SYSTEMS, STRATEGIES & RESEARCH FOR LUBRICATION PROFESSIONALS AN PUBLICATION | APRIL 2017

TLT
T R I B O LO G Y &
LU B R I C AT I O N
T E C H N O LO G Y

13 YEARS
of publishing excellence

10 Particle
Analysis Tests
Your guide to improving
machine reliability and
minimizing costs.

Indias Winning Strategy

Growth forecasted through 2021

Q&A with Farshid Sadeghi

Understanding bearing dynamics

Automotive Tribology
The promise of cylinder deactivation

A Thought for Your Penny

The wear rate of coins

Pulp Friction
The art of paper making

The Tribology-energy Connection STLE Annual

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New report from U.S. DOE

Digital TLT: Sponsored this month by the 2017 STLE Annual Meeting in Atlanta at www.stle.org.
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 Contents
16
FEATURES
MARKET TRENDS
30
16 Indias winning strategy
According to Kline & Co., growth
opportunities continue for the
worlds third-largest consumer
of nished lubricants.
By Milind Phadke
20 MINUTES WITH
22 Farshid Sadeghi
This Purdue University professor
32
solves problems for industry and
governmentand successfully
integrates the research into his
engineering courses.
By Rachel Fowler
VOLUNTEERS LIST
24 2017 STLE Volunteers List
In honor of National Volunteer
Week, STLE thanks those
individuals who devote their
time and efforts to helping the
society and our industry grow.
W W W. ST L E .O RG
TLT / APRIL 2017 / VOLUME 73 / NO. 4
LUBRICATION FUNDAMENTALS
36 The tribology-energy
connection
The U.S. Dept. of Energy issues
a new report to answer the
question, Can Tribology Save
a Quad?
By Dr. Robert M. Gresham
22 38
WEBINARS
Lubricant contamination
control
If you can identify the source, you
can create a strategy for dealing
CAREERS
with it.
Young Professionals Prole: By Debbie Sniderman
Hannah Neuffer Evans
A former STLE scholarship FEATURE ARTICLE
winner, this manufacturing 46 10 particle analysis tests
engineer with UTC Aerospace
Whatever the test and test
Systems makes products more
frequency, the goal for end-users
efcient and safe.
is cost-effective machine
By Karl Phipps reliability at the lowest cost.
By the editors of TLT
SCHOLARSHIP RESEARCH
The Performance of PEER-REVIEWED PAPER (EDITORS CHOICE)
Translucent Silicon-Oxide
54 Friction-Enhancing
Nanoparticle Lubricant
Properties of ZDDP Antiwear
Additives
Additive: Part I-Friction
Tribology research report and Morphology of
written by the recipient of the ZDDP Reaction Films
societys 2016 scholarship
By L.J. Taylor and H.A. Spikes
program.
By Zoe Tucker, Robert L. Jackson,
Mohammed S. Hossain and
German Mills
46
T R I B O LO GY & LU B R I CAT I O N T EC H N O LO GY APRIL 2017 1
 Contents
DEPARTMENTS EDITOR
Evan Zabawski, CLS
TestOil
10 Tech Beat Calgary, Alberta, Canada
ezabawski@testoil.com
Variable-hardness materials;
unraveling the effectiveness of
PUBLISHER/ SENIOR FEATURE WRITER
perovskite solar cells; enzymatic EDITOR-IN-CHIEF Jeanna Van Rensselar
conversion of carbon monoxide Thomas T. Astrene
tastrene@stle.org CONTRIBUTING EDITORS
to hydrocarbons. Stuart F. Brown
MANAGING EDITOR Dr. Neil Canter
By Dr. Neil Canter Rachel Fowler Dr. Robert M. Gresham
rfowler@stle.org Dr. Nancy McGuire

8
Debbie Sniderman
63 Newsmakers
This months newsmakers CIRCULATION ADVERTISING SALES
COORDINATORS Tracy Nicholas VanEe
include The Timken Co., Myrna Scott Phone: (630) 922-3459
ExxonMobil, Spectro Scientic, Judy Enblom Fax: (630) 904-4563
(847) 825-5536 tnicholas@stle.org
Clariant and more. COLUMNS
DESIGN/PRODUCTION
Joe Ruck
68 Sounding Board 4 Presidents Report
Members describe lubrication Materials in motion
TECHNICAL EDITORS
problems they solved using Mikey Benes Dr. Peter Lee
bench top rigs. 6 From the Editor Baker Hughes Southwest Research
Pulp friction Institute
Dr. John Bomidi
Baker Hughes David Lindsay
74 Advertisers Index Afton Chemical Corp.
8 Headquarters Report Michelle Brakke
Lubrication Dr. James MacNeil
76 Resources Why people abandon their Technologies Inc. Qualice
Keep up to date with the latest association Patrick Brutto Shawn McCarthy
ANGUS Chemical Co. Ocean State Oil
technical literature available in
print and online. 78 Automotive Tribology Neil Buchanan Dr. Hamidreza Mohseni
HollyFrontier Corp./ Bosch Brake Components
The promise of cylinder Petro-Canada America
Lubricants Inc. Dr. Mary Moon
deactivation Presque Isle
Bridget Dubbert Innovations
Engineered Lubricants
80 Cutting Edge Jason Papacek
Dr. Monica A. Ford
POLARIS Laboratories
A thought for your pennies Ingevity
Dr. Hamed Ghaednia Dr. Jonathan Reeds
Ford Motor Co. Precision Polyolens

Dr. Arnab Ghosh Joe Schultz

Sentient Science The Lubrizol Corp.

Dr. Michael Glasgow Dr. Don Smolenski

Afton Chemical Corp. Evonik Oil Additives USA

Dr. Martin Greaves Tom Triola

The Dow Chemical Co.
This Months Factoids:
Tyler Housel
The brave new world Lexolube Div. INOLEX
of Glenn Curtiss Dr. Robert Jackson
Auburn University
The Timken Co.
Dr. Paula Vettel
Novvi, LLC
Dr. Nick Weinzapfel
Sentient Science

Copyright 2017 Society of Tribologists and Lubrication Engineers. All Rights Reserved. TRIBOLOGY AND LUBRICATION TECHNOLOGY (USPS 865740)
TLT magazine is owned and published in print and electronically by the Society of Tribologists and Lubrication Engineers (STLE). Vol. 73, Number 4, (ISSN-1545-858), is published monthly
The views set forth in this magazine are those of the authors and not necessarily the views of STLE. Material from TLT magazine by the Society of Tribologists and Lubrication Engineers,
may be reproduced only with written permission from STLE. TLT magazine assumes no liability or responsibility for any 840 Busse Hwy, Park Ridge, IL 60068-2376. Periodicals
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2 APRIL 2017 T R I B O LO GY & LU B R I CAT I O N T EC H N O LO GY W W W. ST L E .O RG

PRESIDENTS REPORT
Dr. Ali Erdemir
Materials in motion
Tribologists will be among the scientists and researchers
creating a sustainable future.
FROM STONE AGE TO SPACE
AGE, materials have served as
the backbone of mobility, in-
dustrialization and economic
growth. Today we still heavily
rely on materials for smooth,
safe and long-lasting opera-
tions of many mechanical sys-
tems, including the cars we
drive every day. Materials also
have been the driving force
behind the present day infor-
mation society and highly me-
chanical world. In the eld of
tribology, advanced materials
are much needed to endure
increasingly higher thermal Throughout history, materials have been the backbone of techni-
and mechanical loadings and cal innovation.
harsh environmental con-
straints. Thanks to many ma-
terials innovations in tribology, performance
and durability of moving parts have improved
immensely over the years.
During the past few decades, much atten-
tion has focused on nanomaterials and nano-
technology. A very famous 1959 lecture by
Caltech physicist and Nobel laureate Richard
Feynman titled Theres Plenty of Room at the
Bottom was rightfully credited for the concep-
tual foundations of these developments. Since
then great strides have been achieved in the
design and manufacture of many nanomateri-
als that have led to the creation of new elec-
tronics, photonics and photovoltaic devices.
Recent advances in supercomputers and ana-
lytical tools have further accelerated nanoscale
design and large-scale applications of nanoma-
terials providing unusual properties.
Today it is difcult to foresee what tomor-
row will bring and where things are heading.
However, there is no doubt that research ef-
forts will continue at a highly accelerated
pace as major global initiatives like Materials
4 APRIL 2017
hardness and self-lubricating
properties most needed for
harsh operating conditions or
environments. Prime examples
include a range of novel car-
bon-based nanomaterials,
which have made a huge sci-
entic and technological im-
pact in many tribological ap-
plications. In particular,
exploratory research has
shown that coatings of gra-
Can Stock Photo / njnightsky
phene, nanodiamonds and dia-
mondlike carbons hold great
promise for meeting the per-
formance, durability and ef-
ciency requirements of future
mechanical systems.
The greatest challenge for
the future seems to be the
Genome are phasing in to extract the very integration of the vast tribomaterial data-
best that materials may bring to our lives in bases acquired over the years into the realiza-
the near future. Overall, the more demanding tion of much smarter tribosystems that gen-
and very stringent operating conditions envi- erate little or no friction and last very long.
sioned for next-generation mechanical sys- As energy and environmental sustainability
tems will be the driving force for the develop- becomes the new norm of our generation, we
ment of new materials with unparalleled must make every conceivable effort to maxi-
functionalities. mize machine durability (which means high
Comprehensive friction and wear data- wear resistance) and efciency (which means
bases acquired on materials over the years low friction) through the development of
have been vital in the design of more robust more robust tribomaterials.
mechanical systems. In fact, the level of know- Thanks to the pioneers of our tribology
how and expertise gained over the years have eld and the many dedicated materials scien-
reached a point where we can now design a tists, engineers and specialists of today, we
suite of materials that can effectively meet can proudly say that we are doing our part for
the increasingly more stringent application a sustainable future.
needs of such systems.
In particular, new materials synthesis
methods based on advanced coating tech- Ali Erdemir is a Distinguished
nologies are providing the kinds of exibility Fellow at Argonne National
that a materials engineer needs to design a Laboratory in Lemont, Ill.
truly multifunctional and nanocomposite You can reach him at
coating architecture that offers the super erdemir@anl.gov.
T R I B O LO GY & LU B R I CAT I O N T EC H N O LO GY W W W. ST L E .O RG
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FROM THE EDITOR
Evan Zabawski
Measuring paper-thin friction and wear.
WHAT DO YOU MAKE HERE? This is a
question I asked at a kraft pulp and pa-
per mill, and the answer was that kraft
paper is used to manufacture products
like corrugated cardboard, butcher
paper and sacks. My initial curiosity
about kraft products mostly xated on
the name; I wanted to know why that
particular kind of pulp and paper was
called kraft, and the simple answer is it
is named after the kraft process.
One key characteristic of sack paper is its coefcient
Papermaking basically involves
of static friction, which is evaluated using an inclined
pulping of plant bers that are then
plane method (TAPPI T815).
spread onto a screen and dried. In the
14th Century, the ber feedstock in
Europe was primarily cotton and linen (from
ax) rags, but by the early 19th Century
mechanized papermaking was exhausting
the supply and a timber substitute was being
explored.
In the early 1840s both Canadian inventor
Charles Fenerty and German inventor Fried-
rich Gottlob Keller independently created
wood-pulped paper. Fenerty sent his rst
example to a Halifax, Nova Scotia, newspaper
on Oct. 26, 1844; Keller sent his to the German
government a couple months earlier. Fenerty
and Keller had two things in common: neither
knew of the others work and nobody liked
their idea.
Fenerty never bothered trying to patent
his idea, while Keller sold interest in his wood-
cutting machine to Heinrich Voelter, and they
jointly patented his process in 1845. Keller
made such little money from his invention
that when the patent renewal came due in
1852 he could not pay it, and Voelter became
the sole patent holder, going on to earn signif-
icant prots without needing to pay royalties.
6 APRIL 2017
In 1857 American inventor Julius Roth
developed a process to treat wood with sul-
furous acid. Then in 1866 American chemist
Benjamin Chew Tilghman also added sulte
or bisulte of lime (calcium) to produce a
lighter product that could be easily bleached.
The sulte process was rst commercialized
in 1874, in Sweden, using magnesium sulte.
In 1879 German chemist Carl F. Dahl in-
vented a new process that used a hot mixture
of water, lye (sodium hydroxide) and sodium
sulde (not sulte), known as white liquor, to
break down lignin and cellulose. The pulp from
Dahls new process yielded stronger paper, so
he chose to name it after the German word for
strength: kraft. About 65%-75% of the current
global pulp production uses the kraft process.
One type of kraft paper is commonly re-
ferred to as sack paper, and it is a porous
paper with both high elasticity and tear
resistance, well-suited for producing pack-
aging sacks. Commonly a light brown color,
it can be bleached very white, allowing for
colorful print.
T R I B O LO GY & LU B R I CAT I O N T EC H N O LO GY
One key characteristic of sack pa-
per is its coefcient of static friction,
which is evaluated using an inclined
Photo courtesy of TMI Testing Machines, Inc.
plane method (TAPPI T815). Higher coef-
cients are desired in sacks since they
will resist sliding in unit loading or on
packaging lines. Printer paper and cur-
rency paper, on the other hand, require
a lower coefcient so that individual
sheets or bills will slide over each other
to prevent double feeding.
Generally the frictional charac-
teristics of paper decrease with each
successive measurement, and this has
been thought to be due to progressive
damage to the paper surface or the creation of
surface debris. One study found that no debris
could be collected; another found that a high
level of friction was maintained if the direction
was reversed after each slide, suggesting that
orientation of structural elements plays a role.
Paper products also are evaluated using
the Parker Print-Surf (PPS) method to mea-
sure surface roughness, a factor affecting the
printing process. Surface integrity is evaluat-
ed using the Adams Wet Rub test or the Taber
Abrader test. As you can see, tribology exists
in paper mills and not just with the lubrica-
tion of paper machines. Many facets of the n-
ished product are evaluated using tribological
tests, ensuring the paper product performs
predictably during handling and printing.
Evan Zabawski, CLS, is the
senior technical advisor for
TestOil in Calgary, Alberta,
Canada. You can reach him at
ezabawski@testoil.com.
W W W. ST L E .O RG
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HEADQUARTERS REPORT
Edward P. Salek, CAE / Executive Director
Why people abandon their association
Dont let the benets of membership escape your attention.
ITS NOT DIFFICULT TO THINK
of reasons why a person might
drop membership in an asso-
ciation like STLE. The list could
include a job change or reas-
signment, retirement, employ-
er restrictions on membership
or just dissatisfaction with the
value of services relative to the
cost of membership.
All these are plausible rea-
sons, but new research on that
question developed by an as-
sociation services provider
known as Marketing General,
Inc. (MGI), points to a different
and perhaps surprising expla-
nation. According to MGIs 2016 Many members inadvertently leave a professional association
Membership Marketing Bench- simply because they didnt notice their renewal notices, according
marking Report, Associations to a new study.
must realize that many mem-
bers fail to renew because they
simply arent paying close at-
tention to renewal notices.
Because this is the time of year when
many STLE memberships are up for renewal,
let me offer some tips on how quick and easy
it is to renew.
Membership renewal can be completed
online using a credit card for payment. One
month prior to the renewal date, members
receive an email message with a link to their
STLE Website prole page where renewal can
be completed simply and quickly. Additional
notices are sent via email and hard copy at
periodic intervals following this initial notice.
The Website prole page also shows member-
ship status and certication renewal status
throughout the year, so members can check
on both at any time during the year.
If youre not an online person, call STLE
headquarters at (847) 825-5536 during normal
business hours and a staff member can check
8 APRIL 2017
your membership status and process a pay-
ment if it is time for renewal.
Individuals who work within the industry
or related elds of tribology and lubrication career and for becoming a more knowledge-
engineering also can join STLE through the
same processeither online or by calling our
headquarters ofce. Information and applica-
tions for corporate and student membership
programs also are available online or by call-
ing STLE headquarters.
More important than the renewal process
is the benets members receive for the an-
nual dues investment. STLE membership is a
mark of distinction and afliates you and your
organization with the worlds leading experts
in lubrication. Tangible items include a sub-
scription to the print and digital versions of
TLT, as well as online access to two peer-re-
viewed journals, Tribology Transactions and
Tribology Letters. Discounts on conference
T R I B O LO GY & LU B R I CAT I O N T EC H N O LO GY
registration, education cours-
es, certication tests and fees,
books and other technical re-
sources also are included.
In 2017 STLE has enhanced
our membership package with
a program that assists individ-
uals in becoming technically
competent as a Lubrication
Specialist or Oil Analyst. STLE
Learning Pathways is a new
online resource library for lu-
brication industry profession-
Can Stock Photo / focalpoint
als to help identify, align and
target their education and ca-
reer development needs. It
provides STLE members with
free access to hundreds of
technical articles, courses, We-
binars and books organized
into topic areas and classied
by level of experience (basic,
intermediate or advanced).
People who are using this new training
tool say it is a valuable resource for upgrad-
ing your technical knowledge, advancing your
able technical advisor within a company and
with customers. Plans also include updating
and improving the Lubrication Specialist and
Oil Analyst Learning Pathways with new refer-
ence materials as they become available.
Go to STLEs Website at www.stle.org to
explore the new Learning Pathways and, while
youre there, dont forget to check if its mem-
bership renewal time!
You can reach Certied
Association Executive Ed Salek
at esalek@stle.org.
W W W. ST L E .O RG
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TECH BEAT
Dr. Neil Canter / Contributing Editor
Variable-hardness materials
A newly designed material can switch reversibly
between different degrees of hardness.
THE CONTINUING DEMANDS for machin-
ery that operates under a wide range
of extreme conditions for long periods
and exhibits excellent efciency is con-
tinuing. One approach for meeting this
goal is lighter-weight materials.
In a past TLT article, the properties
of a new lightweight material known as
self-lubricating metal matrix compos-
ites was described.1 This composite was
prepared by adding graphite particles
with diameters between 20 and 200
microns at a treat rate between 0.5%
and 10% by volume in an aluminum
matrix.
Besides being light in weight, the
metal matrix composite reduced fric-
KEY CO
CONCEPTS
C S
Metamaterials are materials
produced in a certain manner
to exhibit properties needed
for specic applications.
applications
A newlyy designed
design d transformable
topological
topological
p g mechanical
material can
ca transform
transfor from
being softt to being hard and
th n revert to being soft.
then
OOne applicatio
applicationn for transform-
able topological mechanical
material is as an automotive
bumper or outer-body structure.
10
tion and wear. They have been used
in applications such as air brake com-
pressor cylinder lines where improved
performance was realized by reducing
the amount of compressor oil bypass-
ing the collector by 60%.
The properties of most materials
used commercially are based on the
specic type of component used, be it
metal, plastic or composite. The end-
user selects the material for use in a
specic application such as an automo-
bile based on the physical and mechan-
ical properties of the components used.
But there is another way to produce
materials. Xiaoming Mao, assistant
professor in the physics department
at The University of Michigan in Ann
Arbor, Mich., says, Materials also can
be constructed in a certain manner to
produce properties needed for specic
applications independent of the mate-
rial used. Such materials are known as
metamaterials.
One of the advantages in working
with metamaterials is that they can
be designed to meet a specic perfor-
mance requirement by manipulating
their structure. The characteristics of
metamaterials are derived from the ge-
ometry and arrangement of the compo-
nents used in their formation.
An approach for designing metama-
terials is to use oppy modes (i.e., free
mechanical motion in structures). Mao
says, Floppy modes are deformations
that do not cost elastic energy.
Floppy modes exist in mechanical
structures where degrees of freedom
A native New Yorker and competitor of the Wright Brothers, Glenn Hammond Curtiss was
Floppy modes are
deformations that do
not cost elastic energy.
are not fully constrained. An example
of a structure with oppy modes is
the deformed kagome lattice shown
in Figure 1. A kagome lattice is a two-
dimensional arrangement of rigid tri-
angles connected at their tips by free
hinges. In this arrangement, the trian-
gles exhibit oppy modes. Mao says,
No stretching or compressing is seen
with oppy modes. They only rotate at
the hinges in the frame of the lattice
structure.
Of interest is whether a metamate-
rial can be designed that will reversibly
shift between states that are very differ-
ent in mechanical properties. A theo-
retical study has now been conducted
to show that such a metamaterial can
now be designed with this character-
istic, taking advantage of the oppy
modes in the structure.
TRANSFORMABLE TOPOLOGICAL
MECHANICAL METAMATERIALS
Mao and her colleagues have designed a
metamaterial that can switch reversibly
between states with different properties.
Mao says, We designate such ma-
terials as transformable topological
mechanical metamaterials (TTMM).

One feature demonstrated is that the
surface of a TTMM can transform from
being soft to being hard and then re-
vert to being soft. This switch is il-
lustrated by twisting the angles at the
hinges throughout the kagome lattice.
Such a manipulation occurs with the
cost of little energy and does not stress
the TTMM.
The TTMM exhibits this char-
acteristic because the oppy modes
move away from the edges of the ma-
terial leaving it rigid. Further details
on TTMM can be found in a recent
article.2 A video can be found online
to demonstrate the transformation
of the hardness of a surface in the
supplementary information at the fol-
lowing link: www.nature.com/articles/
ncomms14201#s1. In the video, the re-
searchers demonstrate the properties of
a TTMM by constructing a macroscop-
ic prototype using Knex, hard plastic
parts joined by literal hinges.
an aviation pioneer whose designs and achievements far outstripped his better-known rivals.
With the stresses that many types
of machines encounter during opera-
tion, Mao foresees many applications
for TTMM. She says, An ideal use for
TTMM is in automobile components
such as bumpers or the outer-body
structure. If a collision takes place, a
bumper based on a TTMM could be-
come softer and be in a better position
to absorb the collision energy minimiz-
ing the possibility of injury to passen-
gers. The other aspect is that the ability
to adjust to different external stimuli
will minimize damage to the TTMM
leading to a reduction in wear.
A second application is in tires that
can adapt to moving on hard surfaces
such as concrete and soft surfaces such
as sand.
Now that the concept of a TTMM
has been developed, future work will
consist of preparing an actual mate-
rial. Mao says, We are in the process
of working with other collaborators to
Figure 1 | The deformed
kagome lattice shown is
used to demonstrate how
a transformable topologi-
cal mechanical metama-
terial can shift between
states that are very dif-
ferent in mechanical prop-
erties. (Figure courtesy of
The University of Michigan.)
gure out how to experimentally pro-
duce an actual TTMM and then will do
testing to evaluate its actual physical
and mechanical properties.
Mao believes that TTMMs can be
produced using a number of different
techniques such as 3D printing, li-
thography and self-assembly. Further
information on TTMM also can be ob-
tained by contacting Mao directly at
maox@umich.edu.
REFERENCES
1. Canter, N. (2016), Lightweight
self-lubricating metal matrix com-
posites, TLT, 72 (6), pp. 18-19.
2. Rocklin, D., Zhou, S., Sun, K. and
Mao, X. (2017), Transformable
topological mechanical metama-
terials, Nature Communications,
8, Article # 14201.
11
TECH BEAT
Unraveling the effectiveness of
perovskite solar cells
Diffusion length, a measure of solar cell efciency,
is determined by a new analytical approach.
PEROVSKITE SOLAR CELLS HAVE BECOME
the focus of research because they
have demonstrated the ability to ef-
ciently convert sunlight to electricity.
Efciencies for this type of solar cell
have increased to about 22% in only a
few years.
Xuan Gao, associate professor of
physics at Case Western Reserve Uni-
versity in Cleveland, says, Perovskites
work in a similar manner to conven-
tional semiconductor solar cells by
creating negatively charged electrons
and positively charged holes when ex-
posed to sunlight. However, conven-
tional semiconductor solar cell devices
have a built-in electric eld junction
to separate these two species enabling
KEY CONCEPTS
Perovskite solar cells show
potential for converting
sunlight into
t electricity.
To further improve their
efciency, a technique known
kkno
nownn
as Scanning Photocurrent
Microscopy has been used to
measure the diffusion length.
The diffusion length of
electro s and
electrons a d holes is between
b t n
10 and 20 microns.
c o s.
12 Like the Wright Brothers, Curtiss owned a bicycle store. He became one of the nations leading experts in the newly developed internal combustion engine.
an electric current to be generated. In
perovskite solar cells, electrons and
holes diffuse around in the perovskite.
When they reach the anode and cath-
ode, they are separately collected and
a current is generated.
The use of a perovskite solar cell is
described in a previous TLT article that
discusses the recharging of lithium-
ion batteries with solar energy.1 The
researchers installed four perovskite
solar cells in series with a lithium-ion
battery and determined good photo-
electric conversion, good cycling sta-
bility and durability when the battery
is illuminated with solar light for nearly
18 hours. The purpose of this approach
is to develop an alternative way to re-
charge lithium-ion batteries due to the
limited number of charging stations
currently available.
One other advantage in using
perovskite solar cells is that they can
easily be processed. The most at-
tractive perovskites currently in use
are organometal halides. Gao says,
Perovskite solar cells are prepared by
reacting the raw materials in an aque-
ous solution and then dropping the
nished material on a glass substrate
or silicon wafer. After a thin coating is
applied, it is baked at elevated temper-
ature to remove the water. This is an
inexpensive, simple approach that can
be contrasted with the complexity of
preparing such lms through the use
of deposition techniques under high
vacuum conditions.
Measurements were
taken by focusing tiny
laser spots on the
perovskite lm.
The key issue in the solar energy
eld is how to extend the distance that
an electron or a hole travels from the
point of generation until the two spe-
cies recombine or the electrons are ex-
tracted as electric eld. This distance
is known as the diffusion length. One
other factor impacting the diffusion
length is the presence of defects in the
crystalline perovskites that can trap
both electrons and holes.
A key element in this process is to
nd an analytical approach to measure
the diffusion length. Gao says, Previous
experiments run measured the diffusion
length in an indirect manner most of the
time. Most of this work was conducted
using photoluminescence-based opti-
cal methods that could determine that
the diffusion length was greater than a
distance of 0.5 micron but could not de-
nitively determine the actual distance
traveled by the electron.
A new approach is needed to mea-
sure the diffusion length in order to
assist researchers with improving the
efciency of perovskite solar cells. Such
an approach has now been developed.

