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GEOMETRIC DISSECTIONS
and
How to Solve Them
HARRY
LINDGREN
NEW YORK
FOR EVE AND JUDY
GREG FREDERICKSON
Baltimore, Maryland
MayJ1972
PREFACE TO THE FIRST E D I T I O N
HARRY LINDGREN
Patent Office, CanbeTra
December, 1963
CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE
1. Introductory 2
2. P-Strips and PP Dissections 10
3. More PP Dissections 17
4. T-Strips and PT Dissections 22
5. T T Dissections 25
6. Piecemeal Dissections 30
7. Strips from Tessellations I 32
8. Triangles and Q uadrilaterals 36
9. D issections from Tessellations I 39
10. Classifications 45
11. D issections from Tessellations II 48
12. Completing the Tessellation 51
1 3. Strips rpm Tessellations II 54
14. Rational Dissections 58
IS. The Heptagon 63
16. The N ine-gon 66
17. The Decagon 71
1 8. Rectilinear Letters 76
1 9. Stars 84
20. More Stars 89
21. E Pluribus Unum 99
22. Three-Figure D issections 1 10
23. Curvilinear Dissections 1 13
24. Solid Dissections 1 18
Postscript 1 26
ApPENDIX
A. Problems for Solution 1 29
B. Drawings o f Polygons, Etc. 1 32
C. D imensions o f Polygons 1 49
D. Solutions o f Problems 151
E. List of D issections 1 55
vii
viii CONTENTS
INTRODUCTOR Y
I t was Hilbert (or was it Bolyai and Gerwien?) who first proved
that any rectilinear plane figure can be dissected into any other
of the same area by cutting it into a finite number of pieces.
(It is natural to ask, did we need a Hilbert to do that?) In the
proof no account is taken of the number of pieces-one wants
only to show that it is finite. But the main interest of dissections
as a recreation is to find how to dissect one figure into another
in the least number of pieces. In a few cases (very, very few)
it could perhaps be rigorously proved that the minimum num
ber has been attained, and in a few more one can feel morally
certain ; in all the rest it is possible that you may find a dissection
that is better than those already known, or may even find a new
kind of dissection. The subject is nowhere near exhaustion. In
this respect it compares -favorably with many recreations of the
algebraic kind; magic squares, for instance, have been worked
almost to death.
The dissections one sees now and then in books and magazines
may seem of infinite variety, but most of them are elaborations
of only a few basic dissections, usually of one parallelogram
into another. It is also heartening to know that there are more
or less methodical procedures for finding a dissection. This book
is about them.
The figures to be dissected will nearly always be referred
to as polygons) where we are concerned for the moment with
figures in general and not with a particular one. (We don't usually
think of a Greek cross, say, as a polygon, but after all it is a
dodecagon.) Since the main interest is in regular polygons, the
naming of a particular polygon indicates the regular one, except
1
2 GEOMETRIC DISSECTIONS
FIG.I.I f:I/-
---
C
G ---
- D
FIG. 1.2
IN TRODUCTORY 3
FIG. 1.3
FIG_1.5
FIG. 1.4
FIG. 1.6
TIJ"
5
example is the assembly of three small squares into one large one.
Pl-ltting the three squares side by side as in Fig. 1.6, we get a
rectangle whose dimensions are 3 units by 1. QR and S T will
become sides of the large square, and are, therefore, made equal
to \/3 uni ts. This de termines the positions of the cuts, which
give a six-piece dissection. The S-dissection is less successful .
Figure 1 . 6 i s the first of the many dissections i n this book that
are due to the celebrated English puzzlist Henry E. D udeney
(1857-1931) . This one is a simple application of the already
well-known P-slide; other dissections by D udeney gave more
scope for his originality.
/
/
/
FIG. 1.7
VR;flU
FIG. I.e
wrrJx
area of the cross is taken as 5 square units, the dimensions of the
rectangle are 5 X 3, and UV = WX = v15 ; this locates the
cuts. The dissection requires nine pieces, like the one obtained
by an S-dissection and shown in Fig. 2 .1.
FIG.LlI
/
Figure 1.1 1 provides an applica tion of the Q-slide, namely a
dissection of triangles alternative to Fig. 1.9. Here again the
smaller of the two is undissected. This dissection is more general
than that of Fig. 1. 9, in that it can be applied to trapezoids as
well as triangles.
As the proportions of the quadrilaterals vary, E in Fig. 1 .10
can become lower than C, as in Fig. 1.11, and in the limi ting
case E coincides with F. At the same time C coincides with H.
In this limi ting case the transverse cut HF is unnecessary, as
is seen from Fig. 1.12 . This is a feature in common with the
P-slide, as a glance at Fig. 1.5 shows. Another common feature
is that angles are unchanged. Nevertheless, the differences be
tween the two slides are sufficient for them to be considered
distinct.
104. There is a further kind of dissection, which is quite
popular, given the descriptive name step dissec tion.
INTRODUCTORY 7
21
of the steps must all be equal, and so must the treads.
FIG. US
Ea FIG. I..
FIG. 1.17
the alternative on the right. But Dudeney, who ori g inated it,
added a condition to his puzzle to exclude the simpler alterna
tive.) In several dissections of this kind the rotation is a quarter
turn. One example by D udeney is shown in Fig. 1.18.
FIG.I.IB
[]
Cd FIG. 1.19 D FIG. I 20
FIG. 2.1
FIG.2.2
:vi /
]
I i L-I i --l
,...-FIG. 2.3
[
This trouble of cuts that cross crops up m all dissections.
J ust as in Fig. 2 . 1 , so in other dissections cuts will cross, and our
problem is to find a dissection in which the points where cuts
cross are as few as possible. Now the possibilities are endless, even
though the cut like AB in Fig. 2 .1 must be at a fixed angle. For
point A of the cut need not be at a vertex, but can be anywhere
on the base; AB can slope the other way; and the second cut, like
the first, need not start at a vertex, and can slope the other way.
To visualize all the possibilities from the figures is out of the
question if they are at all complicated; to draw them all would
take an age. Fortunately the trial becomes quite speedy and
quite a pleasure if we make use of strips in the manner now to be
I J J 1
described.
FIG 2.
Let us turn for a change from Greek crosses to the Latin cross
illustrated in Fig. 2 . 2 . Cutting it into two pieces, we can assemble
12 GEOMETRIC D ISSECTIO NS
2 5
FIG. 2.S
lines crossing full ones at several points. Slide the s trip of squares
relatively to the other strip, keeping the angle between the two
constant, until the number of crossing points is reduced to the
minimum. It will be found that the minimum is 1 , as in the
three superpositions shown in Fig. 2 . 6 . Now look at the parallelo-
/
/
I
/ I I', I
/ MI
'
/IH ........ , / Y
/E
'<, I / I
,
I
I / / I /
I
,
/ / .A- I
/
, ,
I
,
I /
,
Y
I "
, ,
I I /
, ,
,
, I , FIG.2.6
FIG.2.7
The strip element in Fig. 2 . 2 can be formed into the tau cross
In Fig. 1 . 7 . Thus Fig. 2 . 7 is an alternative to Fig. 1 . 7 .
