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Section 1

Introduction to Stimulation

Table of Contents
Introduction................................................................................................................................................1-3
How This Course is Organized ..............................................................................................................1-3
Study Suggestions ..................................................................................................................................1-4
The Purpose of Stimulation in an Oil Well................................................................................................1-5
Delivering Quality and Value.................................................................................................................1-5
Halliburton and the Drilling of an Oil Well ...............................................................................................1-6
Drilling Operations.................................................................................................................................1-6
Running Drill Pipe .................................................................................................................................1-6
Running Surface Casing.........................................................................................................................1-7
Cementing ..............................................................................................................................................1-8
Tripping In............................................................................................................................................1-10
Running and Cementing Intermediate Casing......................................................................................1-10
Drilling To Final Depth........................................................................................................................1-10
Completing the Well ............................................................................................................................1-10
Setting Production Casing ....................................................................................................................1-11
Perforating............................................................................................................................................1-11
Installing the Completion System ........................................................................................................1-12
Sand Control.........................................................................................................................................1-12
Installing the Christmas Tree ...............................................................................................................1-12
Acidizing ..............................................................................................................................................1-13
Fracturing .............................................................................................................................................1-13
Historical Background of Stimulation .....................................................................................................1-14
History of Acidizing.............................................................................................................................1-14
History of Hydraulic Fracturing ...........................................................................................................1-14
Halliburton Energy Services Vision and Mission....................................................................................1-16
HES 2003 Vision Statement.................................................................................................................1-16
Production Enhancement Vision and Guiding Principles ....................................................................1-16
HES Mission Statement .......................................................................................................................1-17
General Safety and Work Guidelines.......................................................................................................1-18
Stimulation Job Descriptions (Frac/Acid)................................................................................................1-20
Oilfield Terms, Slang, and Acronyms .....................................................................................................1-22
Common Oilfield Terms ......................................................................................................................1-22
Common Oilfield Acronyms ................................................................................................................1-35
Common Halliburton Acronyms ..........................................................................................................1-38
Unit A Quiz ..........................................................................................................................................1-40
Answer Key .............................................................................................................................................1-41

11 Stimulation I
2005, Halliburton
Introduction to Stimulation

Use for Section notes

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Introduction to Stimulation

Introduction
Welcome to Halliburtons Production your enrollment and can assist you in
Enhancement (PE) Product Service Line (PSL). completing the course.
Halliburton is the world leader in oil and gas
well stimulation, both in market position and
customer perception. Consistently ranked How This Course is Organized
number one in value by independent surveys of
oil and gas customers, the Production Familiarize yourself with the way this workbook
Enhancement PSL provides excellent value for is organized. You will find a table of contents at
oil and gas operators throughout the world. the beginning of each section, followed by an
Halliburton helped to pioneer well fracturing introduction, a list of topic areas, and the
back in 1949. learning objectives for that section.
Halliburton's PE PSL encompasses the Each section in this workbook contains several
technologies and capabilities to optimize units. Each unit contains all the information you
hydrocarbon reservoir performance through a need. Other manuals or catalogs are not
variety of approaches generally based on necessary, with the possible exception of a Red
pressure pumping services. The PSLs reservoir Book and dictionary. Each unit is made up of
focus drives technology development in fluids, text, figures to help explain the text (pictures,
materials, and equipment. Included in the PE drawings charts, etc.), and a unit quiz. When you
PSL are Stimulation (fracturing and acidizing), complete all the units in a section, you complete
Sand Control, Coiled Tubing, Well Control / a self-check test. Both the quizzes and tests will
Hydraulic Workover (HWO), Nitrogen Services, help you check your personal progress. The time
and Pipeline and Process Services. This course you spend on each unit is not important; it is
primarily covers only Stimulation. important that you learn and retain the content.
This course is your introduction to the well At the end of every section are the answers to all
stimulation process: what it is, why is it done, unit quizzes and the self-check tests. After you
and how we do it. From this course, you will complete a quiz or a test, refer to the appropriate
learn many new terms, types of equipment, types answer key. Let your supervisor know when you
of materials, and processes. By completing this complete a section. Then you will take a written
course, you will be able to more effectively test that is graded. This section test is based
communicate with others in the PSL and at the solely upon the information in your workbook.
job site, be better able to participate in However, you cannot use your workbook as a
stimulation jobs, and be prepared to take on reference while taking the test.
more responsibility. You will start to become an Successful completion of all the section tests and
invaluable person who can deliver the Customer a comprehensive final examination makes you
Service that has been a Halliburton tradition for eligible to attend the next level course.
more than 80 years.
For more information on a subject covered in
Take time to carefully read this introduction. It your workbook, let your resource personnel
will acquaint you with this course and suggest know of your interest they can direct you to
ways to get the most out of it. more information.
This workbook allows you to learn at your own
speed, without an instructor, and at any time or
place that may be convenient for you. Your
immediate supervisor is normally responsible for

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Introduction to Stimulation

Study Suggestions Check your answers against the answer key.


Reread the parts of the text that relate to the
This course was planned to make learning as items you are unsure about or you have
easy as possible. However, to retain the answered incorrectly. Don't forget, if you
knowledge, you must put forth effort. are having trouble, or if you feel your
Remember, the responsibility for learning this response is equally correct, consult your
course is yours. resource personnel.

Keep your workbook available at all times; you When you work through all the units in a
never know when you might have the section, you will be ready to take the self-check
opportunity to work on a unit. Try and set aside test for that section. Go back through all the
enough time to complete an entire unit during a units to review what you have learned. Your
study period. completed unit quizzes should also be helpful
here.
Some study suggestions include
If you are having trouble choosing or calculating
Review both the section and unit an answer, go to the next question. At the end of
introductions. They will very briefly the test, go back to the questions you didn't
describe what is in the unit. answer and try again. Remember, you are not
competing with anyone but yourself. Take your
Skim through the unit. Look at the figures
time and do your best.
and headings to see what's familiar to you
and what isn't. They will tell you what to When you finish a self-check test, turn to the
expect. answer key at the end of the section to check
your answers. References are provided as to
Read the content carefully. Go back to the
where the answers can be found. Make sure that
beginning of the unit and read the content,
you understand the correct answers before
paragraph by paragraph. Study the figures. If
proceeding to another section. Check with your
you are unfamiliar with the meaning of a
resource personnel if you feel the response you
word, look it up in a dictionary.
gave is correct. Don't forget to let your program
Check your understanding. Try to put into coordinator know that you have completed the
your own words the paragraph you have just section.
read. Go back and underline or make notes Upon completion of a section, ask your
of important points. This will help you to supervisor any questions you might have before
review the content of the unit later. taking the in-class section test. Successful
Review the unit. At the end of each unit, take completion of the test enables you to move on to
a few minutes to look over your notes. the next section. Remember that successful
completion of all in-class section tests and the
Take the unit quiz. Try not to refer to the comprehensive course final examination enables
text when you are filling in the blanks in the you to be enrolled in the appropriate next level
unit quiz. Write your answers in your school.
workbook.

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Introduction to Stimulation

The Purpose of Stimulation in an Oil Well


After an oil or gas well is drilled, the wellbore Fluid type
pressure is reduced to less than the oil or gas
bearing formation. This higher formation Viscosity requirements
pressure forces the oil or gas to the wellbore, Fluid rheology
where it then travels to the surface. Sometimes,
the flow of oil or gas (well production or Fluid Safety
productivity) is too small for the operator to Economics of the fluid
make any profit. If the reservoir does contain
enough oil or gas to make it commercially Proppant selection
sufficient, then the problem may be formation Material availability
damage near the wellbore caused during the
drilling process or be a formation with low Experience with local formations
permeability (ability to allow flow). In either Laboratory data on the formation
case, the flow needs to be stimulated.
In fact, Halliburton tailors the treatment fluid
Stimulation treatments include both acidizing specifically to the reservoir. The results are
and hydraulic fracturing. Acidizing refers to the minimized damage and maximized results.
use of acid pumped into the oil-bearing Whether the application calls for linear gels,
formation to dissolve parts of the formation so crosslinked gels, viscosified oils, or foam, we
that oil (or gas) can flow more easily to the well. have the experience and knowledge to design,
Hydraulic fracturing refers to pumping a fluid prepare, and carry out the stimulation operation.
into the formation at sufficiently high pressures
so that the formation rock actually cracks, again
creating paths for the fluid to flow. These cracks
may be further etched with acid or have a
proppant (such as Ottawa sand) pumped into
them to prop the cracks open after the pressure is
released (Figure 1.1).

Delivering Quality and Value

Halliburtons challenge is to create an


economical fluid that easily and safely transports
the required proppant into the fracture. The fluid
must then break and be recovered from the
fracture, allowing the proppant pack to produce
unimpeded by the placement fluid. Our solutions
include the wide range of Fracturing Fluid
Systems. Halliburton has long been the industry
leader in giving the most value from the
stimulation treatment by increasing hydrocarbon
production from the formation. We must
consider all of the design requirements
necessary for a successful job including: Figure 1.1 - Stimulation increases the flow
of oil or gas from the reservoir to the well.

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Halliburton and the Drilling of an Oil Well


To begin, an oil company (called an operating add a new joint of drill pipe as the hole
company or the operator, such as Shell, Texaco, deepens
or BP-Amoco) must locate areas where there is a
good potential for hydrocarbons to be found (an trip the drill string out of the hole to put on a
oil or gas reserve). To do this, they examine the new bit and running it back to bottom
geology and conduct other tests (such as help run and cement casing, which is steel
seismic) using Reservoir Engineers, Geologists, pipe that is put into the hole at various,
Geophysicists, and Petrophysicists from their predetermined intervals.
own staff or using a contractor such as
Halliburtons Reservoir Description PSL. If the Often, special casing crews are hired to run the
potential exists, the operator must then acquire casing, and usually a cementing company is
the right to drill by buying or leasing the land. called on to place cement around the casing to
bond it in place in the hole. Still, the rig crew
The operator will then hire a drilling contractor usually assists in casing and the cementing
to actually drill the well (such as Parker Drilling operation.
or Santa Fe International). The operator may
manage the whole drilling project or they may For drilling to be effective, a special fluid (called
hire a contractor to manage it, such as drilling mud) must be used to carry away the
Halliburtons Integrated Solutions PSL. Before drill cuttings and lubricate and cool the drill bit.
drilling can begin, the operating company must The industrys top provider of drilling fluids is
determine the following: Halliburtons BAROID PSL. Also, Halliburtons
Security DBS PSL is one of the top providers of
How deep is the reservoir (the depth of an drilling bits. And if the well is to be drilled at an
oil or gas well can range from a few hundred angle other than straight down (called a
to more than 20,000 feet)? deviated well), a subcontractor with the
specialized equipment and knowledge may be
What kind of pressures will be encountered?
brought in, such as Halliburtons Sperry-Sun
What will be the cost? Drilling Services.
How will the reservoir be controlled?
Will this well be profitable? Running Drill Pipe
The operator must also hire a service and supply
company (such as Halliburton) to provide The drill bit is made up (screwed on) the bottom
drilling mud and bits, casing and casing end of the first drill collar which is heavy wall
attachments, cementing, and measuring and pipe (Figure 1.2) Enough collars and drill pipe
testing services. are made up and lowered in (called tripping in)
until the bit is almost to bottom. Then, the kelly
is attached. (kelly is a four- or six-sided piece of
Drilling Operations pipe that fits into the kelly bushing, which fits
into the master bushing in the rotary table
(Figure 1.3). The rotary table is the part of the
Simply stated, the drilling rig crews normal
derrick floor that spins the drill pipe. The system
drilling operations are to:
is like a wrench turning a bolt.) The drill string
keep a sharp bit on bottom, drilling as then starts to rotate and weight is applied to drill
efficiently as possible the hole. (The bit is allowed to contact the
bottom of the hole.)

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casing, which is large in diameter and, like all


casing, is nothing more than steel pipe and
comes in 30- or 40-ft lengths (Figure 1.4).
Running casing into the hole is very similar to
running drill pipe, except that the casing
diameter is much larger and thus requires special
elevators, tongs, and slips to fit it. For example,
in a 17 1/2-in. hole, 13 3/8-in. casing might be
used.

Figure 1.2 - Drill bit.

Figure 1.4 - Casing.