SCANNING PHOTOCURRENT
MICROSCOPY
Gao and his colleagues have used a
technique known as Scanning Photo-
current Microscopy (SPCM) to accu-
rately measure the diffusion length in
an organometal halide perovskite solar
cell based on methyl ammonium lead
tri-iodide.
SPCM involves the application of
laser light from a halogen-white light
source (633 nanometer wavelength)
onto a solar cell prepared by deposit-
ing a 300-nanometer thick lm of an
organometal halide perovskite onto the
silicon oxide surface of a silicon wafer.
A 1 micron thick layer of parylene is
added to encapsulate the perovskite
and prevent it from degrading.
Figure 2 shows the experimen-
tal setup. Measurements were taken
by focusing tiny laser spots on the
perovskite lm. Gold or nickel elec-
trodes were positioned approximately
120 microns away from each other and
the perovskite lm was scanned along
two perpendicular directions to mea-
sure the diffusion length.
Gao says, We used SPCM to de-
termine that the diffusion length of
W W W. ST L E .O RG
electrons and holes is between 10 and
20 microns. This is significant be-
cause the diffusion length is greater
than the grain sizes in the perovskite
crystals. The impact of grain boundar-
ies on electron and hole diffusion has
received broad interest, and some past
work found negative effect from grain
boundaries, but we did not see this in
our experiments.
In preparing the perovskite crystal,
the researchers included chloride in the
form of lead chloride. Gao says, Past
testing by my colleague Clemens Bur-
da, chemical professor of the College
of Arts and Sciences at Case Western
Reserve University, found that chlo-
ride improved the crystallinity of the
organometal halide perovskite.
One of the reasons that the research-
ers were able to determine and obtain
the long diffusion length was the high
quality of the crystal. Gao says, We de-
veloped crystalline lms that were ori-
ented along the (110) plane. The suc-
cess of this work means that perovskite
solar cells can be made thicker leading
to the absorbance of more light and the
potential for generation of higher levels
of electricity.
T R I B O LO GY & LU B R I CAT I O N T EC H N O LO GY
Figure 2 | The experimen-
tal setup shown was used
to determine the diffusion
length of electrons and
holes in an organometal ha-
lide perovskite lm on the
silicon oxide surface of a
silicon wafer. (Figure cour-
tesy of Case Western Reserve
University.)
In the future, Gao would like to
evaluate thicker lms to determine
how much they can improve solar cell
efciency. He says, We also would like
to understand the mechanism for how
electrons are formed and what role this
plays in the conversion of solar energy
into electricity. One additional aspect
that we will be studying is whether the
spin properties of an electron have any
inuence on diffusion length.
Additional information on this re-
search can be found in a recent article2 or
by contacting Gao at xuan.gao@case.edu.
REFERENCES
1. Canter, N. (2015), Lithium-ion
batteries: Recharge with solar
energy, TLT, 71 (11), pp. 14-15.
2. Liu, S., Wang, L., Lin, W.,
Sucharitakul, S., Burda, C. and
Gao, X. (2016), Imaging the
long transport lengths of
photo-generated carriers in
oriented perovskite lms, Nano
Letters, 16 (12), pp. 7925-7929.
APRIL 2017 13
TECH BEAT
Enzymatic conversion of
carbon monoxide to hydrocarbons
The process was run under less severe conditions
than the Fischer-Tropsch reaction.
DEVELOPING BIOLOGICAL PROCESSES for
converting carbon dioxide to biofuels
and base oils is becoming more attrac-
tive as regulations are starting to be en-
acted requiring the use of more environ-
mentally acceptable lubricants. A prime
example is the Vessel General Permit
(VGP) regulation that requires marine
vessels operating in U.S. waters to use
lubricants that meet specic biodegrad-
ability and toxicity requirements.
One strategy for developing envi-
ronmentally acceptable lubricants is to
KEY CONCEPTS
The nitrogen-xing bacterium,
Azotobacter vinelandii also has
demonstrated the ability to
reduce carbon dioxide to
carbon monoxide in a
detoxication process
process.
Azotobacter vinelandii has now
been found to use carbon
monoxide asas an intermediate
in the formation of simple
simple
hydrocarbons.
A secondary metabolic
pathway is used to produce the
simple hydrocarbons as a way
to eliminate carbon monoxide
as a potential hazard to the
bacterium..
14 A daredevil, Curtiss began mounting engines on bicycles to become an early developer of motorcycles.
The researchers determined that hydrocarbon formation
is a secondary metabolic pathway that is not required
for cell growth.
utilize biological processes in simple
organisms such as bacteria. A recent
TLT article discussed the use of the
bacterium Clostridium ljungdahlii that
converts a mixture of carbon mon-
oxide, hydrogen and carbon dioxide
into ethanol, which is widely used as
a biofuel.1 In studying this process,
one challenge was to gure out how
to maximize ethanol production. An
important insight was that this bacte-
rium was directed to ethanol formation
if certain nutrients required for biomass
production, a priority for the organism,
were removed.
The process used by Clostridium
ljungdahlii is analogous to the Fischer-
Tropsch reaction that chemically con-
verts carbon monoxide and hydrogen
(synthesis gas) to hydrocarbons, major
components of petroleum and natural
gas. Fischer-Tropsch is now being used
to manufacture highly rened base oils.
Another bacterium that is under
evaluation for converting carbon
dioxide to hydrocarbons is Azoto-
bacter vinelandii. Yilin Hu, assistant
professor of molecular biology &
biochemistry at the Ayala School of
Biological Sciences at the University
of California, Irvine in Irvine, Calif.,
says, Researchers have been working
with Azotobacter vinelandii for many
years. This nitrogen-xing bacterium
contains a nitrogenase enzyme that
enables it to convert nitrogen in the
atmosphere to ammonia. The bacteri-
um is fairly easy to work with, and the
methodology used is straightforward.
A very interesting aspect is that one
component of the nitrogenase enzyme
in this bacterium also can reduce car-
bon dioxide to carbon monoxide while
the bacterium is grown under ambient,
nitrogen-xing nitrogen conditions.
Markus Ribbe, professor of chemistry
at the University of California, Irvine,
says, Azotobacter vinelandii demon-
strates the ability to reduce carbon
dioxide to carbon monoxide, which
could be part of a detoxication cas-
cade in the cell.
A better understanding of how this
conversion takes place also led to the
discovery that Azotobacter vinelandii
also can convert carbon monoxide to
simple hydrocarbons.
SECONDARY METABOLIC PATHWAY
Hu, Ribbe and their coworkers have
learned more about how Azotobacter
vinelandii converts carbon dioxide to
carbon monoxide and discovered that
this bacterium can use carbon mon-
oxide as an intermediate to produce
simple hydrocarbons.
 In the rst of two studies, Hu
found that the key component in
the nitrogenase of Azotobacter vine-
landii that is responsible for con-
verting carbon dioxide to carbon
monoxide is the iron-protein asso-
ciated, iron-sulfur (Fe4S4) cluster.
The capability of this iron protein
to reduce carbon dioxide to carbon
monoxide was rst evaluated in an
in vitro study.
Hu says, We used an in vitro
strategy to find a chemical ap-
proach for putting the iron-sulfur
clusters into the specific redox
state to convert carbon dioxide to
carbon monoxide. This included
using an oxidizing agent such as
indigo disulfonate and a reducing
agent such as dithionite to deter-
mine the proper oxidation state for
the iron-sulfur clusters.
Further analysis using electron
paramagnetic resonance (EPR) was
effective because the iron-sulfur
clusters have free, unpaired elec-
trons. Hu says, EPR enabled us to
determine the optimum oxidation
state enabling the iron-sulfur clus-
ters to donate electrons to facilitate
the reduction of carbon dioxide.
The researchers also deter-
mined that the reduction of carbon
dioxide occurred more effectively
in vivo than in vitro. Hu says, We
believe that the anaerobic environment
of Azotobacter vinelandii provides more
ideal reducing conditions. The presence
of oxygen in vitro appears to hinder the
formation of carbon monoxide.
The second study focused on evalu-
ating the conversion of carbon mon-
oxide to simple hydrocarbons by the
vanadium nitrogenase of Azotobacter
vinelandii. Growing the bacterium at
ambient temperature was initially done
in the presence of ammonia to suppress
nitrogen xation and encourage bio-
mass formation.
At this point, ammonia was re-
moved and carbon monoxide added.
The resulting nitrogenase converted
carbon monoxide to ethylene, ethane
and propane over an eight-hour period
at ambient temperature.
W W W. ST L E .O RG
Figure 3 | The vanadium nitrogenase pres-
ent in the bacterium Azotobacter vinelandii
is an enzyme responsible for converting car-
bon dioxide to simple hydrocarbons such as
ethylene in a pathway where carbon monox-
ide is an intermediate. (Figure courtesy of the
University of California, Irvine.)
Ribbe says, But after increasing
the concentration of carbon monoxide
above 15% of the gas phase or doing
further incubation, hydrocarbon for-
mation plateaued. We decided to stop
the process by exposing the bacterium
to air, which enabled the cells to relax.
After reintroducing carbon monoxide,
hydrocarbon formation resumed at a
comparable rate to when the process
was initiated.
The researchers determined that
hydrocarbon formation is a secondary
metabolic pathway that is not required
for cell growth. Ribbe says, We pro-
pose that this pathway was used in the
past by microbes when the earths at-
mosphere had a much higher concen-
tration of carbon dioxide and is now
used as a way to eliminate carbon mon-
T R I B O LO GY & LU B R I CAT I O N T EC H N O LO GY
oxide as a potential hazard.
Figure 3 shows a schematic
model of the vanadium nitroge-
nase, which is the enzyme that the
researchers mainly worked with in
these studies.
Ribbe says, We believe that the
Azotobacter vinelandii process has
the potential to generate hydrocar-
bons in an analogous manner to the
Fischer-Tropsch reaction. Using the
nitrogenase is an advantage because
the process is run at room tempera-
ture and does not require the use
of hydrogen. But our process is not
as efcient and does not generate
higher molecular weight hydrocar-
bons that could be used in fuels or
lubricant base stocks.
Future work will be focused
on improving the efciency and
investigating if the enzyme can be
modied to produce a single hydro-
carbon instead of a mixture. Addi-
tional information can be found in
references to the two studies2,3 or
by contacting Hu at yilinh@uci.edu
or Ribbe at mribbe@uci.edu.
REFERENCES
1. Canter, N. (2017), Biofuel
production using syngas fermen-
tation, TLT, 73 (1), pp. 14-15.
2. Rebelein, J., Stiebritz, M., Lee, C.
and Hu, Y. (2017), Activation
and reduction of carbon dioxide
by nitrogenase iron proteins,
Nature Chemical Biology, 13, pp.
147-149.
3. Rebelein, J., Lee, C., Hu, Y. and
Ribbe, M. (2016), The in vivo
hydrocarbon formation by
vanadium nitrogenase follows a
secondary metabolic pathway,
Nature Communications, 7, Article
# 13641.
Neil Canter heads his own
consulting company, Chemical
Solutions, in Willow Grove, Pa.
Ideas for Tech Beat can be
submitted to him at
neilcanter@comcast.net.
APRIL 2017 15
MARKET TRENDS
Milind Phadke

Indias winning strategy

Can Stock Photo / snehitdesign

Growth opportunities continue for the worlds

third-largest consumer of nished lubricants.

THE INDIAN MARKET has been one of the global lubricants indus-
KEY CO
CONCEPTS
C TS trys growth engines. In 2016 India accounted for about 6% of
the global lubricants demand, making it the third-largest market
In 2016 India accounted for about 6% of behind the U.S. and China. Of the BRIC countries (Brazil, Russia,
global lubricants
l b t demand
demand,, ranking it third
th d India and China) touted as growth markets, only India continues
worldwide
ld dee behind
b h ndd thee U.S.
S. andd China.
h . to hold the promise of growth. However, even in India, technol-
ogy, the economy and regulations have subdued growth while at
In thee last
l stt few years,
ye , Indias
d overall
o e alll the same time driving an improvement in lubricant quality. This
lubricant demand has slowed due to article provides a snapshot of the Indian lubricants market and
decreases in the commercial and speculates how it will evolve.
industrial segments. In 2015 the Indian economy stood at $8.71 trillion (U.S. dollars)
with a per capita GDP of $6,700 (U.S.). Unlike China and other
The overall lubricant demand in India is export-oriented economies of Asia, economic growth in India is
expected to grow at 2.5% through 2021. driven primarily by domestic consumption rather than by exports
or investment spending. For example, Indian household consump-
tion accounts for nearly 60% of GDP. In contrast, household con-

16 Curtiss set several land-speed records on his motorcycles. He was called the fastest
 sumption accounted for about 38% of
the Chinese economy. As a result, India
was fairly insulated from the adverse
impacts of the global recession in 2008.
The subsequent contraction in en-
ergy prices has had a huge positive
impact on the India economy given
that India is a signicant importer of
crude oil. The reduction in the crude
oil import bill has provided the gov-
ernment some maneuvering room to
address its budget decit and pursue
new programs. As a result, the econom-
ic growth rate strengthened from 6.6%
in 2011 to 7.6% in 2015. Despite a
strengthening of the economic growth
rate, nished lubricant demand slowed
from 4.7% in 2011 to 1.1% in 2015.
What is happening?
MARKET SLOWDOWN
The Indian lubricant market is estimat-
ed at about 2.4 million tons, including
process oils (see Figure 1). Industrial
uids, including process oils, general
industrial oils, industrial engine oils
and metalworking uids, account for
about 50% of the total demand. On
the automotive side, heavy-duty mo-
tor oils (HDMO) is the largest product
category, accounting for under 20% of
the total market, while motorcycle oils
(MCO) and passenger car motor oils
(PCMO) together account for 15% of
the total market.
In the last few years, overall lu-
bricant demand has slowed due to a
decrease in the commercial and in-
dustrial segments. Key commercial
lubricant sectors such as mining have
contracted due to the cancellation of
mining contracts by the government.
Only the consumer segment (covering
motorcycles, passenger cars and taxis)
exhibited some growth. Between 2010
and 2015, sales of motorcycles, scoot-
ers and passenger cars grew at 4%, 20%
and 8% per year, respectively. During
the same period, sales of commercial
vehicles (including trucks and buses)
grew at 0.6%. As only 15% of the mar-
ket (including PCMO and MCO) is
exhibiting some growth and the rest of
the market is at, the overall lubricant
demand growth has slowed consider-
man on earth when he was clocked at 136.6 mph during a motorcycle race in 1904.
Figure 1 | Overall lubricant demand in India has slowed down due to a decrease in the
commercial and industrial segments.
ably during the last few years. Besides
economic factors, quality improve-
ments and extension of drain intervals
also have played their part in dampen-
ing lubricant demand growth.
LUBRICANT QUALITY EVOLUTION
The overall penetration of synthetic and
semisynthetic lubricants in India is just
under 6%. The penetration of synthet-
ics is highest in the consumer segment.
Consumption of synthetic PCMO
and passenger car diesel oil (PCDO) is
estimated to be 25% despite the price-
sensitive nature of consumers. Syn-
thetic and semisynthetic lubricants are
catching up fast among economy and
mid-tier car OEMs due to the high-
performance requirement in new cars.
Up until the last decade, Indian OEMs
such as Tata Motors and Maruti did not
endorse the use of synthetic lubricants.
Some oil companies have partnered
with OEMs of premium cars for the
use of synthetic engine oils and ATF.
The authorized service centers of these
OEMs recommend synthetics.
Today, most of the new models in-
troduced by Indian OEMs also recom-
mend the use of synthetics. For exam-
ple, synthetic SAE 5W-30 is commonly
used both in factory and service ll of
Maruti Suzuki and Hyundai cars. SAE
5W-40 penetration is very small com-
pared to 5W-30, as they are expensive
and used mainly in luxury cars from
such OEMs as Mercedes-Benz, BMW
and Volkswagen. Some OEMs have
now started to recommend SAE 0W-20
grade. For instance, Maruti Swift and
Ciaz cars in petrol versions have a rec-
ommendation of using 0W-20. In part-
nerships with OEM, oil companies are
promoting synthetic grades for use in
small and midsized cars. Besides OEM
partnerships, lubricant marketers also
are working at increasing consumers
and mechanics awareness of the bene-
ts of using synthetic products. Indica-
tive of the synthetic growth potential
in the consumer segment is the fact
that penetration of 5W-xx and 0W-xx
grades will grow from 25% of total in
2016 to 35% by 2021.
Unlike the consumer segment, in
the commercial on-highway segment
there is minimal use of synthetic lu-
bricants. All the major OEMs, such as
Tata, Ashok Leyland and Eicher, rec-
ommend conventional engine oil. Tata
Motors, the largest player in the on-
highway commercial segment, recom-
mends oils meeting the API CH-4 ser-
vice category. For this category, there is
17
no real requirement for synthetic oils. continue to be dominated by 15W-xx followed in 13 major Indian cities while
The use of synthetics is done solely at and 20W-xx grades for the foreseeable the rest of the country practices BS-III
the end-users discretion. However, the future, dampening the potential for norms. Under the notication issued in
higher price of synthetic lubricants is synthetic products. 2016, India will directly leapfrog from
a signicant deterrent in their use. In In its efforts to contain a growing BS-IV norms to BS-VI by 2020. While
contrast, in the commercial off-high- pollution, the Indian government has the quality of fuel (conforming to BS-VI
way segment, there is a growing use of issued notications for the implemen- quality) and changes to vehicles hard-
synthetics in mining and construction tation of Bharat Stage VI (BS-VI) stan- ware (for example, use of diesel partic-
eets. Unlike the consumer segment, dards. BS norms are equivalent to corre- ulate lter [DPF] and selective catalyst
there is no signicant shift to lighter sponding Euro norms but applied with reduction [SCR]) are touted as major
viscosity grades. HDMO demand will a time lag. Presently, BS-IV norms are means to achieve the stringent norms,
lubricant quality will have its own role
to play. This implies a greater focus on
the use of cleaner lubricants (blended
with Group II, III or synthetic base
stocks), which have lower sulfur con-
tent, and the market will witness rapid
High temperatures and oxidation can cause movement toward lighter grades such as
oils to break down and leave varnish on metal SAE 5W-xx and 0W-xx.
surfaces. Synthetic Esters are your best defense Finally, in the industrial segment
(including process oils), the use of syn-
against varnish buildup. A good Synthetic Ester
thetics and semisynthetics is about 3%
based formuation resists oxidation and helps of total demand. Criticality of operation,
dissolve residues so your metal surfaces stay clean. cost of equipment downtime, OEM rec-
ommendations and product customiza-
Lexolube FG-220 HX1 tion can often drive synthetic usage.
Lexolube PQ-68
Lubricit DTDA MARKET OUTLOOK
Indias economic growth is projected to
Lubricit TMP C9
strengthen from 7% real GDP growth in
2016 to 8% by 2018,2 though the de-
monetization of high-value currency
carried out in November 2016 may
dampen growth.
Various government programs di-
rected toward infrastructure develop-
ment (in particular roadways), vol-
untary fleet modernization program
(V-FMP) and development of so-called
smart cities will help kick-start growth
in the commercial lubricant segment.
The Union Ministry of Road Transport,
Highways and Shipping in India have
announced highway projects in various
states to develop land transportation
infrastructure. These include invest-
ments upward of $11.1 billion (U.S.) in
Maharashtra, $8.1 billion (U.S.) in Uttar
Pradesh, $2.4 billion (U.S.) in Punjab
and $1.6 billion (U.S.) in West Bengal.
The smart cities plan aims to devel-
op infrastructure in cities to cope with
+1 478 454 1942
the growing urban population in the
country. Under this program, selected
cities in 22 states of India will be de-

18 APRIL 2017 T R I B O LO GY & LU B R I CAT I O N T EC H N O LO GY W W W. ST L E .O RG

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 veloped as urban settlements to offer
hospitable and better structured living
conditions for residents.
The mining sector may see a revival
in the near future. In 2015 the Indian
government implemented a new for-
eign direct investment (FDI) policy
and allocation mechanism to allocate
31 blocks out of 204 blocks with more
than 100 more blocks to be auctions
in the near future. New mining blocks
would mean demand for newer equip-
ment and improved utilization of the
existing mining eet.
Under the proposed V-FMP pro-
gram, the ministry of road transporta-
tion has proposed incentivizing vehicle
owners who scrap their old vehicles and
purchase newer vehicles. Under V-FMP
it is proposed that the vehicles bought
before March 31, 2005, or those that are
below BS-IV norms, could be scrapped
in lieu of which the vehicle owners
would receive benets in the form of
scrap value for old vehicle, discounts
from OEM for new vehicle and limited
exemption from excise duty. However,
with the proposed rollout of the new
tax regimenGoods and Services Tax
(GST)in India, there have been some
objections to handing out partial excise
duty exemption. To date, the ministry
of road transport and the nance minis-
try are ironing out the issues to pave the
way for V-FMP. Once this program is
implemented, it will help older vehicle
eet (which use heavier monogrades
and SAE 20W-40) be replaced by mod-
ern vehicle eet (which use SAE 15W-
40 or even 10W-xx grades).
The consumer segments growth is
driven by the increase in the passen-
ger car and motorcycle population, as
well as the rise in small car and two-
wheeler exports. On the other hand, the
increasing penetration of synthetics and
extension of drain intervals will dampen
demand growth. The growth of elec-
tric scooters and electric cars also will
dampen lubricant demand growth.
For the industrial sector, lubricant
demand will be driven by growth in
power generation capacity, as well as
growth in the cement and steel indus-
tries to support infrastructure develop-
20 Curtiss entrance into ying began in 1904 when Thomas Scott Baldwin asked him to make a two-cylinder, air-cooled engine to power his dirigible.
Figure 2 | The lubricant demand in India is expected to grow over the next four years.
ment discussed earlier (see Figure 2).
In addition, government initiatives like
Make in India also will have a positive
impact on demand for industrial lubri-
cants. On the other hand, equipment
modernization, use of high-perfor-
mance lubricants and better mainte-
nance practices (including oil condi-
tion monitoring and onsite recycling)
will dampen demand growth.
As a result of these factors, the over-
all lubricant demand in India is ex-
pected to grow at 2.5% over the period
from 2016-2021. This includes strong
growth in the consumer segment and
low to moderate growth in the com-
mercial and industrial segments. In the
PCMO segment, demand will continue
to move toward lighter viscosity grades.
In the MCO segment, the use of two-
stroke oils will decline, and demand for
four-stroke oils, in particular 10W-xx
grades, will grow. The HDMO market
will not see any signicant shift in vis-
cosity grades used.
SUMMARY
India continues to present growth op-
portunities for the nished-lubricants
industry. Growing disposable incomes
and changing lifestyle needs drive
growth in the two-wheeler and passen-
ger car populations. The taxi segment
is growing rapidly in metro cities as
taxi aggregators proliferate. The con-
cept of bike taxis also is being intro-
duced. Along with the demand growth,
there is a remarkable shift toward bet-
ter quality lubricants in all products in
this segment.
Commercial lubricant demand is
expected to increase as the various in-
frastructure initiatives pick up. Engine
oil demand will not see much move-
ment beyond 15W-40. Monogrades will
decline. Industrial demand relies on the
success of various infrastructure and
industrial projects. However, any sharp
and unexpected change in the global
economy and unsuccessful implemen-
tation of government projects will have
a negative impact on the growth of n-
ished lubricant demand.
REFERENCES
1. Source: The World Fact Book,
CIA. GDP measured at Purchasing
Power Parity (PPP).
2. The Economist Intelligence Unit.
Milind Phadke is a director at
Kline & Co. in the Energy
practice. You can reach him at
Milind.Phadke@KlineGroup.
com. Kline is an international
provider of world-class
consulting services and
high-quality market intelligence for industries
including lubricants and chemicals. Learn more at
www.klinegroup.com.
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20 MINUTES WITH
Rachel Fowler / Managing Editor

Farshid Sadeghi
This Purdue University professor solves problems for
industry and governmentand successfully integrates
the research into his engineering courses.
DR. FARSHID SADEGHI - The Quick File

Farshid Sadeghi is the Cummins Distinguished professor of the School of Mechanical Engineering at Purdue
University in West Lafayette, Ind. His background includes publishing more than 160 archival journal papers.
He has given more than 300 presentations at various society meetings and industrial and academic institu-
tions around the world.
Sadeghi also has an illustrious career as an STLE volunteer. He served as the editor-in-chief of Tribology
Transactions, STLEs peer-reviewed journal, from 2009-2016. Previously he was an associate editor for the
journal for nine years. In addition, he served on the planning committee for the STLE/ASME International Joint
Tribology Conference, chairing the 2000 meeting in Seattle.
Sadeghi received the Burt L. Newkirk Award in 1991 from ASME, the Edmond E. Bisson Award from STLE in
1996, the RCT Creative Research Award from ASME in 2008, the ASME Mayo D. Hersey Award in 2011 and the
STLE International Award in 2011. He also has received several best paper awards from ASME and IMechE and
teaching awards from Purdue University. He was elected a fellow of STLE and ASME in 2004 and 2006, respec-
Farshid Sadeghi tively. At the 2016 STLE Annual Meeting in Las Vegas, Sadeghi received a special award from the societys
board of directors honoring his excellence in journal publishing.