/ i\2 /
B \/\
_ :S
FI .8
FIG.2.10
V
F IG. 2.9
congruent. One can say then that the strips are superposed so
that the edges of each pass through congruent points in the other.
And the S in "S-dissection" indicates that i t is obtained from
Strips.
\
Most of the simpler polygons one might want to dissect are
easily made into strip elements, and often in more than one
way. When the latter is the case, the various simple ways of
getting strip elements should be tried. For it sometimes happens
that a minimal dissection is not given by the simplest strip ele-
D
FIG.
2.14 FIG.
2.16
FIG.2.IS
)"0.2177
Some simple ways of dissecting various polygons into P-strip
elements are shown in Figs. 2 .12-2.21. The pentagon strip ele
ments in Fig. 2 .12 are ob.tained by first getting a trapezoid as in
Fig. 2 .2 2 and making a cut parallel to the left-hand side, through
the midpoint marked by a dot. Fig. 2 . 2 2 also explains Figs . 2 .16
and 2 .17 . The rest of Figs. 2 .12-2 .21 hardly need explanation .
FIG. 2. 21
FIG. 2. 2 2
India ink. (It is annoying to find that you are uncertain whether
two lines cross or not, solely because your drawings are not
accurate enough. The sketches on the right of Fig. 2 . 2 illustrate
the dilemma. )
(3) Keep a l l drawings.
You will then get better results, and the saving in time and
trouble will be enOTmous.
FIG.
2.23
MORE PP DISSECTIONS
" /
Y
/
/
/
/
/
, /
, /
" /
,
Y
/ FIG.3.1
the cut, the greater the number of pieces is likely to be. But
they can always be found by superposing strips.
I I
I I
I I
/"
I
I
I I
I , I
I 'y
...................
I I
FIG.3.3
FIG. 3.4
/ , 'I
/ ''I'
/ I
/
/
/ I
/ /
--;/
/ _
1-- --,__ FIG. 3.6
FIG. 3.7
o
4
In making the pentagon into a strip element, the first step was
to change it into a trapezoid, as shown in Fig. 2.22 . But this
first step already gives us a strip element, as is seen from Fig. 4 . 1 .
The strip differs from those used hitherto in that alternate
elements are inverted. Being composed of trapezoids, it is called
aT-strip.
Such a strip also can be used to get a dissection, but we cannot
translate the strip superposed on it as freely as on a P-strip. A
strip of squares, when superposed as III Fig. 4. 1 , does not give
/ ' /
/ , /
/ /
/
// "" /
,
FIG. 4.1
F I G .4.7
/ \
\
\ -
\
\
- ---
F I G , 4.B / \
,
,
" ! \
,"
I \
I \
//
,,/'
/<: !
/ /
/ /
/
/
'>/
F I G . 4.10 /
F I G . 4.11
FIG. 4.12
TT DISSECTIONS
" I
"
, I
" /
F I G .S.I
", I
_----'I /
I /
F
_---
F I G . 5.3
F I G . 5.4
There are at least two other ways besides Fig. 4.1 in which
a T-strip can be obtained from a pentagon. They are shown in
Figs. 5 . 4 and 5 . 5 . In the latter, the strip element does not reach
right across from edge to edge, and for this reason two elements
are shown. The first element is used in Irving L. Freese's dis
section of pentagon and square, shown in Fig. 5 . 6 .
-or- -
--
---
-
/
I
_
1--- -
,// /
/
" \
/
/
F I G . 5 .7
F I G . 5.8
/ '/
F I G . 5.9
/
The strip element in Fig. 5 . 5 does not extend across the strip.
Another one like this is shown in Fig. 5 . 9, in which the element
is a miter (or, if you like, a stool end) . The problem of finding
a four-piece dissection of miter and square seems to be insoluble.
But as the figure shows, two miters can be dissected by identical
cuts into two squares, with only four pieces per miter. (It happens
quite often that a dissection of two polygons into two is more
economical than that of one into one .) This dissection, which
is not a T T2 but a PT, illustrates the point that in a T T2 dis
sec. . ion a transverse line in each strip must pass through the
center of the common area. Here a transverse line in the strip
of squares does not. Compare Fig. 5 . 2 .
I t was noticed by Dl1deney that T T dissections of trapezoids
or triangles can be made in the form of hinged models. Half
TT DISSECTIONS 29
PIECEMEAL DISSECTIONS
F I G . 6.1
FIG . 6.4
The polygons so far considered are easily made into strip ele
ments; polygons such as the heptagon, nine-gon, and dodecagon
are a different matter . Bu t there are methodical ways of getting
strip elements from them too, by means of tessellations.
FIG. 7. 2
32
STRIPS F R O M T E S S E LLAT I O N S I 33
( I )
F I G . 7. 3
FIG. 7 . 6
F IG. 7.7
L K
FIG. 7. S
H J
FIG.
7.9
I
I
I
F I G . 6. 2
I I
I
t<.,
-
I
F I G . 6.1
I '- I
/
7 /
-_--
/ /
DI SSECTIONS FROM
TESSELLATIONS I
The Greek cross has already been dissected here into various
polygons, but not yet into a square. Minimal dissections could
be found by superposing a strip of squares on strips made up of
the elements in Figs. 2 . 1 8-2 .20, and a further, nonminimal dis
section could be found from a strip made up of the element in
Fig. 2 . 2 1 . In the first three the strips cross at righ t angles, so
transverse lines in the strip of squares can be made coincident
with the edges of the Greek-cross strip. But strips are not the
most natural or effective device to use for this dissection. We
can dispense with them and use instead the tessellations they
were derived from.
FIG. 9.1
cro sses, such as the centers of the crosses, coincide with congruent
points in the tessellatio n of squares, namely their vertices. If we
mo ve the tessell ation of squares in any way, keeping the lines in
it horizontal and vertical, we always have a dissection of cross
and square. Some other polygons whose tessellations have a square
as period parallelogram are shown in Figs. 9.2-9 .5, a set of four
m
congruent points In each being marked by dots. (You are rec
W
ommended to sketch the tessellations on graph paper. ) The cuts
show the symmetric dissections of the first three into one square,
and of the fourth into four squares, all easily found by super
posing tessellations. Other dissections are found by shifting one
of the tessellations. A superposed tessellation of Greek crosses
will also give four-piece symmetric dissections . *
\
/ --...
" y "'- ...... y / ..... y"
/
, /
.......