Also, devices called centralizers and scratchers


(Figure 1.5) are often installed on the outside of
the casing before it is lowered into the hole.
Centralizers are attached to the casing and, since
they have a bowed-spring arrangement, keep the
casing centered in the hole after it is lowered in.
Centralized casing can be better cemented in the
Figure 1.3 - Kelly, kelly bushing, and rotary hole. Scratchers also help make better cement
table. jobs by removing the wall cake formed by the
drilling mud as the casing is moved up and down
or rotated (depending on scratcher design)
When near the end of the pipe, rotation is allowing the cement to better bond to the
stopped and another section of pipe is attached. formation.
This continues until the desired depth is reached Other casing accessories include a guide shoe, a
or the drill bit must be replaced. Then the drill heavy steel and concrete piece attached to the
pipe is picked up and disassembled (called bottommost joint of casing that helps guide the
tripping out), the new bit is attached, and the casing past small ledges or debris in the hole;
string is tripped back into the hole. and a float collar, a device with a valve installed
in the casing string two or three joints from
bottom. A float collar is designed to serve as a
Running Surface Casing receptacle for cement plugs and to keep drilling
mud in the hole from entering the casing as it is
At predetermine times, the drill pipe is removed run into the hole. Just as a ship floats in water,
and the casing crew moves in to do its work. The casing floats in a hole full of mud (if mud is kept
first string of casing they run is called surface out of the casing). This buoyant effect helps

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Introduction to Stimulation

relieve some of the weight carried on the mast or equipment to handle this material in bulk. Bulk
derrick as the long string of heavy casing hangs cement storage and handling equipment is
suspended in the hole. moved out to the rig, making it possible to mix
large quantities of cement at the site. The
cementing crew mixes the dry cement with
water, using a recirculating mixer (Figure 1.6).
The dry cement is gradually added to the tub,
and a jet of water thoroughly mixes with the
cement to make slurry (very thin, watery
cement).

Figure 1.6 - Cement Recirculating Mixer


(RCM).

Special pumps pick up the cement slurry and


send it up to a valve called a cementing head
(also called a plug container) mounted on the
topmost joint of casing that is hanging in the
mast or derrick a little above the rig floor
(Figure 1.7). Just before the cement slurry
arrives, a rubber plug, called the bottom plug
(Figure 1.8), is released from the cementing
head and precedes the slurry down the inside of
the casing. The bottom plug stops or seats in
the float collar, but continued pressure from the
cement pumps opens a passageway through the
bottom plug (by rupturing a diaphragm). Thus,
. the cement slurry passes through the bottom
Figure 1.5 Scratcher and centralizer plug and continues on down the casing. The
slurry then flows out through the opens in the
guide shoe and starts up the annular space
between the outside of the casing and wall of the
hole. Pumping continues and the cement slurry
Cementing fills the annular space.
A top plug, which is similar to the bottom plug
After the casing string is run, the next task is for
except that it is solid, is released as the last of
Halliburton to cement the casing in place. As
the cement slurry enters the casing. The top plug
when casing is run, the rig crew is available to
follows the remaining slurry down the casing as
assist.
displacement fluid (usually water or drilling
Halliburton stocks various types of cement and mud) is pumped in behind the top plug.
cement additives and has special transport Meanwhile, most of the cement slurry flows out

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Introduction to Stimulation

of the casing and into the annular space. By the


time the top plug seats on or bumps the
bottom plug in the float collar, which signals (by
an increase in pressure) the cementing pump
operator to shut down the pumps, the cement is
only in the casing below the float collar and in
the annular space. Most of the casing is full of
displacement fluid.

Figure 1.8 - Top and bottom plugs for


cementing.

Figure 1.7- Plug container

After the cement is run, a waiting time is allotted


to allow the slurry to harden. This period of time
is referred to as waiting on cement (WOC).
After the cement hardens, tests may be run to
ensure a good cement job.
After the WOC and tests indicate that the job is
good, the rig crew attaches or nipples up the
blowout preventer (BOP) stack to the top of the
casing (Figure 1.9). The BOP stack is
pressure-tested, and drilling is resumed with a
smaller bit that fits inside the surface casing.
Figure 1.9 - Blowout preventer (BOP).

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Tripping In such as 7 7/8-in. for our example. This bit is


tripped in, drills out the intermediate casing
shoe, and heads toward what everyone hopes is a
To resume drilling, a smaller bit is selected,
pay zone, which is a formation capable of
because it must pass down inside the surface
producing enough oil and/or gas to make it
casing. To drill the surface hole, the example rig
economically feasible for the operating company
crew used a 17-1/2 inch bit, whereas a 12-1/4
to complete the well.
inch bit will now be used. In this case, the
outside diameter of the surface casing is 13-3/8 Once again several bits will be dulled and
inches, so in order to get adequate clearance, a several round trips will be made, but before long
12-1/4 inch bit is used. As before, the bit is the formation of interest (the pay zone, the oil
made up on the drill collars followed by drill sand, or the formation that is supposed to
pipe. contain hydrocarbons) is penetrated by the hole.
It is now time for a big decision. The question is,
Does this well contain enough oil or gas to
Running and Cementing make it worthwhile to run the final production
Intermediate Casing string of casing and complete the well?

At this point, particularly in deep wells, another,


smaller diameter string of casing may be set and
Completing the Well
cemented in the hole, such as using a 12 1/4-in.
bit and 8 5/8-in. casing. This casing string is the After careful consideration of the data obtained
intermediate string. It runs all the way from the from tests run on the formation or formations of
surface, down through the surface casing, and to interest a decision is made on whether to set
the bottom of the intermediate hole. Sometimes production casing and complete the well or
intermediate string is needed in deeper holes plug and abandon it (PTA). If the decision is
because there are almost always so-called to abandon it, the hole is considered to be dry,
troublesome formations are encountered in the that is, not capable of producing oil or gas in
hole. commercial quantities. In other words, some oil
or gas may be present but not in amounts great
Troublesome formations are those that may enough to justify the expense of completing the
contain formation fluids under high pressure well.
and, if not sealed off by casing and cement,
could blow out, making it difficult if not Therefore, several cement plugs will be set in
impossible to eventually produce oil or gas from the well to seal it off (Figure 1.10). However,
the well. Or perhaps there is sloughing shale, a sometimes wells plugged and abandoned as dry
formation composed of rock called shale that at one time in the past may be reopened and
swells up when contacted by the drilling mud produced if the price of oil or gas has become
and falls or sloughs off into the hole. Many more favorable. The cost of plugging and
types of troublesome formations can be abandoning a well may only be a few thousand
overcome while they are being drilled but are dollars. Contrast that cost with the price of
better cased off and cemented prior to drilling setting a production string of casing --$50,000 or
the final portion of the hole. more. Therefore, the operators decision is not
always easy.

Drilling To Final Depth

Whether intermediate casing is set or not, the


final part of the hole is what the operating
company hopes will be the production hole. To
drill it, the crew makes up a still smaller bit,

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Introduction to Stimulation

Perforating

Because the pay zone is sealed off by the


production string and cement, perforations must
be made in order for the oil or gas to flow into
the wellbore. Perforations are simply holes that
are made through the casing and cement and
extend some distance into the formation. The
most common method of perforating
incorporates shaped-charge explosives (similar
to those used in armor-piercing shells).

Figure 1.10 - Cement used to plug a well.

Setting Production Casing

If the operating company decides to set casing,


casing will be brought to the well and for one
final time, the casing and cement crew run and Figure 1.12- Perforating gun: (A) gun in
cement a string of casing. Typically, the hole, (B) gun firing, and (C) oil flowing
production casing is set and cemented through through perforations.
the pay zone; that is, hole is drilled to a depth
beyond the producing formation, and the casing
(5 -in. for our example) is set to a point near Shaped charges accomplish penetration by
the bottom of the hole. As a result, the casing creating a jet of high-pressure, high-velocity gas
and cement actually seal off the producing (the leading supplier is Halliburtons Jet
zone--but only temporarily. After the production Research Center). The charges are arranged in a
string is cemented, the drilling contractor has tool called a gun that is lowered into the well
almost finished his job except for a few final opposite the producing zone. The gun can be
touches. lowered on wireline or tubing. When the gun is
in position, the charges are fired by electronic
means from the surface (Figure 1.12).
Conductor
Casing After the perforations are made, the tool is
Cement
retrieved. Perforating is usually performed by a
Surface
Casing
service company that specializes in this
technique, such as Halliburtons Logging &
Intermediate
Casing
Perforating PSL or Tools, Testing, and Tubing-
Conveyed Perforating (TT&TCP) PSL.
Cement
Production
Casing

Reservoir
Casing Shoe
Cement

Figure 1.11- Schematic of casing and


cement in well.

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Introduction to Stimulation

disposal and removal of formation sand


Installing the Completion casing damage from compressive loading
System caused by subsidence
Halliburtons Completion Products and Services
Even though the oil or gas can flow into the PSL provides specialized surface and downhole
casing after it is perforated, usually, the well is equipment including gravel pack packers and
not produced through the casing. Instead, screens to inhibit the movement of formation
smaller diameter pipe called production tubing sand into the wellbore, surface pumping
is placed in the well to serve as a way for the oil equipment, and filtration systems.
or gas to flow to the surface. The tubing is run
into the well with a packer installed at or near
the end of the tubing. The packer is placed at a
depth just above the producing zone. When the
packer is expanded, it grips the wall of the
production casing and forms a seal in the
annular space between the outside of the tubing
and the inside of the casing. Thus, as the
produced fluids flow out of the formation
through the perforations, they are forced to enter
the tubing to get to the surface.
Additional devices are placed in the well or in
the production tubing string to control and
monitor the fluid flow, such as subsurface safety
valves and flow control equipment, surface
safety systems, packers and specialty completion
equipment, production automation, and well
screens. Halliburtons Completion Products and
Services PSL can supply all these products.

Figure 1.13 - Production tubing with screen


Sand Control and gravel pack in place.

At times, the producing zone may also produce


formation sand as well as the oil or gas. A
screen may be attached to the end of the
production tubing to help keep the sand out. Installing the Christmas Tree
Often, when a screen is used, gravel is also
placed in the hole around the screen, which is When casing is set, cemented, and perforated
known as a gravel pack (Figure 1.13). and when the tubing string is run, then a
collection of valves called a Christmas tree is
Formation sand can present a major obstacle to
installed on the surface at the top of the casing
well production. The petroleum industry spends
(Figure 1.14). The tubing in the well is
millions of dollars each year to prevent and
suspended from the tree, so as the well's
repair sand control problems including
production flows up the tubing, it enters the tree.
reduced production rates As a result, opening or closing valves on the
Christmas tree can control the production from
sand bridging in tubing and casing the well. Usually, after the Christmas tree is
erosion of downhole and surface equipment installed, the well is said to be complete.

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Fracturing

When sandstone rocks contain oil or gas in


commercial quantities but the permeability is too
low to permit good recovery (or the formation
has been damaged), a process called fracturing
may be used to increase conductivity to a
practical level. To fracture a formation, a
fracturing service company (such as
Halliburtons Production Enhancement PSL)
pumps a specially blended fluid down the well
and into the formation under great pressure.
Pumping continues until the formation literally
cracks open.
Meanwhile, sand or man-made granules, called
proppants (Figure 1.15), are mixed into the
fracturing fluid. The proppant enters the
Figure 1.14 - Christmas tree.
fractures in the formation, and, when pumping is
stopped and the pressure released, the proppant
remains in the fractures. Because the fractures
try to close back together after the pressure is
Acidizing released, the proppant is needed to hold or prop
the fractures open. These propped-open fractures
Sometimes, petroleum exists in a formation but provide passages for oil or gas to flow into the
is unable to flow readily into the well because well.
the formation has very low permeability
(capability for fluid flow). If the formation is
composed of rocks that dissolve when contacted
by acid, such as limestone or dolomite, then a
technique known as acidizing may be required.
Acidizing is usually performed by an acidizing
service company (such as Halliburtons
Production Enhancement PSL) and may be done
before the rig is moved off the well; or it can
also be done after the rig is moved away.
In any case, the acidizing operation basically
consists of pumping anywhere from fifty to
thousands of gallons of acid into the well. The
acid travels down the tubing, enters the Figure 1.15 - Sand, which can be used as a
perforations, and contacts the formation. proppant.
Continued pumping forces the acid into the
formation where it dissolves channels that
provide a way for the formation's oil or gas to
enter the well through the perforations.