TLT: Describe some of the tribology
challenges, especially with bearings,
that industry/government brought to
you. How did you address them?
Sadeghi: I have spent the last 35 years
studying tribology-related issues for
industry and government. I started my
research work in elastohydrodynamic
lubrication (EHL) and then moved on
to bearing dynamics and rolling contact
fatigue (RCF). I also have done signi-
cant work in microelectromechanical
sensors for tribological applications
and wet clutch engagement. I have
worked with a multitude of industries
and government agencies to solve their
tribological problems in these areas.
With EHL we developed numerical
solutions for pressure and tempera-
ture distribution under rolling sliding
contacts. We investigated the effects of
surface roughness, debris contamina-
tion and material in homogeneity for a
variety of applications.
In rolling contact fatigue, we used
continuum damage mechanics to de-
velop nite element models to estimate
RCF lives of heavily loaded contacts
under various operating conditions.
We successfully modeled some of the
pressing issues that bearing manufac-
turers are facing these days such as
RCF in large bearings, buttery forma-
tions, white etching cracks, etc.
Since bearings are used in a variety
of conditions, the understanding of
bearing dynamics is always one of the
challenges in tribology. We have been
developing a model commonly referred
to as the dynamic bearing model (DBM)
and now are at the cusp of having a vir-
tual simulation tool. The model can be
used to investigate various types of roll-
ing element bearings in a fully dynamic
and 3D condition. Recently we success-
fully developed a combined explicit -
nite element and discrete element model
and, therefore, now have extended the
capability of DBM by including the ef-
fects of shaft and surrounding structures
exibility in the bearing model.
We developed wireless telemetry
micro-sensors to monitor the tempera-
ture of the cage of a bearing. The sensor
was used to determine the temperature
of bearing under fully lubricated and
starved condition and has demonstrat-
ed that the bearing cage is a good indi-
cator of the health of a bearing.
We also are working with the chem-
istry department at Purdue University
to evaluate performance of new lubri-
cant additives. We have performed ex-
periments to measure the friction and
wear in mixed and boundary lubrica-
tion with this lubricant and have found
very promising results in reducing the
frictional losses and wear.

22 APRIL 2017 T R I B O LO GY & LU B R I CAT I O N T EC H N O LO GY W W W. ST L E .O RG

TLT: How often does your academic/
fundamental research impact indus-
try and STLE?
Sadeghi: As I mentioned earlier, our re-
search work is focused toward solving
industry and government problems.
Thus, our research is constantly im-
pacting the industry.
My laboratory specializes in build-
ing custom test rigs to investigate
particular industry problems. Indus-
try players often dont want to spend
resources in building test rigs and
experiments. We have performed ex-
periments ranging from characterizing
tribological properties of bearing steels,
lubricants, etc., to evaluating the per-
formance of entire tribology systems
such as axial piston pumps, turbo-
chargers and other components. We
are collaborating with leading bearing
manufacturers in developing a software
to predict the life of a bearing depend-
ing on its loading and operating his-
tory. The aim of the project is to replace
the numerous sensors currently being
used to estimate the remaining bearing
life based on their current state. We are
working very closely with the bearing
manufacturer to achieve this vision.
Another bearing manufacturer
wanted us to simulate refurbishing.
Between 60%-80% of the cost of new
bearings can be saved by using refur-
bished bearings instead of replacing
them. However, there were no models,
which estimates life of the refurbished
bearings or to optimize different pa-
rameters of the refurbishing process.
The limited research in this area has
restricted the widespread implementa-
tion of bearing restoration. So we de-
veloped a numerical model to simulate
the refurbishing process and currently
running experiments on refurbished
bearing to validate our model.
TLT: What do you think are the
upcoming challenges in tribology,
especially bearings?
Sadeghi: In industrial countries the cost
of energy and material losses due to
friction and wear is close to 5% of gross
While the Wright Brothers relied on their wing-warping technology, Curtiss designed ailerons, aps that attached to wings. The design is still used today. 2 3
We need to develop a more realistic
material microstructure model to
evaluate the desired properties of
materials for bearing applications.
annual product. A major challenge in
front of us is reducing the energy con-
sumption and moving toward greener
technology. As tribologists, we play a
direct role in reducing power losses
in machinery while guaranteeing reli-
ability and respecting environmental
regulations.
As the automotive industry is adapt-
ing hybridization to improve efciency,
the power losses in bearings are becom-
ing even more signicant. In electric
vehicles, the bearings are going to be
the major source of noise. One major
issue that is usually neglected is life of
the bearing. You might be able to lower
frictional losses temporarily, but if this
comes at the cost of reduction in bear-
ing life, then you really have not im-
proved efciency.
TLT: What has been an ongoing chal-
lenge that needs to be worked on?
Sadeghi: The range of applications uti-
lizing bearings have increased tremen-
dously in recent years. Consequentially
the range of bearing sizes has drasti-
cally increased from nanoscale bearings
to wind turbine bearings. Most wind
turbine gearbox failures are the result
of bearing failures.
As we explore new horizons in
space, our technology also needs to
keep pace with it. The challenges in-
volved in bearings for space appli-
ances are very different than we have
encountered until now. Traditional liq-
uid lubricants cant be used in space, so
there is ongoing research on using solid
lubricant coatings to improve wear re-
sistance and reduce friction.
TLT: What advancements in experi-
ments, modeling and knowledge do
you think is necessary to solve the
challenges?
Sadeghi: Currently there are various
models that examine specic aspects
of the working of the bearings. Just as
there are lubrication models to evalu-
ate pressure distribution, fatigue mod-
els estimate the impact of the loading
on bearing components and bearing
dynamics models. However, these as-
pects are not independent.
As the material deteriorates, the
EHL pressure distribution is affected,
which further modies fatigue damage
propagation. Hence, there is a need to
develop a holistic model that takes into
account all these aspects simultane-
ously. Recently we developed a nite
elements model, which combines EHL
and damage mechanics. Further, as we
are making advances in controlling the
material properties during manufactur-
ing, we need to develop a more realistic
material microstructure model to eval-
uate the desired properties of materials
for bearing applications.
TLT: How does your research work
enable academic education?
Sadeghi: I try to incorporate my re-
search work into academic education.
I teach a course on tribology at Pur-
due University. The students taking
the course must develop a numerical
software to calculate pressure distribu-
tion and other lubrication parameters
for different types of bearings.
In addition, the course involves a
project extension where I encourage
students to read recent journal articles
on tribology. Students have to follow
the work in those papers and repli-
cate part of their results. This not only
helps in generating awareness about
current challenges in tribology among
students but also provides them with
an opportunity to learn about research
and know what is involved in research.
You can reach Farshid Sadeghi at
sadeghi@purdue.edu.
 STLE says thanks
to its volunteers
These individuals make our societyand our industryfunction and grow.

National Volunteer Week (April 23-29) is about inspiring, recognizing and encouraging people to seek out imaginative ways to
engage in their communities. In honor of this week, STLE would like to recognize the time, talent and contributions made by
the volunteers in our society. They are what allow us to grow and nurture our industry, foster new talent and grow the society
as a whole. STLE gives our sincere thanks to the individuals listed below, who serve on our committees, industry councils
and local sections.

Ghassan Abed Dr. Vasilios Bakolas Dr. John Bomidi Jerry P. Byers
Oakland University Schaefer Technologies AG Baker Hughes David G. Byun
Elaine Anderson & Co. KG Russell Boone CALS Corp.
Palmer Holland Inc. Rob Banas Phillips 66 Co. Dr. Neil M. Canter
Michael Anderson ExxonMobil Dr. E. Richard Booser Chemical Solutions
Falex Corp. Dr. Grigor Blajev Bantchev Consulting Engineer Joseph P. Cepec
Violet T. Anderson USDA/ARS/NCAUR Steffen Bots Allegheny Petroleum Products Co.
ChevronTexaco Global Lubricants Dr. Edward P. Becker Oelcheck GmbH Dr. Bulent Chavdar
Dr. William B. Anderson Friction & Wear Solutions, LLC Michelle Brakke Eaton Corp.
Afton Chemical Corp. Mikey Benes Lube-Tech Corey Brandon Cheeks
Dr. Nicolas Argibay Baker Hughes Donovan D. Bresko ExxonMobil
Sandia National Laboratories Robert J. Benzing Suncor Energy Dr. Jian Wen Choo
James Arner Dr. Stephen Berkebile Dr. Matthew Brouwer Petronas Group Technical
Pirr Tribology Solutions US ARL Williams International Solutions
Dr. Ankur Ashtekar Dr. Diana Berman Dr. Robert W. Bruce Coy Martin Christoffel
Sentient Science Corp. University of North Texas GE Aircraft Engines ESCO Products
Dr. Pranesh B. Aswath Ron Bertoldi Dr. Noel Brunetiere Charles R. Coe
University of Texas at Arlington Sea-Land Chemical Co. Universite de Poitiers Grease Technology Solutions, LLC
Robert D. Austin Lynn M. Billings Patrick Eugene Brutto Dr. Donald K. Cohen
QualiChem Inc. Petro-Canada Lubricants Inc. ANGUS Chemical Co. Michigan Metrology
Sujay D. Bagi Dr. Girma Biresaw John M. Burke Wayne M. Coursey
Paccar Inc. USDA/ARS/NCAUR Houghton International Inc. Pam Teknology
Mark Alan Bair Micheal Blackmon Dr. David Lawrence Burris Cameron Cox
Voith Turbo Inc. Shell Lubricants University of Delaware Kiewit Energy Services
Robert F. Baker Thomas J. Blunt Richard G. Butler Dr. Alex-Florian Cristea
King Industries, Inc. Krytox Performance Lubricants Chemtool Inc. Tecnitas SAS (Bureau Veritas Group)

24 APRIL 2017 T R I B O LO GY & LU B R I CAT I O N T EC H N O LO GY W W W. ST L E .O RG

Greg Croce
Chevron Products Co.
Alan E Cross
Houghton International Inc.
Wei Dai
Texas A&M University
Dr. Robert I. Davidson
Afton Chemical Corp.
Charlie A. De Cardenas
Phillips 66
Mike A. Deckert
Flo Components Ltd
Bennie L. Denton
Citgo Petroleum Corp. (Retired)
Scott Deskin
Chevron
James R. Dickey
William M. Downs, Jr.
Cimcool Fluid Technologies
Peter Drechsler
Allison L. Dries (Labraaten)
Caterpillar, Inc.
Dr. Michael T. Dugger
Sandia National Laboratories
Dr. Michael P. Duncan
Daubert Chemical Company Inc.
Alison C. Dunn Dr. Donald G. Flom Dr. Selda Gunsel
University of Illinois at Urbana- Flom Consulting Shell Global Solutions (US) Inc.
Champaign Gregory J. Foltz Dr. Hyeok Hahn
Dr. Alan C. Eachus Chevron
Robert L. Fusaro
Karen E. Eisenhauer Nastec Inc. Raymond L. Hall, Jr.
Integrilube Chevron Global Lubricants
Jaime Gallego
Jamie Elliott Chevron James B. Hannon
Chemroy Canada Inc. ExxonMobil Fuels, Lubricants &
Dr. Hamed Ghaednia
Dr. Robert Erck Ford Motor Co. Specialties Marketing Co.
Argonne National Laboratory Dr. William M. Hannon
Dr. Arnab Ghosh
Dr. Ali Erdemir Sentient Science The Timken Co.
Argonne National Laboratory Karen Maureen Harrington
Dr. Michael Glasgow
Dr. Selim Erhan Afton Chemical Corp. Afton Chemical Corp.
Archer Daniels Midland Co. Dr. Judith Harrison
Joe Goecke
Buck Evans Petro-Canada America U.S. Naval Academy
Sea-Land Chemical Co. Lubricants, Inc. Dr. Xingliang He
Dr. Ryan D. Evans Ricardo Gomes Northwestern University
The Timken Co. Evonik Oil Additives USA, Inc. Leslie R. Heerdt
Benjamin Faber Dennis Gregory Falex Corp.
The Lubrizol Corp. Associated Petroleum Products, Inc. John F. Hermann
Dr. Aurelian Fatu Mathew Grifth Gabriel G. Hernandez
University de Poitiers Allegheny Petroleum Products Co. Bavario Sabmiller
Dr. Michel Fillon Thomas Gu Paul W. Hetherington
Universite de Poitiers Northwestern University Petro-Canada Lubricants Inc.
Dr. Gareth Fish Dr. Jeffrey M. Guevremont Robert D. Heverly
The Lubrizol Corp. American Rening Group, Inc. Vanderbilt Chemicals, LLC
The rst plane Curtiss built and ew was June Bug on June 21, 1908. 25
John M. Hogan Dr. Maureen E. Hunter Dr. Young Sup Kang Dr. Brandon Alexander Krick
The Lubrizol Corp. King Industries, Inc. The Timken Co. Lehigh University
Daniel G. Holdmeyer Gregory Scott Hutchison William A. Kearney Dr. Tom W. Lai
Chevron Lubricants Phillips 66 Co. Afton Chemical Corp. John Crane Inc.
Michael Holloway Walter E. Huysman Jawad Khan Thomas L. Lantz
ALS Tribology Clark Testing ADINLUBE Lantz Consulting Services
Dr. Ken Hope John Irwin Dr. Zulqar Ahmad Khan Andrew Larson
Chevron Phillips Chemical Co. J.A.M. Distributing Co. Bournemouth University The Dow Chemical Co.
Brian K. Hovik Kyungjun Lee
Andrew Jackson Dr. Harman Khare
Chemetall Texas A&M University
University of Pennsylvania University of Pennsylvania
Scott Howard William J. Leeper, II
Dr. Robert Lee Jackson Daejong Kim
Hy-Pro Filtration CITGO Petroleum Corp.
Auburn University University of Texas at Arlington
John D. Howcroft Steven Lemberger
Tevis Jacobs Dr. E. M. Kipp
Nalco Co. Lemberger Consulting Services, LLC
University of Pittsburgh
Dr. John K. Howell Dr. Josiah Knight Deborah Lewis
GHS Resources Inc. Dr. Behrooz Jalalahmadi Duke University Evonik Corp.
Sentient Science Corp.
Travis Howry Andrea Lynn Knopp Dr. Sheng Li
Buckley Oil Co. Dr. Kris Januszkiewicz American Electric Power Wright State University
Houghton International Inc.
Xiaoli Hu Dr. Gordon G. Krauss Dr. Zhe Li
University of California Merced Neil Jasisnki Harvey Mudd College General Motors Corp.
Kelley Williamson Co.
Tim S Hulleman Joseph John Krejci Dr. Hong Liang
Imperial Oil Mariam S. Juves The Dow Chemical Co. Texas A&M University

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26 In 1908 Curtiss won the rst leg of the Scientic American magazine competition for being rst to y in a straight line for more than a kilometer.
 David Lindsay
Afton Chemical Corp.
J. Mark Litman
Shell Oil Products US
Dr. Babak Lotzadehdehkordi
Schaefer Group USA
Brett Lubbock
Petro-Canada Lubricants Inc.
Dr. Brendan Miller
Chevron Oronite Co., LLC
Philip R. Miller
prmi Consulting LLC
Dr. Kuldeep Kishore Mistry
The Timken Co.
Dr. Hamidreza Mohseni
Bosch Brake Components LLC

Greg Lytle Leah Morris

Industrial Oils Unlimited The Elco Corp.

Jeffrey A. Mackey David A. Morrison

Yushiro Manufacutring America, Inc. Castrol Industrial North America, Inc.
Ramoun Mourhatch
Khalid Malik
Chevron Oronite Company, LLC
Ontario Power Generation Dr. Mihir K. Patel Lucas Rawding
Michel Murphy Chevron American Rening Group
Matt Mapus
Michel Murphy Enterprises
Sea-Land Chemical Co. Dennis Edward Patti Dennis Ray
Edward J. Myers Hy-Pro Filtration
Karen Marek Daubert Chemical Co. Inc.
ExxonMobil Fuels & Lubricants
Caterpillar, Inc. Charles H. Paxton Kevin M. Ray
Chris A. Nation
Matthew D. Markham GM Spring Hill Manufacturing Fuchs Lubricants Canada Ltd.
Wilcox & Flegel Oil Co.
GE Digital Michael Pearce Larry Lee Reutzel
Mian Hammad Nazir
William D. Marscher W.S. Dodge Oil Co. ExxonMobil Lubricants & Specialties
Bournemouth University
Mechanical Solutions Inc. Allan W. Perry Alexander Richardson
William M. Needelman
Dr. Ashlie Martini Phillips 66 Co. (Retired) National Centre for Advanced
Filtration Science Solutions, Inc.
University of California Merced Tribology at Southampton
Dr. Daniel Nelias John Thomas Petersen
Shawn A. McCarthy Fluid Life Corp. Daniel Alan Roberts
LaMCoS INSA De Lyon
Total Energy LLC,D/B/A Ocean State Lubrication Engineers Inc.
Peter Geoffrey Neufeld Michael Plumley
Oil, Inc. Frank A. Robinson
Petro-Canada Lubricants Inc. US Coast Guard Academy
Quaker Chemical Corp.
Ted G. McClure
Helen Ngo Jack Poley
Sea-Land Chemical Co. Kevin Rodgers
USDA/ARS/ERRC Condition Monitoring International
Lubrication Engineers Inc.
John S. McConnel
John Joseph Nussbaumer Andreas A. Polycarpou
Dr. Carleton N. Rowe
Daniel D. McCoy Dover Chemical Corp. Texas A&M University
Metalworking Lubricants Richard E. Rush
Thomas P. OBrien Rick J. Pruhs Rush Consulting Services
Alan F. McFadin The Lubrizol Corp. Quaker Chemical Corp.
Schaeffer Manufacturing Co. Douglas A. Sackett
Dr. Thomas P. Oleksiak Dr. Yifan Qiu Total Specialties USA, Inc.
Robin N. McNabb Novelis Global Research & UTC Carrier Corp.
Polaris Laboratories LLC Technology Center Dr. Adil Saeed
Dr. Jun Qu Bournemouth University
Karl R. Mecklenburg Dr. Harry Phillip On Oak Ridge National Laboratory
Afton Chemical Corp. Farnaz Motamen Salehi
Jacqueline Adele Mehlenbacher Michael Quigley University of Leeds
Fuchs Lubricants Canada Ltd. Pang Lin Ong Lube-Tech, Inc.
Lubrizol Southeast Asia (Pte) Ltd Dr. Paul Andrew Salter
Jatin Nitin Mehta Bart Raeymaekers Royal Manufacturing Co., LP
Fluitec International Jason Papacek
University of Utah
Calumet Specialty Products Dr. Thomas William Scharf
Jeremias D. Mendonca, III Partners, L.P. Patrick A. Rall University of North Texas
Tropic Oil Co. Wilcox & Flegel Oil Co.
Linda M. Pascali David K. Scheetz
Caitlin Mertzlufft Sea-Land Chemical Co. Richard Rapp ExxonMobil Lubricants & Specialties
NextEra Energy Resources
Dr. Frederick J. Passman Scott Rappaport Thomas A. Schiff
Edmund Milanczak BCA, Inc. Shell ExxonMobil Lubricants & Specialties

The June Bug had crashed the day before with Curtiss as pilot. He and his team spent the night rebuilding the plane. The Wright Brothers did not compete. 27
Richard C. Schrama
Tribological Services
Randy D. Sebastian
Houghton International Inc.
Aaron A. Sepanski
Chemetell
Dr. Brajendra K. Sharma
Illinois Sustainable Technology
Center, University of Illinois at
Urbana-Champaign
Charles Sheppard
Sonneborn, Inc.
Dr. Paul J. Shiller
University of Akron
Harpal Singh
Sentient Science Corp.
Dr. Trevor Slack Harry Tankus Dr. Rohit Voothaluru Keith A. Wurm
American Roller Bearing Co. Jacqueline A. Tiedemann-Biron The Timken Co. ExxonMobil
Walter Sloan Vincent M. Tofani William E. Wambach Huaping Xiao
Sloan Lubrication Systems Lubrication Engineers Inc. Dr. Chinpei Wang Texas A&M University
Richard F. Smith Allison Toms Cummins, Inc. Jun Xiao
Metalworking Lubricants Co. GasTOPS Inc. Dr. Wayne E. Ward Rtec Instruments
Dr. Donald Smolenski David A. Turner US Air Force (Retired) Dr. Hyung K. Yoon
Evonik Oil Additives USA, Inc. CITGO Petroleum Corp. Chris Webb Caterpillar, Inc.
Stefan G. Snyder Dr. William Tuszynski Hydra-Fab Fluid Power Inc. Evan Scott Zabawski
University of St. Thomas The Unami Group Dr. Martin N. Webster TestOil
Dr. George JW Staniewski Luis F. Urrutia ExxonMobil Research & Engineering Dr. Jack Zakarian
Dr. Michael Stapels Total Axel Wegner Lubrication Consultant
Kao Chemicals GmbH Dr. Dairene Uy C.C. Jensen Inc. Brian C. Zander
James E. Steenbergen Ford Motor Co. Charles H. West The Lubrizol Corp.

Wade Brandon Stephens John Marc Vander Schalie Adam Edward Wilcox Dr. Hongmei Zhao
Lard Oil Co., Inc. Wenatchee Petroleum Co. Lubrication Engineers Inc. The Lubrizol Corp.

April C. Stevens Terrence Lee Veenstra John S. Wiley Dr. Min Zou
MonsonAn Azelis Americas Co. Petro-Canada Lubricants Inc. QualiChem Inc. University of Arkansas

Justin T. Stover Dr. Paula Vettel Solongo Wilson Dr. Qian Zou
C.C. Jensen Inc. Novvi LLC Chemtura Canada Co./CIE Oakland University

Become a Volunteer
Membership in STLE opens up a host of diverse volunteer opportunities to you. Each administrative and technical
committee, local section and task force plays an integral part in advancing the profession and the organization. You
must be a current member of STLE to serve on a committee or task force. Appointees are selected from a pool of can-
didates when openings are available. Local section leaders and committee member terms run from June 1 through
May 31 of the following year.

We thank all of STLEs volunteers for their time and efforts. For more information about STLE volunteer opportuni-
ties, email Tom Heidrich at theidrich@stle.org or call (847) 825-5536.