" // " //
I _ - - __.... I ___ __
)I )I )
\ \ \
I
'
I I I
/
A A A\
I \ / \ I
I \ I \ I \
FIG. 9.6
FIG. 9. 8
F IG. 9.9
\
F IG. 9.10
FIG. 9.13 F IG . 9 . 14
\
\ \ \
\ \ \
,.... .....- /
\ \
,, \
\ \ /'<
\
/
\
\ ,,
/
\
\ \ ,
, "" -
,,
\ \
\ \
\ ,,
\ , \
'----- \
x
l
/// \
, \ \
\ \
\ \
\
F I G . 9. 17
I
\
, / -\
CLASSIFI CATION
p) Parallelogram slide.
Q) Quadrilateral slide.
R) Rational. Includes step dissections.
S) From strips. Subdivided into pp) PT) T T l , and TT2 .
T) From tessellations.
UJ Unclassified.
You will understand that I had to call the third class rational,
because this word begins with an R. T-dissections could be sub
divided on lines similar to the subdivision of S-dissections, but
with the present paucity of examples this would be classification
for its own sake.
U-dissections comprise those that cannot be worked out by
any of the methods described in this book, so that the would-be
solver must rely entirely on his own ingenuity. One example is
Dudeney's Greek-cross puzzle in Figs. 1 0 . 1 and 1 0 . 3 . Most of
45
46 G EOM ETRIC DISSECTIONS
FIG. 10.3
G FIG. IO.S
You may think the term " Q-slide" inapposite, for where is
the slide? Figures 1 0.2, 1 0.4, 1 0.5, and 1 0. 6 supply the answer.
The first two, relating to a P-slide, show how a chain of parallelo
grams AB CD is dissected, by sliding the par.ts above the horizon
tal line, into a chain of parallelograms AECF.
G FIG . 1 0.6
only are the sides changed, but so are two of the ' angles, namely,
those near the shear-line. One is increased, and the other reduced,
by an amount equal to the angular displacement of the parts
above the shear-line. The relations between the dimensions of
the two quadrilaterals are rather intricate, which helps to explain
why this brainchild appears to be stillborn. (But Fig. 1 . 1 7 i s
similar.)
11
TE S SELLAT I O N S I I
FIG. I U
0
---
\
\
---
\
\ \
\ \
\ \
\
\
\ \
\
--
\ \
\
\
\
\
\
\ \
\ \
\ \
\
\ --
-
FIG. 1 1. 5
--
surely the most remarkable one there is. I would like to have
discovered it myself.
COMPLETING TH E T E S S E LLAT I O N
Take away the small square from both sides of this, and you get
James Travers's dissection of octagon and square.
FIG. 12.5
FIG. 13.2
F I G . 13 .7
FIG. 14.1
FIG
59
171 , ,
F I G 14 3
FIG , 14,4
F I G. 14.5
I t might be thought that all steps must have the same rise and
tread. Figure 1 4. 5 shows the contrary. The intermediate stage
consists in preparing for the step movement by dissecting the
3 X 2 rectangle in the upper right corner into a 2 X 3 one. The
3 and 2 can be replaced by other integers, the preliminary step
dissections need not be on the top step, there can be combinations
of them, and so on.
FIG. 14.6 F I G . 1 4 .7
F I G . 1 4. 8
D F
FIG. 1 4. 1 0
B H F I G . 1 4 .9
'- ,
C
TH E H E PTAGON
FIG. I S .6
I
FIG. IS.S F I G / 1 5 .9
THE HEPTAGON 65
\ \
\/ \ F I G ;..\I S . I I
-\ \
F I G . I S. I O \ / \, // \
- - -+ .....
\ \
\ / \ \... ...... ......
\ \ \
- - -"
TH E NINE-GON
G J
F I G . 16 .2
F E D c
FIG. 16.4
o
F I G . 1 6.7
D
y z
THE DECAGON
I
I
I
I
'"
I
/
' --t
F I G . 17. 1 F I G. 17. 2 I F I G. 17. 3
71
" See also Appendix G.
72 G E O METRIC D I S S E C T I O N S
I
\ I ,
\---1
I \
\ I
,
F IG. 17.6
F
)- , "
/
! "-
F IG. 17.7 !
!
/
, /
F IG . 17.8 ' .z
"-
I ,
I "
/ "-
I
I
/
' ...:
F I G . 17. 10
,,
/ , I ,
/ -1- " ,/ , I ') ,
/
, I I
,,
\\ ;'"I ,/
I
/ '" I ,
/
\0:.,/ I
,/
, ,
r,
,
,/
I
,/
\ ,/ c,
F I G . 17.14 F IG . 1 7. 1 5
, -,
, I
...... ....:;/" '1- -
/ ,
WulM
lr o/J D!J FlGW"
There seems to be a tacit agreement that letters for dissection
shall have a height that is five times the thickness of the strokes.
Accordingly, the letters attacked will be dimensioned as in Fig.
l S. 1 . Although they look true to type, most of them have been
modified slightly to simplify dissection. For instance, the sloping
strokes have the same width as other strokes only if we measure
the width horizontally. This uniform width will be our unit of
length throughout.
I t is convenient to use graph paper in dissecting letters, and
not to make their area a constant 20 sq. cm . or other value.
Instead draw them on any scale that suits the paper, and if a
superposition is to be tried, draw a separate strip of squares
for the letter (using the graph paper as a guide, of course) .
Some of the simplest letters are easily squared by means of a
76
RECTILIN EAR LETTERS 77
FIG.
18.4
I
I
---/
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
\
F I G . 18.5
The P-slide cuts applied to the rectangle cross only one existing
cut, so we have quite an economical dissection of N and square.
The manner of attack depends to some extent on the value
of the area, as has just been seen. The area of some letters is a
perfect square, e.g., M , X, Z have areas of 1 6, 9, 9 square units
respectively. When this is the case, it may be easy enough to
proceed direct from letter to square by trial. Thus, a 4 X 4
square A B CD can be drawn on the M where shown in Fig. 1 8.6,
and one then tries filling the empty spaces inside A B CD with
78 GEOM ETRIC DISSECT I O N S
FIG. IB.6 F I G . I B .7
...---- .
. ...-:--- c-
...- --- . --l
\
-
\
\
'--'-::c.
-_ --
__-'
FIG. IB.S F I G . 1 8 .9
was chosen because the shapes of the pieces are least suggestive
of the letter dissected.
/ ,
1------4'--1
/
'
, /
, /
FIG. IB.13
So far we have tackled only the easy letters. The V , W, and Y
that remain will obviously not easily succumb to a P-slide, and
their areas, which are respectively 55/6, 65 / 4, and 1 5/2 , are not
squares. Certainly 65 /4 is a sum of two squares, and in two ways
to boot, but this is a blind alley. So we try general methods
based on tessellations and strips.
80 G E O METRIC D ISSECT I O N S
FIG. 1 8 . 1 7
FIG.
18.20
FIG. 1 8.22
The only rectilinear letters not dissected are the problem ones
A and K. It appears that letters reasonably true to type, as on
the left of Fig. 1 8. 2 1 , are best dissected piecemeal. But this
requires too many pieces, and the promising alt ernative of first
making the K into a notched rectangle promptly comes to
nothing. On the other hand easily dissected shapes like the K on
the right are too distorted. So I leave the dissection of A and K
to someone else.
