Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
5.1. INTRODUCTION
Before clesigning a proper water works project, it is essential
to determine the quantity of water that is required daily. This involves
the determination of the following items.
L, Pryulntion determinqtion, Determinatiou of population is one
of the most important factors in the planning, if the project has
to serve the community for a certain design period. Normally, a
design period of 20 to 40 years is selected. Whai will be the population
at the end of the design period, is the basic question. This can
be achievecl by using various methods for population forecast.
2, Rate of demand. The water consumption in a city may
be conveniently divided into the following categories : (r) domestic
(ir) trade (rii) agricultural (iv) public and (v) losses. The total con-
sumption of ,water depends upon several factors, such as climatic
condition, cost of water, living standards of the inhabitants, pressure
in the pipelines, type of supply etc."{The total quantity of water
required divided by the total population givesper capita water demandJ
The accurate measurement of consumption is. often very difficult
because standards of supply and maintenance vary widely.
5.2. DESIGN PERIOD
Generally, water supply projects are designed for a design
perioGof 20 to 40 years, after their completion. The time lay between
the design and completion should not be more than 2 years. In
some specific components of rhe project, the design period may be
snodified. Different segments of water treatment and distribution sys-
74
75 WATER SUPPLY ENCINEERING
I Storage by dams 50
z. lntiltration works 30
3. Pump sets
(r) All prime morers f,ccpt electric motors 30
(u) Electric motors and PumP l5
4. Water trcatment uqits 15
4=x
dt.
1 ...(5.1 a)
methd :
. t") ,..(5.2 c) I
\/
Tbe field engineen use the arithmatic average method for
computing r, (or Ir) since it gives slighily higlwr (and hence safer)
Qualify of Water
ll
6.1. INTRODUCTION
fire primary objective of water treatment and purification is
to collect water from best available source and subject-it to processing
which will ensure water of good physical quality, free from unpleasant
taste or odour and containing nothing which might be detrimental
to healthr lt is nor possible to find absolutely pure water
jn nature.
Chemicaily put","atbt is the one which contains two Parts of.hydrogen
and one pait of oxygen. Water drops just emitting out of the clouds
-as
may be ionsiOereO chemically pure water' but as the drops fall
Oown they labsorb some gases and other matter. It is however not
essential io have chemically pure water. Sometimes presence of some
minerals give good taste to water. Supplies of water may be obtained
upon rivers; lakes, or springs;JDepenging largely
by drawiilg diiectly-from
up,on the iources which they are derived, fthe various waters
so obtained may differ greatly in purity and suitability for the
purposes
for which they are reqltireO. Un-dergiound water may contain much
matter dissolveO from'state through which it passes; Shallow wells
are much more prone to bacterial pollution than are deep wells'
Streams and rivers collect impuritiei from the earth and through
the discharge of sewage and industrial effluents and these are carried
io ponOs, i-akes and ieservoirs.lln the Plst, there have been many
c.sA of recurring epidemics of enteric fevers traceable to drinking
water supplies.
The following are important requirements of water for domestic
use :
101 .
QUALITY OF WATER r02
sediment on standing.
Z. It should be of good taste, free from odour.
3. It should be reasonably soft.
4. It should be plentiful and cheap.
5. It shoultl be free from disease protlucing bacteria or
organisms.
6. [t should be free from objectionable clissolved gases, su!h
as sulphuretted hydrogen. It should, however, have suf-
ficient quantity of dissolved oxygen.
, 7. It should be ,free from harmful, salts.
8. It should be free from objedtionable mincrats, such {ts
iron, manganese, lead, arsenic and other poisonous mci:rls.
g. It should be free from radio-active substancc such as radium.
stronsium etc.
10. It shoulJ be reasonably free from phenolic compouncls.
chlorides, fluoride and iodine.
11. It should not lead to scale formation ancl should be non-
corrosive
The above requirements are only qualitative. The quantitativJ
requirements are given in the 'subsequent articlcs.