28 APRIL 2017 T R I B O LO GY & LU B R I CAT I O N T EC H N O LO GY W W W. ST L E .O RG

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CAREERS
Karl Phipps
Young Professionals Prole:
Hannah Neuffer Evans
This manufacturing engineer with UTC Aerospace Systems
makes products more efcient and safe.
Hannah Neuffer Evans
Hannah Neuffer Evans graduated
from Snead State Community
College with an associates
degree in science in 2011. She
then graduated from Auburn
University with a bachelors
degree in polymer and ber
engineering and a minor in
tribology in 2014.
Hannah is a 2013 recipient of
the STLE E. Richard Booser
Scholarship, which funded her
research measuring the effects
of various concentrations of
nanoparticles on the coefcient
of friction in a ball-on-disk test
machine. Currently she works as
a manufacturing engineer at UTC
Aerospace Systems.
30 Curtiss won the second leg of the Scientic American competition in 1909, establishing a ying distance record.
TLT: What led you to apply for the
STLE E. Richard Booser Scholarship?
Neuffer Evans: I rst heard about the
STLE scholarship from my advisor,
Dr. Robert Jackson, a professor in the
department of mechanical engineer-
ing and director of Auburn Univer-
sitys tribology and lubrication science
minor program.
While taking one of his tribology
courses, an undergraduate research
position became available for a fric-
tion and wear project. I immediately
jumped at the opportunity to get
hands-on experience in a eld that
I was just beginning to understand
and enjoy. Dr. Jackson encouraged
me to apply for the scholarship based
on the extracurricular research I had
volunteered for. When I was awarded
the scholarship, I was thrilled that my
simple desire to continue to learn was
rewarded by such a prestigious techni-
cal organization as STLE.
TLT: How did receiving the STLE
scholarship help with your tribology
research?
Neuffer Evans: Prior to being awarded
the Booser Scholarship, I had my mind
made up to nish my research project.
When I found out I was awarded the
scholarship, I was thankful because the
funding allowed me to focus more on
my research and less on other nancial
matters upon graduating from Auburn.
Also, knowing that our ndings were
to be published in TLT was just added
motivation for me and a proud accom-
plishment Ill never forget.
TLT: Why did you join STLE?
Neuffer Evans: As a student, I joined
STLE to have access to member re-
sources. I was just beginning my jour-
ney in studying tribology and wanted
to stay up to date on what other
industry professionals were talking
about and researching. I also really
enjoyed reading TLT every month
because it provides the tribology and
lubrication engineering communities
with a platform to share new ideas
and to spotlight those making a differ-
ence in the eld.
TLT: What (or who) inspired your
interest in studying engineering?
Neuffer Evans: I credit my family for
inspiring me to go into the eld of
engineering. Being a third-generation
engineer, I could almost say engineer-
ing was in my blood. I was exposed
to engineering principles at a young
age, which denitely had a signicant
inuence on my career choice.
For example, I remember going to
the U.S. Space and Rocket Center on a
eld trip and being so fascinated by the
technological advances that I wanted
to be a part of something so impressive
when I grew up. I may not be work-
ing for NASA, but the fascination is
still there to contribute to technologi-

cal advancements. My parents were al-
ways there to encourage me with every
new science project I worked on.
TLT: Tell us about your job.
Neuffer Evans: I currently work at UTC
Aerospace Systems as a manufacturing
engineer in the electrical-wire harness
department. My role is to interpret
engineering drawings and coordinate
with the tooling department to trans-
late those drawings into functional
tools to build wire harnesses. I then
implement standard work instructions
for the operators to follow to ensure a
consistent product is shipped to our
customers every time.
UTC has a strong culture for con-
tinuous improvement. As a support
staff member, I participate in process
improvement events to drive out waste
and improve the overall working envi-
ronment.
TLT: What do you love most about
your job?
Neuffer Evans: I enjoy being able to
help operators improve the manufac-
turing process. My job is to help the
operator be as efcient as possible.
When I can collaborate with them on
an idea for something I can help put
in place to make their job easier, I feel
like I have accomplished something
worthwhile. At the end of the day, it is
operators who truly bring value to the
company, and I want to be there to
He then won the Gordon Bennett Trophy and $5,000 prize in the worlds rst international air meet at Reims, France.
Being a third-generation engineer, I could
almost say engineering was in my blood.
help them in any way I can.
TLT: What gets you excited about
going to work every day?
Neuffer Evans: I would say the people
factor of the workplace is what I look
forward to the most about my work-
day. Having that support system and
knowing you are surrounded with
good people who are there to help
you and to encourage you makes the
work more collaborative, more engag-
ing and even fun.
As a student, I joined
STLE to have access to
the resources that being
a member could provide.
TLT: If you were starting your
career again, would you do anything
differently?
Neuffer Evans: I am tremendously
grateful for obtaining my undergradu-
ate degree in polymer and ber engi-
neering. If I could go back and do it
again, I would have probably chosen
a more traditional engineering degree.
When I attended career fairs, I was
told by several companies that they
only hired from the major engineering
disciplines. Having such a specialized
Can Stock Photo / jovannig
degree made it somewhat difcult
when it came time to apply for jobs
when most employers had never
heard of it before.
I would, however, not go back and
change the experience I had while
studying for the tribology minor. I
met so many wonderfully supportive
industry professionals who were excit-
ed to see interest in tribology among
college students. They recognized the
impact that hiring new professionals
could bring.
TLT: What advice would you give to
high school or college students who
might want to pursue a career in
tribology?
Neuffer Evans: Talk to someone about
possible career opportunities in the
eld he or she is interested in. Also,
once you begin your undergraduate
studies, make sure to network with
industry representatives. When it
comes time to apply for internships or
jobs, there is a greater chance of being
remembered, and that could mean the
difference between getting an interview
or getting passed over for an interview.
Lastly, I would say get as much
hands-on experience prior to gradu-
ation as possible. Internships are like
test runs for your career path. They can
help you gure out if the career you
have chosen is what you really enjoy.
You can reach Hannah Neuffer Evans at
hannah.neuffer@utas.utc.com.
31
SCHOLARSHIP RESEARCH
The Performance of Translucent Silicon-Oxide
Nanoparticle Lubricant Additives
Zoe Tucker
Editors Note: This month TLT
proles the 2016 recipient of The
E. Richard Booser Scholarship
Award, Zoe Tucker (Auburn Uni-
versity). The Booser scholarship is
awarded annually to undergradu-
ate students who have an interest
in pursuing a career in tribology.
As a requirement for receiving an
STLE scholarship, students are giv-
en the opportunity to participate in
a tribology research project and to
submit a report summarizing their
research. For more information
about the Booser scholarship, visit
www.stle.org.
Zoe Tucker is a senior studying
mechanical engineering at Auburn
University with a minor in tribology.
The Booser scholarship allowed
her to conduct her research in Dr.
Robert Jacksons Mechanical Engi-
neering Tribology Lab. Tucker is the
president of the Auburn Tribology
and Lubrication Sciences Society
student organization. She also en-
joys playing her oboe and singing
at retirement homes. She graduates
in spring 2018. You can reach her at
zrt0003@auburn.edu.
32 APRIL 2017
Zoe Tucker
Robert L. Jackson
Mohammed S. Hossain
German Mills
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Auburn University
INTRODUCTION
Nanoparticles suspended in base oils have proven to be an effective method
for controlling friction and wear [1-3]. Due to their nanoscale size these par-
ticles can inltrate small gaps that larger particles cannot, thereby altering the
tribological behavior of the contact. Nanoparticles also have the ability to pass
through conventional oil ltration systems, which has been a barrier to past
solid particle additives. At the nano-scale, these particle also tend to be stronger
than the same bulk materials [4, 5]. These features have made nanoparticles
a promising new type of additive that is now gaining usage in industry. An
ongoing study has yielded a 3-5% reduction in the fuel consumption together
with the absence of wear and reduction in corrosion upon introducing Cu
nanoparticles as additives to the oil employed for the engines of the ship M/S
Viking XPRS [6].
The process through which nanoparticle additives reduce friction is under
debate, and more testing is needed to understand what mechanisms occur be-
tween surface and lubricants with nanoparticles. Nanoparticles are often made
of metallic or anti-friction materials and are added to traditional oil-based lu-
bricants. These nanoparticles often darken the color of the lubricant, making it
appear dirty or in need of replacement [7, 8]. This effect means still-functional
lubricants may be disposed of prematurely. Transparent nanoparticle lubricants
ll a position in lubrication science that has not yet been fully explored.
With the help of Dr. German Mills in the department of chemistry and bio-
chemistry at Auburn University, the research focused on developing nanopar-
ticles lubricant additives that are transparent. It is difcult to suspend sili-
con oxide particles in a non-polar uid such as hydrocarbon oil. However,
modication of the surface hydroxyl functionalities (called silanol groups) of
SiO2 particles yields silica materials that dissolve in nonpolar solvents. These
nanoparticles were silicon oxide particles coated with a thin layer of metal to
help improve the friction interactions. Silicon dioxide atoms are inherently
transparent, and the metal layer was only a few layers of atoms to one layer
thick and so was also transparent.
The proposed research focused on measuring the wear and friction per-
T R I B O LO GY & LU B R I CAT I O N T EC H N O LO GY W W W. ST L E .O RG
formance of the nanoparticle-infused lubricants, using addi-
tives designed not to darken lubricants. Friction ball-on-disk
tests were performed, followed by wear measurements with
a prolometer.

METHODS
The lubricants analyzed were composed of silicon oxide par-
ticles averaging 10-15 nm in diameter suspended in a dodec-
anedodecanol mix. Three different weight percents (0.05%,
0.1%, and 0.2%) of the nanoparticles in solution were com-
pared against the base uid with no nanoparticles.
Dodecane and methyl acetate were obtained from Alfa
Aesar. Octadecanol was purchased from Aldrich. Dispersed
P
silica/IPA (approximately 30% silica in isopropanol) was ob-
tained through generous support from the Nissan Chemical
America Corporation. The initial concentration of silica in
IPA was determined as 3.92 M by evaporating the solvent Figure 2 | Dodecane base uid wear track.
and measuring the mass of silica powders before using the
colloidal solution for dispersion in alkane. An aliquot of
dispersed particles was taken and diluted to 0.1 M by further
addition of isopropanol.
36.0 mL of 22.2 mM octadecanol solution was prepared in
methyl acetate by sonication. When a clear solution of octa-
decanol was achieved, a 4.0 mL of 0.1 M dispersed silica was
added to the solution with continuous stirring of the solution. P
40.0 mL of dodecane was then added to the solution and left
at room temperature for 24 hours with continuous stirring in
order to achieve complete evaporation of the methyl acetate
and isopropanol. The nal concentration of silica particles P
dispersed in dodecane was 10.0 mM and the concentration
ratio of octadecanol to silica was 2.0. The concentration ratio
between octadecanol and silica was kept constant for all other
dispersions of silica colloids in dodecane. Figure 3 | 0.2% SiO wear track.

A Bruker-UMT machine was used to perform a ball-on-

disk test. The conguration used is shown in Figure 1. A
chrome steel ball was loaded against a steel disk.
The tests were performed with a force of 50 Newtons at
0.1 m/s for two hours. Each test was repeated three times to
characterize the experimental scatter.

RESULTS
After testing, an optical microscope was used to visually ana-
lyze the wear tracks. Figures 2 and 3 show two example wear
tracks. The base uid showed signs of possible adhesive and
abrasive wear because of the wear particles present. The 0.2
weight percent uid had multiple grooves congruent with
what is seen in abrasive wear. The silicon particles probably
acted as an abrasive in the oil.
The disks were then analyzed using a Bruker Dektak 150
stylus prolometer with a 2.5 micron tip which produced a
Figure 1 | Testing conguration. wear prole. The wear width was manually measured from

W W W. ST L E .O RG T R I B O LO GY & LU B R I CAT I O N T EC H N O LO GY APRIL 2017 33

 the prole for each sample. Likewise, the wear volume was
found by nding the cross-sectional area lost from the be-
low the average height of the surface and then multiplied
by the circumference of the wear track. An example of the
cross-section of a typical wear track is show in Figure 4. The
wear track width and volume were plotted in Figures 5 and
6, respectively.
The coefcient of friction was measured by the UMT
throughout all of the testing. The average of each test was tak-
en, and then averaged between all three tests for each lubricant,
as shown in Figure 7. Again it is clear that the tribology did not
change signicantly with the addition of the particles.
The wear width, wear volume, and COF for all tests were
within the margin of error for the testing, and thus did not
conclusively prove any friction or wear benets of the silicon
oxide nanoparticle additives.
Figure 4 | Example wear track.
CONCLUSION
An experimental comparison was made between the friction
and wear of a dodecane base oil and a new transparent silica
nanolubricant. The nanoparticle solution performed compa-
rably to the base uid, and thus it can be concluded that
the nanoparticles explored did not signicantly improve the
performance of the lubricant. The silica particles may have
slightly altered the wear mechanism, but did not seem to have
a clear negative or positive effect. More research should be
conducted to explore the potential of transparent nanoparticle
additives.

Figure 5 | Wear width results.

REFERENCES
1. Ghaednia, H., R.L. Jackson, and J.M. Khodadadi, Experi-
mental analysis of stable CuO nanoparticle enhanced lubri-
cants. Journal of Experimental Nanoscience, 2015. 10(1):
p. 1-18.
2. Gu, C.-x., et al., Tribological effects of oxide based nanopar-
ticles in lubricating oils. Journal of Marine Science and Ap-
plication, 2009. 8(1): p. 71-76.
3. Wang, X.-B. and W.-M. Liu, Nanoparticle-Based Lubricant
Additives, in Encyclopedia of Tribology, Q.J. Wang and Y.-W.
Chung, Editors. 2013, Springer US. p. 2369-2376.
4. Deneen Nowak, J., et al., Fracturing a nanoparticle. Phili-
Figure 6 | Wear volume results. sophical Magazine, 2007. 87(1): p. 29-37.
5. Lockwood, A.J. and B.J. Inkson, In situ TEM nanoindenta-
tion and deformation of Si-nanoparticle clusters. Journal of
Physics D: Applied Physics, 2009. 42(3): p. 5.
6. Scherge, M., et al. Multi-Phase Friction and Wear Reduction
by Colloidal Copper Additive. in 20th International Colloqui-
um Tribology: Industrial and Automotive Lubrication. 2016.
Ostldern, Germany.
7. Gulzar, M., et al., Tribological performance of nanoparticles
as lubricating oil additives. Journal of Nanoparticle Re-
search, 2016. 18(8): p. 223.
8. Sasaki, A., et al., A Study of the Colors of Contamination in
Used Oils. Tribology Transactions, 2013. 57(1): p. 1-10.
Figure 7 | The average coefcient of friction.

34 APRIL 2017 T R I B O LO GY & LU B R I CAT I O N T EC H N O LO GY W W W. ST L E .O RG

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LUBRICATION FUNDAMENTALS
Dr. Robert M. Gresham / Contributing Editor
The tribology-energy
The U.S. Dept. of Energy issues a new report to answer the question,
Can Tribology Save a Quad?
IN PAST ISSUES OF TLT weve discussed
STLEs efforts in support of the mission
by the U.S. Department of Energys Ad-
vanced Research Projects Agency-Ener-
gy (ARPA-E) to overcome long-term
and high-risk technological barriers in
the development of energy technolo-
gies that ensure Americas energy secu-
rity and technological lead.
STLE hosted a workshop titled
Tribological Opportunities May 19-
20, 2016, following our 71st Annual
Meeting & Exhibition in Las Vegas.
The purpose of the workshop was to
explore opportunities in advanced
tribological science and engineering
36
for energy technologies across a wide
range of practical application sectors.
Attendees met during the two-day
period to discuss industry needs and
where new tribological science and
engineering principles might assist
in helping to accelerate technological
advances in how surfaces and lubri-
cants interact during relative motion
for energy savings. The workshop was
augmented by an online survey and
now a new report titled, Can Tribology
Save a Quad? which was distributed to
the broader tribology community and
in consultation with STLE and other
professional societies.
When the New York World newspaper offered $10,000 for the rst successful ight between
The report states that a total of 22-
plus quads of energy (out of approxi-
mately 100 quads usage in the U.S.)
could be saved annually through vari-
ous technologies enabled by targeted
research support in tribology. More
broadly, recommendations were made
to expand the topic of tribology to a
national call to action that will take
an entirely new approach to reducing
energy use and improving energy man-
agement or generation systems. The
report also identies energy-efciency
stretch goals to challenge the tribology
research community at large companies
and the extended industrial network.
 A new report from the U.S. Dept. of Energy examines how energy can be saved in such areas
as transportation, power generation and manufacturing.
connection
The long-term goal includes nding
solutions and measuring and charac-
terizing tools and new technologies
to change how we deploy advanced
energy technologies across all energy
sectors.
Topics covered in the report are:
Opportunities in the Transportation
Sector
Opportunities in the Power Genera-
tion Sector
Opportunities in the Industrial and
Manufacturing Sector
Other Opportunities: Nanotechnol-
ogy, Materials, Novel Approaches
Market and Policy Considerations
in Applying Tribology to Energy
Technologies
Workforce Development Needs
General Conclusions.
Albany and New York City, Curtiss won the prize money and nationwide recognition.
es due to frictionit takes energy
to cause wear or overcome friction.
Thus, we almost literally created
the eld of material science, at least
with regard to reducing wear rates.
In the metalworking sector, friction-
al losses are nearly three times that
of wear.
In the transportation sector, we
learned that the totality of the upper
cylinder region was the major culprit
in losses in wear, friction and heat.
Thus, we funded research in how to
measure the various processes having
to do with combustion, surface inter-
actions and lubricant interactions as
a combined system. While this work
continues, many advances already
have been incorporated into modern
engines, and the current study indi-
cates many more will be needed.
Can Stock Photo / CreativeNature
With these examples, I hope you
can see how such reports can have a
major impact on our future research
and development.
I hope this new study will have the
same impact on the future of our qual-
I found that the last similar report, ity of life. I heartily recommend you
A Review of Tribological Sinks in Six read through the report and make it
Major Industries, published by DOEs available to key people in your com-
Energy Conservation and Utilization pany. The report also provides guidance
Technologies Program (ECUT) in 1985, for academic researchers in obtaining
provided enormous insights for research funding for research. Finally, the report
managers and business-development provided justication for federal fund-
managers in guiding the direction for ing of various related projects. I am
growth of their companies. These re- certain the updated report will make
ports help provide a sound basis for similar contributions to our industry.
making proposals to upper management The government was scheduled to
for added personnel and training, R&D release the report around the time of
direction and funding, sales and market- this writing. We cant predict when the
ing development and capital investment. report will be issued, but as soon as it is
The focus of the 1985 report was STLE will post it at www.stle.org.
how to reduce wasted energy. It looked
at six major energy sinks. Examples of
the kind of conclusions and their re-
sults include: Bob Gresham is STLEs director
of professional development.
In the industrial sector we learned You can reach him at
that wear losses are double the loss- rgresham@stle.org.
37
WEBINARS
Debbie Sniderman / Contributing Editor

Lubricant
contamination
control
OVER TIME, ALL ASSETS REQUIRING LUBRICATION suffer a loss of
If you can identify usefulness. They break, become obsolete or, most often, stop
performing at their intended levels because of surface dete-
the source, you can rioration from corrosion or some type of physical wear. The
largest share of failures is from some type of contaminant that
create a strategy accelerates processes already going on.
That was the focus of a February 2016 Webinar by Evan
for dealing with it. Zabawski, CLS, the senior technical advisor at TestOil. See the
box for Evans full biography.
Contaminants have been called the single greatest cause of
lubricant malfunction and excessive wear of parts by the Mobil
Oil Co. They can have serious adverse effects on physical and
chemical properties of hydraulic and lubricant uids, includ-
ing accelerated oxidation of uid base stocks and premature
additive depletion due to additive precipitation or chemical
reaction involving additives.
The importance of removing particulate and water con-
tamination cannot be understated. Repeated studies and eld
experiences demonstrate that doing so can extend uid service
lives, with Pall Corp., a ltration company, realizing this by
KEY CONCEPTS
factors of four to six. Contamination may be our greatest foe.
What is clean enough? Lubricant But its the easiest to work against to prevent or at least reduce
its severity, says Zabawski.
and equipment cleanliness
cl l s
First, its important to understand where contaminants can
standards are poor.
come from so effective remediation plans can be put in place.
Particle size matters more than
STANDARDS FALL SHORT
quantity. Smaller
Sm ll r particles are
Every year failures occur because of contamination. This is not
killers.
e s. surprising given that new equipment cleanliness and industrial
uid cleanliness standards are inadequate, Zabawski says.
Can Stock Photo / nikkytok

Be aware
a a e of contaminants from all
The API Standard 614/ISO 10438-2 dictates the cleanliness
th eee source categories: self-
three sel - of new equipment during its commissioning phase but falls
generated, external and built-in. short in helping to dene what clean actually is. It prescribes

38 APRIL 2017 T R I B O LO GY & LU B R I CAT I O N T EC H N O LO GY W W W. ST L E .O RG

 MEET THE PRESENTER

This article is based on a Webinar originally presented by STLE Education on Feb. 17, 2016. It also was presented
at the 2011 STLE Condition Monitoring Course in Atlanta. Lubricant Contamination Control: Contaminant Sources
is available at www.stle.org: $39 to STLE members, $59 for all others.
Evan Zabawski, CLS, is the senior technical advisor at TestOil. He has extensive experience training trades-
men and professionals in a variety of elds, including lubrication fundamentals, contamination control, condi-
tion monitoring, RCM/FMEA and used oil analysis. A member of STLE for more than 18 years, Zabawski is editor
of TLT and served as the editor for the STLE Alberta Sections Basic Handbook of Lubrication, Third Edition, and
contributed as one of the editors for STLE/CRCs Handbook of Lubrication and Tribology, Volume II: Theory and
Design, Second Edition. He has written several technical publications and is a member of API and ASTM. You can
reach Zabawski at ezabawski@testoil.com.
Evan Zabawski

a one-hour oil ush at only design ow

rate but doesnt dene a temperature or Component Details Clearances
pressure or encourage using the maxi-
Servo 1 - 4 m
mum ow rate that the piping will al-
Valves Proportional 1 - 6 m
low according to the system design.
The standard species visual cleanli- Directional 2 - 8 m
ness inspections at 2-6 inspector-selected Piston to Bore 5 - 40 m
points using 100-mesh screens (approxi- Variable Volume Piston Pumps
Valve Plate to Cylinder Block 0.5 - 5 m
mately 159 microns) and says the system Tip to Case 0.5 - 1 m
shall be considered clean when foreign Vane Pumps
Sides to Case 5 - 13 m
matter such as rust, metal shavings and
sand are not visible to the eye and gritti- Tooth Tip to Case 0.5 - 5 m
Gear Pumps
ness is not detectable to the touch. Tooth to Side Plate 0.5 - 5 m
Touch is very subjective. When Ball Bearings Film Thickness 0.1 - 0.7 m
trying to feel for small particles, ofce Roller Bearings Film Thickness 0.1 - 1 m
workers may have a more sensitive
Journal Bearings Film Thickness 0.5 - 100 m
sense of touch compared to those han-
dling tools every day. Everyone would Seals Seal and Shaft 0.05 - 0.5 m
sense then differently, Zabawski says. Gears Mating Faces 0.1 - 0.1 m
Using touch detects only very large par- Ref. ASME (American Society of Mechanical Engineers) Wear Handbook

ticles, which are not as much a concern

as smaller ones.
Most lubricants have an OEM
guideline for how clean the fluid
should be. However, new oil is not l-
tered for any small micron particle rat-
ing from any supplier. It goes through
coarse lters at the blending and lling
stages, if at all, and possibly again when
going through bulk delivery. But new
oil sampling shows 8-16 times higher
particle counts than what OEMs rec-
ommend for in-service operating uids.
The ANSI/AGMA 9005-E02 speci-
cation for new oil cleanliness says
it would be clean enough for use if it
Figure 1 | Typical dynamic clearances. (Figure courtesy of the ASME Wear Handbook.)
is free of visible suspended or settled
contaminants at the time it is installed.
Using only the eyes to inspect a sample
pulled in a clear container held up to
the light looking for anything oating
or suspended is not enough.
WHAT IS CLEAN ENOUGH?
Humans can see particles sized as low
as 40 microns, but the most damag-
ing particles are clearance-sized, much
smaller than that. The contaminants
to be most cognizant of, to remove or
prevent from entering a system, are
those sized the same as typical dynamic
clearances (see Figure 1). In equipment
where lubrication is used, a signicant
portion of the ranges of typical dy-
namic clearances is in the size bracket
of 1-5 microns, meaning the smallest
particles are most important.
Switching from 40-micron particle
lters down to 10-, 5- or 1-micron l-
ters might extend the life of a bearing
by multiple lifetimes, but practicalities,
feasibility and the economics of the

W W W. ST L E .O RG T R I B O LO GY & LU B R I CAT I O N T EC H N O LO GY APRIL 2017 39

change need to be considered (see Fig-
ure 2). Economics play a bigger role in Effects of Particle Size
the decision-making process than any
other about what level and particle size
to lter or control. Space may be need- 14
13
ed for larger lter housings and slower
12

L50 Bearing Life in Millions of Revolutions

ow rates would be needed when they 11
are used. Is a facility willing to give up 10
9
real estate to install a ltration skid?
8
Would the reliability and increased up- 7
time be worth it? 6

Most people stop around the 5-10 5

4
micron range where it is still practical
3
and doesnt require a major housing 2
change, Zabawski says. At that level, 1

it is probable to expect a 2-3 times life 0

extension, and the economics may be
protable. But the critical particle size is
still the clearance size, likely less than 5
microns. For the biggest impact, efforts
below 5 microns should be considered.
SMALL PARTICLES, BIG FAILURES
With tight clearances, it doesnt take
many particles to cause damage. A sin-
gle clearance-sized particle entering a
valve body can cause it to stick and the
valve to not function. Static friction, or
slow valves, cant be overcome. Entire
assemblies with these problems need re-
moval, cleaning, safely freeing the spool
and ushing out before going back into
service. Scored or heavily damaged
valve bodies often need re-machining,
creating signicant maintenance situa-
tions, the need for more spare parts to
be kept on hand and down time and
costs for a shop to rebuild or send them
out for reconditioning.
Contamination-related failures
where hydraulic cylinders arent mov-
ing properly or valves dont actuate
properly take even more time to isolate,
repair, bring back online and complete
QC testing. Responses to these types
of failures are on the order of a day or
days compared to something like a burst
hose, which can be replaced in a matter
of hours. Economics dictate it is better
to prevent failures from contamination
as a way to avoid these costly scenarios.
THREE CONTAMINANT CATEGORIES
There are three broad categories of
lubricant contaminant sources. In
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42
Absolute Filter Size in Microns
Figure 2 | Switching from 40-micron particle lters to a lower size might extend the life of a
bearing. (Figure courtesy of Glntz W. (1993), Contamination in Lubrication Systems for Bearings in
Industrial Gear Boxes, SKF Ball Bearing Journal, no. 242, pp. 20-26.)
self-generated sources, particles occur lic wear that can cause particles, either
inside a system after it is in motion. from metal-to-metal contact or involv-
External sources draw particles into ing contact between metal and other
breathers and other open ports. Finally, particulates. In adhesive wear, the
there are built-in sources that exist in- high points or asperities of two metal
side a system from its beginning of life. surfaces come into contact with each
other under high pressure (see Figure
SELF-GENERATED SOURCES 3). The surfaces temporarily weld to-
Internal contaminants are generated gether but tear away from each other
from process-related conditions and because they are in motion. During
involve sources such as metallic wear, contact, before tearing apart, there are
seal abrasion, chemical corrosion and no contaminants, only rough surfaces
even improper mixtures of greases and touching each other. When the fused
oils used on or inside a system. metal between the two surfaces tears
There are four categories of metal- apart, it is torn off from one of the sur-
Adhesive wear effects
Metal to metal points of contact
Cold welding
Adhesion and shearing
Typical components subjected to adhesion
Hydraulic cylinders
Ball bearings
Journal bearings
Figure 3 | Adhesive wear. (Figure courtesy of Pall Corp.)

40 APRIL 2017 T R I B O LO GY & LU B R I CAT I O N T EC H N O LO GY W W W. ST L E .O RG

 Abrasive wear effects
Dimensional changes
Leakage
Lower efciency
Generated wear: more wear

Typical components subjected to abrasion

Hydraulic pumps (gear, vane, piston pumps)
Hydraulic cylinders (rod seals, piston seals and bearings)
Hydraulic motors
Journal bearings

Figure 4 | Abrasive wear. (Figure courtesy of Pall Corp.)

Fatigue wear effects

Leakage
Deterioration of the surface nish
Cracks

Typical components subjected to fatigue

Journal bearings
Hydrostatic bearings
Rolling element bearings

Figure 5 | Fatigue wear. (Figure courtesy of Pall Corp.)