FIG.
1 8.23
,
\
/ J \ I
/
/ , I
- - - - - )f
"
/
__
/
/
/-\
I
FIG. 18.31
I
I
I
I \ I
19
STARS
F I G . 19.1
, I
!
I
I
'< I
,
, , , I
\,,,,- - -- - .: / "
I '" I
F I G . 19.2 F I G . 19. 3
,-
\ ....
D \
",
-- \\
,.. .....
F I G . 19.6
\
..... ....
c
22 .)
remember that the latter has nothing to do with dianeticsl (Martin Gardner, Fads
and Fallacies, Chapter
86 G E O M ETRIC DISSECTION S
<=---+\'--1/-"-
. ----''
-' A.''
'W 1 9. 1 1
F I G . 19. 1 2
F IG.
MORE STARS
Looking at Figs. 9. 7-9. 1 0, 1 9.5, and 1 9 .6, we see that they have
a common characteristic. This is that the end points of every
cut in the more complex of the two polygons are determined by
intersections of chords. In an n-gon or n-gram the angle between
any two chords is 7T'ln or a multiple thereof if n is even, and if n
is odd, it can be the complement of such an angle. Hence, any
side of any piece in the dissection is equal to the side 51 of the
polygon multiplied by a rational function of sines and cosines of
multiples of 7T'ln. (Such a rational trigonometric function will
henceforth be called an RTF.) We confine ourselves to pairs of
polygons in which the angles 7T'ln are equal, or one is a small
integral multiple of the other. In such cases, if the dissection has
the abovementioned characteristic, the side 52 of the polygon
obtained by rearrangement i s also 5 1 times an RTF. The dissection
of two polygons so related is unusually economical, as we have
seen. This prompts us to make a systematic search for such pairs
pf polygons.
.om e 9
F I G . 20.3
1 6 sin 30 cos2 30
sin 30
16 cos2 (7r/2n) ,
where cos (-rr jn) cancels in the second member and sin (rr/2n)
in the fourth. Hence,
s {n }/s { 2n/ 2 } = 4 cos ( n/2n) , (5)
that is, the side of any n-gon is twice the distance AB (Fig. 20.3)
between adjacent points in the {2n/2 } of equal area. Dissections
based on (5) appear in Figs. 1 9.5, 1 9.6, 20.3, and 20.4. In the last
of these we use the tessellation in Fig. 9.20, just as in Fig. 1 9.6
we used Fig. 9. 1 7 .
The existence of a relation such as (4) or (5) implies the
existence of a dissection, every cut in which is of length an RTF.
Such cuts need not be determined in every case by intersections
of chords, though most of them will be. Figure 1 9.4 illustrates
this, for two of the cuts therein cannot possibly be determined
in that manner, but their lengths are obviously RTF's. On the
other hand, it may transpire that a more economical dissection has
some cuts whose lengths are not RTF's.
F IG. 20.9
o
00
o F IG . 20.10
as in Fig. 20.9 looks trivial. That we get a star is trivial, but that
we get a polygram is j ust a little less so. Besides, it was Fig. 20.9
that led to the general relation (6), and (6) led to Figs. 20.5 and
20.6. There are dissections like Fig. 20.9 for all values of n in (6) .
They appear to be minimal except when n = 3 .
00
F IG . 20. 1 1 FIG. 2 0 . 12
e
F IG. F IG.
CJJ flj
2 0 . 14 20.15
FIG 2 0 13
F I G. 2 0. 1 6
indicating that one { I Oj3 } can be dissected into two { 5j2 } 's.
Having found the simple way of doing this shown in Fig. 20.20,
we deduce from it the further relation
r { 2 njn - 2 }js { n/ Y2 (n -
I)} = y!2 , ( 1 2)
where n is odd. Figures 20. 1 8 and 20. 1 9 show the elementary
dissections of a hexagon into two triangles and of a triangle i n to
two hexagons, the rearrangements being omitted; ( 1 2) is a
generalization .
F IG. 2 0 . 1 7
@ FIG.
2 0. 1 8
I t must b e pointed out that the s's in ( I ) and (3) are not strict
analogs; the true analog in a polygram of the s in a polygop is
not NO in Fig. 20.20, but NP. I preferred NO because the
formulas for s) R) r as in (3) are more symmetric, and because it
is usually the more significant dimension in a dissection. With
n = 3, the right-hand side of ( 1 2) is incorrect, but it is quite
legitimate to deduce that r{ 6 } js { 3 } is y!2 times an RTF, for
NO in Fig. 20.20 is an RTF of NP and similarly in general.
Substituting n = 5 in ( 1 0) and ( 1 2) shows that a { l 0/4} too
should be dissectable into two { 5/2 } 's. And, indeed, we find
Fig. 20.2 1 .
F IG . 20 . 2 0
F I G . 20.23
Figures 20.22 and 20.23 are derived from the relation (4) be
tween dodecagon and square, which, so far as I can see, is not a
particular case of a general relation. Another apparently isolated
relation is
5 { 3 }/5{ 1 2/2 } = 6 + 4 cos 3 0 , ( 1 5)
leading t o Fig. 2 0 . 2 5 . *
F IG . 20.25
E PL URIB US UNUM
FIG
2'
O
@ 0D1
FIG.
21.2
\V
Only two small hexagons have been fitted into the large one
in Fig. 2 1 . 2 . But we draw as much as we can of a third one, and
try to assemble the parallelograms and the central piece into a
fourth hexagon. We find an overlap as at A . I t is got rid of, and
the third hexagon completed, by cutting piece A out of either
of the overlapping parallelograms. In this or some other way,
moderate resourcefulness will always find a means to the end.
The complete small polygons in the large one need not all be
99
100
GEOMETRIC DISSECTIONS
M
F1G
1.3
the same way up. In Fig. 2 1 . 3 , which shows the same hexagon as
before, one of the small hexagons is inverted. N evertheless, cuts
can be found to complete the dissection.
, I t is only human to start by drawing as many small polygons
as possible in the large one. But drawing a single one will be
found to suffice. An example by C. Dudley Langford is the
assembly in Fig. 2 1 .5 of four regular nine-gons into one.
From the examples already given, and Fig. 2 1 .4, one infers that
the minimum number of pieces for n-gons in general is n + 1 .
But regular n-gons require only n pieces if n is even. As an exam
ple we have in Fig. 2 1 .6 three symmetric assemblies of four
dodecagons into one, each assembly requiring 1 2 pieces. These
'
are refe rred to, but not described, by H. M. Cundy and C. D .
Langford, Math. Gaz., 44, 46 ( 1 960), Note 2875. There have prob
ably been several independent discoveries of them.
F I G . 2 1 .8 F IG . 2 1 .9
2
.[]J
I t is just as easy to assemble nine small polygons, or indeed any
square number of them. Let Fig. 2 1 .7 suffice.