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Introduction to Stimulation

Historical Background of Stimulation


The first attempts at stimulation occurred in the the Dow Well Service Group. Halliburton Oil
1890s when nitroglycerin was used to stimulate Well Cementing Co., began acidizing oil wells
hard rock wells in the northeastern states. The commercially in March of 1935.
concept here was to fracture (rubbilize) the The ability of pressure to part or fracture the
production interval in the near wellbore region formation was recognized during these first acid
to increase production rates. Although quite stimulation treatments of the 1930s. It was
hazardous, this technique was extremely noted that acid would etch the faces of the
successful for increasing oil, gas, and water fracture, thereby not allowing for complete
production. closure.

History of Acidizing History of Hydraulic Fracturing


Acidizing must be considered one of the oldest The first attempts at hydraulic fracturing were
stimulation techniques still in modern use. made in 1947 in the Hugoton gas field in Grant
Earliest records indicate that the first acid County, Kansas, using Napalm thickened
treatments were probably performed in 1895. gasoline followed by a gel breaker. The results
Herman Frasch, a chief chemist at Standard Oil were not good, but the concept was introduced
Companys Solar Refinery at Lima, Ohio, is in a paper written by J.B. Clark of Stanolind in
credited with having invented the technique. 1948. In 1949 the process was patented and
The first acidizing patent, issued to Frasch on Halliburton was given an exclusive license on
March 17, 1896, involved a reagent the new process.
(hydrochloric acid) that would react with The first two commercial fracturing attempts
limestone to produce soluble products. These were performed on March 17, 1949 in Stephens
soluble products were then produced from the County, Oklahoma (Figure 1.16) and Archer
formation with the well fluids. Although County, Texas. These treatments were
successful, for some unknown reason the use of completed using lease crude or a blend of crude
acid declined and no evidence of acidizing is and gasoline and about 100 to 150 lb of sand.
available during the ensuing 30 years. Due to the outstanding results of these first two
Many have described the modern era of attempts, using hydraulic fracturing as a means
acidizing which began in 1932 with discussions of increasing production grew rapidly across the
between Pure Oil Co. and the Dow Chemical US to the point where 3000 jobs per month were
Co. Pure had oil wells in the same area of being completed in the mid 1950s.
Michigan as Dows brine wells. Pures In the 10 years that followed, more than 1.2
geologist, W. A. Thomas, and John Grebe, who billion pounds of sand were pumped into wells
was in charge of Dows Physical Research within the United States as acceptance grew for
Laboratory, suggested well productivity of a what has become one of the industry's most
limestone formation could be improved with an outstanding well stimulation techniques.
acid treatment. Pure chose a test site and on
February 11, 1932 the well was treated with 500 In the early days of fracturing, a "big" job may
gallons of hydrochloric acid. Subsequently, have involved 2,000 gal of fluid and 1,000 lb of
Dow formed a new subsidiary on November 19, proppant. 25 years after the first fracturing jobs,
1932 to handle the growing acidizing business. treatments averaged about 37,000 gal of fluid
The subsidiary takes its name, Dowell Inc., from and 45,000 lb of proppant. Today, jobs with

2005, Halliburton 1 14 Stimulation I


Introduction to Stimulation

500,000 gal of fluid and one million pounds of fracturing may also be used to help overcome
proppant are not uncommon (Figure 1.17). wellbore damage, aid in secondary recovery
operations, and help inject and dispose of brine
and industrial wastes.
With the advancement of computer technology,
field engineers can now use hydraulic fracture
design simulators on the job site for more than
just research purposes. These simulators require
rock mechanic properties, fluid properties,
treatment data, and economic data as inputs to
calculate the most effective frac design. Pre-
Frac data acquisition has become more
sophisticated and varied in recent years because
of new tools and technology. In-situ rock
stresses, fracture orientation, fracture closure
pressure, fluid efficiency, treatment pressure,
Figure 1.16 - One of the first two hydraulic and many other parameters can be determined
fracturing jobs, this one performed in through pre-frac treatment methods.
Stephens County, Oklahoma.
Two valuable aids to well stimulation became
available with the introduction of Nitrogen and
By 1981, more than 800,000 treatments had CO2 services. Along with the advantages of
been performed. As of 1988, this has grown to using Nitrogen and CO2 in stimulation work,
exceed 1 million. About 35 to 40% of all major advances have been made in pumping
currently drilled wells are hydraulically equipment, storage, and safety measures.
fractured. Conservative estimates suggest that
approximately 75% of wells that have been
fractured have increased production.
Many fields exist today because of the use of
hydraulic fracturing techniques. About 25 to
30% of total U.S. reserves have been made
economically producible by the process.
Fracturing is responsible for increasing North
Americas oil reserves by 8 billion barrels. In
addition to creating reservoir fractures for
improving well productivity, hydraulic Figure 1.17 - Large frac-acid job

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Introduction to Stimulation

Halliburton Energy Services Vision and Mission

HES 2003 Vision Statement

The Halliburton Energy Services 2003 Vision is to be the undisputed leader in Real Time
Reservoir Solutions.
The fundamental principles to achieving our vision involve:
Providing superior value to shareholders and customers
Creating a company-wide environment for developing, motivating, and rewarding our people
Being the undisputed leader in innovative technology, integrated solutions and health, safety
and the environment.
Being No. 1 or 2 in core discrete businesses
Leveraging Halliburton Company's total capability

Production Enhancement Vision and Guiding Principles

The leader in optimizing well performance through reservoir understanding and integrating
intelligent stimulation and completions, we strive to
Demonstrate the greatest value created
Make it easy to do business with HES
Consistently provide best-in-class performance

2005, Halliburton 1 16 Stimulation I


Introduction to Stimulation

HES Mission Statement

Our Mission Statement defines our purpose and our beliefs in how we want to achieve our vision by
providing "markers or guideposts" to our beliefs as a company.
Halliburton Energy Services (HES), a business unit of Halliburton Company, is a global
provider of products, services, and solutions to the energy industry. To be successful,
HES must focus on the needs of our customers. We are to continually find creative
solutions that maximize the economic recovery of the oil and gas reservoir.
The means by which we will enable our customers to be successful is by aligning with
their goal of reducing the cost of oil and gas produced, through providing reliable, cost-
effective solutions, delivered by expert personnel with the following values and
principles:
Perform at the highest levels of service quality that exceed our customers
expectations
Believe that all accidents are preventable and strive for an incident-free workplace
Recognize that we are responsible for protecting the environment and consistently
meeting those responsibilities
Continually apply new technology that benefits our customers and distinguishes
Halliburton Energy Services from our competitors as a leader in fit for purpose
solutions
Support a culture of real-time decision-making and speed to ensure responsiveness
to our customers needs
Maintain integrity in all of our actions always honor our commitments
Be flexible and innovative in our business models and recognized as the leading
company with whom it is easy to do business
By virtue of our mission and values, Halliburton Energy Services expects to be the most
valued provider of solutions to our customers. And because we are successful in
meeting our customers needs and good business practices, we expect to deliver
superior financial performance to our shareholders.
We can only accomplish this with the efforts and participation of our employees;
therefore, we must commit to invest in our people to promote a climate of enthusiasm,
teamwork, and challenge which attracts, motivates and retains superior personnel and
rewards performance.

2005, Halliburton 1 17 Stimulation I


Introduction to Stimulation

General Safety and Work Guidelines


Everyone, at times, hesitates to admit that he or can be hazardous if the way is littered with loose
she does not know all there is to know about the boards, scraps of oil field equipment, nails and
job, operation, or machine to which he or she is scrap iron, or mud-filled holes.
assigned. Consequently, the supervisor in charge Always wear safety hats and safety shoes on the
of the job, who is responsible for the safety of job. When assembling hammer-up type unions
the crew, may assume that the worker fully wear safety shields or goggles for the operation.
understands the safety rules. So he leaves them
alone. Carefully observe the following precautionary
measures:
As a result of this assumption, sooner or later
someone is injured, equipment is ruined, or a 1. No smoking is allowed on or near the well
well is damaged. Every supervisor prefers that site.
workers ask questions about the job--it shows 2. Never wash tools and equipment in
interest and a desire to learn and progress. flammable mixtures in areas without proper
Remember, no one knows everything, even ventilation.
about his or her work. It is no admission of
dumbness or lack of experience to admit Im 3. Keep all hammers, chisels, punches, etc.
not sure I know how you want this done. properly dressed to eliminate the possibility
of steel particles becoming dislodged. Cold
Safety begins for the job even before you leave chisels and hammers have destroyed the
home. A worker who gets plenty of proper rest sight of countless numbers of eyes.
and nourishment is provided the alertness that is
necessary to be a safe worker. 4. Make certain of proper footing when
climbing around the equipment. Do not
Get up in plenty of time to thoroughly awaken grasp anything for support that is not
and clean up before driving to the job. Take properly secured.
enough clothing to comfortably complete the
pending job. If it is to be a long job, be certain 5. Your supervisor is responsible for the safety
you have plenty of spare clothes. of the crew. Follow his or her instructions
and always seek advice if you do not
On the way to the location is a good time to understand the procedure at hand.
become oriented with the coming operation. Ask
questions concerning what is expected of you 6. Before every job, you must have a tailgate
and the crew on the job. On the way back home safety meeting on location to discuss the job
it is a good idea to discuss the job. It may reveal and potential safety hazards while on
mistakes that could have been prevented. It may location.
recall to your mind an unsafe condition, which 7. Think the project through before proceeding
can be avoided under similar conditions in the with any operation around the well site.
future. And it will aid in keeping the driver from
becoming drowsy and sleepy through the 8. The most dangerous part of your job is on
boredom of a long drive. If the driver does the roads to and from the field. Ask your
appear to be getting drowsy, its time for another Supervisor for special instructions
coffee break. concerning your driving duties.

After arriving at the location and changing to 9. All safety equipment should be carried in its
work clothes, clear the way to the equipment proper place on the vehicle. This equipment
site. This preparation is especially important on should be checked periodically. It is the duty
a new location. Transporting heavy equipment

2005, Halliburton 1 18 Stimulation I


Introduction to Stimulation

of the operator to know the location of the If you are not sure, ask the advice of your
equipment and its proper operation. supervisor.
In short: Study the rules and regulations in the HES
Be sure you know how to do the job. Safety Policy Manual

Be sure you know the hazards of the job and


how to protect yourself.

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Introduction to Stimulation

Stimulation Job Descriptions (Frac/Acid)


Operator Assistant Drives a truck or other assigned equipment
as required. Requires a high school diploma,
Assists in rigging up and down of Frac/Acid
GED, or equivalent experience. May require
service line equipment.
a valid Commercial Driver's License.
Assists in assembly and preparation of
Must have successfully passed company
equipment for installation and service.
tests or met task guideline requirements.
Assists in the running of a job and in the
Service Supervisor
clean up, repair, and preparation for the next
job. Coordinates and oversees the Frac/Acid
service line work at the well site handling
Promotes and takes an active part in the
the more complex, hazardous, and/or high
Quality Improvement Process.
profile jobs providing quality service to the
Ensures compliance with Health, Safety, and customer.
Environmental (HSE) regulations and
Provides the planning necessary for the job
guidelines.
including instructions to the crew and
Promotes safety awareness and equipment used, including dispute
environmental consciousness, and complies resolutions to approved levels.
with all applicable safety and environmental
Promotes and takes an active part in the
procedures and regulations.
Quality Improvement Process, and ensures
Works under direct supervision with no that Halliburton Management System
experience required. This is the entry-level (HMS) guidelines are followed.
position into the service operator job family.
Ensures compliance with HSE regulations
Service Operator and guidelines. Promotes safety awareness
and environmental consciousness, and
Rigs Frac/Acid service line equipment under
complies with all applicable safety and
direct supervision to provide quality service
environmental procedures and regulations.
to the customer.
Ensures customer satisfaction with work
Performs, with limited supervision from the
performed.
Service Supervisor, in the rigging up and
rigging down on a location of service line Coordinates and directs the activities of
equipment and in the clean up, repair, and service operators during the rigging up and
preparation of equipment for the next job. rigging down on a location of service line
equipment and the assembly and preparation
Assembles and prepares, as directed,
of equipment for installation, running, and
equipment for installation and service.
service of a job.
Promotes and takes an active part in the
Coordinates the clean up, repair, and
Quality Improvement Process. Ensures
preparation of equipment for the next job.
compliance with HSE regulations and
guidelines. Plans and performs necessary calculations
for the total job at the well site as needed.
Promotes safety awareness and
environmental consciousness, and complies Evaluates individual performance levels of
with all applicable safety and environmental the crew and trains operators to improve
procedures and regulations. their job performance.