Erosive wear effects

Slow response
Spool jamming/stiction
Surface erosion
Solenoid burnout

Typical components subjected to erosion

Servo valves
Proportional valves
Directional control valves

Figure 6 | Erosive wear. (Figure courtesy of Pall Corp.)

faces and becomes loose and lost in-
side the system. Adhesive wear causes
signicant material loss that can lead
to further wear.
In the abrasive wear mechanism,
metallic parts dont contact each other
directly, but wear occurs through shear
with particles of the right size (see Fig-
ure 4). Particles smaller than a systems
clearance pass through it without caus-
ing damage. Particles larger than the
clearance size wont enter the system.
But those that are at or near the clear-
ance size will enter the system and con-
tact both surfaces, scufng and dragging

W W W. ST L E .O RG T R I B O LO GY & LU B R I CAT I O N T EC H N O LO GY APRIL 2017 41

 The last type of metallic wear is tering a system is another self-gener-
erosive wear, similar to sandblasting, ated source of contamination. Water
where particles much smaller than that enters a lubricant by any means is
clearance-sized become important (see a contaminant. It can come from bulk
Figure 6 on Page 41). As uid ows uids that are added, from condensa-
through an asset, particles suspended tion or a leak in a cooler or other appli-
in it change direction rapidly and are cation. It oxidizes metal parts causing
squeezed into narrow orices where rust, and the small rust particles that
they impinge on metal surfaces. When ake or are rubbed off can be crushed
fast-moving particles harder than the into even smaller particles. Clearance-
metal hit the surface, they cause dam- sized particles can easily result from
age, eroding the surface away. Signi- oxidation elsewhere in the system.
cant erosive wear can cause systems to When oxidized gear teeth are
stop functioning, such as valves that seen, its not the teeth themselves that
no longer can stop ow. were worried about. Rust particles
Seal abrasion is another internal generated far away, even on the cas-
source of contamination (see Figure 7). ing, can enter the gear clearances and
Seals are designed to keep contami- cause damage, Zabawski says. The
nants out, and good seals stop con- water is not the primary concern, but
taminants from entering a system. But the effects that come about later from
sometimes seals allow contamination the many particles that are created in
into the system, pushing it against ro- the system.
tating shafts, scoring them and prevent- Residue from the oxidation process
ing the system from sealing properly. is another internal source of contami-
Figure 7 | Seal abrasion. Eventually, the contamination can en- nation (see Figure 8). As lubricants are
ter the lubrication, or the lubrication used, they degrade over time. This deg-
will escape, causing the system to no radation occurs faster at higher tem-
across surfaces, plowing up other bits of longer function, a loss of usefulness peratures. Degrading lubricants form
material from one or both surfaces and and more contaminants to be generated chemically insoluble materials that
creating even more contaminants. by other mechanisms. settle in cooler zones and in tight clear-
Metal fatigue also creates contami- Chemical corrosion from water en- ances. This settling cant be controlled,
nation. Fatigue occurs after cycles of
repeated stressing from being under
load (see Figure 5 on Page 41). A metal
surface exes when it experiences high
pressures when particles are pushed
into it. Repeated exing creates sub-
surface cracks that propagate to the
surface and cause loss of material there.
This material becomes an additional
contaminant that can lead to more fa-
tigue. In this mechanism, two metal
surfaces dont have to contact each oth-
er or even experience relative motion.
Being under the repeated loads from
particles is enough to cause fatigue
and more particles as particles push
into one or more metal surfaces, which
ex to accommodate the particle. As a
mechanism, fatigue can take thousands
or millions of cycles of repeated stress-
ing to occur and doesnt occur rapidly.
However, once spalls form and cracks
propagate to the surface, they acceler-
ate very quickly, causing concern. Figure 8 | Oxidation residue. (Figure courtesy of Honda.)

42 On at least two occasions, Curtiss offered to partner with the Wright Brothers, who were still using outdated engines on their aircraft. The notoriously
 Zabawski says. As long as water, tem-
perature and metals are in the system,
oxidation will be activated in the uid.
Contaminants act as catalysts that ac-
celerate oxidation, creating tar, lacquers
and varnishes that become sticky and
reduce clearances, increasing friction.
Mixing oils that arent compatible
with each other is another source of
internal contamination. When oils are
mixed that arent meant to be, they
form oil-insoluble substances. Even if
they are clean, incompatible oils create
other serious side effects like additive
dropout, negative synergies or gelling
uids depending on the base stocks
used. When this happens, theres not
only a loss of usefulness to the uid,
but the parts wont function the way
they are designed.
There are several reasons oils are
mixed when they shouldnt be. People
make up for shortcomings because of
lack of inventory or not having the
right oil in the quantity needed or
readily available by using whatever is
available. They also dont know that
mixing oils is a big concern. Sometimes
oil jugs are not labeled correctly, and
sometimes systems arent labeled with
specic needs. Encouraging accurate
labeling and good training practices
make it easier to be sure the right oil
gets to the right application.
EXTERNAL SOURCES
Contamination from sources outside the
process environment is often ignored.
Airborne contaminants (see Figure 9),
moisture and contamination caused by
adding oil are important to consider.
Taking a ash photograph in a dark area
of a plant will show contaminants in the
air that can only be seen with a camera
ash. They are common in any environ-
ment and they are damaging.
When proper exclusion hardware
isnt placed properlycaps arent
screwed in, collars are purposely
moved out of the way, lids dont close
or are propped open, baskets meant to
catch particles are missing or holes are
cut to enable some other type of moni-
toringmore contamination is allowed
into a system. In dirty environments
secretive brothers declined, thereby establishing their ercest rival. The brothers would le dozens of patent-infringement lawsuits against Curtiss.
Figure 9 | Airborne contaminants. (Figure courtesy of STLE Condition Monitoring Course during
the 2008 Annual Meeting.)
where oil vapors can settle on top of
tanks, airborne contaminants stick to
it and build up on surfaces and can fall
in open holes.
Many facilities use the correct ex-
clusion equipment but could prevent
allowing a lot of contamination from
entering their equipment by making
several simple xes. Barrel pumps on
oil drums should be sealed. If theyre
not, as the oil is pumped out, the air
Contamination may be
our greatest foe. But its
the easiest to work against
to prevent or at least
reduce its severity.
that enters the drum wont be ltered
and contamination will enter. In stor-
age rooms with new oil drums, 90-de-
gree elbows and caps could make a
signicant improvement on standard
gate valves. Or, rather than using gate
valves, which are slow acting, hard
to ush properly and pick up a lot of
contaminants, faster-acting valves like
quarter-turn ball valves could be used,
allowing the system to be ushed out
to make sure it is clean before lling
a pail. Think of these types of sources
when considering contaminants.
Skipping small steps can render
the proper equipment useless. When
breathers are installed on tank nipples
but tank lids arent sealed, or the tanks
are missing gaskets so there is no seal-
ing effect, the breathers are not effec-
tive. Tanks that have properly sealed
breathers but improperly sealed lids
are not effective at stopping contamina-
tion. When a tank breathes, the air will
go through the path of least resistance,
the improperly sealed lid. Take steps to
make sure the air moving in and out is
going through the breather.
It is common to see breathers on
many gearboxes shipped from an
OEM lled with brass wool, which
looks like coarse steel wool. Although
these devices are designed to exclude
particulates, they only block very large
particles and arent effective at protect-
ing against airborne particulates. They
should not be considered adequate for
particle exclusion.
Moisture is another source of exter-
nal contamination. Moisture contami-
nation compromises viscosities, reduces
the effectiveness of additives and pro-
motes the formation of acids. During
storage, it is specied that horizontal
drums have bungholes at the 3:00 and
43
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 9:00 positions to reduce the amount of
debris that can form and build up.
Other external sources of contami-
nation are from transfer containers
that are open or dirty. Pouring oil from
open containers where large particles
are visible will contaminate a system
with small particles that also are always
there. They wont be caught by lters.
Its not possible to leave the particles in
the bottom of the container and pour
only the clean oil. Containers should
be completely ushed and sealed be-
fore each use. Dont add contamination
even before the chance to use the uid.
BUILT-IN SOURCES
There are many built-in sources of
particulate contamination, including
residues from manufacturing processes,
residual casting (foundry) sand adher-
ing to machines that are built with cast
parts and even cleaning procedures.
Residues from welding or machining,
metals like turnings, lings or shav-
ings, bead blasting materials, lacquer
as best as possible. Which are gener-
Its not possible to leave
the particles in the bottom
of the container and pour
only the clean oil.
or paint particles are common sources.
Preservation materials that are
shipped with large assets to keep them
from corroding are other sources of con-
taminants. They need to be completely
ushed out before the assets are used.
Efforts to remove known contamina-
tions also can cause contamination it-
self. Cleaning agents can leave residues
that have detrimental effects. Rag bers
that are left behind when wiping down
surfaces also can create contaminants.
There are many sources of contami-
nation, and its important to understand
what the sources of contamination are
in your environment and address them
ated internally? Which are generated or
drawn in from the outside? And which
were there before we started?
As long as we can identify the
source of contamination, we can create
a strategy for dealing with it, Zabawski
says.
Debbie Sniderman is an engineer and CEO of VI
Ventures, LLC, an engineering consulting com-
pany. You can reach her at info@vivllc.com.
FOR MORE INFORMATION:
ANSI/AGMA Industrial Gear Lubrica-
tion Standard 9005-E02: www.agma.org/
standards/store/
API Standard 614/ISO 10438-2
Standard: Petroleum, petrochemical
and natural gas industries Lubrica-
tion, shaft-sealing and control-oil sys-
tems and auxiliaries Part 2: Special-
purpose oil systems: www.iso.org/obp/
ui/#iso:std:iso:10438:-2:ed-2:v1:en
TestOil: http://testoil.com

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W W W. ST L E .O RG T R I B O LO GY & LU B R I CAT I O N T EC H N O LO GY APRIL 2017 45

FEATURE ARTICLE
The Editors of TLT

10
particle
analysis
tests
Whatever the test and
test frequency, the
goal for end-users
is cost-effective
machine reliability
at the lowest cost.

KEY CONCEPTS
KEY

While
h lee particle
partic
t le analysis
an ly is tests
t ts have
h ve changed
chan d little
l ttl over the years,
ye s, end-users
eendd user
users are becoming more
mooree aware of their
the r signicant
th signica t
benets.
Tests range from
from basic article
t cle count too leading-edge
l d d SEM-EDX, which can measure
measure
easu e and report
re rtt the size, shape,
h q
quantity andd
composition off particulate.
In isolation, each test iss usually not enough to provide a complete picture of what is happening inside the machinery.

46 APRIL 2017 T R I B O LO GY & LU B R I CAT I O N T EC H N O LO GY W W W. ST L E .O RG

LUBRICANTS CONTAIN
CONTAMINANTS.
Even new lubricants contain micron-sized particles deposited
during a less-than-pristine manufacturing process. Contaminants
can enter the system through a number of processes, including
normal wear, repairs and maintenance.

In 1909 Curtiss established the rst ying school in the U.S. 47

 Most particle analysis tests only
look at one or two aspects such as
composition, size, color, concentra-
tion, etc. In isolation, each test is usu-
ally not enough to provide a complete
picture of what is happening inside the
machinery. Because of this, laboratories
usually recommend performing more
than one test.
There are a number of particle anal-
ysis tests available, ranging from the
simple and relatively inexpensive to
the sophisticated and costly. Each test
has advantages in specic applications
and limitations in others.
Ken Derra, R&D engineer for Briggs
& Stratton Corp. in Milwaukee, Wis.,
and a consumer of these tests, explains,
We have used particle analysis for our
assembly line oil reclamation process
to periodically monitor system perfor-
mance and in-product development as
needed to help understand the nature
of wear debris and overall oil cleanli-
ness (see Equipment Selection Criteria).
Whatever the test and test frequen-
cy, the goal for end-users is the high-
est level of machine reliability at the
lowest cost.
10 TESTS
There are 10 particle analysis tests rang-
ing from the basic, time-tested particle
count to the leading-edge SEM-EDX,
which can measure and report the size,
shape, quantity and composition of
particulate. Throughout the spectrum
are excellent tests, some with specic
applications that stand alone or work
in tandem with other tests to accurately
determine the health of machinery at a
single point or across a period of time.
Heres a look at the particle analyses
Top Ten.
1. ELEMENTAL SPECTROSCOPY
Elemental spectroscopy, which mea-
sures the elemental concentration of
wear metals, contaminant metals and
additive metals in a lubricant, is prob-
ably the most fundamental test in the
oil analysis repertoire. The test ionizes
a measured and diluted sample; the light
emitted during ionization is measured at
calibrated wavelengths, with the inten-
48
EQUIPMENT SELECTION CRITERIA
According to TestOil, an oil analysis company in Strongsville, Ohio, an effective oil
analysis program should focus a rigorous test slate and frequency on select pieces of
equipment, rather than a minimal test slate on all pieces of equipment.
Selection is based on several key criteria:
Criticality. Equipment whose inoperativeness has a signicant effect on the
overall operation must be sampled.
Safety. Equipment whose unscheduled shutdown or failure could result in injury
or death must be sampled.
Expense. Equipment with costly maintenance, parts, labor or downtime should be
sampled.
Reliability. Equipment with unpredictable life cycles or failure modes should be
sampled.
Environment. Equipment operating in an area with signicant ambient
contamination should be sampled.
Efciency. Equipment operating at less than optimal efciency may be sampled.
sity correlating to a concentration. As of a circle achieving the same area.
such, the test accurately measures 20-25 This is a relatively quick and easy
elemental concentrations for particles test to perform. However, the test can be
in the 0-5 micron range but does not skewed by water, entrained gas or even
provide information on particle shape soft contaminants, such as varnish, in
and size. Large particle (>10 microns) the uid unless the extra step of diluting
elemental analysis is possible but only the sample is taken.
with time-consuming and costly sam-
ple-preparation techniques.1 Because of 3. PORE BLOCKAGE PARTICLE
its ability to determine unusual wear, COUNTING
contaminants and additive elements, For this test, oil is passed through a
elemental spectroscopy is an invaluable screen of known mesh size (typically
tool. But with elemental spectroscopy 10 microns). As particles collect on the
in particular, it is important to trend se- screen, the amount of ow decreases.
quential samples over time. This decrease in ow is measured and
the instrument then calculates the dis-
2. OPTICAL PARTICLE COUNTING tribution in the other predetermined
With optical particle counting, a known size ranges by extrapolation.
volume of oil is injected through a sam- While not directly measuring par-
pling cell; on one side of the cell is a ticles in the uid, pore block particle
beam of laser light and on the other side counting can be performed for uids
is a detector. As particles pass through with known water or gas entrainment,
the cell, they block the beam and cast such as samples from compressors,
shadows on the detector. The drop in without a need for dilution.
light intensity received by the detector
is proportional to the size of particle 4. GRAVIMETRIC
blocking the light beam. Both the num- For this test a known volume of sam-
ber and size of particles are measured. ple is ltered and the collected solids
The particle size is estimated by spheri- are weighed to determine the particu-
cal equivalency, meaning the area of the late load in the uid. It is often used
shadow is converted into the diameter to determine lter effectiveness. To
Curtiss developed the rst simulated bombing runs from an aircraft in 1910. Later
 indicate the nature and distribution
of the particulate contamination, the
gravimetric method should be supple-
mented by occasional particle counts
of typical samples.
Gravimetric analysis in uids re-
quires less skill and equipment than
microscopic particle counting. Once
the specication has been established
by weight, the gravimetric method
provides a simple, inexpensive and
highly reproducible routine control
measure. This is a quick and inexpen-
sive analysis that requires basic lab
equipment, but it only provides par-
ticle load by weight.
5. FILTER PATCH TEST (FPT)/
OPTICAL MICROSCOPY
For this test membranes are prepared
similar to gravimetric but for the pur-
pose of microscopic inspection. The de-
bris is assessed and the particles graded.
Observations are usually accompanied
by a photo of the wear material on a test
report. This method provides a means
of accurate detection, counting, classi-
cation and measuring of ferrous and
non-ferrous particles quickly.
For the micro-patch technique, a
uid sample is mixed with solvent and
then vacuumed through a 0.8-micron
lter patch. If signicant wear is detect-
ed, it may require analysis by analytical
ferrography. FPT is most appropriate
for turbines, compressors, water glycols
and natural gas engines and is typically
used for ISO 16232/4406/4407 cleanli-
ness standards.
6. FERROUS INDEX/PQ
PQ (particle quantier) is a quick and
inexpensive test that is easily incorpo-
rated into routine trending analysis.
The PQ instrument is a magnetom-
eter that measures the mass of fer-
rous particles and displays this as a
PQ Index. Results are reported as a
relative number of ferrous materials
within a sample; the results can be
trended. This test does not differenti-
ate between large and small particles,
but it can be used to justify analytical
ferrography.
7. DR (DIRECT READ) FERROGRAPHY
During this test, the sample passes
through a tube over a magnet. Parti-
cles gather at two points (ve microns
and greater gather at the entry point;
smaller particles gather further down).
The amount of light cut off by parti-
cles is used to determine density large
(DL) and density small (DS) numbers.
DS and DL are used to calculate wear
particle count used for trending.
DR ferrography should be routine
for large gearboxes and other compo-
nents prone to wear that produces large
quantities of ferrous particles. The test
is limited to magnetic particles and
may not indicate problems with non-
ferrous components.
Because DR ferrography is relative-
ly inexpensive and quick, it is a good
screening tool for analytical ferrogra-
phy. It also is excellent for trending fer-
rous wear particles.2
8. ANALYTICAL FERROGRAPHY
Analytical ferrography is the most
powerful diagnostic tool in oil analysis
(see When is Analytical Ferrography Ap-
propriate?). It is the only test that can
justify shutting down a piece of equip-
ment. For this test, a dilution of sample
and solvent ows across a slide resting
on top of a magnet, causing the par-
ticles to line up. The slide is viewed un-
der a microscope where detected par-
ticle types are analyzed and the overall
condition is determined. This produces
a very detailed analysis of the particles
within a sample. However, it requires
highly trained technicians to analyze
and report results.

WHEN IS ANALYTICAL FERROGRAPHY APPROPRIATE?3

Because it is time consuming and relatively expensive, analytical ferrography is not

recommended for all samples. Other tools, such as DR ferrography and particle count,
are good screening tools to employ before running analytical ferrography. The following
will help determine when this technique is appropriate.
Equipment is exhibiting unusual characteristics such as overheating, high-vibration
readings, unusual sounds and high-pressure readings across a lter.
Equipment is extremely critical, which necessitates making a moderate
investment per sample to prevent unexpected equipment failures.
High-failure rates experienced on startup of new or repaired equipment caused by
material defects, design problems or improper assembly. Analytical ferrography,
along with routine oil analysis tests, should be run quickly after startup.
A new oil analysis program is established. Analytical ferrography should be run
on critical equipment to establish baseline data.
Routine oil analysis indicates an unusual condition that necessitates further
evaluation.

that year the rst rearm use from aircraft occurs in a plane piloted by Curtiss. 49

Trending analysis is credited with preventing catastrophic failure of, in many cases,
very costly machines.
A detailed microscopic examination
of a slide will determine:
Particle size and relative
concentration
Metallurgy, both ferrous and
non-ferrous
The wear mechanism indicating
root cause
The component that is the source
of wear
Identication of contaminants.4
Analytical ferrography is most use-
ful for trending samples and preven-
tive/predictive maintenance. Because of
the time and skill required to perform
the test, it is usually considered too ex-
pensive for routine oil analysis.
Bill Quesnel, president of Wear-
Check Canada Inc., explains, The
best application of particle analysis is
where customers are using analytical
ferrography on critical systems and are
using the wear particle information to
make informed maintenance decisions
such as when to take a machine out of
service for an inspection.
Melissa James, lead imaging techni-
cian for Engineered Lubricants Co. in
St. Louis, says that analytical ferrogra-
phy and SEM-EDX are excellent follow-
up tools.
Most often we use advanced par-
ticle analysis as part of our used oil
testing program, James explains. We
use faster and more affordable particle-
counting methods for trending contam-
ination levels over time. When results
from these show a potential issue, we
follow up with analytical ferrography
50 APRIL 2017
and/or SEM-EDX. These advanced
methods help us better predict failures
and in some cases prevent them. We
also use these advance methods for
root-cause analysis when questions or
problems do arise.
9. LASERNET FINES LASER
IMAGING PARTICLE ANALYSIS
Developed in 1998 by Lockheed Martin
with the Naval Research Laboratory for
military applications, LaserNet Fines
uses direct digital imaging. During
the test, a pulsed laser diode passes
through the sample with a camera re-
cording the images where the particles
are classied by shape and size. Test
results classify particles larger than 20
microns into cutting wear, severe slid-
ing wear, fatigue wear, non-metallic
material, bers and water droplets. The
analysis cost effectively combines fea-
tures of particle count with quantifying
wear particle classication.
Its main advantage over optical par-
ticle counters is the ability to run both
dark and water-contaminated samples.
It can be used as a precursor to analyti-
cal ferrography, which provides more
in-depth evaluation.
10. SEM-EDX5 ANALYSIS
For this, test samples are prepared on
a lter similar to optical analysis, but
SEM-EDX allows for magnication up
to 40,000 times, along with the elemen-
tal analysis of individual particles (see
SEM-EDX and Part Cleanliness Test-
ing). Once loaded, analyzers move the
electron beam across the eld through
T R I B O LO GY & LU B R I CAT I O N T EC H N O LO GY
a sequence of steps, searching for a
specic particle and then moving to
the next eld. When the contrast level
of the particle exceeds the predened
threshold background limit set for each
analysis, it detects a particle. The sys-
tem automatically generates reports of
the analyses and a database stores all
analysis results for trend monitoring.
This test provides high detail re-
garding morphology and elemental
SEM-EDX AND
PART CLEANLINESS TESTING
Melissa James, lead imaging techni-
cian for Engineered Lubricants Co. in
St. Louis, says she and her people are
increasingly using automatic optical
microscopy and SEM-EDX for parts
cleanliness testing, especially for ISO
16232. As this standard is more widely
implemented, more manufacturers are
required by their customers to imple-
ment parts-cleanliness programs.
James says that parts cleanliness is
driving the SEM-EDX market.
For example, one of our custom-
ers had a problem they believed was
caused by a grease product, she
explains. They used the grease to
pack bearings, purchased from a sup-
plier, before installing into their nal
product. These bearings were failing
quickly once in use and, when opened,
they found lots of debris.
They were concerned the grease
was not meeting the needs of this
application, James continues. We
asked for samples of bearings as
our customer received them. They
sent unopened examples from two
different suppliers. Both of these
were prepared as the lter above.
The bearing from one supplier had
signicantly heavier debris in size
classes that would certainly predict
failure. At that time, ISO 16232 and
the idea of standardized parts cleanli-
ness was still something new that our
customer hadnt considered for their
own business.
W W W. ST L E .O RG
Reflecting the
needs of tomorrow
s%--





ExxonMobil Basestocks

B
B
 information, but it requires special-
ized equipment and highly trained
technicians.
The biggest advantage SEM-EDX
has over analytical ferrography is
the ability to get complete elemen-
tal composition for each individual
particle, James explains. Every fer-
rography analyst at some point has
proclaimed, I wish I knew exactly
what this particle is made of. While
heat treatment of the slide and visual
inspection allows for some identica-
tion of composition, the ability to tell
with certainty that the abrasive wear
particles are nickel alloy steel versus
chromium alloy steel, or the crystals
are primarily calcium, can be incred-
ibly valuable. The fact that it does this
also while measuring each particle on
multiple axes giving detailed mor-
phology also is quite amazing. SEM-
EDX can accurately count and cat-
egorize all particles by customizable
size, class, shape or elemental com-
position, which makes it unmatched
for trending wear.
She continues, For some systems
analytical ferrography and SEM-EDX
will continue to only be done when
unusual results from other trending
methods trigger the need for further
investigation. But increasingly, for more
sensitive systems and those deemed
necessary, these will be the tools of
choice in predictive maintenance.
There are other particle analysis
tests, but these are the 10 most com-
mon (see Integrating Particle Analysis
with Other Condition Monitoring Tech-
niques). Considerations for choosing
the types and frequency of tests in-
INTEGRATING PARTICLE ANALYSIS WITH OTHER CONDITION MONITORING
TECHNIQUES6
For critical and expensive machinery, it makes sense to supplement particle analysis
with the following complementary condition monitoring technologies.
Vibration analysis. Particle analysis and vibration analysis complement
each other well. Vibration analysis monitors and controls balance, looseness
and alignment while particle analysis monitors and controls lubricant quality
and contamination.
Thermography. This detects issues that particle analysis cant, such as the
degree of deposit build-up in tanks and the condition of couplings, rollers and
high-speed bearings.
Ultrasound. This compliments vibration analysis well. Trending values will
point to potential bearing defects caused by contact conditions such as
rubbing and friction.
clude a number of factors such as the available. More likely, customers have
expected cost/benet, the value of the become more aware of the particle
machinery, the importance of the ma- analysis testing capabilities of commer-
chinery and OEM recommendations/ cial oil laboratories and are beginning
requirements. to take advantage of these useful tests.
While each test has value in isola- An improved direct imaging instrument
tion, establishing historical baselines could easily be a game changer for the
and running consistent testing proto- oil analysis industry, and many of us
cols will indicate changes in the status are waiting for this improved technol-
and rate of wear. This trending analysis ogy to arrive.
is a key component of predictive main- For end-users like Derra, the an-
tenancewhich is credited with pre- swers provided by particle analysis are
venting catastrophic failure of, in many leading to cleaner manufacturing uids
cases, very costly machines. and better products. Particle analysis
Quesnel says that while the tests has shown how relatively minor chang-
themselves have changed little over es to the system provided a large differ-
the years, end-users are becoming ence in cleanliness of the assembly line
more aware of the signicant benets. oils, he says. It also has guided the
A lot of the particle analysis methods system maintenance schedule needed
available today have been available for to maintain reasonable cleanliness. As
more than 10 years, he says. There a result, our product is much improved
has been little change to the methods and more consistent.