If the polygon is a tessellation element, an economical assembly
may be found by superposition. Figure 2 1 . 8 is an example in
which the polygon is that of Fig. 9 . 1 7 . But if the polygon has
E PL URIB US UN UM 101
F IG .
21.1 1
FIG. 21 . 1 2
The assembly of Ii polygons with a square tessellation into h )
where h = p2 + q 2 ) is effected similarly. For k into one, the
a gle b etween congruent lines is tan - I ( y/ x) ; for h into one it is
t'a n - I (q/P) or tan - I (P/q ) ; therefore, for k inta h i t is either
ta n- I (y/ x ) - tan - I ( q/P) or tan - I (y/x) - tan- I (P/ q ).
Figure 2 1 . 1 2 shows five Greek crosses a,sembled into two, the
angle between congruent lines (and tessellation elements) being
tan-I 2 - tan-1 I = tan-1 Y3 '
21FI.G1 5.
[)
FIG. 21." F I G . 2 1 .19
F I G. 21. 2 0
I
O
FIG. 2 1 . 2 1
o $ FIG 21."
.
F lG . 2 1 . 2 3
o
()
F I G.
O
2 1 .2 4
There will be n o assembly based o n RTF's of two n-gons into
F IG.
21.25
FIG. 21 .26
F I G . 2 1 . 27
o @;;
t.: M
F IG. 21 . 2 8
of a tessellation with period p a rallelogram OPQR. I f the dimen
sions of the rectangles are a X b and c X d with al b = cld)
then triangles OPS and O R T are similar, from which i t easily
follows that LPO R is a right angle. We also have
O R2/ 0 P2 = ( a2 + c 2 )/( b 2 + d2 ) = a2 1 b2)
that is, the period parallelogram is similar to the two rectangles .
H ence, we get an assembly of two rectangles into one, all similar,
by superposing a tessellation or strip of large rectangles on the
tessellation at the proper angle.
Cf7
D ,,/'
/
C
\
0/
\\
. I'A
\
Q
2129
\, a T //,/'
2130
FIG.
b \\ \ ", / / " FIG.
/
5 '---_\""-
p/_/_----'
2131
F IG.
Q) (l)
F I G.
2 1 .32
FIG.
21.33
@ F IG. 21.34
THR E E - F I GURE D I S S E C T I O NS
Fig. 2 2 .4 is free from cuts that cross . The nine pieces required
all appear in the common area in this figure .
instead of seven . But the additional cut to get the square crosses
only one existing cut i n Fig. 22 . 7 .
I f two o f the polygons are the Greek cro.s and square, an
economical dissection will sometimes b e found if a tessellation
of squares is superposed on the Greek cross complete with the
cuts that dissect the latter into the third polygon. One example
o f this is the dissection of cross and pentagon, taken from Fig.
S . S and reproduced in Fig. 2 2 . S . Trial soon shows that the best
superposition is the one illustrated.
There are at least two dissections that fall outside the treat
ment in this chapter. In the tangrammatic Fig. 2 2 . 9, due to
Loyd, we have for good measure not three polygons but six. And
Fig. 2 2 . 1 0 shows a dissection by D udeney of one triangle into
two and into three .
23
A D
F I G . 23.1
C F
SWEET
FIG. 23.2 AND
LOVELY
1 1 11 1 1 1
F I G.
23.3
[1111 1 1
Because of this difficulty, one cannot as a rule choose two
curvil inear figures beforehand and try to dissect them; it is
ra ther a matter of s ee i ng what a given curvilinear figure can
FlG
23.4
be dissected into. Thus it I S with the circle. One might have
in mind its dissection into some kind of curvilinear star, but
hardly a goal more precise. And you count yourself lucky to
find something as passable as Figs. 2 3 .4-2 3 . 6 .
o F I G . 23.5
freedom in Figs. 2 3 . 5 and 2 3 .6, in that all cuts must have the
same radius as the circle.
C U RV I L I N EA R D I S S E C T I O N S 115
Working out the cuts for Fig. 2 3 .4 is quite easy. Draw curves
of convenient radius joining the vertices G, H, j, K of an n-gon,
making L such that GK and KL are equal and collinear ; j oin
KL by a curve of the same radius, and complete by drawing
a circle through the n points like L. This construction differs
from that of Fig. 1 9 . 7 only in tha t the lines are curved.
0 0
t1:
N M
P R
Q
F I G . 23.6
Since also
QP = PN = NM = MO = MR
and their length can be given any convenient value, all the points
named in Fig. 2 3 . 6 can be determined, and, therefore, all points
in the star dissection, and the radius of the arcs is that of the
circle through M, N, Q. In going about it this way, the radius
of the circle is whatever it turns out to be. If on the contrary
we start with a circle of given radius R, then we use the fact that
1 16 G E O M ETRIC D I S S E C T I O N S
MN = 2R sin {}J
where
cot {} = cot (rr/n) + 2 sin (1T/ 3n + 1T / 6)/sin (1T/n).
F IG. 2 3. 1 1
F IG . 23.13
IS
I L
12
AM 177
,
8
24
SOLID D I S S E CTIONS
. To prove that any polygon can be dissected into any other o f the
same area, one shows that any polygon can be cut up into tri
angles, and that each triangle can be dissected into a rectangle
whose length is equal to the side of the square equivalent to the
polygon . Stacking the rectangles gives a dissection of polygon
and square, so we have the successive dissections : first polygon
square second polygon .
FIG.
24. 1
I
I
:I--
:
!
J. _
---_ 1
1 "
-- - .J... '-- /
"
-
/
/
/
/
<@? c
The first two dissections to be described are exceptions.
.
4'2 FG
F 3 FIG'2 B
E A
F 4 F
5
B
C
A A
6
FIG. 24.3
4>.
All pieces in the dissection are assemblies of the 2 1 6 unit cubes
into which the large cube can be divided. The unit of length is
marked by the dots on piece A in Fig. 24. 1 , which shows the
separate pieces, while Fig. 24.2 is a key to their positions in
the cube of side 6. The six drawings therein show which pieces
1 20 GEO METRIC D ISSECTIO N S
2 FIG. 24.4
F I G . 24.5 /'.
. L K
F I G . 24.7
5 5
v
F I G . 2 4 .9
FIG. 24.10
.t?: .c
BL--___---L_-'C F IG . 24.12
24.5. Only one other kind of solid dissection, which can lay
claim to generality, is known to me. I t can be applied to any
polyhedron, and will be described with respect to a tetrahedron.
Figure 24. 1 1 is a side elevation of a tetrahedron, oriented so
that A B and B e represent faces and A e an edge. The small
triangles along A e represent tetrahedrons of the same shape as
A B C . If they are removed, the solid that is left can be dissected
into a cube, as was proved by J. P. Sydler. The proof consists
in dividing the tetrahedron into slices by horizontal cuts as
indicated by the lines on the right of A e. The lowest slice,
shown in Fig. 24. 1 2 as viewed from above, can be divided into
two triangular prisms with parallel end-faces by a cut through
plane EFG)' similarly with the other slices. And the prisms ob
tained from all the slices can be dissected into a cube.