2005, Halliburton 1 20 Stimulation I


Introduction to Stimulation

Requires a high school diploma, GED, or customer satisfaction for the long term
equivalent experience and a valid growth and profitability of the NWA.
Commercial Driver's License as required.
Manages processes to ensure job site
Demonstrates exceptional skills within the
execution as designed.
service line and a general understanding of
other service functions. Follows up job site performance with
customer.
Service Leader
Maintains MBU performance measures and
In addition to responsibilities as a Service
documents results and best practices. (This
Supervisor, is also the PSL Mobile Business
classification is available only for North
Unit Leader.
America MBU participants).
Responsible for development and leadership
of the Frac/Acid PSL profit center within the
NWA.
The MBU Leader's emphasis is on personnel
development, operational excellence and

2005, Halliburton 1 21 Stimulation I


Introduction to Stimulation

Oilfield Terms, Slang, and Acronyms


Sometimes, it may seem that those working in forces. Aggregates are stable to normal stirring,
the oilfield are speaking an utterly different shaking, or handling as powder or a suspension.
language. The oil industry and Halliburton have They may be broken by drastic treatment such as
come up with many terms, slang, and acronyms ball milling a powder or by shearing a
that you need to know. suspension. An essentially inert material of
mineral origin having a particle size
predominantly greater than 100 mesh, which
Common Oilfield Terms forms a mortar or concrete when bound together
with hardened cement paste.
ABANDON- Cease effort to produce oil or gas ALKALINITY- Combines power of a base
from a well, plug a depleted formation salvaging measured by the maximum number of
all material and equipment. equivalents of acid with which it can react to
ABSOLUTE PERMEABILITY- Measures form a salt. In water analysis, it represents the
ease which a fluid will flow through a porous carbonates, bi-carbonates, hydroxides, and
medium. occasionally the borates, silicates, and
phosphates in the water.
ABSOLUTE VOLUME - Volume per unit
mass, reciprocal of absolute density. AMBIENT- We use this term to describe
temperature. Strictly speaking, the term is
ACID- Any chemical compound containing defined as completely surrounding. Ambient
hydrogen capable of being replaced by positive temperature would then be the temperature of
elements or radicals to form salts. In terms of the the air surrounding us. We stretch this definition
dissociation theory, it is a compound that, on a little and refer to pumping fluids at ambient
dissociation in solution, yields excess hydrogen temperature. We mean we dont heat or cool the
ions. Acids lower the pH. Examples of acids or fluid, but use it just like it is in the tank.
acidic substances are: hydrochloric acid, tannic
acid, sodium acid pyrophosphate. Substance that AMPHOTERIC - Anionic or cationic
molecules ionize in a water solution to release depending on outside conditions pH for
the hydrogen ion from the constituent element. example.
The strength of an acid is proportional to the ANAEROBIC- Bacteria that do not require free
concentration of hydrogen ions present. oxygen to thrive.
ACIDITY - Relative acid strength of liquids as ANHYDRITE- See Calcium Sulfate. Anhydrite
measured by pH. pH value below 7. See pH. is often encountered while drilling. It may occur
ACIDIZING- The practice of applying acids to as thin stringers or massive formations. CaSO4.
the walls of oils and gas wells to remove any ANIONIC- Refers to any anion (atom or
material which obstructs the entrance of fluids. chemical group bearing a negative electrical
Also used in carbonate formations, such as charge). It is used specifically to describe certain
limestone, to increase porosity. surfactants. An anionic surfactant ionizes to
ADDITIVE - Material other than cement and produce a cation (positively charged) ion which
water which is added to cement subsequent to is usually a metallic ion such as sodium. When a
its manufacture to modify its properties. cation is produced through ionization, an anion
must also be produced.
AERATE- Intimately admixing water and air.
ANNULUS (ANNULAR SPACE) - The space
AGGREGATE- A group of two or more surrounding pipe suspended in the well bore.
individual particles held together by strong

2005, Halliburton 1 22 Stimulation I


Introduction to Stimulation

The outer wall of the annulus may be an open BASE - Compound of metal, or a metal-like
hole or it may be larger pipe. group, with hydrogen and oxygen in the
proportion to form an OH radical, which ionizes
API- American Petroleum Institute.
in aqueous solution to yield excess hydroxyl
API GRAVITY- The gravity (weight per unit ions. Bases are formed when metallic oxides
volume) of crude oil or other related fluids as react with water. Bases increase the pH.
measured by a system recommended by the Examples are caustic soda and lime.
American Petroleum Institute. It is related to
BASICITY - pH value above 7, ability to
specific gravity by the following formula:
neutralize or accept protons from acids.
Deg API = 141.5_- 131.5
BED - Specific layer of earth or rock material in
sp gr 60F/60F
contrast to other layers of earth or rock of
APPARENT VISCOSITY- The viscosity a different material lying above, below, or
fluid appears to have on a given instrument at a adjacent to the bed in reference.
stated rate of shear. It is a function of the plastic
BENTONITE- A highly plastic, highly
viscosity and the yield point. The apparent
colloidal clay, largely made up of the mineral,
viscosity in centipoises, as determined by the
montmorillonite, plastic, colloidal clay, largely
direct-indicating viscometer (which see), is
made up of the mineral sodium montmorillonite,
equal to 1/2 the 600-rpm reading. See also
a hydrated aluminum silicate. Used in drilling
Viscosity, Plastic Viscosity and Yield Point. In a
fluids, bentonite has a yield in excess of 85
Newtonian fluid, the apparent viscosity is
bbl/ton. The generic term bentonite is neither
numerically equal to the plastic viscosity.
an exact mineralogical name, nor is the clay of
AQUEOUS - Used to describe fluids prepared definite mineralogical composition.
from water. Usually used to distinguish from
BICARB - See Sodium Bicarbonate.
hydrocarbon fluid. An aqueous fluid may be
plain fresh water, or it may have a great number BIOCIDE- Used interchangeably with the word
of additives, which give it properties much bactericide. Bio means life and cide means
different from plain water. Examples are salt kill.
water of various weights, HCL, KCL water,
BLOCKS, CROWN AND TRAVELING- The
formic and acetic acids.
block and tackle on a rig that raises and lowers
AROMATIC- Describes those hydrocarbons the drill string.
that have carbon chains bent and connected to
BLEED OFF OR BLEED DOWN- Reduce
form a ring or cycle. Aromatic hydrocarbons are
pressure by letting oil or gas escape at a low
sometimes called cyclic hydrocarbons. Many
rate.
of these compounds, as the name implies, have a
fragrant or spicy odor. Xylene bottoms are a BLOOIE LINE- Flow line for air or gas
mixture of aromatic compounds including drilling.
xylene, benzene and toluene. A solid aromatic BLOWOUT - Uncontrolled escape of drilling
hydrocarbon which is commonly used is fluid, gas, oil, or water from the well caused by
napthalene or mothballs. the formation pressure being greater than the
BACK-OFF- Unscrew. hydrostatic head of the fluid in the hole.
BACK PRESSURE - Pressure resulting from BLOWOUT PREVENTER- A device attached
restriction of full natural flow of oil or gas. immediately above the casing, which can be
closed and shut off the hole should a blowout
BACTERIA- The simplest form of animal life.
occur.
BACTERICIDE - Agent capable of destroying
BOTTOM-HOLE PRESSURE- The pressure
bacteria.
at the bottom of a well.
BARREL - A volumetric unit of measure used
in the petroleum industry consisting of 42 gal.

2005, Halliburton 1 23 Stimulation I


Introduction to Stimulation

BOTTOMHOLE TREATING PRESSURE- CALCIUM CHLORIDE - CaC12. A very


The pressure in the wellbore at the perforations soluble calcium salt sometimes added to drilling
required to extend the fracture while overcoming fluids to impart special properties, but primarily
closure pressure, fracture friction, and rock to increase the density of the fluid phase.
strength. See Fracture Extension Pressure.
CALCIUM HYDROXIDE - Ca(OH)2. An
BREAKDOWN PRESSURE- The pressure active ingredient of slaked lime also the main
observed from a well when the formation is constituent in cement (when wet). This material
fractured for the first time. This data is also is referred to as lime in field terminology.
useful in the drilling and cementing processes.
CATALYST - Chemical useful for enhancing
BREAKER- Chemicals that function by the rate at which a chemical reaction takes place
degrading the long chain polymer into shorter while undergoing no chemical change itself.
chains with controlled and predictable viscosity
CATIONIC- Refers to any cation (atom or
decrease.
chemical group bearing a positive electrical
BRINE- Water saturated with or containing a charge). It is used specifically to describe certain
high concentration of common salt (sodium surfactants. A cationic surfactant ionizes to
chloride); hence, any strong saline solution produce an anion (negatively charged ion) which
containing such other salts as calcium chloride, is usually a non-metallic ion such as chloride or
zinc chloride, calcium nitrate, etc. sulfate. When an anion is produced through
ionization, a cation must also be produced.
BUBBLE POINT- The pressure above which a
hydrocarbon fluid exists only as a liquid; CAUSTIC OR CAUSTIC SODA- See Sodium
synonymous with saturation pressure. Hydroxide.
BUFFER - Substance or mixture capable in CENTIPOISE (CP) - A unit of viscosity equal
solution of neutralizing both acids and bases, to 0.01 poise. A poise equals 1 g per meter-
thereby maintaining the original hydrogen-ion second, and a centipoise is 1 g centimeter-
concentration. second. The viscosity of water at 20C is 1.005
cp (1 cp = 0.000672 lb/ft-sec).
BY-PASS- Usually refers to a pipe connection
around a valve or other control mechanism. A CHERT - Quarzitic rock with hardness equal to
by-pass is installed in such cases to permit or harder than flint.
passage of fluid through the line while
CHRISTMAS TREE- A term applied to the
adjustments or repairs are made on the control,
valves and fittings assembled at the top of a well
which is by-passed.
to control the flow of the oil or gas.
CAKE CONSISTENCY- According to API RP
CIRCULATE- To cycle drilling fluid through
13B, such notations as hard, soft, tough,
drill pipe and well bore while drilling operations
rubbery, firm, etc., may be used to convey
are temporarily suspended. This is done to
some idea of cake consistency.
condition the drilling fluid and the well bore
CAKE THICKNESS- The measurement of the before hoisting the drill pipe and to obtain
thickness of the filter cake deposited by a cuttings from the bottom of the well before
drilling fluid against a porous medium, most drilling proceeds. Circulation of the drilling fluid
often following the standard API filtration test. while drilling is suspended is usually necessary
Cake thickness is usually reported in 32nd of an to prevent drill pipe from becoming stuck.
inch. See Filter Cake and Wall Cake.
CLAY- A hydrated aluminum silicate. Clays are
CALCIUM CARBONATE - CaCO3. An components of soils in varying percentages.
insoluble calcium salt sometimes used as a Some types swell with absorption of water.
weighting material (limestone, oyster shell, etc.), Various types are: kaolinite, smectite, illite,
in specialized drilling fluids. It is also used as a chlorite and mixed-layer. A plastic, soft,
unit and/or standard to report hardness. variously colored earth, commonly a hydrous