REFERENCES
1. While elemental analysis is generally limited to analysis of smaller micron sizes, X-ray analysis (XRF-ED) is not.
2. From Improving Predictive Maintenance Through Wear Debris Analysis. Available at www.maintenancetechnology.com/2006/11/improv-
ing-predictive-maintenance-through-wear-debris-analysis.
3. Ibid.
4. Ibid.
5. SEM: scanning electron microscope; EDX: energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy.
6. Van Rensselar, J. (2014), Leveraging the power of oil analysis, TLT, 70 (1), pp. 36-46.

52 In 1910 the rst radio communication from an aircraft occurs in a Curtiss biplane.
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PEER-REVIEWED
Friction-Enhancing Properties of ZDDP Antiwear
Additive: Part I-Friction and Morphology of
ZDDP Reaction Films
Manuscript presented May 20-24, 2002
Manuscript approved Mar. 19, 2003
Review led by Joseph Perez
STLE
Editors Note: My column
in last months issue of TLT
revealed the serendipitous
discovery of the antiwear
properties of ZDDP, and I
quoted extensively from
STLE-member Hugh Spikes
2004 Tribology Letters paper,
The History and Mechanisms
of ZDDP. What I did not
mention was the antiwear
mechanism itself was not fully
understood until decades
after its function was discov-
ered. This months Editors
Choice paper is the rst part
of a two-part paperwith
Spikes as a co-authorthat
details the friction-enhancing
mechanism of ZDDP. It dis-
cusses the variability of the
effectiveness of the additive,
depending on lubrication
regime and interaction with
other additives, to provide
an understanding of how this
additive fullls its role.
Evan Zabawski, CLS
Editor
54 Curtiss trained Blanche Stuart Scott, the rst American female pilot, in 1910.
L. J. TAYLOR and H. A. SPIKES (Member, STLE)
Imperial College
Department of Mechanical Engineering
London, SW7 2BX, United Kingdom
ABSTRACT
Many phosphorus-based antiwear lms, including those formed by zinc dialkyl dithio-
phosphates (ZDDP), cause a signicant increase in friction in thin lm, high-pressure,
lubricated contacts. This can have a deleterious effect on engine oil fuel efciency. Previous
work has shown that friction is increased not under boundary, but under mixed lubrica-
tion conditions and it has been suggested that this phenomenon results from an effective
roughening of the rubbing surfaces by the formation of unevenly-distributed reaction lms.
In the current paper it is shown that, when other additives commonly used in engine
oils are added to ZDDP solutions, quite smooth ZDDP reaction lms can result. Despite
this, the ZDDP still produces a marked increase in friction in mixed lubrication conditions,
which suggests that surface roughening is not the main origin of friction enhancement by
ZDDP reaction lms. In a companion paper, Part II, it is shown that ZDDP reaction lms,
whether rough or smooth, enhance friction by inhibiting the entrainment of liquid lubricant
into rubbing contacts, thereby reducing the elastohydrodynamic oil lm thickness (13).
KEY WORDS
Antiwear Additives; ZDDP; Friction; Surface Roughness; Boundary Lubrication; Elas-
tohydrodynamic Lubrication
INTRODUCTION
Zinc dialkyldithiophosphates (ZDDPs) have been widely used for many years as
additives in engine and transmission oils in order to provide both antioxidancy and
antiwear protection.
Although ZDDPs are highly effective antiwear additives, lubricant formulators
have long been aware that they can, in some applications, produce an increase in
friction. In engine oils this can be mitigated to some extent by judicious formulation
and, in any case, was not seen as a signicant problem until recently. In the last few
years, however, the design of energy-efcient lubricants to conserve fossil fuels and
reduce C02 production has become of paramount importance. Engine oils are now
required to demonstrate fuel efciency in standardized engine tests and considerable
attention is also being focused on the efciency of transmission oils. This makes it
important to fully understand the magnitude and origins of the friction debit result-
ing from the use of ZDDPs and to discover whether this can in any way be mitigated.
In recent work by the authors, it was shown that ZDDPs increase friction in mixed
lubrication rather than in boundary lubrication conditions (9), (10). It was also noted
that ZDDP reaction lms were relatively rough and it was hypothesized that this was the
origin of the observed friction reduction: i.e. as ZDDP lms ef-
fectively roughen the rubbing surfaces, a thicker hydrodynamic
lm is needed before full separation of the solid surfaces by a
uid lm, with consequent low friction, can be achieved (9).
The current paper presents new work suggesting that this
interpretation of the friction-increasing properties of ZDDP
additives is not fully correct. It is shown that even when
ZDDP forms quite smooth reaction lms, friction is still in-
creased in mixed lubrication conditions.
BACKGROUND
Although ZDDPs have been used and researched since the
1940s, only in the last decade has consensus been reached
on the origin of their antiwear capability. It is now known
that ZDDPs react in rubbing contacts to form quite thick (up
to 200 nm) coatings on steel surfaces (9). These reaction
lms have a complex structure, with a thin layer of zinc and
iron sulde-rich material next to the metal, on top of which
is a much thicker layer of amorphous metal (primarily Zn)
phosphate, (2), (16). The outermost few nanometers of the
phosphate layer consist of longer chain polyphosphates (6),
(17). ZDDP reaction lms are essentially solid-like rather than
viscous and the phosphate layers have an elastic modulus of
10 to 40 GPa (1), (15). Work using a rubbing nanoindentor
has also suggested that, within an oil environment, the solid
phosphate coating is overlaid with a thick, viscous lm con-
sisting of oil enriched with organophosphate (1).
The antiwear properties of ZDDP are believed to arise be-
cause ZDDPs form chemical reaction lms on each surface
that prevent direct contact of the rubbing metals, thereby
preventing adhesive wear. These reaction lms arc continu-
ally being reformed and lost by abrasion or fatigue. However
despite this, so long as sufcient lm is present, metal-metal
contact is minimal. Furthermore, because the ZDDP reaction
lms contain only very small proportions of iron, the attri-
tion of the rubbing bodies by loss of reaction lm (corrosive-
abrasive wear) is also small.
Although the nature of antiwear lms has been heavily
researched and is now well understood, the frictional prop-
erties of ZDDP have received far less attention until quite
recently. In a study of engine friction in 1996 it was noted
that two of the ASTM Sequence VI reference oils gave strik-
ingly higher friction coefcients than the other reference oils
and this was ascribed to the nature of the ZDDP antiwear
additivese employed (4). In the same year, the inuence of
entrainment speed on friction of solutions of ZDDPs in base
oil was studied in a ball-on-disc rolling/sliding test and three
secondary or mixed ZDDPs were found to produce higher
friction at intermediate speeds than a primary ZDDP solution
or the base oil alone (14). A number of explanations were
suggested for this behavior, including enhanced starvation
due to a ZDDP lm, the formation of a viscous surface coating
with high traction or roughening of the rubbed surfaces due
to the formation of an uneven, solid-like ZDDP reaction lm.
Further work showed that this friction-enhancing behavior of
W W W. ST L E .O RG T R I B O LO GY & LU B R I CAT I O N T EC H N O LO GY
Figure 1 | Friction coefcient vs. entrainment speed plot for com-
mercial ZDDP solutions, ZDDPl = C8 primary, ZDDP2 = C6-C6 second-
ary, ZDDP3 and ZDDP4 = primary + secondary mix, (14).
ZDDP could be mitigated by the addition of some polymeric
lubricant additives (8).
Figure 1 shows the characteristic friction behavior found
with some ZDDP solutions after rubbing, based on data taken
from (14). To produce this, a lubricated ball-on-disc contact
was rubbed in thin lm, sliding/rolling conditions at a xed
temperature, load and entrainment speed for ten minutes and
then friction coefcient was measured as a function of en-
trainment speed at 50% slide roll ratio.
Since uid lm thickness increases with entrainment speed
in EHD lubrication, the friction plots shown in Figure 1 are
Stribeck-type curves, with boundary lubrication (and corre-
spondingly high friction) at slow speeds and EHD lubrication
(and low friction) at high speeds. Between the two is a transi-
tion region of mixed lubrication where the developing EHD
lm gradually supports more and more of the load, thereby
progressively lowering the friction. It can be seen that the
primary ZDDP gives friction behavior after rubbing similar
to the base oil. However the three secondary or mixed ZDDPs
all show much larger friction at intermediate speeds, with the
level of friction coefcient found in boundary friction persist-
ing to higher speed. The practical effect of this on friction in
components such as cams and pistons in an engine is likely
to be considerable, since it means that these components will
spend a larger proportion of the engine cycle in the high fric-
tion regime.
Recently, an optical interferometric technique was devel-
oped by the authors which enables the thickness and mor-
phology of ZDDP lms formed in steel-on-steel rolling/slid-
ing contacts to be monitored over time while simultaneously
measuring their friction properties, (9). This has shown that
ZDDP reaction lms produced in the ball on disc test are, in-
deed, solid-like and also generally quite rough, forming lms
with root mean square roughness reaching 60 nm. A simple
quantitative analysis was developed to support the hypothesis
APRIL 2017 55
that this roughness produces the observed increase in friction
at intermediate entrainment speeds (9). Steel disc Steel ball
It should be noted that the increase in friction produced
by ZDDPs at intermediate speed, as indicated in Figure 1, is
not specic to this type of antiwear additive but has also been
Lubricant
found with some other phosphorus-containing anti-wear ad-
ditives although not all types (10). It is also interesting to note Heaters
that this friction enhancement is not always considered to be
undesirable. In continuously-variable transmissions (CVTs),
high friction is needed to transmit power and in belt-type
continuously-variable transmissions, the belt/pulley contact
To microscope
operates primarily in boundary and mixed lubrication. Kano,
et al., (7) have described the benecial effect of ZDDPs in
enhancing friction with belt-type CVT lubricants.
Long Glass window
The work described in the current paper continues previ-
working
ous research on the relationship between friction and lm- distance
forming properties of ZDDP by examining the inuence of lens
some other engine oil additives on ZDDP lm formation. This
produces the rather unexpected observation that ZDDP reac-
tion lms give high friction under intermediate speed condi-
tions even when they are quite smooth, indicating that this
friction increase does not originate from a surface roughening
effect as previously supposed.
Figure 2 | Schematic diagrams of the MTM rig and its optical interfer-
TEST MATERIALS ometry attachment.
One base uid was employed in this study, a group 1, solvent-
rened mineral base uid (0.4% wt. S), IS0 VG46, blended
from 65% wt. 150 solvent neutral and 35% wt. 600 solvent
neutral, with properties listed in Table 1. Four lubricant addi-
tives were used, all commercial products. The main one was a MTM MEASUREMENTS: EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUE
mixed secondary C3/C8 zinc dialkyldithiophosphate (ZDDP), MTM Test Rig and Test Method
while the three other additives were a low molecular weight, As used in previous work, a minitraction machine (MTM)
non-borated succinimide dispersant (DISP), a diethylenetri- was employed both to generate ZDDP reaction lms and
amine-di-nonylate sulfonate detergent (DET) and the organic to measure their frictional properties (11). A schematic
friction modier, glyceryl monooleate (GMO). diagram of this tribometer is shown in Figure 2. A ball is
Five test uids, as listed in Table 2, were prepared and loaded from above against the at surface of a disc and both
investigated in this study. ball and disc are independently-driven to allow any desired
combination of sliding/rolling. The ball shaft is angled so
as to minimize spin in the contact. A stiff load cell attached
Table 1 | Base Oil Properties
to the ball drive measures the sideways force and thus the
40C 100C friction. The disc is submerged in lubricant, whose tempera-
ture is controlled by feedback from a thermistor immersed
Viscosity cS 45.5 7.03
in the uid, to maintain a set value within 1C. The lubri-
Density kg/m3 861 826 cant chamber is lidded to help maintain temperature and to
Refractive index 1.477 1.474 minimize evaporation.
The whole test apparatus is computer-controlled so that
any required test routine can be programmed. In the cur-
Table 2 | Test Lubricants
rent work, after the rig was assembled, the temperature was
1 Base oil raised to the test value without applying load. Load was then
applied and a Stribeck friction curve was measured imme-
2 Base oil + 1% wt. ZDDP (0.082% wt. P in blend)
diately, as described below. Then the entrainment speed was
3 Base oil + 1% wt. ZDDP + 1% wt. DISP reduced to a low value so as to ensure mixed lubrication,
4 Base oil + 1% wt. ZDDP + 1% wt. DET and rubbing continued at 50% slide roll ratio for a selected
time interval, during which an antiwear additive lm was
5 Base oil + 1% wt. ZDDP + 0.67% wt. GMO
generated on the rubbed surface. At the end of this period,

56 Also in 1910, the rst successful takeoff from a U.S. Navy ship takes place using a
 motion was halted and an optical measurement of reaction
lm thickness taken from the ball wear track as described in
the section below. The optical system was then withdrawn,
a Stribeck friction curve measured and another period of
rubbing carried out. This procedure was repeated to obtain
friction curves and lm thickness measurements at succes-
sive intervals throughout a sliding/rolling test lasting several
hours. Periodically throughout a test, a Stribeck friction
curve, as shown in Figure l, was obtained. This consisted of
measuring friction coefcient at a xed 50% slide roll ratio
over a series of entrainment speeds between 3500 mm/s to
5mm/s, to determine how friction varied with entrainment
speed and thus with EHD lm thickness.
Reaction Film Thickness Mapping
To monitor the thickness of ZDDP reaction lm generated
during rubbing, an in-situ spacer layer imaging (SLIM) at-
tachment was employed (5), (11). This set-up is also shown
in Figure 2. A microscope tube with video camera is mount-
ed on a frame above the MTM. On the lower end of this
tube is a small glass disc coated with a semi-reective layer
and a silica space layer. When the ball is halted, this glass
disc is loaded against the wear track on the stationary ball.
This displaces any liquid lubricant from the ball so that
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Curtiss plane. Two months later a Curtiss plane makes the rst landing on a Navy ship.
the remaining separation between the glass disc and ball
results from the ZDDP reaction lm. Optical interferometry
is then used to map the thickness of this reaction lm at
the test temperature of 100C. The use of the silica spacer
layer means that thin reaction lm, in the range 5 to 200
nm thickness can be measured. The method is described in
more detail in (11).
MTM Test Conditions
A new steel ball and disc were used for each test. Both were
of AISI 52100 steel with hardness 750 VPN. The root mean
square roughness of the balls was approximately 8 nm and
that that of the discs was 15 nm. The applied load was 31 N,
corresponding to an initial mean Hertz pressure of 0.95 GPa.
The slide roll ratio employed was always 50%, where this is
dened as the ratio of the sliding speed (ball speed minus disc
speed) to the entrainment speed (the mean of the ball and
disc surface speeds). All tests were carried out at a controlled
bulk oil temperature of 100C. For the prolonged, rubbing
stages of each test, the entrainment speed was held xed at
0.1 m/s, which, from optical lm thickness measurements at
50% slide roll ratio with the base oil, gave an average central
EHD lm thickness of approximately 10 nm at 100C for the
solutions studied.
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57

MTM RESULTS
MTM Friction
Figures 3(a) to 3(e) show sets of Stribeck friction curves ob-
tained from each of the ve uids listed in Table 2. The friction
coefcient data were repeatable within 5%. Figure 3(a) shows
the base oil response. There is a small increase in friction after
between ve and twenty minutes rubbing, followed by no fur-
ther change. This was associated with grooving of the surface
58 In 1911 Curtiss develops the rst successful pontoon aircraft in the U.S., designs the rst dual-piloted aircraft and engineers the rst retractable landing gear.
Figure 3 | Serles of Strlbeck-type plots at 10OC,
50% SRR showing the variation of friction coefcient
with entrainment speed during prolonged rubbing.
(a) base mineral oil
(b) ZDDP solution
(c) ZDDP + DlSP
(d) ZDDP + DET
(e) ZDDP + GMO
probably due to wear (Figure 5(a)) and is believed to result
from the consequent surface roughening, although the forma-
tion of a thin reaction lm from the parafnic base oil cannot be
ruled out. Figure 3(b) shows friction behavior of ZDDP solution
similar to that reported previously (9). (12). As rubbing time
progresses, the boundary friction region appears to extend to
progressively higher and higher entrainment speeds, resulting
in a large increase in friction in the intermediate speed region.
 The addition of dispersant or detergent to ZDDP solu-
tion does not alleviate the ZDDP friction rise at intermediate
speed. Indeed, as can be seen in Figures 3(c) and 3(d), the
effect of both of these two additives is to increase the bound-
ary friction coefcient, while failing to prevent the extension
of the increased friction to intermediate speed conditions.
Figure 3(e) shows that the GMO additive postpones the in-
crease in friction due to ZDDP for about one hour, but that,
after three hours rubbing, friction increases to approach that
of the GMO-free ZDDP solution.
To condense the effect of additives on friction over the
whole entrainment speed range into one value, a parameter
known as the friction index, I, has been developed (8). This
is the ratio of the summed friction coefcient values over the
entrainment speed range for an additivated oil compared to
that of the same sum for the base oil at the same test tempera-
ture (and at zero rubbing time). Figure 4 | Friction index variation with rubbing time at 50% SRR,
100C for ve test uids. The lines between data points are intended
Ulow to serve only as a guide for the eye.
BLEND,T
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Uhigh
I = Such a measure is only meaningful if the same number
Ulow of friction measurements are taken at the same entrainment
BASE,T speeds for all the test uids. However the programmable na-
Y ture of the MTM tester meant that this was straightforward.
Uhigh

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W W W. ST L E .O RG T R I B O LO GY & LU B R I CAT I O N T EC H N O LO GY APRIL 2017 59