Making A e = a and dividing a in any way into any number k
of equal or unequal parts a I , a2, " , a k , we can say that the
tetrahedron of dimension a can be dissected into k tetrahedrons
"
of dimensions aI, a2, ' ak) plus a cube. Since any polyhedron
"
rf\::' l 24. 1 4
24. 1 3
FIG. J
K D "{
L
J
K U
- M
L
F I G.
aD
1 0
I
I
I
App endix A
You are invited to try your strength on the problems that follow,
before looking up the solutions in Appendix D. Problem 3
requires that you dissect, a hexagon using the same strip as in
Fig. 2 . 9, into a golden rectangle using the same strip as in Fig.
2 . 2 3 ; it is a PP dissection ; it can be done in five pieces. The rest
of the problems are stated similarly.
I . Rectangle 1 . 2, square; P; 4 .
2 . Miter 5 . 9, square; P; 5 .
3 . Hexagon 2.9, golden rectangle 2 . 2 3 ; pp). 5 .
4. Hexagram 2. 1 7 , square ; pp). 5 .
5 . Hexagram 2 . 1 7, golden rectangle 2 . 2 3 ; PP; 5 .
6. Hexagram 2 . 1 7, octagon 2 . 1 4 ; pp). 9
7 . Greek cross 2 .20, golden rectangle 2 . 2 3 ; pp). 5.
8. Latin cross 2.3, golden rectangle 2 . 23 ; pp). 5 .
9. Latin cross 2 . 3 , octagon 2 . 1 4 ; PP; 8.
1 0. Latin cross 2.3, hexagram 2 . 1 7 ; PP; 9.
I I . Open out a cube (see text to Fig. 1 . 7) to get a figure with
a four-piece dissection into a square.
1 2 . Pentagon 4. 1 , golden rectangle 2 . 2 3 ; PT) 6 .
1 3. Hexagram 2 . 1 7, hexagon 4.4; P T) 7 .
1 4. Golden rectangle wide strip, triangle 4 . 3 ; T T2 ; 4 .
1 5 . Hexagon 4.4, triangle 4. 3 ; T T 2 ; 5 .
1 6. Hexagon 4.4, pentagon 4. 1 ; TT2; 7 .
1 7 . H exagon 4.5, pentagon 5 . 5 ; T T2 ; 7 .
1 8. Octagon 2 . 1 5, triangle 4 . 3 ; T T 2 ; 8.
1 9. Octagon 2 . 1 5, pentagon 5 . 5 ; TT2; 9.
20. Greek cross 4.6, triangle 4 . 3 ; T T2 ; 5.
2 ! . Dodecagon 9. 1 0, triangle 4 . 3 ; P T; 8.
1 29
1 30 GE O M ETRIC D ISSECT I O N S
f---
\ ,- ,--
D
I---
D
e--
PCP
1 94
Appendix B
8/3
1 0/2
1 0/4
1 2/2
9
-
-
--
--
-
--
--
...-
-
-
--
- --
-
- --
61 62
83
/
84 85
66
/
66
B II
III
I
I I
I
I I
+- -T---
I
I
-- - - - -
I I I
- t--
I I I I
- t- - - - - T - -- - - - --;
I
- - -
I
I
I I
I I
I I I
I I I
I I
I
-
i I I
- -+- - I - +- -
.L-
/i
I
- -
- - - ;I
I
I I I
I I
I I
! I
-- +--
I
I
I
- - f- - -- - -
I _ __ _+ _ ___ i --1I
I I
_ , - - - -
I
i I
I I I
I 'i
I I I I
I I
'-, /;
------
,
i;', -
- --
/-</ +- \ - - - 1;
j
\/_
.
_ __ - - - --
:
I '
I I \
\
J'
I I I
I I
I I
I
- - -j-- - - -
I
- - - - - - . -
-- -
I
I
i
I
I I
I I
I
I
- i
- +- -
I
- - - +- - -
T
- - - -
I I I
I I
tI - - -t - - -
--I
- - - - - -
I
I I -
I I I
I I I
I I I
I I I
I I
- - +--- - - -t - - -
I
- --j-- - - -
I I I
I I
I I
I I
I I I
I I I
I I I
- -+-- - +- - - - - --1
I
I
+ - -
I
I- I
+I - - - -- -
- --j- - 1""" -
_ _ _ _ _ - - -
I I
I
I I
I B 13 \
r
I I I
I
:
I I
-
- ---- - - -- I
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- I
- - - --- - - -
8-15- - -
I , , I
I I \ I
I I /
\ /
I
/----- /
/
I
I
I I /
I / /
I
I
I
I
I
r--
__
!
/
I
r
I
I \ I '
I \ i
\
i
I
1 \
I
l '_\j
/ I
I
I I
,-;r--
./ I
\
\
\
1\ \
\
L------ - 1 \
\
I \
I \
I \
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
/
I
I
I
/
I
/
/
1 _____- /
I
I
/
I
I
I I I
I I I
I I /
/ I /
I
I /
/ I
I I
I
I I
/ I
/ I
/ I
I /
I I
I
I
I /6 1 6
Appendix C
D IMENSIONS O F POLYGONS
n s log s R log R
3 6.7962 83226 3.9238 59370
4 4.472 1 65052 3 . 1 62 3 50000
5 3 .4095 5 3 269 2 . 9003 46244
6 2.7745 443 1 9 2 . 7745 443 1 9
7 2 . 3460 37033 2 .7035 43 1 92
8 2.0352 3086 1 2 . 65 9 1 42474
9 1 . 7 987 2 5496 2 .6295 4 1 988
10 1 .6 1 2 3 20 7 43 2 .6087 4 1 642
12 1 . 3365 1 2598 2 .5820 4 1 1 95
00 2.523 1 40 1 94
The sides of the unit squar,e for the various crosses are :
s log s
G 2 30 1 03
L 1 .825 7 26 1 44
M, S 1 .0847 03529
SOLUTIONS O F PROBLEMS
I I
/
/
I
I
/
/
151
/
I
-
- - -(
/I \ I
\./
I \
/
1- - _ _ _ _
/ l
LI__",-,
0 1 3,,--/_----,,-_-- ./
T
/ I \\
/
//
-
/I \\ /I
\
--- e
1,--
\ I
\ --- --
-
-
I -
/
/ \\ /
/I ..... ..... ......
-
\ -
- - :
\
\ I
/ \ / \
/ \ 0 14 /
-
, \ '" -\- I
0 16_ --
-
-
- \ - ..J- -
--
- -- - ,
\
\
.- -- I
-
- \ -
\ --
....
