Relationships between WORK, HEAT, and ENERGY

Consider a force, F, acting on a block sliding on a

frictionless surface

x x1 x2
Frictionless
F surface
M

v v
dv
M =F
dt
dv
M = Fx = F ; v = mass velocity in x direction
dt
dv dv dx dv
F=M = M = M v
dt dx dt dx
Fdx = Mvdv
Integrating both sides from block position 1 to 2
2 2

Fdx = M vdv
1 1

2
Mv22 Mv12
Fdx = W1 2 = KE
1 2 2

Fdx is the energy transferred to the block in the process

work done W1-2 by force F

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Consider an object falling in a gravitational field

m F=mg

y h1
h2

2 v v 2
W1 2 = F dy = (mg )dy = mg (h1 h2 )
1 1

Gravity has the potential to do work and the quantity

mgh is therefore called the potential energy

Work done by gravity results in a drop in potential energy

of the object

since W1 2 = KE (see previous example)

mv22 mv12
mg (h1 h2 ) = PE = KE
2 2

Mass PE is converted to KE via the work done by gravity

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Energy Transfer by Work

In general, work done is evaluated by

2v v
W1 2 = F ds
1

Work is a means of transferring energy, it does not refer

to what is being transferred or stored within the system.

The value of W1 2 depends on the details of the

interaction taking place between the system and the
surroundings during a process, e.g., F(s), and not just the
initial and final state

By definition a state property is evaluated at a specific

time and is independent of the process

energy is a property of the system

work is not a property of the system

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The differential of a property is exact since it is
independent of details of the process, e.g.,
2
dE = E 2 E1
1

Differential of work is inexact, the following integral

cant be evaluated without knowing details of the process
2 2
W = W not W = W2 W1
1 1

The work done over a period of time is:

v v 2 v dsv
2 2 v
W = F ds = F dt = (F v )dt
v
1 1 dt 1

v
where v is velocity

The rate of energy transfer by work is called power and

is denoted by W& . In general,
v v
&
W = F v

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 Expansion and Compression Work

Consider the expansion of the gas in a piston-cylinder

assembly ( Pp is average pressure on piston face)

Pp
Pp

x Piston Area A
x1 x2

2 v v 2 2
W1 2 = F ds = ( Pp A)dx = Pp dV
1 1 1

For a slow or quasi-equilibrium process all the states

through which the system passes are considered
equilibrium states and thus the intensive properties, i.e.,
pressure, are uniform throughout the system PP = Pgas , so

V2

W1 2 = Pgas dV
V1

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 Graphical Interpretation:

P1 State 1
W=PdV
Process
Pressure path

P2 State 2

V1 dV V2 Volume

x1 x2

W = PdV shaded area

2 V2
W1 2 = W = PdV total area under curve
1 V1

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Consider two processes with the same start and end state

P1 State 1 Path 1

Path 2

P2 State 2

V1 V2

Since the area under each curve is different the amount of

work done for each path is different.
V2 V2
( PdV ) path 1 ( PdV ) path 2
V1 V1

Work done depends on the path taken and not just the
value of the end states.

Work is not a property!

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Polytropic Compression and Expansion

The pressure-volume relationship can be described by

PVn= constant c n= constant

The work done is:

V2
c
V2 V2

W1 2 = PdV = ( n )dV = (cV n )dV

V1 V1 V V1

V2 V1
1 n 1 n
V V2
1 n

= c V1 = c
1 n 1 n

but c=PV
1 1
n
= PV
2 2
n

= PV
V 1 n
V 1 n
PV ( PV n
)V 1 n

=
n 2 2 2 2 1
W1 2 2 2
2 1

1 n 1 n

PV PV1 1
W1 2 = 2 2 n 1
1 n

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For n=1 P = c/V

c
V2 V2 V2
W1 2 = PdV = dV =c[lnV ]
V1 V1 V V1

V2
= c(lnV2 lnV1 ) = c ln
V1
V
W1 2 = P1V1 ln 2 n=1
V1

Special case:

For n = 0 P=c constant pressure process

V2

W1 2 = PdV = P(V2 V1 ) n=0

V1

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Spring Potential Energy

F
F spring force = kx
k spring constant (N/m)
x displacement from
x relaxed position

2v v 2 kx 2 x2
W1 2 = F ds = ( kx )dx =
1 1 2 x1
1
= k ( x22 x12 )
2

1 2
Spring PE = kx
2

The spring potential energy can be grouped in with

gravitational potential energy.