Figure 4 shows the variation of friction index with rubbing
time for the base oil and the four additivated oils at 100C. It
can be seen that the ZDDP and ZDDP+DlSP and ZDDP+DET
solutions all develop a similar, high friction within 30 minutes
of rubbing. The base oil shows a small increase after 20 min-
utes, but no further increase occurs. The ZDDP+GMO blend
remains at low friction, (lower than the initial base oil value of
unity), for about 90 minutes at which point the friction index
starts to rise towards the ZDDP solution value.
60 Starting in 1909, patent lawsuits the Wright Brothers led against Curtiss stie advances in aviation technology in the U.S. The situation would go on for years.
Figure 5 | Optical lm thickness maps within rubbed
contacts after three hours at 50% SRR, 100C. The
images span an area of approximately 75 m by 200
m, with the shorter distance being in the direction
of rolling/sliding.
(a) base mineral oil
(b) ZDDP solution
(c) ZDDP + DISP
(d) ZDDP + DET
(e) ZDDP + GMO
Reaction Film Thickness
Figures 5(a) to 5(e) show maps of reaction lm thickness ob-
tained by optical interferometry from within the wear tracks
on stationary steel balls after three hours rubbing for the ve
uids listed in Table 2. The images span an area of approxi-
mately 75 m by 200 m, with the shorter distance being in
the direction of rolling/sliding: (the total contact diameter
was 250 m). The image for the ZDDP solution is quite un-
even, indicating a reaction lm of irregular thickness, with
Figure 6 | Variation of mean reaction lm thickness with rubbing
time at 50% SRR, 100C for all ve test uids. The lines between
data points are intended to serve only as a guide for the eye.
grooving in the sliding direction. The dispersant and GMO-
containing solutions form much smoother lms, while that
of the detergent-containing uid is intermediate. The base oil
forms a thin, heavily ridged separation, which is probably due
to roughening of the ball due to wear and consequent lack
of conformity of the glass window with the wear track rather
than the development of a transparent reaction lm, (9).
Figure 6 shows how the mean reaction lm thickness
changes with rubbing time for the ve test uids. The ZDDP
solution forms the thickest lm (reaching 150 nm after about
one hour of rubbing at 100C). The effect of the three addi-
tives, DISP, DET and GMO is to reduce the mean steady-state
reaction lm thickness formed in the wear track and also to
result in this steady-state lm thickness being reached more
slowly. It was also noted that the extent of friction rise during
reaction lm formation tended to increase with the thickness
of reaction lm formed for all of the test uids (12).
The friction modier GMO had the greatest effect on re-
ducing reaction lm formation, as it did on postponing the in-
crease in friction by ZDDP in mixed lubrication (Figure 3(e)).
It should be noted that no attempt was made to monitor any
change or concentration of the additives during testing and
it is thus possible that some additive may have oxidised over
the test duration. Signicant evaporation is unlikely, since the
test chamber was quite small and enclosed, and the quite low
sliding speed used during prolonged rubbing, of 0.05 m/s,
meant that there was negligible ash or bulk temperature rise
above the test temperature of 100C.
Figure 7 shows how the root mean square (rms) values
of the thickness of the reaction lms (since the substrate is
smooth these are effectively their roughness) vary through-
out rubbing tests. It can be seen that with the ZDDP solu-
tion, an nns roughness of 60 nm is reached but that this is
W W W. ST L E .O RG T R I B O LO GY & LU B R I CAT I O N T EC H N O LO GY
Figure 7 | Variation of root mean square roughness of reaction lm
thickness with rubbing time at 50% SRR, 100C for all ve test uids.
The lines between data points are intended to serve only as a guide
for the eye.
reduced by the presence of each of the other three additives.
The detergent and GMO additives are especially effective at
promoting the formation of a smooth reaction lm. These
lms are still primarily ZDDP reaction lms, since no such
thick lms were formed by the ZDDP-free detergent, disper-
sant or GMO solutions.
DISCUSSION
This work has conrmed the very large friction-enhancing
effect of ZDDP in mixed lubrication conditions. It has also
demonstrated, in conrmation of previous work (1), (9), (12),
(14), that the reaction lms formed in rubbing contacts by
simple solutions of ZDDP in base oil are quite rough, reaching
a root mean square roughness of 60 nm.
The addition of three other engine oil additives to ZDDP
solution only very slightly mitigates the friction-enhancing
effect of ZDDP. However two of these additives, a dispersant
and a friction modier result in the ZDDP reaction lm be-
coming quite smooth. This suggests that, contrary to previous
interpretation that was based solely on simple ZDDP solu-
tions, friction enhancement is not generated solely or primar-
ily from a surface-roughening effect. Despite this, the shapes
of the friction-entrainment speed curves obtained with ZDDP
solutions still imply that the presence of the ZDDP reaction
lm has the effect of shifting the Stribeck curve to higher
speed; i.e. to maintain boundary lubrication conditions to
higher speed than is the case in the absence of ZDDP. If this
does not result from an increase in surface roughness, then it
may result from a decrease in the thickness of the EHD lm
entrained. In order to investigate this possibility it was neces-
sary to measure the EHD lm-forming properties of rubbed
surfaces coated with ZDDP reaction lms. This is described
in a companion paper, Part II (13).
APRIL 2017 61
CONCLUSIONS
The friction and reaction lm morphology of a zinc dialkyldi-
thiophosphate (ZDDP) anti-wear additive have been studied,
both in simple base oil solution and also as blends with a
dispersant, a detergent and a friction modier additive.
For all test solutions, a large increase in friction occurs in
the intermediate entrainment speed region as a ZDDP reac-
tion lm develops on the surfaces. This increase in friction
appears to result from the rubbing contact remaining in the
boundary and mixed lubrication up to higher speeds than
otherwise expected.
The addition of detergent or dispersant produces an in-
crease in boundary friction compared to the ZDDP alone.
The friction modier postpones the rise in friction due to the
ZDDP, but only for a rubbing time of up to one hour. Measure-
ments using out-of-contact, spacer layer interferometry show
that ZDDP forms a solid-like reaction lm typically 150 nm
REFERENCES
(1) Bec. S., Tonck, A,. George, J. -M., Coy, R. C., Bell. J. C. and
Roper, G. W. (1999). Relationship between Mechanical
Properties and Structures of Zinc Dithiophosphate Anti-
Wear Films, in Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond., A455, pp 4181-4203.
(2) Bell. J. C., Delargy. K. M. and Seeney, A. M. (1992). The
Removal of Substrate Material Through Thick Zinc Di-
thiophosphate Anti-Wear Films. in Proc. 18th Leeds/Lyon
Symp., Sept., 1991, Wear Particles, Dowson, et al., ed., Else-
vier, pp 387-396.
(3) Bell, J. C. and Delargy, K. M. (1993), The Composition and
Structure of Model Zinc Dialkyldithiophosphate Anti-Wear
Films. in Proc. 6th Int. Congress on Tribology, Eurotrib 93,
Budapest, Aug.-Sept., Kozma, M., ed., 2. pp 328-332.
(4) Bovington, C. and Spikes. H. A. (1996), Prediction of
the Inuence of Lubricant Formulation on Fuel Economy,
From Laboratory Bench Tests, in Proc. of the Int. Trib. Conf.,
Yokohama, October 1995, pp 817-822. JST. Tokyo.
(5) Cann, P. M., Hutchinson, J. and Spikes, H. A. (1996). The
Development of a Spacer Layer Imaging Method (SLIM) for
Mapping Elastohydrodynamic Contacts, Trib. Trans., 39,
pp 915-921.
(6) Fuller, M., Yin, Z., Kasrai, M., Bancroft, G. M., Yamaguchi,
E., Ryason, P. R., Willermet, P. A. and Tan, K. H. (1997).
Chemical Characterization of Tribochemical and Thermal
Films Generated from Neutral and Basic ZDDPs using X-
ray Absorption Spectroscopy, Trib. Int., 30, pp 305-315.
(7) Kano, M., Mabuchi, Y., Ishikawa, T., Sano, A. and Waki-
zono, T. (1999), The Effect of ZDDP in CVT Fluids on
Increasing the Traction Capacity of Belt-Type Continuously
Variable Transmissions. Lubr. Sci., 11, pp 365-377.
(8) Smeeth, M. (1998), The Behaviour of Viscosity Index Im-
provers in Lubricated Contacts, PhD Thesis, University of
London.
62 After spending years engaged in patent lawsuits against Curtiss, Wilbur Wright dies of
thick on one of the rubbed surfaces, with a presumably simi-
lar thickness on the other surface. The presence of the other
three additives reduces the antiwear reaction lm thickness
to approximately 100 nm.
Solutions of ZDDP alone in base oil produce quite a rough
reaction lm, but the addition of other additives, and in par-
ticular an organic friction modier, results in much smoother
lms. This implies, contrary to previous suggestions in the
literature, that the increase in friction in mixed lubrication
by ZDDPs does not result solely from an increase in surface
roughness. Other possible mechanisms for the noted inu-
ence of ZDDP on friction are studied in part II of this paper
(13).
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors wish to thank Ciba Speciality Chemicals for their
helpful advice and nancial support for this work.
(9) Taylor, L., Dratva, A. and Spikes, H. A. (2000). Friction
and Wear Behaviour of Zinc Dialkyldithiophosphate addi-
tive. Trib. Trans., 43, pp 469-479.
(10) Taylor. L. J., Camenzind, H. and Spikes, H. A. (2000).
Film-Forming Properties of Zinc-Based and Ashless Anti-
wear Additives. SAE Tech. Paper 2000-01-2030.
(11) Taylor, L . A., Glovnea. R., Ribeaud. M. and Spikes. H. A.
(2001). The Nature and Properties of Antiwear Additive
Films. in Proc. ITC Conference, Nogusuki, Oct. 2000, 2, pp
1257-1262, JST, Tokyo.
(12) Taylor, L. J., (2001), The Film-Forming and Wear Producing
Properties of Antiwear Additives, PhD Thesis, University of
London.
(13) Taylor. L. J. and Spikes, H. A. (2003), Friction-Enhancing
Properties of ZDDP Antiwear Additive: Part IIInuence
of ZDDP Reaction Films on EHD Lubrication, Trib. Trans.
(14) Tripaldi, G., Vettor, A. and Spikes, H. (1996), Friction Be-
haviour of ZDDP Films in the Mixed, Boundry/EHD Re-
gime, SAE Tech. Paper 962036.
(15) Warren, O. L., Graham, J. F., Norton, P. R., Houston, J. E.
and Michalske, T. A. (1998), Nanomechanical Propenies
of Films Derived from Zinc Dialkyldithiophosphate, Trib.
Lett., 4, pp 189-198.
(16) Willermet, P. A., Caner, R. O., III, Schmitz, P. J., Everson.
M., Scholl, D. J. and Weber, W. H. (1997), Formation,
Structure, and Properties of Lubricant-Derived Antiwear
Films, Lubr. Sci., 9, pp 325-348.
(17) Yin, Z., Kasrai, M., Fuller, M., Bancroft, G. M., Fyfe, K., Ya-
maguchi, E., Ryason, P. R., Willermet, P. A. and Tan, K. H.
(1997), Application of Soft X-ray Absorption Spectroscopy
in Chemical Characterization of Antiwear Films Generated
by ZDDP: Pan IThe Effect of Physical Parameters, Wear,
202, pp 172-191.
NEWSMAKERS
TOP STORIES
NATIONAL ACADEMY OF ENGINEERING
ELECTS SELDA GUNSEL
STLE Past President and Life Mem-
ber Selda Gunsel has been elected to
The National Academy of Engineering
(NAE), one of the highest honors that
can be bestowed upon an engineer.
Gunsel was chosen for her leadership
in developing and manufacturing ad-
vanced fuels and lubricants to meet
growing global energy demand while
reducing CO2 emissions.
Gunsel is vice president, technolo-
gy, for Shell. She received her bachelors
degree in chemi-
cal engineering in
1981, graduating
rst in her class
at Istanbul Tech-
nical University.
She then moved
to Pennsylvania
where she re-
ceived her mas-
ters and doctorate Selda Gunsel
degrees under the
supervision of tribologist and educa-
tor Dr. Elmer Klaus with Pennsylvania
State University.
She then began a 20-year career
with Pennzoil Products Co., rising to
the post of vice president of Technol-
ogy and Innovations. Since Shells ac-
quisition of Pennzoil, Gunsel has held
a series of increasingly senior positions.
She is now in Houston but previously
spent two years in Shanghai, China,
where she was responsible for setting
up Shells new Research and Develop-
ment Center.
Gunsel has received nine patents
and received nearly a dozen industry
citations and awards, including an
R&D 100 Innovation Award and STLEs
Capt. Alfred. E. Hunt Award for pub-
lishing excellence. In 2015 she received
the STLE International Award, the
highest honor the society can bestow.
Gunsel has published and presented
more than 50 technical papers and has
made signicant research contributions
in the areas of liquid crystal lubrica-
tion, boundary lm-forming polymer
typhoid fever in May 1912. Orville Wright forever blamed Curtiss for the death of his brother.
additives, refrigerant lubricants and
novel base uids.
Throughout her career she has sup-
ported STLE as a committee member,
Tribology Transactions associate editor
and as president in 2003-2004. She also
is an STLE Fellow.
The NAE elected 84 new members
and 22 foreign members, announced
NAE president C.D. Mote, Jr. This
brings NAEs total U.S. membership to
2,281 and the number of foreign mem-
bers to 249.
TIMKEN AWARDS 17 SCHOLARSHIPS
TO CHILDREN OF EMPLOYEES
North Canton, Ohio-based, The Timken
Co., a global leader in bearings and me-
chanical power transmission products,
awarded college scholarships to 17
sons and daughters of Timken associ-
ates in 11 locations around the world.
Valued at up to $540,000 over a
four-year period, these scholarships
are funded by The Timken Co. Chari-
table and Educational Fund, Inc. The
program has awarded more than $23
million in scholarships since its incep-
tion in 1958.
Chairman John M. Timken, Jr.,
hosted the recognition event for stu-
dents and their families at The Timken
Co. world headquarters in North Can-
ton, Ohio. Local scholarship nalists
ExxonMobil Singapore renery.
attended the event in person, while
other nalists and their parents joined
via global webcast.
Each of these students have dem-
onstrated their intellectual capability,
personal drive and commitment need-
ed to make a powerful, positive dif-
ference, says Timken. The Timken
Global Scholars program encourages
these young people to explore new op-
portunities and share their talents with
the world.
EXXONMOBIL SINGAPORE REFINERY
TO EXPAND GROUP II BASE STOCK
PRODUCTION
Irving, Texas-based, ExxonMobil an-
nounces the expansion of its Singapore
renery to support the production of
the companys EHC Group II base
stocks, which will strengthen the global
supply of these products and enhance
the Singapore facilitys competitiveness.
Construction is expected to begin dur-
ing the second quarter of 2017 with
completion anticipated in 2019.
In a press statement, the company
said: We continue to invest in our
Singapore facility to improve supply
to customers and the competitiveness
of our manufacturing assets, all with a
focus on long-term business growth in
Asia Pacic.
ExxonMobils EHC product line
63
has been designed to maximize the performance of all ma-
jor automotive engine oil grades and to enhance the perfor-
mance of nished lubricants used in multiple industries.
Our new investment in Group II base stocks will enable
our customers to blend lubricants that satisfy more strin-
gent specications, help reduce emissions and improve fuel
economy and low-temperature performance, says Ted Walko,
global basestock and specialties marketing manager. This
project, combined with the companys construction of a hy-
drocracker unit currently under way in Rotterdam, demon-
strates ExxonMobils commitment to delivering value to our
customers through industry-leading, globally consistent base
stock quality and supply reliability.
The expansion project represents the latest in a series of
recent ExxonMobil investments in base stock production,
including a previous expansion of capacity at the Singapore
renery in 2014, a recently commissioned project at the
Spectros FluidScan portable oil analyzer.
companys major integrated facility in Baytown, Texas, and
introduction of Group II base stocks into European markets
ahead of the anticipated completion of the new Rotterdam in our Singapore facility to improve supply to customers and
hydrocracker unit in 2018. the competitiveness of our manufacturing assets, all with a
Our latest investment afrms our condence in Singa- focus on long-term business growth in Asia Pacic.
pore, where we have a strong manufacturing base and operate
ExxonMobils largest integrated rening and petrochemical SPECTRO SCIENTIFIC WINS U.S. PATENT FOR
complex, says Gan Seow Kee, chairman and managing direc- WATER CONTAMINATION MEASUREMENT METHOD
tor of ExxonMobil Asia Pacic Pte Ltd. We continue to invest Chelmsford, Mass.-based, Spectro Scientic, one of the worlds
largest suppliers of oil, fuel and processed water analysis in-
strumentation and software, has been awarded a U.S. pat-
ent for a company-developed method to measure water con-
tamination in turbine and other industrial oils. The patent is
Method of measuring water contamination in turbine and
other industrial oils, patent No. US9500638.
The measurement method, in which a small sample of
industrial oil is homogenized and analyzed using infrared
spectroscopy, is employed using Spectros FluidScan portable
oil analyzer. The latest version of FluidScan software can de-
tect total water presence as low as 300 ppm in turbine oils.
The method provides an alternative to laboratory tests such
as Karl Fischer titration when fast, simple and reagent-free
analysis is needed.
In addition to measuring water contamination, the Fluid-
Scan analyzer provides immediate, reagentless measurement
of acid number (AN), base number (BN), oxidation, glycol
and other parameters. Its ip-top oil cell enables chemical-free
analysis and cleanup, using only one drop of oil. The analyzers
on-site analysis capability, speed and convenience eliminate the
Making Our Mark On The Specialty Hydrocarbon Market wait associated with outsourcing laboratory analyses.
Our mission is to provide innovative, unmatched customer service and be the best in
class operation, delivering quality products that meet your unique needs. Spectro senior applications chemist Dr. Randi Price is the
inventor of Method of measuring water contamination in tur-
bine and other industrial oils, patent no. US9500638. Spectro
president and CEO Brian Mitchell says, This patent award
1.800.437.3188 | 317.328.5660 | 011-317-328-5660 recognizes the efforts of Dr. Price and the Spectro product
www.calumetspecialty.com | customerservice@clmt.com | international@clmt.com
development team, and reinforces Spectros role as a world
TM

leader in uid analysis technology. It will benet our custom-

2016 Calumet Specialty Products Partners, L.P.
ers with faster and better on-site water in oil measurement.

64 When WW I erupts, Germanys aircraft proves far superior to the U.Ss., a direct result of the Wright-Curtiss patent lawsuits deterring new technology. In
 CLARIANT SIGNIFICANTLY
INCREASES OPERATING CASH FLOW
Charlotte, N.C.-based, Clariant, a world leader in specialty
chemicals, announces full year 2016 sales of CHF 5.847 bil-
lion compared to CHF 5.807 billion in 2015. This corresponds
to a 2% growth in local currency driven by higher volumes.
For the full year, local currency growth was strongest in
Asia and the Middle East and Africa at 4%. In Asia the strong
growth was mainly supported by China and India. In North
America and Europe sales growth was 2%. Latin America grew
at a level of 1%.
The improved sales performance for the full year resulted
from strong growth in care chemicals and plastics and coat-
ings. In care chemicals, sales in local currency increased by
5%. In plastics and coatings, sales in local currency progressed
by 4%. The good sales performance in plastics and coatings NORTH TEXAS STUDENT SECTION
was seen across all regions. HOLDS FIRST MEETING
Operating cash ow rose signicantly by 29% to CHF 646 With 25 attendees and 11 submitters, STLEs North
million compared to CHF 502 million in the previous year. This Texas Student Section held its rst meeting and poster
improvement is primarily attributable to higher prot, lower competition Feb. 7 at the University of North Texas.
cash out for exceptional items and lower income taxes paid. The STLE North Texas Chapter awarded $500 in prize
The continued improvement in performance that Clariant money to the top three poster submitters plus three
achieved, despite the difcult economic environment, allows honorable mentions. Plans are underway to fund two
the board of directors to propose a dividend of CHF 0.45 per scholarships to University of North Texas and Univer-
share to the Annual General Meeting. This sum reects an sity of Texas at Arlington students in the fall. For more
increase of 12.5% compared to the previous year. The distri- information on the newly formed section, contact Tom
bution is proposed to be made from the capital contribution Scharf at Thomas.scharf@unt.edu.
reserve, which is exempt from Swiss withholding tax.
Clariant considerably expanded its operating cash ow
in 2016 while reporting sales growth and protability im- economic environment.
provement, says CEO Hariolf Kottmann. Our good business PROMOTIONS & TRANSITIONS
performance was primarily achieved by means of a continued
shift to high margin specialties, the impact of the differenti- PILOT CHEMICAL NAMES NEW SALES MANAGER
ated steering in plastics and coatings as well as good cost Bert Gutierrez is Pilot Chemical Co.s (based in Cincinnati, Ohio)
management. For 2017 we are condent that we will achieve new general manager for Latin America, where he will oversee
our targets, i.e., growth in local currency, progression in op- the growth of products and technology in all Latin American
erating cash ow and absolute EBITDA and EBITDA margin territories. He will support various functions within sales,
before exceptional items in spite of a continued challenging business line management, technical and marketing. He re-

1916 the U.S. government intervenes, resolving the lawsuits between Curtiss and the Wright Brothers and unleashing the creativity of U.S. aviation engineers. 6 5

places Sarah Mes- from Stanford University and a masters
ter, who moved to of business administration from the Uni-
director of corpo- versity of Southern California.
rate development
in January. IN MEMORIAM
Gutierrez has
more than 30 GEORGE L. EGGER II
years of experi- Former STLE member George L. Egger II,
ence in chemical 62, of Washington, Ill., passed away on
distribution man- Bert Gutierrez Oct. 10, 2016, in Peoria, Ill.
agement and most Egger earned his bachelors degree
recently served as vice president of in chemistry from Bradley University in
with Ken Hope, Ph.D. sales for SolvChem, Inc. His extensive Peoria. He was employed at Caterpillar
chemical sales experience and knowl- for 30 years, retiring in 2010. During
Q:
automotive fuel efficiency, can
With all the talk about more
stringent regulations on
edge of such markets as disinfecting,
sanitizing and cleaning; oil and gas;
that time, he was a professional trou-
bleshooter dealing with lubrication and
metalworking and emulsion polym- remediation.
Chevron Phillips Chemicals Synfluid
erization markets will support Pilots Egger had a lifelong love of Mother
help me get an edge up?
efforts to expand key markets across Earth. He studied, practiced and taught
Yes our Synfluid PAOs can help!
A: Friction is a good measure for fuel
the globe. He received his bachelors
degree in communications from Texas
alchemy and was active in the Peoria
Academy of Sci-
efficiency. Lower friction means less work for the State University. ences Geology
cars moving parts. A Stribeck curve shows the Mester is Pilot Chemical Co.s di- Group. After retir-
traction coefficient as a function of relative speed rector of corporate development, ing from Caterpil-
between moving surfaces. where she will oversee future strate- lar, he pursued
gic acquisitions and partnerships. She writing, consulting
.09
joined Pilot Chemical in 2012 and was (industrial equip-
.08 5W-30 (Mineral)
appointed to the ment purchase,
.07 5W-30 (PAO)
leadership team waste disposal and
Traction Coefcient

.06
.05 in January as a recycling systems) George L. Egger II
.04 third-generation and teaching.
.03 member of the Egger was involved with the STLE
.02 Morrisroe family. Central Illinois Local Section. He re-
.01 She will report ceived the Wilbur Deutsch Memorial
0
1 10 100 1,000 10,000 directly to Mike Award at the 2011 STLE Annual Meet-
Log of Rolling Speed (mm/s)
Scott, president ing in Atlanta, which recognizes an
of Pilot Chemical. outstanding paper written on the prac-
As the graph shows, when comparing the PAO-based Sarah Mester
Prior to join- tical aspects of lubrication published by
5W-30 oil to a mineral oil-based 5W-30, PAO has
ing Pilot Chemi- the society during the prior year. The
an inherent energy advantage due to the friction
cal, Mester worked as a project engineer paper, published in Tribology Transac-
reduction.
for John A. Martin & Associates, Inc., tions, is titled Real-Time Testing of Bio-
in Los Angeles. She received her bach- burdens in Metalworking Fluids Using
Give us a call so we can talk more about how
elors degree in civil engineering from Adenosine Triphosphate as a Biomass
Synfluid PAOs can help you pull away from the
the University of Southern California, a Indicator. He also was a Certied Met-
pack by making a more energy efficient product.
masters degree in structural engineering alworking Fluids Specialist.

Want to be recognized in TLT?

TLT is interested in hearing from our readers. Let us know whats happening in your company.
If you have news about a new employee or if someone in your company has been recognized
www.synfluid.com synfluid@cpchem.com with an award or any other interesting items, let us know. Please send us your news releases
Toll Free: 800.231.3260 and photos for publication in Newsmakers to TLT Magazine, Attn: Rachel Fowler, 840 Busse
Highway, Park Ridge, IL 60068, rfowler@stle.org.
Product described herein is subject to disclaimers on products technical datasheet.

66 APRIL 2017 T R I B O LO GY & LU B R I CAT I O N T EC H N O LO GY W W W. ST L E .O RG

 YOURE INVITED!

Exhibitor
Appreciation Hour
Monday and Tuesday
May 22 & 23, 2017, 3-4 pm

Hyatt Regency Atlanta

Refreshments will be served!
The trade show is a major component of STLEs Annual Meeting. At this years show,
STLE will be making it even easier for you to t a visit to the exhibition into your
personal itinerary with two hours of dedicated exhibit timeno need to worry about
missing an education course or technical session!

Come view the newest products and services from the lubricant industrys leading
companies. More than 150 exhibitors are in Atlanta looking to do business with you.

As part of the Exhibitor Appreciation Hour, Evonik Oil Additives is holding a rafe on
Monday, May 22, at 3:30 pm in the exhibit hall. You must be present to win.

To reserve a spot at the 2018 STLE exhibition at the Minneapolis Convention Center in
Minneapolis, Minn., contact Tracy Nicholas VanEe at (630) 922-3459, tnicholas@stle.org.

2017 Exhibit Schedule

Monday: Noon-5 pm (dedicated hour 3-4 pm)
Tuesday: 9:30 am-Noon & 2-5:30 pm (closed for Presidents Luncheon - Noon-2 pm. Download the
Also, there will be a second dedicated hour 3-4 pm) 2017 STLE Annual Meeting App.
Wednesday: 9:30 am-Noon Sponsored by Sea-Land Chemical.

Society of Tribologists and Lubrication Engineers, 840 Busse Highway, Park Ridge, IL 60068, 847-825-5536, www.stle.org, info@stle.org.
SOUNDING BOARD

Please describe
a problem you
solved through
tribology testing
using bench top
rigs.

Bench tests for lubricants can be extremely helpful but only if you can properly replicate eld
conditions, which is far from an easy task. That was the consensus from TLT readers answering
this months questions, 90% of whom say bench testing saves them both time and money.
These tests afford an opportunity to test technology on a smaller, safer and more cost-
effective scale instead of running risky, potentially expensive eld tests that could result in
failure, reported one reader. But readers also warned of the great in the lab, failed in the
eld syndrome, noting the difculty in accurately duplicating such factors as load, speed,
materials, temperature, HZ and the human interaction that invariably accompanies real-life
work situations. Several readers say they successfully develop their own bench test
procedures. In the cases where we solved application issues with bench tests, it has never
been with standard tests, said one reader. Bottom line? The pros outweigh the cons, as one
reader noted.

We have looked at creep feed
grinding uids with some modied
Falex pin and vee testing. We also
have evaluated the best EP additives
through the same testing. Variations
of the step up and run up test were
used along with studying different
plateau regions and wear on the
pin. (Example: More wear with
better surface wear was actually
better in some cases, depending
on the metal removal operation.)
A student of mine modeled trans-
mission clutch material testing using
a pin-on-disc, making samples from
the pin side out of the clutch
material (running against a separator
disc made of steel).
In the cases where we solved
application issues with bench tests,
it has never been with standard tests.
Always with tests simulating the
application conditions.
Useful bench top tests are hot plate,
patch test and a microscope. Ive
found water ingress, fuel/glycol
and abnormal wear caught in lters
from them.
I wanted to solve the compressor
gelation problem. I checked
oxidation stability, but this property
is not a problem. The problem was
low-friction property. I now use
SRV to check friction property.

68 In 1917 the U.S. military commissions Curtiss to design and build innovative aircraft. Curtiss, who twice had
 A customer had an issue with the
rolls for their sheeting machines.
Their challenge was shortened
bearing life due to cement and
silica dust as well as caustic water
getting into the bearings. They had
been using lithium complex
thickened grease with no success,
as the thickener was breaking down
due to the caustic water and the
ingression of destructive particu-
lates. Due to the contamination
issues, they were over-greasing
daily to try and push out the
contamination. Our company ran a
rheology study that established that
the best thickener option would be
a polyurea-thickened grease.
Rheometric analysis enabled a
conclusion to be reached without
further costly eld tests.
In the process of redesigning a
pipe-threading product for environ-
mental reasons, we were stumped
going from bench test to actual
threading because the new products
looked great in the lab but failed in
the eld. After studying the nuances
in the test results of the product that
was working in the eld, we were
able to tweak the test conditions
to more accurately replicate the
eld and successfully redesigned
the product.
In the early and mid-90s wind
turbine gearboxes failed regularly
despite oil samples showing good
element levels. The FZG rig test on
used oil checks the load carrying
after several years. Oil samples show
elements but do not show clearly if
the additives are still functional. It
was a standard test. Based on the
results we tested the oils to FZG 14,
which was not at all standard at
that time. The FZG >14 is now a
standard requirement.
FZG test modied to test heavy high
base oil viscosity on open-gear
compounds/greases.
been nearly bankrupted by the Wright Brothers, amasses a net worth of $32 million, about $300 million today.
Does tribology testing using
bench top rigs save you time?
Yes
No
Based on responses sent to 13,000 TLT readers.
We frequently diagnose contamina-
tion problems using ASTM methods
on our bench top equipment. We
most commonly use results from our
FT-IR to determine the percentage of
water, fuel and coolant contamina-
tion in used oil.
We used a hard ball sliding against
a hard steel at bench test to try to
understand the difference in the
performance of two gear oils and
different surface roughness of the
steel. Load and speed were designed
to duplicate known conditions in the
hypoid gear set, which was wearing
prematurely with a new gear oil. DOE
helped sort out whether gear surface
roughness or the type of gear oil was
the most important cause of high
wear. The at steel surface was of the
same metallurgy as the gears and the
roughness chosen reected the
extremes of gear roughness. DOE did
help eliminate some potential causes
of the early wear out condition.
Many problems solved: relative wear
rates, comparative coefcient of
friction, lube studies, material
characterizations.
89%
11% In my experience, bench-scale and
standard testing is used for a variety
of purposesbasic research,
material development and specic
applications problem solving.
For the latter, after a detailed
tribosystem analysis, including the
type of wear/lubrication regime
common to the application, a test
method was selected or developed
to produce that type of wear or
friction. Reference samples of
current materials were tested in
the same way and compared to
candidate materials. Multiple
repetitions were used to establish
condence in results.
We were looking at developing
low-friction greases for CV joint
applications. We took a CV joint, cut
out tracks and mounted them on a
reciprocating friction and wear
tester, applied grease and ran a ball
bearing ball against the track. We
monitored the friction coefcient
throughout the test and wear on the
ball and track at the end of the test.
We then tested a series of greases
and used the data to develop a
low-friction grease additive system.
Can Stock Photo / Reeed
69
 Understanding of interactions and
change in coefcient of friction as
rotating parts interact with each
other over time under given condi-
tions. Testing was accomplished
using a milling machine with custom
furniture.
We solved a journal bearing reliabil-
ity problem with custom testing for
rotating loads in a refrigerant
atmosphere. The bench tester
allowed control of loads, speeds,
viscosities, bearing sizes and duty
cycles. Once fully developed, the
tester was able to duplicate multiple
failure mechanisms.
What are the pros and cons of tribology testing
using bench top rigs?
Pros outweigh the cons. These tests
afford an opportunity to test tech-
nology on a smaller, safer and more
cost-effective scale instead of having
to run risky, potentially expensive
eld tests that could result in failure.
Difcult to directly replicate eld
conditions, so you need to make
assumptions on what matters
which can be subjective!
Pro: the small scale makes it easy to
use in a laboratory setting. Con: it is
difcult to replicate real-life prob-
lems encountered by full-scale
equipment.
They can save money and time, but
its really hard to calculate load,
temperature and Hz (that can
simulate real compressor condition).
Im not sure that the condition I
calculated is really representative of
real condition. So I have to test using
real compressor.
70 In 1929 after a lifetime of court battles, the Wright Aeronautical Corp. and the Curtiss Aeroplane and Motor Co.
Developing low-friction engine oils
with a specically designed tester
that simulates the ring on liner
conditions. This was achieved by
taking the actual rings and liner
components and by replicating the
mid-stroke speed and high speed in
the tester.
Wear of valve train component. We
developed our own procedure.
Comparing and contrasting surface
coating treatments.
Rolling-elements bearing friction
test of lubrication regimes.
Advantages: quick and controlled
comparisons can be made, key
parameters can be isolated, and
some rigs can be adapted to suit a
wide variety of tribological condi-
tions. Some service cycles in the
eld can last >10 years. Accelerated
development tests are crucial.
Disadvantages: there is a trade-off
between tailored accuracy of test
parameters to the specic applica-
tion versus the benets of generic
comparison (e.g., 4-ball wear scar).
Most bench top rigs (by denition)
aim to remove the human inuence
from the system to improve accuracy
whereas the human/operational
inuences are often key parameters
in industrial environments.
Test rigs allow us to validate our seal
designs.
Availability of rigs either at commer-
cial labs, educational institutions or
elsewhere.
Wear/erosion of conduits by nano-
uid ow. New ad-hoc test rigs used.
First test rig was a multiple-nozzle
jet impingement set up; second one
was a ow-through system with a
pipe-chamber.
Designed a bespoke piece of test
equipment to accurately simulate a
very specic tribological problem.
This improved the correlation
between lab data and eld data.
Subsequently we used this test
method to produce signicantly
improved lubricants for this system.
Does tribology testing
u
using bench
b h top
t p rigs save
e
you money?
Ye
Yes 90%
90%
No 10%
10%
Based on responses sent to 13,000 TLT readers.
Pros: standardized equipment, small
sample size for larger series. Results
that are comparable but with
different studies. Also useful for
standards and norms. Con: nding
a rig yielding results bearing a
meaningful connection to real-life
systems. In other words, a
representative model.
Pros: full control of test variables,
easy measurement of wear from
simple specimens. Cons: results
might not be extrapolated to
actual systems.
 Pro: they save time and resources.
Con: not enough people realize how
benecial they are.
It cannot completely duplicate the
actual environment in a working
mechanical assembly. It does offer a
look at specic variables, which
may contribute to component
wear and life.
The pros are knownfast, small
volume of sample needed, exibility
of hardware to screen uids and
materials. Cons are applicability to
transmission and axle level tests and
to ASTM tests.
It is difcult to trend data using
those methods. Lab-in-a-box
methods dont work very well.
Tribology testers need to operate
with correlation to the actual system
in the contact geometry, type of
motion and materials and typical
conditions for speed, loads, etc.
Pros: faster and cheaper testing than
eld testing. Cons: the further the
conditions are removed from the
actual operating parameters, the less
meaningful are the results up to the
point to get a lot of data that has no
real use.

