves reducing the fat content and

increasing the total solids. The fat content is reduced by using a standardizing clarifier

and a separator (a device that relies upon centrifugation to separate fat from milk). From

the clarifier, the milk is placed in a storage tank and tested for fat and solids content. For

yogurt manufacture, the solids content of the milk is increased to 16% with 1-5% being

fat and 11-14% being solids-not-fat (SNF). This is accomplished either by evaporating

off some of the water, or adding concentrated milk or milk powder. Increasing the solids

content improves the nutritional value of the yogurt, makes it easier to produce a firmer

yogurt and improves the stability of

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Figure 3.2 Equipment used for mixing

The milk substance is fermented until it becomes yogurt. Fruits and flavorings are added to the

yogurt before packaging the yogurt by reducing the tendency for it to separate on storage.

3.2.2 Pasteurization and homogenization

2 After the solids composition is adjusted, stabilizers are added and the milk is

pasteurized. This step has many benefits. First, it will destroy all the microorganisms in

the milk that may interfere with the controlled fermentation process. Second, it will

denature the whey proteins in the milk which will give the final yogurt product better

body and texture. Third, it will not greatly alter the flavor of the milk. Finally, it helps

release the compounds in milk that will stimulate the growth of the starter culture.

Pasteurization can be a continuous-or batch-process. Both of these processes involve

heating the milk to a relatively high temperature and holding it there for a set amount of

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 time. One specific method for batch process pasteurization is to heat a large, stainless

steel vat of milk to 185 F (85 C) and hold it there for at least 30 minutes.

3 While the milk is being heat treated, it is also homogenized. Homogenization is a

process in which the fat globules in milk are broken up into smaller, more consistently

dispersed particles. This produces a much smoother and creamier end product. In

commercial yogurt making, homogenization has the benefits of giving a uniform product,

which will not separate. Homogenization is accomplished using a homogenizer or

viscolizer. In this machine, the milk is forced through small openings at a high pressure

and fat globules are broken up due to shearing forces.

3.2.3 Fermentation

4 When pasteurization and homogenization are complete, the milk is cooled to between

109.4-114.8 F (43-46 C) and the fermentation culture is added in a concentration of

about 2%. It is held at this temperature for about three to four hours while the incubation

process takes place. During this time, the bacteria metabolizes certain compounds in the

milk producing the characteristic yogurt flavor. An important byproduct of this process is

lactic acid.

5 Depending on the type of yogurt, the incubation process is done either in a large tank of

several hundred gallons or in the final individual containers. Stirred yogurt is fermented

in bulk and then poured into the final selling containers. Set yogurt, also known as French

style, is allowed to ferment right in the container it is sold in. In both instances, the lactic

acid level is used to determine when the yogurt is ready. The acid level is found by taking

a sample of the product and titrating it with sodium hydroxide. A value of at least 0.9%

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 acidity and a pH of about 4.4 are the current minimum standards for yogurt manufacture

in the United States. When the yogurt reaches the desired acid level, it is cooled,

modified as necessary and dispensed into containers (if applicable).

3.2.4 Adding other ingredients

6 Fruits, flavors, and other additives can be added to the yogurt at various points in

manufacturing process. This is typically dependent on the type of yogurt being produced.

Flavor in non-fruit yogurts are added to the process milk before being dispensed into

cartons. Fruits and flavors can also be added to the containers first, creating a bottom

layer. The inoculated milk is then added on top and the carton is sealed and incubated. If

the fruit is pasteurized, it can be added as a puree to the bulk yogurt, which is then

dispensed into containers. Finally, the fruit can be put into a special package, which is

mixed with plain yogurt upon consumption.

7 The finished yogurt containers are placed in cardboard cases, stacked on pallets, and

delivered to stores via refrigerated trucks.

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Figure 3.3 flow chart for the production of yoghurt

3.3 Quality Control

Milk products such as yogurt are subject to a variety of safety testing. Some of these include tests

for microbial quality, degree of pasteurization, and various forms of contaminants. The microbial

quality of the incoming milk is determined by using a dye reaction test. This method shows the

number of organisms present in the incoming milk. If the microbial count is too high at this

point, the milk may not be used for manufacture. Since complete pasteurization inactivates most

organisms in milk, the degree of pasteurization is determined by measuring the level of an

enzyme in the milk called phosphatase. Governmental regulations require that this test be run to

ensure that pasteurization is done properly. Beyond microbial contamination, raw milk is subject

to other kinds of contaminants such as antibiotics, pesticides or even radioactivity. These can all

be found through safety testing and the milk is treated accordingly.

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In addition to safety tests, the final yogurt product is also evaluated to ensure that it meets the

specifications set by the manufacturer for characteristics such as pH, rheology, taste, color, and

odor. These factors are tested using various laboratory equipment such as pH meters and

viscometers and also human panelists.

3.4 The Future of yoghurt manufacturing

The future of yogurt manufacturing will focus on the development of new flavors and longer

lasting yogurts. The introduction of new flavors will be driven by consumer desires and new

developments by flavor manufacturers. The suppliers of the bacterial cultures are conducting

research that hints at the development of uniquely flavored yogurts. By varying the types of

organisms in the cultures, yogurt is produced much faster and lasts longer than conventional

yogurt.

Additionally, the nutritional aspects of yogurt will be more thoroughly investigated There is

some evidence that has shown consumption of yogurt has a beneficial antibiotic effect. It has

also been shown to reduce the incidence of lactose intolerance and other gastro-intestinal

illnesses. Other purported benefits of yogurt include the reduction of cholesterol, protection

against certain cancers, and even boosting the immune system. The research is still not complete

on these benefits however, these factors will likely be important in the continued market growth

of yogurt.

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REFERENCES

Chandan,R. Dairy-Based Ingredients. 1997.Amer.Assoc.Cereal

Chem.Egan Press, St.Paul,MN.

Executive summary and market perspective report 2013 by the

Association for packaging and processing technologies (PMMI) in

the U.S.

Goff,D. Dairy Science and Technology Education. University of

Guelph, Canada.

Hall,C.W., and G.M. Trout. Milk Pasteurization.1968.AVI Publ.

Co., Inc., Wesport, CT.

National Milk Processor Promotion Board report 2012. U.S. Food

& Drug Administration. (www.fda.gov)

U.S. Dept Of agriculture and nutrition

information(www.choosemyplate.gov)

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