-
/
/
/
/
/
/
tlc_ 1---'---,---1
/.-r-7'>---7
I I
/ /
\
\
\
\
\ 0 28
//-\\
/ \
\ /
\
y/
0 3 5///
3
9
8
D 54
Appendix E
L I ST O F D I S S E C T I O N S
The following list comprises all dissections involving only regular
polygons, polygrams, and crosses, and so will serve as an index
to the vast majority of the dissections described. Dissections of
letters, with one exception, are all in Chapter 1 8 and Figs.
D 3 9-D42. To list those t h at include other irregular polygons was
found impractical.
The numbers and letters in columns A and B denote the
polygons dissected. For appearance' sake a regular n-gon is de
noted by n instead of { n } , and a regular { n/m } by n/m . R
denotes a golden rectangle, G, L, M denote Greek, Latin, M altese
cross, and Sl and S2 denote swastikas. Two equal n-gons are
denoted by n 2) two unequal ones by n n, and so on.
33 3 6 T 21.13
34 3 4 T 2 1 .4
37 3 13 T 21.14
3 - 3 3 5 P 1 .9
Q 1.1 1
4 3 4 T T2 5.2
42 4 4 T 2 1 .23
43 4 6 P 1 .6
4 -4 4 5 T 9. 1 7
R 3 4 T T2 D14
R R R 5 T 2 1 .30
5 3 6 PT 4.8
TTl 5. 1
1 55
1 56 GEOMETRIC DISSECTIONS
A B Pieces Ty p e Figure
5 4 6 PP 3.1
TP 4.2
TT2 5.6
R 6 TP DI2
52 5 11 U 2 1 .27
5 6 U
55
54 2 1 .4
5 12 U 2 1 . 24
55 5 11 U 2 1 .28
6 3 5 T T2 DI5
32 4 T 20. 1 8
4 5 PP 3.2, 3.3, 3.4
R 5 PP D3
5 7 PP 3.5
T T2 D I 6, DI7
62 3 6 T 20. 1 9
62 6 9 T 2 1 .34
68 6 6 T 1 1 .2
67 6 12 T 1 1 .3
67 63 18 T 1 1 .4
5 R H 32
6 6 6 8, 9 T 2 1 .3 2 , 2 1 .34
6
PP + T T2
7 3 9 T T2 15.1
4 9 6.4
T TZ D27
R 9 TP D28
5 II T T2 1 5. 8
6 11 TP 1 5.9
T T2 D29
74 7 8 U D50
8 3 8 T T2 DI8
4 5 T 12.1
R 6 PP 2 . 23
5 9 PP 3.6
2 . 1 1 , D 25
T T2 D19
6 9 PP
7 13 PP 1 5. 7
82 8 8 U 2 1 . 1 6, 2 1 . 1 7
88 8 24 U 21.18
9 3 9 PT 1 6 . 1 0 - 1 6 . 13
4 12 TP 1 6. 8
T T2 D3 1
LIST OF DISSECTIONS 1 57
9 R 12 TP D32
6 14 T T2 1 6 .9
93 9 15 U H I8
94 9 10 U 2 1 .5
10 3 8 PP G5
4 8 PP 1 7 . 2 , 1 7 . 6, 1 7 .9
R 7 PP G6
5 10 PT G4
6 9 PP D35
7 13 PT HI
8 12 PP G 7 , G8
1 05 10 18 U H2O
12 3 8 PT D2 1
4 6 T 9.7, 9.8, 9.9, 9. 1 0
R 7 PP D22
6 6 T 1 2.2
1 22 12 10 U 21.15
1 23 12 15 U 2 1 .2 1
1 23 1 22 23 U 2 1 .26
H2 1
U
1 26 24
1 24 12 12 2 1 .6
U
1 58 24 H19
12
H17
U
1 62 16
15
16 U
5 /2 3 9 T T2 1 9. 3 , see text
4 8 PP 6.5
6 10 T T2 1 9. 2
10 6 U 20. 1 7
5/24 5/2 14 U D5 1
5/25 5/2 20 U D5 2
6/2 3 5 T 1 9.4, 1 9. 5
4 5 PP D4
R 5 PP D5
5 8 PT 4.9
6 7 PP 3.9
20 . 7
PT D13
62 4 T
7 II PT 15.10
8 9 PP D6
10 9 PP G9
20.8
12 10 PP D26
6/22 6 6 T
1 58 GEO METRIC DISSECTI O N S
15
6/23 6/2 12 U H 22,23
6/2 6/2 6/2 T 2l.3 1
7/3 72 9 U Hl2
7 / 32 7 14 U Hl3
8/2 4 7 T H2
8/2 2 8/2 II U D46
8/3 4 8 P D43
8 6 U 20.5
82 9 U 20.9
8/3 2 8 13 U 20. 1 0
8/3 12 U D47
8/3 ' 8/2 8/3 9 U D48
9/ 3 6 9 T H14
9 /4 9/2 14 U H15
1 0/2 5 8 U 20.3
1 0/3 1 02 6 U 20. 1 3
5 /2 2 10 U 20.20
1 0/ 3 2 10 10 U 2 0 . 1 4, 20. 1 5
5 /22
1 0/4 1 02 11 U 20. 1 6
18 U 2 0. 2 1
1 0/3 11 U 20. 1 6
1 2/2 3 6 U G14
6 8 T H3
6/2 9 T GI l
U
1 2 / 22
G 1 2, G 1 3
12/2 13 U H25
1 2 / 23 12/2 18 U H27
4 10 T
12
12(3 H7
1 2 /3 2 1 2/3 U H24
1 2 / 35 1 2/3 21 U H28
1 2 / 42 1 2/4 18 U H26
1 2 / 45 1 2 /4 24 U H 29
U
H5
1 2/4 ' 1 2/3 1 2/ 5 13 D49
1 2/5 4 9 T
U
7
12 10 H4
14/2 14 U HY
14/2 7 / 32 18 U Hl l
1 4/ 3 7 / 2 18 U H8
14/5 14/2 14 U HIO
18/7 9 / 22 18 U H16
G 3 5 T T2 D20
LIST OF D ISSECTI O N S 1 59
G 4 4 T 9. 1
44 5 T 1 2.3, 1 2.4
D7
7
R 5 PP
5 T T2 5. 8
6 7 PP 3. 7, 22.6
TP 1 3.2
7 12 T T2 D30
8 9 T See C h . 2 2
10 10 PP GI0
12 6 T 9. 1 1
6/2 8 PP 3. 1 0
8/2 7 T H6
G4 G 5 U 1 0 . 1 and 1 0 . 3
G2 G 5 T 21.I0
G3 4 9 P 1 .8
PP 2. I
G 12 PP 1 3 .4
G5 G 12 T 21.1 1
G2 12 T 21.I2
L 3 5 T T2 5.3
4 5 PP 2.7
R 5 PP D8
5 8 PT 4. 1 0
6 6 PP 3.8
7 12 PT 1 5. 1 1
8 8 PP D9
10 10 PP D36
12 7 T 9.6
6/2 9 PP DI0
1 2/ 5 7 U 20 . 2 4
G 7 PT 4. 1 1
T 1 1 .5
14
M 4 7
6 PP 1 3. 7
G 9 T D23
51 4 6 T 9. 1 4
6 12 PP 1 3.6
9. 1 2 + 9. 1 3
G 8 T D 24
M 9 T
52 4 4 T 9. 1 5
G 4 T 9. 1 6
Appendix F
The works i n which most o f the "prior art" was found were
Henry E. Dudeney, A musemen ts in Mathematics; The Can ter
b ury Puzzles; Modern Puzzles; Puzzles and Curious Pro b lems;
A Puzzle-m ine; and Martin Gardner, Mathematical Puzzles of
Sam Loyd) Vols. I and I I . These are referred to below by the
ini tials A M) CP, MP) PCP) PM) SL l , SL2 , followed by the
puzzle number; AM Fig. x d enotes Fig. x in the article " Greek
Cross Puzzles," in AM.