If the bench top rig is replicating

eld conditions, you can go into the

You use it. eld with much more condence

and success. The problem is that if
you are not replicating the condi-
Calcium, Barium Sodium Sulfonates tions in the eld well, you could be
Neutral, Overbased, Natural, Synthetic surprised by a pretty bad eld test.

Oxidized Waxes and Petrolatums To properly mimic your real-world

contact you have to use the same
Various acid values, esters and soaps
materials, contact loads and
stresses, geometries and surface
Rust Preventive Packages
nish. Speeds and temperatures
Calcium or barium sulfonate-based
have to be similar to the applica-
Water displacing and water-emulsiable tion but can be adjusted within
known parameters to accelerate the
Emulsier Packages testing, provided this does not
Soluble and semi-synthetic bases change the failure mechanism. If
For naphthenic and parafnic base oils you do not take care to mimic the
real world properly, the results are
Metalworking Processing Additives often meaningless. Most standard
Corrosion Inhibitors, amides, lubricity additives rigs currently bear no relation to
reality (4-ball test, for example),
and this needs to be recognized
Gelled Calcium Sulfonates
when doing screening.
Oil, solvent and water soluble
It does not simulate the real-life
We manufacture it. application.

Although bench testers take time to

develop, they allow better control of
test conditions. They also allow for
larger sample sizes.

Pros: they allow you to test specic

interactions in conditions as close to
ISO 9001-2008 in situ as possible. Cons: unless great
care is taken in setting up the
4302 James P. Cole Boulevard, Flint MI 48505 (810) 789-8330 testing, variability will invariably be
customerservice@Lockhartchem.com www.Lockhartchem.com introduced.

merge to become the second-largest rm in the U.S. The Curtiss-Wright Co. is still in business today. 71
 This is the subject of a book, but
here it is briey. Pros: variables
more controllable, usually lower
cost, repeatability obtained with
multiple runs, small sample size,
standards available for specic
modes that do not occur in the
eld, simple tests like the pin on
disk fail to provide a good simula-
tion of the problem and give
misleading rankings. Test selection
requires careful comparison with

Can Stock Photo / kchungtw

cases. Cons: may not simulate all applications, unless the purpose is
key variables of an application, simply a generic comparison under
accelerated tests may result in wear controlled conditions.

Pro: quick and easy. Con: doesnt

replicate eld component tribology.

Field (application) testing is expen-

sive and can, in a real production
environment, be very disruptive.

Tribology and surface engineering is

such a complex matter that bench
test rigs can give detailed and
accurate information surrounding a
phenomenon.

Are you ready to These rigs can be used as a quick

replace chlorowax? screening tool to down select

material selection or drive research
down a particular path.

ALLL THE Pro: repeated conditions of tests,

PERFORMANCE programmable. Con: expensive, time

consuming, sometimes lack of

NONE OF THE proper connection to very complex

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real conditions.
Real-world applicability.
Editors Note: Sounding Board is based
on an email survey of 13,000 TLT readers.
Views expressed are those of the re-
spondents and do not reect the opin-
ions of the Society of Tribologists and
Lubrication Engineers. STLE does not
vouch for the technical accuracy of
opinions expressed in Sounding Board,
nor does inclusion of a comment repre-
sent an endorsement of the technology
by STLE.

72 On July 23, 1930, Curtiss dies in Buffalo, N.Y., following an appendectomy. He was 52.
 TLT ADVERTISERS INDEX
APRIL 2017 VOL. 73, NO. 4
Reach
a technical Company
Acme-Hardesty Co.
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audience Bruker Nano Surfaces Business 21

Calumet Specialty Products Partners, L.P. 64

Cannon Instrument Co. 45

Chemtura 9

Chevron Oronite Co., LLC 19

Chevron Phillips Chemical 66

Evonik Oil Additives 7

ExxonMobil Basestocks 51

ExxonMobil Chemical Co. 5

Fluid Line Products 65

Huntsman Petrochemical Corp. OBC

J.A.M. Distributing Co. 59

King Industries, Inc. 29

Higher education? TLT readers LEXOLUBE Div. Zschimmer & Schwarz 18

are light years ahead: Lockhart Chemical 71

Napoleon Engineering Services (NES) 76

85% are college graduates.
NLGI 73
20% hold doctorates,
Pelichem Associates 79
primarily in engineering or
PolyOne Corp. IFC
chemistry.
Savant, Inc. 44
24% have masters degrees.
Shanghai Starry Chemical Co. 3
41% hold bachelors degrees. Soltex, Inc. 57

STLE 2017 Annual Meeting Exhibitor Appreciation Hour 67

For information on how to customize
a multimedia marketing program that STLE 2017 Annual Meeting Mobile App 53
ts your budget, contact:
STLE Learning Pathways 75
National Sales Manager
The Elco Corp. 72
Tracy Nicholas VanEe
(630) 922-3459 UL Prospector IBC
tnicholas@stle.org
Vanderbilt Chemicals, LLC 35

74 In 1933 Congress posthumously awarded Curtiss the Distinguished Flying Cross.

 Education
inDIVIDUALIZED
APPROACH
TO
PROFESSIONAL
DEVELOPMENT
ABOUT THE LEARNING PATHWAYS
STLE has a well-known tradition of providing continuing education to industry
professionals ready to take their career to the next level and create value to their
employers, customers & peers. Now weve expanded our online offerings with the
launch of STLEs Learning Pathways - a reorganization of all STLE content that
is more focused, easier to search & accessible in a variety of formats that is right
for you. This content is organized to allow individuals to continue developing skills
in two major vocational segments: Lubrication Specialists & Oil Analyst.

STLE is a trusted provider of education and a workforce development partner,

and the Learning Pathways is just one more valuable information-sharing service
STLE offers to benefit industry professionals in their career development.

More products & services to come from STLE Education. Please visit www.stle.org.

ARTICLES WEBINARS

SHORT COURSES BOOK CHAPTERS

Society of Tribologists and Lubrication Engineers - 840 Busse Highway, Park Ridge, IL 60068 - www.stle.org
RESOURCES
TECHNICAL BOOKS
ADVANCED ELECTRODE MATERIALS
Editors: Ashutosh Tiwari, Filiz
Kuralay and Lokman Uzun
Publisher: Wiley
This book covers the recent advances
in electrode materials and their nov-
el applications at the cross section of
advanced materials. The book is divided into two sec-
tions: (1.) State-of-the-Art Electrode Materials and (2.)
Engineering Of Applied Electrode Materials. The chap-
ters deal with electrocatalysis for energy conversion in
view of bionanotechnology; surfactant-free materials
and polyoxometalates through the concepts of biosen-
sors to renewable energy applications; mesoporous car-
bon, diamond, conducting polymers; and tungsten ox-
ide/conducting polymer-based electrodes and hybrid
systems. Numerous approaches are reviewed for lithium
batteries, fuel cells and the design and construction of
anode for microbial fuel cells including phosphate poly-
anion electrodes, electrocatalytic materials, fuel cell
reactions, conducting polymer-based hybrid nanocom-
posites and advanced nanomaterials. Available at
www.wiley.com. List Price: $225.00 (USD), hardcover.
76 Curtiss was posthumously elected into the National Aviation Hall of Fame, the Motorsports
MODELING OF MAGNETIC PARTICLE
SUSPENSIONS FOR SIMULATIONS
Author: Akira Satoh
Publisher: CRC Press
The main objective of this book is to highlight
the modeling of magnetic particles with different
shapes and magnetic properties and to provide
information on the theoretical aspects and actual techniques for the
treatment of magnetic particles in particle-based simulations. In
simulation, we focus on the Monte Carlo, molecular dynamics,
Brownian dynamics, lattice Boltzmann and stochastic rotation dy-
namics (multi-particle collision dynamics) methods. The latter two
simulation methods can simulate both the particle motion and the
ambient ow eld simultaneously. In general, specialized knowledge
can only be obtained in an effective manner under the supervision
of an expert. This book is written to play such a role for readers who
wish to develop the skill of modeling magnetic particles and de-
velop a computer simulation program using their own ability. This
book is therefore a self-learning book for graduate students and
young researchers. Armed with this knowledge, readers are expect-
ed to be able to sufciently enhance their skill for tackling any
challenging problems they may encounter in the future. Available
at www.crcpress.com. List Price: $159.95 (USD), hardcover.
 STLE LOCAL SECTION MEETING CALENDAR Events listed here are local section programs. For further details and a full listing of other upcoming
section events in your area, visit www.stle.org. Meeting announcements can be sent to TLT Magazine, Attn: Rachel Fowler, rfowler@stle.org.
APRIL 2017
STLE Northern California Section Education Seminar: Lubrica-
tion Fundamentals and Fluid Management, Apr. 5, 8 a.m. to 5
p.m. Red Lion Hotel Oakland International Airport, 150
Hegenberger Rd., Oakland, Calif. Contact: Paula Vettel at
(510) 597-5512 or email stle.norcal@gmail.com.
STLE Joint Canton and Cleveland Section: Topic TBD (Speaker:
Dr. Ali Erdemir, STLE President), Apr. 18, 5:30 p.m. (registra-
tion and networking), 6 p.m. (dinner), 6:45 p.m. (speak-
er presentation), Courtyard Canton, 4375 Metro Cir. NW,
North Canton, Ohio. Contact: Young Sup Kang, young.
kang@timken.com.
STLE Pittsburgh Section: Compressor Lubricants (Speaker:
Steele Glenn, Summit Industrial Products), Apr. 18, 5:30
p.m. (networking), 6:30 p.m. (dinner), 7 p.m. (speaker
presentation), Atrias Restaurant, 1374 Freeport Rd.,
Pittsburgh, Pa. Contact: Joe Cepec, jcepec@oils.com.
STLE Hamilton Section: Awards and Appreciation - Bursaries,
Past Chair, Sponsors New Executive Announcement, Apr. 18,
5:15 p.m. (happy hour), 6:15 p.m. (dinner), 7:15 p.m.
(presentation), The Scottish Rite Club of Hamilton,
4 Queen St. South, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada. Contact:
Chris Webb, cwebb@hydrafab.com.
STLE Chicago Section: Tour, Apr. 20. More information to
come.
Upcoming STLE Webinar Program Schedule
April 12 (Noon-1 p.m. Central Time)
Establishing a Lubrication Program
Presenter: Michael Holloway (ALS Tribology)
April 19 (Noon-1 p.m. Central Time)
Tribology for Chemists (title tentative)
Presenter: Mark Devlin (Afton Chemical Corp.)
May 3 (Noon-1 p.m. Central Time)
Particle Analysis of Used Oil (title tentative)
Presenter: Bridget Dubbert (Engineered Lubricants Co.)
Pricing
$39 (STLE members), $59 (non-members)
Register at www.stle.org.
Hall of Fame of America, the Motorcycle Hall of Fame and the National Inventors Hall of Fame.
STLE Louisiana Section: Topic and Speaker TBD, Apr. 20.
More information to come.
STLE Virginia Section: Topic and Speaker TBD, Apr. 20. More
information to come.
STLE Philadelphia Section: Education Course Honoring George
Arbocus, Apr. 20, 12 to 4 p.m. More information to come.
STLE Detroit Section Brunch: Engine Friction and Wear Investiga-
tions with Bench Tests; Eaton Supercharger Lubrication Consid-
erations and Challenges; and DLC Coatings - Unique Properties
and Multiple Applications (Speakers: Rob Zdrodowski, Ph.D., Ford
Motor Co.; Jason Brady, Eaton Corp.; and Ton Hurkmans, Ph.D.,
IHI Ionbond Inc.), Apr. 26, 7:30 a.m. (registration and con-
tinental breakfast), 8 a.m. (speaker presentations), 11:30
a.m. (brunch), Eaton Corp., 26201 Northwestern Hwy,
Southeld, Mich. Contact: Beth Zou, qzou@oakland.edu.
MAY 2017
STLE Houston Section Lunch Seminar: Topic and Speaker TBD,
May 12, 11 a.m. to 1 p.m., Bradys Landing Restaurant,
8505 Cypress St., Houston, Texas. For more information,
visit www.stlehouston.com/2HoustonSTLE/index.shtml.
STLE Hamilton Section Golf Social, May 26, Burlington
Springs Golf Club, 5235 Cedar Springs Rd., Burlington,
Ontario, Canada. More information to come. Contact:
Mike Deckert or Greg Pottruff, (905) 671-2355.
UEIL ANNUAL CONGRESS
This years Annual Congress of the European Lubricants
Industry (the UEIL Annual Congress) is Oct. 25-27 in
Bologna, Italy.
After last years success in Berlin, the congress is
getting ready to provide an even better experience in
Bologna this year.
The UEIL Annual Congress has been for several
years the place to:
network
hear about innovations in the lubricants eld
exchange information about metalworking uids
get updated on changes happening in the heart
of Europe affecting your company.
Deadline for paper submission is April 7. Registra-
tion opens on June 1. For more information, visit
www.ueil.org/en/EVENTS/Congress-2017/Overview.
77
AUTOMOTIVE TRIBOLOGY
Dr. Edward P. Becker

The promise of cylinder deactivation

With impressive fuel-economy gains,
why is this technology stuck at 5% and falling?
THE LATEST U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTEC-
TION AGENCY REPORT on Light Duty Automo-
tive Technology, Carbon Dioxide Emissions, and
Fuel Economy Trends is out, and, as always, it
presents a treasure trove of information. Figure
1, for example, shows the ve-year trend in adop-
tion of various engine and transmission tech-
nologies that contribute to better fuel economy.
Variable valve timing (VVT) and multi-
valve per cylinder engines are virtually uni-
versal, and gasoline direct injection (GDI) and
turbocharging are growing rapidly. Stop/start,
where the engine stops running (rather than
idling) when the vehicle is stopped and re-
starts (with the assistance of an electric mo-
tor) when the vehicle is required to move, also
has gained popularity, along with hybrid pow-
ertrains. Even diesel engines have gained
slightly. The remaining data are for transmis-
sion with six or more forward speeds and
continuously variable transmissions (CVT).
The only technology on the chart that has Figure 1 | Change in technology penetration share. (Figure courtesy of the United States
fallen in penetration is cylinder deactivation Environmental Protection Agency Report EPA-420-R-16-010, Light Duty Automotive Technology,
(CD). Also known as modulated displacement, Carbon Dioxide Emissions, and Fuel Economy Trends: 1975-2016, November, 2016. Available at
electronic engine management, active fuel www.epa.gov/sites/production/les/2016-11/documents/420r16010.pdf.)
management, displacement on demand and
variable cylinder management, this technique
involves shutting off as many as half the cyl- that in their current incarnations, cylinders namic imbalance in the engine, which can re-
inders in a running engine when power de- are not truly deactivated. The valves are de- sult in unacceptable vibration in the vehicle.
mand is low, usually when cruising at constant activated so they remain closed, and what- For now it appears cylinder deactivation
speed. This allows the cylinders that are ring ever gases are in the cylinder at the time of in its present form will continue to be used on
to operate closer to their peak efciency. deactivation are effectively trapped. The pis- some larger (V6 and V8) engines, particularly
Impressive claims are made for the gain in tons continue to reciprocate within the bores. in trucks and performance vehicle applica-
fuel economy from cylinder deactivation (as Unfortunately, the two largest contributors to tions. Whether its market penetration will
high as 20% under some conditions but closer friction loss in an engine are the piston rings continue to shrink, however, will depend on
to 7% for typical driving cycles). So why is this to cylinder bore and piston skirt to cylinder many variables, such as improved materials
strategy stuck at around a 5% share and fall- bore. The total friction loss is somewhat re- and manufacturing processes and changes in
ing? The cost and complexity of the systems to duced by the absence of combustion pressure, fuel-economy regulations.
achieve cylinder deactivation are considerable, but signicant losses remain.
Ed Becker is an STLE Fellow and
and the gain in fuel economy is usually only Stopping the pistons from reciprocating is
past president. He is president of
justied for larger engines. At the same time, a difcult task and results in other complica- Friction & Wear Solutions, LLC in
the market share of four-cylinder engines has tions. Complicated linkages have been devel- Brighton, Mich., and can be
been increasing during the last ve years, oped, but these add considerable weight, com- reached through his website at
reaching almost 60% at present. plexity, cost and size to the engine. In addition, www.frictionandwearsolutions.
A more fundamental problem, however, is stopping individual pistons can result in dy- com.

78 APRIL 2017 T R I B O LO GY & LU B R I CAT I O N T EC H N O LO GY W W W. ST L E .O RG

 LUBRICANT INDUSTRY
CAREER OPPORTUNITIES
Pelichem has 40 years of recruitment experience, and is dedicated to serving clients globally in lubricant and additive
industries. According to ADP reports, the U.S. economy grew at a steady pace in 2016 averaging 174,000 private sector
monthly jobs gain. Jobs are forecast to grow at a more rapid pace in 2017 as January began the year with a 246,000 jobs gain
while U.S. company CEO's confidence level reached a six-year high in the fourth quarter of 2016. Several current career
opportunities with client companies are listed below:
*GLOBAL SEGMENT LEADER*
(Midwest Region)
Large international company has a newly created position
available for a senior level global market strategist to lead
continued fast-paced growth in a diverse specialty chemical
business unit. Desire an individual with extensive M&A
background to lead organic and inorganic growth in markets
such as lubricants, asphalt, coatings, and urethanes. Must
be promotable to Managing Director role. 20-25% travel.
*NATIONAL SALES MANAGER*
(Midwest Region)
Established private label manufacturer / contract blender /
packager of lubricants and coolants seeks a sales
professional with managerial background to identify new
market opportunities, make sales presentations, and manage
expanding business. Focus will be on lubricants for retail,
wholesale, jobber, OEM, and industrial markets.
*REGIONAL SALES MANAGER*
(Ontario, Canada)
Leading manufacturer of metalworking fluids, metal forming
lubricants, and metal cleaners needs a sales professional
with leadership skills to manage 3 sales representatives and
also sell directly to key accounts in the Ontario region.
*NATIONAL ACCOUNT MANAGER - DIE CAST*
(Location Flexible)
U.S. market leading metalworking fluids supplier is searching
for a sales professional to lead national sales efforts
(including Canada and Mexico) for lubricants and equipment
in the high-pressure die casting industry.
*SR. DEVELOPMENT CHEMIST*
(Northeast Region)
International lubricants manufacturer needs a chemist to
work in product development, testing, and customer support
in lubricants for specialized metalworking applications. Need
formulation experience in lubricants for non-ferrous
applications, steel rolling, and/or machining/grinding fluids.
Desire an individual with leadership capabilities who can
become a laboratory manager in 3-4 years.
*REGIONAL SALES ENGINEER*
(Midwest Region)
Global leader in manufacturing of metalworking fluids, metal
forming lubricants, and metal cleaners has created a new
position for a sales professional to target Tier I & Tier II
accounts with potential business in the $10 million+ range.
*PROCESS ENGINEER*
(Midwest Region)
Well-established manufacturer of metalworking fluids needs
a chemical engineer to be responsible for continuous
improvement in production, maintenance, new projects and
operating processes. This person will identify and implement
efficiency, quality, and cost improvement initiatives.
*TERRITORY SALES & ACCOUNT MANAGERS*
Several high priority sales opportunities are listed below:
1) Account Managers - Industrial Lubricants (2) - Omaha,
NE & Kansas City, KS
2) Sales Representative - Lubricants & Antifreeze (Retail &
Wholesale accounts) - Midwest region
3) Account Managers - Metalworking Fluids (6) - IL/IN,
KY/TN, OH/KY/WV, Cleveland/Toledo, OH, Northeast region,
& Texas region
4) Sales Representative - Oil Reclamation - Midwest region
Please call or send resume at your earliest convenience if
you are considering a new position. Your response will be
handled promptly and with the utmost confidentiality.
If you plan to attend the STLE Annual Meeting in Atlanta
May 21-25, please contact me in advance or during the
meeting to arrange a time to meet and discuss your career
situation or your company's hiring plans.
Ken Pelczarski
Pelichem Associates
928 Warren Avenue
Downers Grove, IL 60515
630-960-1940 (office)
630-207-5676 (cell)
630-960-1942 (fax)
pelichem@aol.com
www.pelichemsearch.com
CUTTING EDGE
Drs. Wilfred T. Tysoe &
Nicholas D. Spencer
A thought for
your pennies
The wear rate of coins increases with
time in circulationwhy?
Removing part of a coin and passing it off
at face value used to be a lucrative crime,
since coins were once made of precious met-
als. In London in 1690, for example, Thomas
and Anne Rogers were executed in grue-
some fashion for clipping the edges off 40
pieces of silver.1 An alternative to clipping was
sweating, which involved shaking coins in a
bag and collecting the precious wear particles
that were generated. This, of course, is a tri-
bological phenomenon that not only occurs
as a result of criminal intent but is currently
taking place innocently in our pockets, albeit
at a lower rate.
Edward AllenEmeritus Professor of Math-
ematics at Texas Tech University, in Lubbock,
Texashas been giving some thought to the
wear processes taking place on coins in cir-
culation.2 The principal assumption in Dr. Al-
lens work is that the coin is being worn (by
rubbing, rather than corrosion, attening or
marring) at two different rates, since the high-
er regions are protecting the lower regions
from contact. Based on this, he could derive
a stochastic differential equation, involving
the assumption of Archard that a, the coin-
thickness loss, can be expressed as:
a = CFL/H
where F is a normal force on the coin
surface, L is a sliding distance of the force
(across the surface), H is the hardness of the
coin material, and C is a constant depending
on conditions of coin circulation. In order
to introduce the time factor, b is dened as
the rate at which the force is applied to the
surface to lead to a decrease by a, i.e., the
number of times per day, for example, that the
80 You can visit The Glenn H. Curtiss Museum in Hammondsport, N.Y.
Lot 315B, 1913 S. Barber
Quarter Dollar, Gulfcoast
Coin and Jewelry (May 2015).
coin decreases in thickness by a. The rate of long the life of coins is obviously of interest
change of thickness is then equal to ba, which to government mints, since longer circulation
is the wear rate and life leads to cost savings. Second, there is an
interest among numismatists in being able to
ba = K/H quantify the condition of coins, and this would
most easily be performed by weighing them.
This immediately tells us that harder Third, the approach developed for coins could
coins are going to last longer! For a totally potentially be applied to other wearing tri-
at coin, a stochastic differential equation bological systems, such as tires or tribolms.
can be constructed of the form
dh(t) = -c dt + ` dW(t)
where h(t) is the coin thickness, c = ba =
K/H, and ` dW(t) is a term that derives from
the standard Wiener (or Brownian Motion) pro-
cess, where ` = 3(a 2b) = K/(H3b).
The solutions to the equation yield thick-
ness values with time that can be readily (via
density) converted into mass loss.
The next step is the incorporation of the Eddy Tysoe (left) is a distinguished professor of
two-level relief of the coin into the model us- physical chemistry at the University of Wisconsin-
ing the assumption that high regions wear Milwaukee. You can reach him at wtt@uwm.edu.
faster than low regions, such that the wear
Nic Spencer (right) is professor of surface science
rate scales with the difference in the heights. and technology at the ETH Zurich, Switzerland. You
This also can be thought of as the normal can reach him at nspencer@ethz.ch.
force (in the Archard equation) scaling with
Both serve as editors-in-chief of STLE-afliated
the height difference. The result is that, in the
Tribology Letters journal.
two-level system, the wear rate increases with
time as the shadowing effect of the higher
level becomes less signicant as it is worn
FURTHER READING
away. A quantitative measure for coin wear
is the ratio of current mass to initial mass, al- 1. The Proceedings of the Old Bai-
ley (ref. t16901015-36). Available at
though this is only useful once the mass loss
www.oldbaileyonline.org/browse.
is signicantly greater than the variability in
jsp?div=t16901015-36.
the mass of the minted coins, which can be
2. Allen, E. (2016), Stochastic differential
around 0.5%!
equation models for the wear of coins in
These results are interesting for a number
circulation, Trib. Lett. 64: 45.
of reasons. First, understanding how to pro-
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