2005, Halliburton 1 24 Stimulation I


Introduction to Stimulation

silicate of alumina, formed by the decomposition CORROSION- The adverse chemical alteration
of feldspar and other aluminum silicates. See on a metal or the eating away of the metal by air,
also Attapulgite, Bentonite, High Yield, Low moisture, or chemicals; usually an oxide is
Yield, and Natural Clays. Clay minerals are formed. Deterioration of metal due to reaction
essentially insoluble in water but disperse under with the environment.
hydration, shearing forces such as grinding,
CORROSION INHIBITOR INTENSIFIER-
velocity effects, etc., into the extremely small
An additive that cannot be considered as an
particles varying from submicron to 100-micron
inhibitor when used alone but has the ability to
sizes.
improve the effectiveness of conventional
CLAY CONTROL ADDITIVES- Chemical organic inhibitors when used with them.
additives used to minimize the possibility of clay
CRATER (TO CRATER) - Term meaning the
crystals breaking loose and migrating using
hole is caving in. To crater refers to the results
ionic charge and organic polymer.
that sometime accompany a violent blowout
CLEAN VOLUME- Volume of fracturing fluid during which the surface surrounding the well
before adding proppant. bore falls into a large hole blown in the earth by
the force of escaping gas, oil, and water. The
CLOSURE PRESSURE- There is two uses of
crater sometimes covers an area of several acres
this term: (1) The minimum hydraulic pressure
and reaches a depth of several hundred feet.
required to hold a fracture open. This pressure is
obtained from either minifracturing or CRITICAL POINT - The pressure and
microfracturing data. The closure pressure is the temperature where all lines of constant liquid
same Closure Pressure as the least principal rock content coverage for a given hydrocarbon
stress. (2) This term is also used to refer to mixture; the pressure and temperature at which
closure stress, or the stress the formation all intensive properties of the vapor and liquid
applies to the proppant bed after fracturing. are the same.
Note: These two uses of this term should not be
CRITICAL PRESSURE- The point at which a
confused.
constant pressure occurs indicating a reduction
CLOSURE STRESS- Stress applied to the in the fracture extension rate (as defined by
proppant bed after fracturing. Closure stress is Nolte).
not equal to closure pressure. Closure stress is
CROSSLINKING - Union of high-polymer
equal to instantaneous shut-in pressure minus
molecules by a system involving primary
bottomhole flowing pressure. Consequently,
chemical bonds.
closure stress in the proppant bed is a function of
time.- CROWN BLOCK - Sheaves and supporting
beams on top of derrick.
COLLAR - Pipe coupling threaded on the
inside. DARCY - Unit of permeability. A porous
medium has a permeability of 1 darcy when a
COMING OUT OF HOLE - Withdrawing of
pressure of 1 atm on a sample 1 cm long and 1
the drill pipe from the well bore. This
sq cm in cross section will force a liquid of 1-cp
withdrawal is necessary to change the bit, or
viscosity through the sample at the rate of 1 cc
change from bit to core barrel, to prepare for a
per sec.
drill stem test, and for other reasons.
DARCYS LAW- The rate of flow of a
CONDENSATE- Hydrocarbons which are in
homogeneous fluid through a porous medium is
the gaseous state under reservoir conditions but
proportional to the pressure of hydraulic
which become liquid either in passage up the
gradient and to the cross-sectional area normal
hole or at the surface.
to the direction of flow and inversely
CONDUCTIVITY - See Fracture Conductivity. proportional to the viscosity of the fluid.

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Introduction to Stimulation

DENSITY- When used in relation to materials change alone. Natural gas that is produced with
such as solids, liquids, or gases, this means the liquids; also a gas that has been treated to
weight of a unit volume of the material. Many remove all liquids.
types of units are used to measure density. The
DRY HOLE- Somewhat loosely used in oil
chemist usually uses grams per cubic centimeter
work, but in general any well that does not
(gm/cc). In the oil patch we may use pounds per
produce oil or gas in commercial quantities. A
cubic foot (lb/cu ft) for solids, pounds per gallon
dry hole may flow water, or gas, or may even
(lb/gal) for liquids and pounds per cubic foot
yield some oil to the pump, but no in
(lb/cu ft) for gases.
commercial quantities.
DIFFERENTIAL ETCHING- The removal of
ELEVATORS- Latches which secure the drill
formation during fracturing acidizing in an
pipe or casing; attached to the traveling block
uneven manner (hills and valleys). Once the
which raises and lowers the pipe from the hole.
formation closes, the area where the most rock
was removed can act as permeable flow EMULSION- A substantially permanent
channels while the other areas act as support to heterogeneous liquid mixture of two or more
keep these channels open. liquids that do not normally dissolve in each
other but which are held in suspension or
DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE -Difference in
dispersion, one in the other, by mechanical
pressure between the hydrostatic head of the
agitation or, more frequently, by adding small
drilling-fluid column and the formation pressure
amounts of substances known as emulsifiers.
at any given depth in the hole. It can be positive,
Emulsions may be mechanical, chemical, or a
zero, or negative with respect to the hydrostatic
combination of the two. They may be oil-in-
head.
water or water-in-oil types.
DIFFUSION -Spreading, scattering, or mixing
ENZYME- One of a group of complex organic
of a material (gas, liquid, or solid).
substances formed in the living cells of plants
DIRTY VOLUME - Volume of fracturing fluid and animals. They are necessary catalysts for the
after adding proppant. chemical reactions of biological processes (such
as digestion).
DOG-LEG - The elbow caused by a sharp
change of direction in the well bore. Bend in FATIGUE - Failure of a metal under repeated
pipe, a ditch, or a well. loading.
DOPE- Material used on threads of pipe or FAULT - Geological term denoting a formation
tubing to lubricate and prevent leakage. break, upward or downward, in the subsurface
strata. Faults can significantly affect the area
DOUBLE- Two lengths or joints of pipe joined
mud and casing programs.
together.
FEMALE CONNECTION - Pipe or rod
DRILL-STEM TEST (DST)- A test to
coupling with the threads on the inside.
determine whether oil and/or gas in commercial
quantities has been encountered in the well bore. FILTER CAKE- The suspended solids that are
deposited on a porous medium during the
DRILL STRING- The string of pipe that
process of filtration. See also Cake Thickness.
extends from the bit to the Kelly, carries the
mud down to the bit, and rotates the bit. FILTRATE - Liquid that is forced through a
porous medium during the filtration process. For
DRILLING MUD OR FLUID- A circulating
test, see Fluid Loss.
fluid used in rotary drilling to perform any or all
of various functions required in the drilling FITTINGS- The small pipes and valves that are
operation. used to make up a system of piping.
DRY GAS - Hydrocarbon fluid which exists at a FLOCCULATION- Loose association of
reservoir temperature above its cricondentherm; particles in lightly bonded groups, non-parallel
a gas which cannot be liquefied by pressure association of clay platelets. In concentrated

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Introduction to Stimulation

suspensions, such as drilling fluids, flocculation filtrates. Asphalt from crude oil will also
results in gelation. In some drilling fluids, damage some formations. See Mudding Off.
flocculation may be followed by irreversible
FORMATION PRESSURE - Pressure at the
precipitation of colloids and certain other
bottom of a well that is shut in.
substances from the fluid, e.g., red beds.
FORMATION VOLUME FACTOR -
FLOORMAN - Member of the drilling crew
Reservoir pore volume occupied by a unit
whose work station is about the derrick floor. On
volume of stock-tank oil and its associated gas.
rotary drilling rigs normally there are two
floormen on each drilling crew. FRACTURE - Cracks and crevices in the
formation either inherent or induced.
FLUID FLOW- State of fluid dynamics of a
fluid in motion is determined by the type of fluid FRACTURE OPENING PRESSURE -
(e.g., Newtonian, plastic, pseudoplastic, Pressure required to open an existing fracture.
dilatant), the properties of the fluid such as Because this pressure is sometimes close to the
viscosity and density, the geometry of the closure pressure, these terms are often used
system, and the velocity. Thus, under a given set synonymously. Since the fracture extension
of conditions and fluid properties, the fluid flow pressure is obtained after the opening pressure,
can be described as plug flow, laminar (called these terms are sometimes used interchangeably.
also Newtonian, streamline, parallel, or viscous) FRACTURING - Application of hydraulic
flow, or turbulent flow. See terms and Reynolds pressure to the reservoir formation to create
number. fractures through which oil or gas may move to
FLUID LOSS- The volume of fluid lost to a the well bore.
permeable material due to the process of GAS CONDENSATE - Hydrocarbon fluid
filtration. The API fluid loss is the volume of which exists at a reservoir temperature above
fluid in a filtrate as determined according to the that of the critical point and below
Fluid-Loss Test given in API RP 10B. See cricondentherm of the mixture.
Water Loss.
GAS-OIL RATIO- The number of cubic feet of
FLUID-LOSS ADDITIVE- An additive used gas produced with a barrel of oil.
to reduce the fluid loss of cement slurries.
Material used to maintain adequate injected fluid GEL - Viscous solution or semi-solid dispersion
within the created fracture and to minimize of a solid in a liquid. The solids may be either
damage by controlling fluid leak-off. natural polymers or synthetic polymers. These
solids are composed of fibrous strings of
FLUID MOBILITY - Instantaneous ratio of extremely long molecules. The polymer particles
effective permeability for fluid to its viscosity. swell when placed in a fluid and take part of the
FOAM- A foam is a two-phase system, similar fluid into the fibrous structure. This gives the
to an emulsion, where the dispersed phase is a fluid viscosity which may vary from a slight
gas or air. Dispersion of a gas in a liquid. thickening of the fluid to the creation of a rigid
gel similar to set gelatin. Gels are clear or
FOAMING AGENT - Substance that produces
translucent.
fairly stable bubbles at the air-liquid interface
due to agitation, aeration, or ebullition. In air or GONE TO WATER- Describes a well in which
gas drilling, forming agents are added to run water production is increasing.
water influx into aerated foam. This is GRAVITY, SPECIFIC- The weight of a
commonly called mist drilling. Surface active particular volume of any substance compared to
agent capable of stabilizing a foam. the weight of an equal volume of water at a
FORMATION DAMAGE- Damage to the reference temperature. For gases, air is usually
productivity of a well resulting from invasion taken as the reference substance, although
into the formation by mud particles or mud hydrogen is sometimes used.

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GROSS INTERVAL - Vertical distant between circulating water and mud into a completed well
persistent and correlatable log markers above before starting well service operations.
and below the entire reservoir interval.
LAMINAR FLOW- Fluid elements flowing
GUAR GUM- A naturally occurring along fixed streamlines which are parallel to the
hydrophilic polysaccharide derived from the walls of the channel of flow. In laminar flow, the
seed of guar plant. The gum is chemically fluid moves in plates or sections with a
classified as a galactomannan. Guar gum slurries differential velocity across the front which
made up in clear fresh or brine water possess varies from zero at the wall to a maximum
pseudoplastic flow properties. toward the center of flow. Laminar flow is the
first stage of flow in a Newtonian fluid; it is the
HYDRATION - Act of a substance to take up
second stage in a Bingham plastic fluid. This
water by means of absorption and/or adsorption.
type of motion is also called parallel, streamline,
HYDROCARBON - Compound consisting or viscous flow. See Plug and Turbulent Flow.
only of molecules of hydrogen and carbon. Fluid flow where neighboring layers are not
HYDROSTATIC HEAD- The pressure exerted mixed.
by a column of fluid, usually expressed in LEAST PRINCIPAL STRESS- The smallest
pounds per square inch. To determine the principal stress in an elemental cube with one
hydrostatic head at a given depth in psi, multiply face oriented normal to the vertical. This stress
the depth in feet by the density in pounds per is also referred to as Horizontal Effective Stress,
gallon by 0.052. Horizontal Stress, Closure Pressure or HST.
INHIBITOR (CORROSION) - Any agent LINER- Any string of casing whose top is
which, when added to a system, slows down or situated at any point below the surface.
prevents a chemical reaction or corrosion.
LOG - Running account listing a series of
Corrosion inhibitors are used widely in drilling
events in chronological order. The drillers log is
and producing operations to prevent corrosion of
a tour-to-tour account of progress made in
metal equipment exposed to hydrogen sulfide,
drilling. Electric well log is a record of
carbon dioxide, oxygen, salt water, etc.
geological formations which is made by a well
Common inhibitors added to drilling fluids are
logging device. This device operates on the
filming amines, chromates, and lime.
principle of differential resistance of various
INORGANIC- Compounds of earthy or mineral formations to the transmission of electric
origin such as: water, limestone, dolomite, current.
gypsum, HCl, etc; no carbon compounds are
MALE CONNECTION - Connection with the
included except cyanides or carbonates.
threads on the outside.
INSTANTANEOUS SHUT-IN PRESSURE
MATRIX FLOW - Flow of fluids through the
(ISIP) - The pressure observed during a
permeable formation.
hydraulic fracturing operation immediately
following the shut-in of the well which negates MINI-FRACTURING- A series of tests
pressure transients. The difference between the performed to obtain important information
fracture extension pressure and the instantaneous pertinent to the design of the main fracturing
shut-in pressure is the frictional pressure drop job. These tests include a step rate test, a pump-
across the perforations to the fracture tip. in, flow-back test and a pressure decline test.
These tests yield the fracture extension pressure,
KELLY OR KELLY JOINT - Heavy square
the closure pressure, the instantaneous shut-in
pipe or other configuration that works through a
pressure, the opening pressure, the closure time,
like hole in the rotary table and rotates the drill
and the fluid loss coefficient. Further analysis
stem.
yields the fracture width and the fracture length.
KILLING A WELL - Bringing a well under
MISCIBLE - Solubility of one liquid in
control that is blowing out. A procedure of
another. When a solid dissolves in a liquid, we