6.2. COMMON IMPURITIES IN WATER AND 'I'ITEIR EF}'ECT
Impurities in water are classified into three heads :
Discolouration o[ skin;
cyes
'Blue baby conditions;
infant poisoning; colour;
acidity
AT}'OSPHERC }TOFTURE
WIND
RECIPITATION
-
SPRING WATER
O
7. RIVER WATER : PARTTCULATES ; ORGANIC, MATTER;
WASTE WATERS
Beneficial effects
1. Reduction in turbidity at upper levels, because of reduced
velocities and long detention time.
2. Reduction in hardness &used by algal carbon dioxide and
subsequent precipitation of caicium carbonate
3. Organic oxidation.
4, Reduction in B.o.D. carsed by biodegradation during
storage.
5. Colour reduction due- to settling silts.
6. Reduction in coliform density due to natural die off during
storage.
Detrimental Etfects.
1. l,owe.r atmospheric reaeration caused by ieduced vetocities
and increased depth.
z, Increased argar blooms with resultant taste and odour
problems, in addition to the aesthetic aspct.
3. Back up of pollutsnts present ln r-he receMng water.
107 WATER SUPPLY ENGINEERING
Thermal stratilication
Thermal stratificatign is the term which is applied to the variation
in the temperature of, the impounded water with depth. Fig 6.3 shows
thermal stratification in a reservoir, during summer. The entire depth
can be divided into three zonqs: (t) Epilimnion 00 Mesolimnion
(or thermocline) and (nt) Hypolimnion.
WATER
+- INFLOW
EPILIMNION 80' F
MESOLIMNlor{
30'F TO 63'F
HYPOLIMNION
< 3CF
pO value Meaning
0 No perceptible odour.
1 Very faint odour, detectable only to
trained obsewer.
2 Faint oclour, detectable to average per-
son only if he is told.
3 Distinct odour, readily detectable by
most people.
4 Very distinct 'odour.
5 Strong and intense odour.
6 Bstremely strong odour.
3. TEIVIPERATURE TEST
Tf9 lemperature of warcr to be supplied shoulcl be between
lfc to 20"c.
f.*p".t.ture higher rhan zs,c is considered objec-
tionable" It can be mea'sured with ordinary thermome(en graduated in
WA1ER SUPPLY ENG INEERING
111
PO6ITION OF
1-I
EYE
I
?'? GRADUATED
TAPE
GRADUATED GRADUATED
ALUlT|MUM GLASS TUBE
ROO METAL
CONTAINER
METAt.|
STANd
STANDARD
NI.CKEL CANOLE
RING
PLAT]NUM NEEDLE
STANOARD
soLuTloif WATER SAMPLE
REFLECTOR
PLATFORM
WITH
BVELED
HoLEs
WHITE
oPAL GLASS PLATE
TABLE 6.4.
Claet I 2 3 4
I I.1. IN'I'RODUCTION
when water comes out of filter plants. it may contain bacterla
ancl othcr micro-organisms, some of which may be pathogenic' It
is rherforc neccssary to disinfect wagrhlg"\i$-Plcteria 1"J other
micro-organisms, and thus prevent wafrer-borne dlseases. hlO-wever,
clisinfection is not a substitute for filtration. Disinfection follows
filtration. When the aim is to kill all the micro-organisms in water
so as to make it sterile, the process is known as sterilization.'The
aim ofdis infection,h6ffiGr, is to reduce the number of micro-organisms
to a safe limite. Disinfection usually requires complicated rnechanisms
that need the attention of skilled operators to avoid breakdown and
incorrect dosage.
Su itability of disinfectant
Disinfectant is a substance that is used for disinfection of
waGr. A water disinfectant shogld meet the fotlowing requirments.
.ti|.z'q
l.- The disinfectant/sliould be effective in killing $e micro-
organisrns@y4q umhfn t_he co$lact
time availabte;f tre raiiEe of water ten0 pera t u res encou n tered
and the anticipated fluctuations in composition, ooncentra-
tion and condition of water being treated.