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Other forms of Energy

In engineering, the change in total energy of a system is

considered to be made up of macroscopic contributions
such as changes in KE and gravitational PE of the system
as a whole relative to an external coordinate frame and
Internal Energy, U.

E2- E1= (KE2- KE1) + (PE2- PE1) + (U2- U1)

Consider the vigorous stirring of a fluid in a well

insulated tank

Well insulated
Electric
motor W
Fluid system

Energy is transferred into the system via work by the

paddle wheel, results in an increase in the system energy.

E2- E1= (KE2- KE1) + (PE2- PE1) + (U2- U1)= W

This transferred energy does not increase the KE or PE of

the system.

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The change in system energy can be accounted for in
terms of internal energy of the fluid.

Changes in internal energy for solids, liquids, and gases

are evaluated using empirical data, e.g. U = f(T)

Microscopic Interpretation of Internal Energy

Energy is attributed to the motions and configuration of

the individual molecules, atoms and subatomic particles
making up the matter in the system.

Energy on molecular level associated with:

- Translation
- Rotation
- Vibration
- Molecular bonds

Energy on atomic level:

- Electron orbital states
- Nuclear spin
- Nuclear binding

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Conservation of Energy for Closed System

A closed system can interact with its surroundings via

work as well as thermally

Energy can be transferred between the system and the

surroundings by thermal (heat) interactions

A process that involves work interactions but does not

involve thermal interactions is called an adiabatic
process

A process that involves thermal interactions is called a

nonadiabatic process

It has been shown experimentally that the net work done

by, or on, a closed system undergoing an adiabatic
process depends solely on the end states and not on the
details of the process.

E2 E1 = -Wad

Sign convention for energy transfer by work:

Work done by the system is positive

Work done on the system is negative

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For a quasi-equilibrium adiabatic gas compression or
expansion process the value of the polytropic exponent n
is fixed (n =1.4 for air) and thus the area under the curve
(work done) depends only on the end states

P1 1
Adiabatic path
PV1.4 = const (air)

P2 2

V1 V2
Consider an adiabatic process and nonadiabatic process
between the same two end states 1 and 2
P1 1 Adiabatic (only work)
PV1.4 = const.

Nonadiabatic (work and heat)

PVn = const.

P2 2

V1 V2

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Since the area under the two curves is different the work
done for each path is different, so Wad Wnonad

Since the end states for both processes are the same the
system would experience exactly the same energy change
in each of the processes, so
(E2 E1)ad = (E2 E1)nonad = E2 E1

We know the energy change for the adiabatic process is

E2 E1 = -Wad

But since Wad Wnonad we can infer that

E2 E1 -Wnonad

Since energy must be conserved the net energy transferred

to the system in both processes must be the same. It
follows that the heat interaction in the nonadiabatic
process must involve energy transfer. The amount of
energy transferred to the closed system by heat is Q

E2 E1 = -Wnonad + Q

The First Law of Thermodynamics states:

E2 E1 = Q - W

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Energy Transfer by Heat

The quantity Q in the First Law accounts for any energy

transferred to a closed system during a process by means
other than by work.

Such energy transfer Q is induced only as a result of a

temperature difference between the system and the
surroundings and occurring in the direction of decreasing
temperature, e.g. heat transfer: conduction, convection,
radiation

Sign convention for energy transfer by heat:

Heat transfer to the system is positive

Heat transfer from the system is negative

Consider the immersion of a lump of hot metal initially at

Tm into a colder fluid at Tf

Tm Tm > Tf

Tf Tf
Q
TmTf

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Because the metal is at a higher temperature than the fluid
energy is transferred from the metal to the fluid, Q is
negative.

Since there is no work done and the change in KE and PE

is negligible, the amount of heat transferred from the
metal to the fluid is equal to the decrease in the metal
internal energy,

U + KE + PE = Q W

U2 - U1 = (-Q) or Q = U1 U2

Just like work, heat is not a property and the amount of

energy transfer depends on the process details, therefore
2
Q1 2 = Q
1

The rate of heat transfer is denoted by Q& and the total

energy transferred via heat over a period of time is
2
Q1 2 = Qdt
&
1

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