A search was also made in The Mathematical Gazette (referred
to as MG) back to the beginning, and the problems in The
A merican Mathematical Month ly (referred to as A MM) back to
1 9 1 8. For the earlier Gazettes I used the index in Vol. 1 5 ( 1 9 3 1 ) ,
and for the earlier Month lies ( 1 9 1 8-50) I used Howard Eves and
E. P. Starke, The O tto Dunkel Memorial Pro b lem Book. These
were godsends.
Everything in these works relating to my subject-matter and
deemed worthy of inclusion has been included. I have also in
corporated everything from my own prior publications, those con
taining the main results being found in A ustralian Mathematics
Teacher) 7, 7 - 1 0 ( 1 95 1 ), 9, 1 7-2 1 and 64 ( 1 953), 1 6, 64-5 ( 1 960) ;
MG) 45, 94-7 ( 1 96 1 ) .
A name i n parentheses is the originator's, i f h e i s known for
sure . If the references are to works only by Loyd or only by
Dudeney, we can presume that the sole author referred to was
the originator. But as Loyd and D'udeney used to exchange
problems, references to works by both leave us uncertain.
Sometimes the dissection in the source is not quite the same
as the one illustrated in this book. But it will be easily recogniz
able as a variant.
1 60
S O U RCES A N D C RED ITS 161
SL2 144
Sources fo r Appendix H
D issections done by H arry Lindgren were Fig. H 6, unpublished,
and Figs. H I and H 22, A ustralian Mathematics Teacher, 20,
52-4 ( 1 964) . The Hart dissections in Figs. H 30 and H 3 1 were
republished by Lindgren in Journal of Recreational Mathematics,
2, 1 78-g0 ( 1 969) . These were taken from Matematica Dilettevole
e C uriosa by !talo Chersi, reprinted by Hoepli of Milan in 1 96 3 .
Fig. H 32 i s t o be published a s a problem b y James Schmer! in
Journal of Recreational Mathematics, 5, No. 4.
All other material is by Greg Frederickson . Some of this has
been published in Journal of Recreationa l Mathematics, 5, 22-26,
1 28- 1 32 (January and April 1,97 2) . More is included in the July
1 972 issue (as yet unpaged) , and the rest will appear in later
issues of JRM.
Appendix G
RECENT PROGRE S S
FIG. G I FIG. G3
- -- -- -- - -- i
I I
I I
I I
I I
/ I I
/
1- - - - -
I
I
I
I
I
I
I I
I
---- --- - --;
I FIG. G6
I
--
-
--
FIG. G II
FIG. H 2 FIG. H3
168 GEO M ETRIC D I S SECTI O N S
FIG. H 7
FI G. H 8
170 GE O M ETRIC D I SSECT I O N S
FI G . H9
At this point the reader may notice that all the seven-pointed
and fourteen-pointed stars are accounted for, i.e., each has been
included in an RTF dissection, j ust as Harry Lindgren had
described in Chapter 20. But the surprising fact is that there are
additional relations among these stars which Harry Lindgren did
not discover. The key to these relations is
s { 1 4 / 5 } /s { l 4 / 2 } = 2cos ('11" / 7)
FIG. H I O
FI G. H I I
FIG. H I 4
s{ n / l/6 (n + 3) } js { n j Ih (n - I ) } = 2cos ( 1T ( n - 1 ) / 2n ) ,
FIG. H I S
FIG. H I 6
FI G. H I 7
FI G . H I S
Can the same trick used in the case of n = 9 b e used for the
case n = I S? The answer is yes. An obvious thirty-piece solution
can be reduced to a twenty-four piece assembly, as shown in Fig.
H 1 9 . Once this assembly was achieved, a pattern for three into
one assemblies became clear. The polygons which qualify for
three into one assemblies can be divided into two gTOUpS. The
first is composed of odd mul tiples of 3, such as { 3 } , { 9 } , { I S } ,
176 G E O M ETRIC D I SSECTI O N S
FIG. H 28
Balti more O rioles-Oakland A's play-off game, but the game was
rained out. Thus discovering the assembly was a form of con
solation , and a very good form indeed !
FIG. H29
G
B C F
B
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M y B EST P UZ Z L ES IN LOG I C A N D R EASON I N G , Hubert Phillips.
(20119-8) $2,00
M y B EST PUZZLES IN M AT H E M AT I C S , H u b e r t Philli p s , (20091-4)
$2,25
T H E M A S T E R BOOK OF M AT H E M AT I C A L P U Z Z L E S A N D R E C R EA
T I O N S , Fred Schuh . (22134-2) $4.50
C R Y PTOG R A P H Y : T H E S C I E N C E OF S E C R ET W R I T I N G , Laurence D .
Smith. (20247-X) $2, 75
N EW P U ZZ L ES I N LOG I C A L D E D U CTI O N , George J. Summers,
(22089-3) $2.00
T EST YO U R LOG I C , George }, Summers, (22877-0) $ L75
101 P U ZZ L ES I N T H O U G H T A N D LOG I C , C R , Wylie, J r . (20367-0)
$ 1 .50
Manufactured in the
eas,
U. S, A ,
RECREATIONAL PR OBLEMS
IN GEOMETRIC DISSECTIONS
&. HOW TO SOLVE THEM
Harry Lindgren
If you are looking for something unique, try your hand at geometric
dissections. Geometric dissections are puzzles based on the art of
cutting up one geometric figure into pieces which can be reassembled
to form another figure. The challenge is to create the new figure in
as few pieces as possible, and this is not always as easy as you would
think. For example, an octagon can be dissected into a square in as
few as five pieces-quite remarkable!
This book will appeal to the amateur problem solver who is looking
for diverting mathematical puzzles to challenge his ingenuity. Yet
these puzzles do not require any profound understanding of mathe
matics, or for that matter, any tedious computations. And despite
the fact that the author claims that these dissections have no practi
cal application (outside of puzzles) , it is certainly one recreation that
will increase your gusp of geometry while giving you hours of enter
tainment and fun. And who knows, you may discover ways of im
proving Lindgren's dissections, or even come up with lle dissections
of your own!
$3.50 in U.S.A.