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say it is soluble in the liquid, as salt is soluble in NONIONIC- Refers to surfactants which do not
water. When speaking of liquids, we say that ionize and to molecules which neither have
they are immiscible, partially miscible, totally positive nor negative charges. They have oil-
miscible, or miscible in all proportions. soluble and water- soluble ends and the
wettability characteristics are related to the
MONOMER - Simple molecules that join
relative sizes of these ends. Many nonionics will
together to form a polymer are known as
water wet both limestone and sand. They are
monomers and their union is called
often blended with anionics or cationics.
polymerization. k-TROLtm is pumped into a well
as a monomer and polymerizes in the formation NON-NEWTONIAN FLUIDS- Fluids that the
to form a polymer. apparent viscosity changes with agitation or
pump rate, for example, gels, emulsions,
MONTMORILLONITE - Clay mineral
polymers, mayonnaise. These are fluids that
commonly used as an additive to drilling muds.
experience apparent viscosity changes with
Sodium montmorillonite is the main constituent
agitation or pump rate. Examples are gels,
in bentonite. The structure of montmorillonite is
emulsions or polymers.
characterized by a form that consists of a thin
platey-type sheet with the width and breadth OFFSET WELL- Well drilled near another
indefinite, and thickness that of the molecule. one.
The unit thickness of the molecule consists of
OIL-BASED MUD- The term oil-based mud
three layers. Attached to the surface are ions that
is applied to a special type of drilling fluid
are replaceable. Calcium montmorillonite is the
where oil is the continuous phase and water is
main constituent in low-yield clays.
the dispersed phase. Oil-based mud contains
MUD- A water- or oil-base drilling fluid whose blown asphalt and usually 1 to 5 percent water
properties have been altered by solids, emulsified into the system with caustic soda or
commercial and/or native, dissolved and/or quick lime and an organic acid. Silicate, salt, and
suspended. Used for circulating out cuttings and phosphate may also be present. Oil-based muds
many other functions while drilling a well. Mud are differentiated from invert-emulsion muds
is the term most commonly given to drilling (both water-in-oil emulsions) by the amounts of
fluids (which see). water used, method of controlling viscosity and
thixotropic properties, well-building materials,
MUD PIT - Earthen or steel storage facilities
and fluid loss.
for the surface mud system. Mud pits which vary
in volume and number are of two types: OIL FIELDS - Area where oil is found.
circulating and reserve. Mud testing and Loosely defined term referring to an area in
conditioning is normally done in the circulating which one or more separate pools or reservoirs
pit system. may be found.
NET PRESSURE- The bottomhole treating OPEN HOLE- The uncased part of the well.
pressure minus closure pressure. The net
OPERATOR- The person, whether proprietor
pressure acts to propagate a fracture.
or lessee, actually operating a mine or oil well or
NEUTRALIZATION - Reaction in which the lease.
hydrogen ion of an acid and the hydroxyl ion of
OPERATING PRESSURE- The pressure at
a base unite to form water, the other ionic
which a line or system is operating at any given
product being a salt.
time.
NEWTONIAN FLUID- Fluids with the same
ORGANIC - Compounds of carbon or carbon
apparent viscosity irregardless of the pump rate
and hydrogen (hydrocarbons). Other elements
or agitation, for example, water, oil, molasses.
may be present in the make-up of the compound.
NON-EMULSIFIER - Substance which Examples are: acetic acid, formic acid, all
demulsifies (breaks) emulsions or prevents their alcohols, natural gas, propane, and crude oil.
formation.

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OXIDATION- Originally meant the PLASTIC VISCOSITY- Plastic viscosity is a


combination of oxygen with some substance. measure of the internal resistance to fluid flow
Now any chemical change in which the valence attributable to the amount, type, and size of
or oxidation state of an element is increased is solids present in a given fluid. It is expressed as
referred to as oxidation. Oxidation is always the number of dynes per sq cm of tangential
accompanied by reduction; that is, when the shearing force in excess of the Bingham yield
valence of one element is increased, the valence value that will induce a unit rate of shear. This
of another is decreased. An example of value, expressed in centipoises, is proportional
oxidation involving a combination with oxygen to the slope of the consistency curve determined
is that when natural gas and butane burn, they in the region of laminar flow for materials
combine with oxygen from the air to form obeying Binghams law of Plastic Flow. When
carbon dioxide and water. using the direct-indicating viscometer, the
plastic viscosity is found by subtracting the 300-
PAY ZONE OR PAY FORMATION-
rpm reading from the 600-rpm reading.
Formation drilled into that contains oil and/or
gas in commercial quantities. PLUG BACK - To seal off the bottom section
of a well bore to prevent the inflow of fluid from
PERMEABILITY - Property of a solid medium
that portion of the hole. This permits the inflow
which allows a fluid to flow through its
of oil and gas from the formations above the
interconnected pore network. Unit of
section so sealed off, without contamination of
measurement is the darcy or millicarcy (0.001
fluids below that depth.
darcy). Normal permeability is a measure of
ability of a rock to transmit a one-phase fluid PLUG FLOW - Movement of a material as a
under conditions of laminar flow. unit without shearing within the mass. Plug flow
is the first type of flow exhibited by a plastic
pH- An abbreviation for potential hydrogen ion.
fluid after overcoming the initial force required
The pH numbers range from 0 to 14, with 7
to produce flow.
being neutral, and are indices of the acidity
(below 7) or alkalinity (above 7) of the fluid. POLYMER - Substance formed by the union of
two or more molecules of the same kind linked
PIG- A scraping tool forced through a flow line
end to end into another compound having the
or pipe line to clean out wax or other deposits.
same elements in the same proportion but a
See Rabbit.
higher molecular weight and different physical
PLASTIC FLUID - Complex, non-Newtonian properties, e.g., paraformaldehyde. See
fluid which shear force is not proportional to the Copolymer. The number of simple molecules
shear rate. A definite pressure is required to start that unite to form a polymer molecule can be as
and maintain movement of the fluid. Plug flow great as hundreds or thousands. Synthetic
is the initial type of flow and only occurs in polymers we use are such materials as the FR
plastic fluids. Most drilling muds are plastic compounds, HYG-1 and HYG-2 (gelling agents
fluids. The yield point as determined by direct- for HY-GEL and LOGEL) and the PVC pipe
indicating viscometer is in excess of zero. down at the acid terminal. A substance, often
PLASTICITY- The property possessed by synthetic, composed of giant molecules that
some solids, particularly clays and clay slurries, have been formed by the union of a considerable
of changing shape or flowing under applied number of simple molecules with one another.
stress without developing shear planes or The chemical units occur in a repeating fashion.
fractures. Such bodies have yield points, and The number of simple molecules that unite to
stress must be applied before movement begins. form a polymer molecule can be as great as
Beyond the yield point, the rate of movement is hundreds of thousands.
proportional to the stress applied, but ceases POROSITY- Absolute porosity refers to the
when the stress is removed. See Fluid. total amount of pore space in a rock, regardless
of whether or not that space is accessible to fluid
penetration. Effective porosity refers to the

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amount of connected pore spaces, i.e., the space consistency decreases instantaneously with
available to fluid penetration. See Permeability. increasing rate of shear until at a given point the
viscosity becomes constant. The yield point is
POTASSIUM- One of the alkali metal elements
determined by direct-indicating viscometer is
with a valence of 1 and an atomic weight of
positive, the same as in Bingham plastic fluids;
about 39. Potassium compounds, most
however, the true yield point is zero. An
commonly potassium hydroxide (KOH) are
example of a pseudoplastic fluid is guar gum in
sometimes added to drilling fluids to impart
fresh or salt water.
special properties, usually inhibition.
PUDDLING- In cement evaluation work, the
POUR POINT - Lowest temperature at which a
term applies to agitation of cement slurry in
liquid will flow when a test container (like a test
molds with a rod, to remove any trapped air
tube) is tilted.
bubbles. In field practice, the term has been used
PPM or PARTS PER MILLION- Unit weight to denote the reciprocation or rotation of the
of solute per million unit weights of solution casing during or after a cementing operation.
(solute plus solvent), corresponding to weight-
PUMP-IN/FLOWBACK TEST- A test in the
percent except that the basis is a million instead
minifracturing series with an injection rate
of a hundred. The results of standard API
varying from a minimum of 3 to 5 barrels per
titrations of chloride, hardness, etc, are correctly
minute up to the proposed injection rate at which
expressed in milligrams (mg) of unknown per
the fracturing treatment is to be performed.
liter but not in ppm. At low concentrations, mg/l
Flowback rates vary from 0.25 to 1 bbl/min. The
is about numerically equal to ppm.
closure pressure may be obtained from the
PRECIPITATE - Material that separates out of pressure inflexion during the flowback portion
solution or slurry as a solid. Precipitation of of this test.
solids in a drilling fluid may follow flocculation
PUMP-IN/SHUT-IN TEST- See Pressure
or coagulation, such as the dispersed red-bed
Decline Test.
clays upon addition of a flocculation agent to the
fluid. An insoluble solid substance produced as a PUMPING TIME- Synonymous with
result of a chemical reaction. cementing time except in those instances where
a volume of cement slurry is premixed prior to
PRESSURE - Force per unit area.
displacement in a well. In this instance, the
Bottomhole Circulating Pressure - Pressure at pumping time will be total cementing time
the bottom of a well during circulation of any minus mixing time.
fluid. It is equal to the hydrostatic head plus the
RATE OF SHEAR - Rate at which an action,
annular friction loss required to pump fluid to
resulting from applied forces, causes or tends to
the surface plus any back pressure held at the
cause two adjacent parts of a body to slide
surface.
relatively to each other in a direction parallel to
Bottom Hole Static Pressure - The pressure at their plane of contact. Commonly given in rpm.
the bottom of a well after the well is shut-in long
RELIEF VALVE- A valve that will open
enough to reflect ambient formation pressure.
automatically when pressure gets to high.
Circulating Pressure - The pressure at a
RESERVOIR - Each separate, unconnected
specified depth required to circulate a fluid in a
body of producing formation.
well at a given rate.
RESISTIVITY - Electrical resistance offered to
Surface Pressure - The pressure measured at
the passage of a current, expressed in ohm-
the wellhead.
meters; the reciprocal of conductivity. Fresh-
PSEUDOPLASTIC FLUID - Complex non- water muds are usually characterized by high
Newtonian fluid that does not possess resistivity, salt-water muds by a low resistivity.
thixotropy. A pressure or force in excess of zero
will start fluid flow. The apparent viscosity or

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RETROGRADE CONDENSATE - A SHALE - Fine-grained clay rock with slate-like


condensate reservoir fluid with increasing liquid cleavage, sometimes containing an organic oil-
condensation as pressure declines. yielding substance.
RHEOLOGY - Science that deals with SHEAR (SHEARING STRESS) - An action,
deformation and flow of matter. resulting from applied forces, which causes or
tends to cause two contiguous parts of a body to
RIGGING UP- Before the work of drilling can
slide relatively to each other in a direction
be started, but after the derrick has been built,
parallel to their plane of contact.
tools and machinery must be installed and a
supply of fuel and water must be established. SILICA FLOUR- Silica (SiO2) ground to a
This operation, which in substance is that of fineness equal to portland cement. The fineness
getting the rig ready, is conveniently described of portland cement is specified in API Std 10A.
by the drillers term rigging up.
SKIDDING THE RIG- Moving a rig from the
RISER - Pipe through which liquid travels location of a lost or completed hole preparatory
upward. to starting a new one. In skidding the rig, the
move is accomplished with little or no
ROUGHNECK- A drillers helper and general
dismantling of equipment.
all-around worker on a drilling rig.
SLIPS- Wedge-shaped toothed pieces of metal
ROUSTABOUT - Laborer who assists the field
that fit inside a bowl and are used to support
foreman in the general work about producing oil
tubing or other pipe.
wells and around the property of the oil
company. The roustabout is a semi-skilled SLURRY DENSITY- The density of a cement
laborer in that he requires considerable training or fracturing slurry expressed in either pounds
to fit him for his work. per gallon or pounds per cubic foot. Light-
weight and heavy-weight slurries are prepared
SACK- Sack is a weight measure. Cement,
by adding suitable additives to modify slurry
bentonite, and barite are marketed in sacks
density.
containing amounts as follows:
SODIUM BICARBONATE - NaHCO3. A
- Cement- 94 pounds
material used extensively for treating
- Sand- 100 pounds contamination and occasionally other calcium
- Bentonite- 100 pounds contamination in drilling fluids. It is the half-
neutralized sodium salt of carbonic acid.
- Barite- 100 pounds
SODIUM CARBONATE - Na2CO3. A
SALT- In mud terminology, the term salt is material used extensively for treating out various
applied to sodium chloride, NaCl. Chemically, types of calcium contamination. It is commonly
the term salt is also applied to any one of a class called soda ash. When sodium carbonate is
of similar compounds formed when the acid added to a fluid, it increases the pH of the fluid
hydrogen of an acid is partly or wholly replaced by hydrolysis. Sodium carbonate can be added
by a metal or a metallic radical. Salts are formed to sale (NaCl) water to increase the density of
by the action of acids on metals, or oxides and the fluid phase.
hydroxides, directly with ammonia, and in other
ways. SODIUM CHLORIDE - NaCl. Commonly
known as salt. Salt may be present in the mud as
SANDED UP- Clogged by sand entering the a contaminant or may be added for any of
well bore with the oil. several reasons. See Salt.
SETTLING VELOCITY- The velocity at SODIUM HYDROXIDE - NaOH. Commonly
which a particle of particular size, type, specific referred to as caustic or caustic soda.
gravity, and concentration will settle in a fluid of Chemical used primarily to impart a higher pH.
a particular specific gravity and viscosity. It is
usually measured in millimeters per second.

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SOLUBILITY - Amount or percent of a STEP-RATE TEST- A minifracturing test


material that dissolves in a certain fluid. For performed to obtain the fracture extension
example, if 1.00 grams of a core was ground up pressure. The test is usually performed by
and placed in excess HC1, and after several pressuring a well at constant rate increments
hours the remaining material was filtered out, (example: 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, ...5 barrels per minute)
dried, weighed, and found to weight 0.70 grams, and plotting the maximum pressure at each step
the soluble portion would be 0.30 gram or 30% vs. the constant rate at each stop. The inflexion
soluble in HC1. point corresponds to the fracture extension
pressure.
SOUR GAS- Gas that smells bad because of
impurities, usually hydrogen sulfide. STRATIFICATION - Natural layering or
lamination usually characteristic of sediments
SPACING- Distance between wells producing
and sedimentary rocks. Stratification is the result
from the same pool (usually expressed in terms
of the settling of particles of different sizes and
of acres, e.g., 10-acre spacing).
specific gravities.
SPECIFIC GRAVITY- Weight of any volume
STUCK- Refers to the drill pipe or casing
of a material divided by the weight of the same
inadvertently becoming fastened in the hole.
volume of a material taken as a standard. For
May occur while drilling is in progress, casing is
solids or liquids, the standard is water. For
being run in the hole or while the drill pipe is
gases, the standard is air. It may also be defined
being hoisted. Frequently results in a fishing job.
as the ratio of the density of a substance to the
density of water or air. We deal mostly with SUBLIME - Pass directly from a solid to a
liquids and solids. The density of water is 1 gaseous state.
gm/cc or 8.33 lb/gal.
SURFACE PIPE The first string of casing to
SPECIFIC HEAT- Number of calories required be set in a well. The length will vary in different
to raise 1 g of a substance 1 deg Centigrade. The areas from a few hundred feet to three or four
specific heat of a drilling fluid gives an thousand feet. Some states require a minimum
indication of the fluids ability to keep the bit length to protect fresh-water sands. On some
cool for a given circulation rate. wells it is necessary to set a temporary
conductor pipe which should not be confused
SPUDDING- Refers to the acting of hoisting the
with surface pipe as described here.
drill pipe and permitting it to fall freely so that
the drill bit strikes the bottom of the well bore SURFACE TENSION - Forces existing in the
with considerable force. This is done to clean the surface film of all liquids which tend to contract
bit of an accumulation of sticky shale that has the volume into a form with the least surface
slowed down the rate of penetration. Careless area. This would be a sphere, or a round droplet.
execution of this operation can result in kinks in The particles in the surface film are inwardly
the drill pipe and damaged bits. attracted thus resulting in tension. Generally, the
force acting within the interface between a liquid
STABBING BOARD -Temporary platform
and its own vapor, which tends to maintain the
erected in the derrick at an elevation of about 20
area of the surface at a minimum and is
to 40 feet above the derrick floor. The
expressed in dynes per centimeter.
derrickman or other crew member works on this
board while casing is being run in a well. SURFACTANT- In the broadest sense, this can
Derived from the term to stab meaning to be defined as a surface active agent. Or, a
guide a joint while it is being screwed into chemical which, when added to a liquid, will
another joint or section. change the surface tension of the liquid.
Practically, we limit the term to those chemicals
STAND OF PIPE- Two or three or sometimes
that lower the surface tension of liquids. A
four joints of pipe fastened together, called a
material that raises the surface tension of a
double, thribble, or fourble, respectively.
liquid we usually call an emulsifier. Materials
that tend to concentrate at an interface. Used in

2005, Halliburton 1 33 Stimulation I


Introduction to Stimulation

drilling fluids to control the degree of hole. This survey is used to find the location of
emulsification, aggregation, dispersion, inflows of water into the hole, where doubt
interfacial tension, foaming, defoaming, wetting, exists as to proper cementing of the casing and
etc. for other reasons.
SWABBING- Operation of a lifting device to TENSILE STRESS- The perpendicular
bring well fluids to the surface when the well components of internal stress exert a pull
does not flow naturally. This is a temporary between the two parts of the mass which
operation to determine whether or not the well constitutes a tensile stress. A pull-apart stress.
can be made to flow. In the event the well does
TONGS- A wrench type item used to tighten or
not flow after being swabbed, it is necessary
loosen drillpipe or casing connections.
then to install a pump as a permanent lifting
device to bring oil to the surface. TOOL PUSHER - Foreman in charge of one or
more drilling rigs or supervisor of drilling
SWIVEL - Hose coupling which forms a
operations.
connection between the slush pumps and the
drill string and permits rotation of the drill TORQUE- A measure of the force or effort
string. applied to a shaft, causing it to rotate. On a
rotary rig this applies especially to the rotation
TALLY - Measure and record length of pipe or
of the drill stem in its action against the bore of
tubing.
the hole. Torque reduction can usually be
TEARING DOWN - Act of dismantling a rig at accomplished by the addition of various drilling-
the completion of a well and preparing it for fluid additives.
moving to the next location.
TOUR- The word which designates the shift of
TECTONIC- Pertaining to the rock structures a drilling crew or other oil field workers is
and external forms resulting from the pronounced usually as if it were spelled t-o-w-e-
deformation of the earths crust. r. The word does not refer to the derrick or
tower, as some seem to think, the day tour starts
TEMPERATURE- The degree of heat usually
at 7 or 8 in the morning. The evening tour starts
expressed as degrees Fahrenheit.
at 3 or 4 oclock in the afternoon. The morning
- Bottomhole Circulating Temperature - The tour starts at 11 p.m. or midnight (sometimes
temperature of any fluid at the bottom of the referred to as graveyard tour). The almost
well while it is being circulated. universal practice in oil well drilling is to work
- Bottom Hole Static Temperature - The 8-hour tours or shifts.
temperature attained at the bottom of a well after TRIP - Pull or run a string of rods or tubing
the well is shut-in. See Static Temperature. from or into a well.
- Circulating Temperature - The temperature TUBING JOB- The pulling and running of
of any fluid at any specified depth in well while tubing.
it is being circulated, as measured inside casing
TURBIDITY - Measure of the resistance of
or drill pipe.
water to the passage of light through it. It is
- Static Temperature - The temperature caused by suspended and colloidal matter in the
attained at a specified depth in a well after the water.
well is shut-in long enough to reflect the
TURBULENT FLOW - Fluid flow in which
ambient formation temperature.
the velocity at a given point changes constantly
TEMPERATURE STABILITY - Chemical in magnitude and the direction of flow pursues
characteristics of a material which determine its erratic and continually varying courses.
resistance to thermal decomposition. Turbulent flow is the second and final stage of
TEMPERATURE SURVEY - Operation to flow in a Newtonian fluid; it is the third and
determine temperatures at various depths in the

2005, Halliburton 1 34 Stimulation I


Introduction to Stimulation

final stage in a Bingham plastic fluid. See or in some cases by a capillary block of the
Critical Velocity and Reynolds Number. pores due to surface tension phenomena.
UNDER-REAM - To enlarge a drill hole below WET GAS - Gas that carries a lot of liquids
the casing. with it.
V-DOOR (WINDOW) - An opening in a side WETTING AGENT- A substance or
of a derrick at the floor level having the form of composition which, when added to a liquid,
an inverted V. This opening is opposite the increases the spreading of the liquid on a surface
draw-works. It is used as an entry to bring in or the penetration of the liquid into a material.
drill pipe and casing from the pipe rack.
WORKOVER - Perform one or more of a
VELOCITY - Time rate of motion in a given variety of remedial operations on a producing oil
direction and sense. It is a measure of the fluid well with the hope of restoring or increasing
flow and may be expressed in terms of linear production. Examples of work-over operations
velocity, mass velocity, volumetric velocity, etc. are deepening, plugging back, pulling and
Velocity is one of the factors that contribute to resetting the liner, squeeze cementing, shooting,
the carrying capacity of a drilling fluid. and acidizing.
VELOCITY, CRITICAL - Velocity at the WORMHOLE - Large, highly conductive
transitional point between laminar and turbulent channels that result from the matrix reaction of
types of fluid flow. This point occurs in the acid with highly reactive sections of the
transitional range of Reynolds numbers of formation. Usually a wormhole starts by
approximately 2,000 to 3,000. enlarging already large permeable vugs or pores
and moves forward as it creates additional
VISCOMETER (VISCOSIMETER)- An
surface area.
apparatus to determine the viscosity of a fluid or
suspension. Viscometers vary considerably in YIELD- A term used to define the quality of
design and methods of testing. clay by describing the number of barrels of a
given centipoise slurry that can be made from a
VISCOSITY- The internal resistance offered by
ton of the clay. Based on the yield, clays are
a fluid to flow. This phenomenon is attributable
classified as bentonite, high-yield, low-yield,
to the attractions between molecules of a liquid,
etc., types of clays. Not related to yield value
and is a measure of the combined effects of
below. See API RP 13B for procedures.
adhesion and cohesion to the effects of
suspended particles, and to the liquid YOUNGS MODULUS - Ratio of stress to
environment. The greater this resistance the strain of a material undergoing elastic strain.
greater the viscosity. See Apparent and Plastic
ZINC CHLORIDE- ZnCl2. A very soluble salt
Viscosity.
used to increase the density of water to points
VUGS- Natural cavities formed in certain more than double that of water. Normally added
formations due to leaching out of soluble to a system first saturated with calcium chloride.
minerals. These cavities are lined with a
crystalline material and a composition different
from that of the surroundings. The size of a vug Common Oilfield Acronyms
may vary from a small pea to a large boulder.
WATER BASE GELLING AGENT - Polymer ACE - Automatic Controlled Equipment
which thickens or gels water. (formerly HIC) - used in HES pumping
equipment
WATER BLOCK- Reduction of the
permeability of a formation caused by the API - American Petroleum Institute
invasion of water into the pores (capillaries). ASME - American Society of Mechanical
The decrease in permeability can be caused by Engineers
swelling of clays, thereby shutting off the pores,
BHA - Bottom Hole Assembly

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Introduction to Stimulation

BOM - Bill of Material HEI - Halliburton Energy Institute - a learning


center in Duncan, OK which provides training
BOP - Blow Out Prevention
for employees and customers
CAST -V - Circumferential Acoustic Scanning
HIPS - Halliburton Integrated Proposal System
Tool - This new generation tool brings higher
resolution, precise digital information, and HPHT - High Pressure High Temperature
simultaneous measurements for complete
HWO - Hydraulic Work Over. Well Control and
acoustic visualization in both open and cased
well maintenance duties.
holes.
ID - Inside Diameter
CBL - Cement Bond Log
ILAN - Instrument Local Area Network used for
CEMS - Computerized Equipment Management
UNIPRO communications
System - field system for tracking equipment
and repairs IRJ - Irregular Job Report
CFU - Combination Frac Unit JLAN - Job Local Area Network used for
ARC/ACE communications
CIBP - Cast Iron Bridge Plug
JSA - Job Safety Analysis
CLAM - Constant Level Additive Mixer
LGC - Liquid Gel Concentrate
CSNG - Compensated Spectral Natural Gamma
Ray LTA - Lost Time Accidents
DAS - Data Acquisition System - used in Coil LWD - Logging While Drilling - part of the
Tubing, TCCs, COMPUPACs with ACQUIRE HDS business
DOT - Department of Transportation - US M/LWD - Measurement/Logging While
Federal Agency Drilling
DST - Drill Stem Test - measure pressures at MBU - Mobile Business Unit - a team with
bottom hole equipment which can deliver products and
services to the customer
EMI - Electrical Micro Imaging (EMI(tm))
Service provides cost -effective technology for MLWD - Measurement While Drilling and
formation and reservoir evaluation with core - Logging While Drilling
like electrical micro -conductivity images of the MRIL - Magnetic Resonance Imaging Log
formation sequence.
MSDS - Material Safety Data Sheet
EPA - Environmental Protection Agency - US
Federal Agency responsible for environmental MWD - Measurement While Drilling - system
regulations. which tracks drill bit location
FAR pack - Field Activity Reporting package MWD/LWD - Measurement While
Drilling/Logging While Drilling
FOP - Field Operating Profit
N2 - Nitrogen services
FSQC - Field Service Quality Coordinator
NORM - Naturally Occurring Radioactive
FSR - Field Service Representative Material - as it relates to the EPA
GIH - Grease Injector Head NWA - Natural Work Area - A method of
GOHFER - Grid Oriented Hydraulic Fracture dividing up North America into regions which
Replicator - Stim -Lab, Inc version of a 3D have similar product and service requirements
fracture simulator OD - Outer Diameter
HEC - Hydroxy Ethyl Cellulose OH - Open Hole

2005, Halliburton 1 36 Stimulation I


Introduction to Stimulation

OIP - Operator Interface Panel - used by a increasing technical and customer needs on a
person to control a UC global basis. Successful completion of the
program is expected to lead to promotion of the
OSHA - Occupational Safety and Health
Participant from entry level (or experienced
Administration - Federal US Agency responsible
candidates from within Halliburton) to a revenue
for worker safety
producing Service Supervisor in field
PBR - Polish Bore Receptacle operations.
PCI - Pumping Control Interface - a VME box SSIT - Service Supervisor in Training - is
PD&C - Product Development & responsible for successful wellsite job execution
Commercialization in a safe and efficient manner. The Service
Supervisor's emphasis is on operational
PM - Preventive Maintenance - system of excellence and customer satisfaction for long
checks that ensure equipment is kept at term growth and profitability of the NWA.
minimum standards to prevent failures during
normal operation. SSSV Sub-Surface Safety Valve

PO - Purchase Order StimWin - Stimulation Design Software

POOH - Pull Out Of Hole T&E - Travel & Entertainment - System of


tracking these expenses
PPE - Personal Protective Equipment - used for
personal safety in performance of duties - TA - Technical Advisor
coveralls, gloves, eye protection, hearing TC - Team Coordinator -The PSL Team
protection Coordinator Functions as a team leader and
PSW - Pumping Services Workstation - coach for the Service Supervisors. The Team
Realtime data acquisition & display software. coordinator provides personnel development for
the MBU Team and champions best practices
PTA - Plug to Abandon and process improvements.
QA - Quality Assurance TCP - Tubing Conveyed Perforating PSL
QC - Quality Control TD - Target Depth
RIH - Run in Hole TIMS - Technical Information Management
RTO - Real Time Operations - delivery of real System
time data from wellsite to Halliburton/Client TTTCP Tools, Testing and Tubing-Conveyed
office, typically via use of the Mobile Net Perforating.
satellite system
UWI - Unique Well Identifier
SC - Service Coordinator - is a customer
focused member of the PSL and Asset WAN - Wide Area Network
Management Team. The Service Coordinator WIT - Wellhead Isolation Tool
provides technical and operational expertise,
ZI - Zonal Isolation (ZI) is a process used in
champions service excellence, creating customer
petroleum well construction which keeps fluids
satisfaction. The Service Coordinator deploys
in one permeable zone of the well bore separate
equipment, materials, and personnel with focus
from fluids of another zone. Once the well has
on optimizing utilization and profit.
been drilled and lined with pipe, the connection
SO - Shipping Order between the geological formation and the well
SPE - Society of Petroleum Engineers/Society must be established and assured. Completion
of includes installing suitable tubing or casing, and
cementing this casing, using casing plugs and
SSDP - Service Supervisor Development packers.
Program is designed to train Supervisors to meet

2005, Halliburton 1 37 Stimulation I


Introduction to Stimulation

Common Halliburton Acronyms What that really means is, the HMS is what we
do, how we do it, who is responsible, how we
know we've done it, and how can we make it
BU - Business Unit
better.
CAPE - Concurrent Art to Production
HPM - Halliburton Performance Management -
Environment
This function includes Market and Business
CBT - Computer-Based Training Analysis, Strategic Planning, PSL Marketing
CEMS - Computerized Equipment Management and the Product Development and
System - field system for tracking equipment Commercialization Initiative Champion
and repairs HR - Human Resource department
COE - Common Office Environment An HRD - Human Resource Development -This
architecture of PCs that standardizes software department drives performance -focused change
and hardware throughout the company. of our people, processes, and organization,
CPI - Correction, Prevention, and Improvement. supporting Halliburtons goal of becoming a
Halliburtons quality improvement system. high -performing organization. Using the
developmental solutions approach, HRD
CPS - Completion Products & Services PSL A develops and implements specific processes that
reservoir focused set of Completion Solutions change and improve performance (processes
including Subsurface Products, Sand Control, collectively known as interventions) to support
Slickline, SEWOP, and Surface Products our clients business needs
CT - Coiled Tubing and all its components HSE - Health, Safety, and Environment. Refers
CVA - Cash Value Added - The CVA for a to department policies for ensuring our
period is a good estimate of the cash flow compliance with HSE regulations.
generated above or below the investor's IS - Integrated Solutions PSL -was established,
requirement for that period. See also NOVA uniting the best people, technology, products,
EJCS - End of Job Customer Satisfaction and equipment to offer oil and gas companies
Survey the most effective and profitable solutions to
their challenges
F&A - Finance and Administration
IT - Information Technology
FPD - Focused Product Development Process
used in Technology Centers ITP - Integrated Technology Products -The
purpose of the Integrated Technology Products
FSQC - Field Service Quality Coordinator Group is to offer solutions with reservoir
FSR - Field Service Representative performance focus; champion the rapid
development and introduction of new
HALCO21 - Halliburtons team and processes technologies that cross PSL boundaries; focus
for revolutionizing business processes globally on cross -PSL technology delivery as a business;
to provide dramatic improvements for and commercialize multi-PSL solutions based on
Halliburton Company, enabling our success in value creation transfer technology to countries.
the 21st Century
JSA - Job Safety Analysis
HEI - Halliburton Energy Institute the
development center in Duncan, Oklahoma, KBR - Kellogg Brown and Root Halliburtons
which provides training for employees and business unit that provides a full spectrum of
customers services: project development, technology
licensing and development, consulting, project
HMS - Halliburton Management System - is an management, engineering, procurement,
integrated management system designed to meet construction, operations and maintenance
operations, quality, health, safety, and services.
environmental management systems needs.

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Introduction to Stimulation

KPI - Key Performance Indicator; used as a champions service excellence, creating customer
measure in Service Quality PII satisfaction. The Service Coordinator deploys
equipment, materials, and personnel with focus
L&P - Logging and Perforating PSL
on optimizing use and profit.
MBU - Mobile Business Unit - a team with
SS - Shared Services - the enabler for change by
equipment, which can deliver products and
pulling together the various functions that were
services to the customer
common to all our operations under one
NOVA - Net Operating Value Added management structure that exists along side of
NWA - Natural Work Area - A method of the other mainstay processes of acquisition and
dividing up the United States into regions which execution. Through this model each Business
have similar product and service requirements Unit is able to access the resources necessary to
acquire and execute its work, yet gain the
PD&C - Product Development & efficiencies and synergies available by "sharing"
Commercialization key services between Business Units.
PE - Production Enhancement PSL SSDP - Service Supervisor Development
PII - Performance Improvement Initiative - Program is designed to train Supervisors to meet
Three areas of Performance we can focus on in increasing technical and customer needs on a
the delivery of our services, In addition to our global basis. Successful completion of the
financial performance. -Doing the Job Right the program is expected to lead to promotion of the
First Time by Using Standard Processes and Participant from entry level (or experienced
Procedures -Reducing Injuries by Better candidates from within Halliburton) to a revenue
Management of Risk -Protecting the producing Service Supervisor in field
Environment by Reducing the Amount of Waste operations.
Created and Using Environmentally Friendly SSDS - Sperry-Sun Drilling Services
Operating Practices
SSIT - Service Supervisor in Training - is
PPR - People Performance Results - part of the responsible for successful wellsite job execution
People Performance Management system used in a safe and efficient manner. The Service
to establish goals, provide feedback on Supervisor's emphasis is on operational
performance, assess performance and deliver excellence and customer satisfaction for long
pay or other incentive based rewards term growth and profitability of the NWA.
PSL - Product Service Line T&E - Travel & Entertainment - System of
PSMT - Product Service Management Team tracking these expenses

QA - Quality Assurance TA - Technical Advisor

QC - Quality Control TC - Team Coordinator -The PSL Team


Coordinator functions as a team leader and
RTO - Real Time Operations - delivery of real coach for the Service Supervisors. The Team
time data from wellsite to Halliburton/ Client Coordinator provides personnel development for
office, typically through use of the Mobile Net the MBU Team and champions best practices
satellite system and process improvements.
SC - Service Coordinator - is a customer- TTTCP - Tools & Testing and Tubing-
focused member of the PSL and Asset Conveyed Perforating PSL
Management Team. The Service Coordinator
provides technical and operational expertise,

2005, Halliburton 1 39 Stimulation I


Introduction to Stimulation

Unit A Quiz

Fill in the blanks with one of more words to check your progress in Unit A.
1. Stimulation treatments refer to ____________ and _______________.

2. What are three (3) design requirements necessary for a successful job design?

3. BOP is the acronym for ____________ __________.

4. The first string of casing in a well is called ___________________ ______________________.

5. Who is responsible for the safety of the crew?

6. PTA is the acronym for ____________ __________ __________.

7. The most common method of perforating incorporates __________-__________ __________ .

8. Proppant is used to provide passages for __________ or __________ to flow into the well.

Now, look up the suggested answers in the Answer Key.

2005, Halliburton 1 40 Stimulation I


Introduction to Stimulation

Answer Key
Refer to the pages provided as references if you answered any of these items incorrectly, or if you
were unsure of your answers.
Items from Unit A Quiz Refer to
Page
1. Acidizing/fracturing 5

2. Fluid type, viscosity requirements, fluid rheology, fluid safety, economics of


fluid, proppant selection, material availability, experience with local formations,
laboratory data on the formation(s). 5

3. Blowout preventer 9

4. Surface Casing 7

5. Service Supervisor 18

6. Plug to abandon 35

7. Shaped-charged explosives 11

8. Oil/gas 13

2005, Halliburton 1 41 Stimulation I

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