Z. The disinfectant should be readily available at reasonable
cost.
3. It should be safe to handle, and its method of application
should be simple.
53
54 ?.6a wATER SUPPLY exdgeeRrNc
h.g^{'
'i' the water toxic, qUralatable
4. It should not rgndef or ob-
j ect i o nab te, es$er bU .g6",gtr*i*, fo r JGJrr tentted use.
5. It should have ability to pUrsisbin residual concentrations
as a safeguard against leconilrgination.
Mechanism of diSinfection , r r ",)
)LF
\\e disiufectant either destroys or inactivates the micro-orga-
nismsu by way of the following four mechanisms :
(i) Darnage to cell wall of micro-organisms
iti) Alteration of cell permeability
(iu) Changing the colloidal nature of the cell protoplasm, and
(iv) Inactivation of critical enryme systems responsible for
metabolic activities.
i1.2. METHoDS oF DISINFEcTIoN
Various methods of disinfection can be broadly classified under
two heads : (a) " physical methods, and" (b) chemical methods.
(a) Fhysical methods
a
outofthevariousmelhodsmentionedabovefordisinfection'
works Practice'
chlorination is*ort commonly adopted. Hence in water
rhe rerm chlorination is sometimes used in place of
disinfection'
too \
90 \ to
80 \
20'c--J I
70
60 \\
\ 30E
350
T
* *
40 @
'\u
\ 70
\
?o
Fo't 80
to
\\
\
\
il
pH
l.Bleachingpowder.Bleachingpowder.orcalciumhypo-
cfirlorite, Ca(OCl)2, is a chlorinated lime containing
about T r%
of available chlorine, when freshly made. When chlorination was
iliu, intioOucen, bieaching powder was exclusively usgd'. However'
slorage
during
trleaching powder is not stiOfe, and it loses its strength
or- .rpro"uie of air" It is therefore used only on sman
installations
or under emergency conditions. Equation 11.3 indicates the
reaction
DISINFEgf ION 59
with bleaching powder while Eq. 11.4 gives the reaction with sodiunn
hypochlorire NaOCl. The process of chlorination with hopochloritcs
is fnown as hypochloination Commerical cornpouncls such as HTF{
(high test hypochlorites), Pittchlor, Pittcide, Hoodchlor etc. are useil
instead of bleaching powder. The high-test hypochlorites, having an
available chlorine contents of 65 rc 7AVo, are stable, easily solt:hlc
and free flowing and nonhygroscopic. The oxidizing power c'i
hypochforite is represented in terms of available chlorine.
Hypochlorites are applied
'to water as a solution by means
of hypochlorite feeding apparatus. Fig. 11.2 shows an emergenq feeder
consisting of a solution tank connected to a constant level feeding
tank. The doze of the solution is adjusted by means of an adjustable
pinch clamp.
SOLUTION TANK
(EIARREL ORIJTi Of, BOX
RUBBER LINED)
STRAFIER
RUBBER OR
PLASTIC TUBE
RUEBER OR
H-AsTIC TU8E.
TAELE PITH
$t-ruxneu
0l ro wATER suppLY
FIG. 11.2. EMERGENCY FEEDER FOR HYPOCHI,ORITES
2, chloramines. chloramines are the compounds of ammonia
and chlorine. The widespread adoption of chlorine-ammonia treat-
ment followed recognition that the combination of chlorine and am-
monia produced a more stable disinfecting residual than produced
by chlorine alone and that the process could be applied to iimit
the-d_e_velopment of objectionable tastes. In this treatment,
ammonia
as NHr is added ro rhe warer just before rhe qhlorine is applied.
P. Tull proportigry ar9 I part of ammonia to 4.5 parts of chlorine
by weight. The following ieactions take place :
liquid form in metal containers under pressure of 10.5 kg/ cmt' Since
liquid chlorine is highly corrosive, the cylinders containing liquitl
chlorine are provided with special fittings. The rylinders are built
to withstand bursting pressures of 35 kg/cm2 corresPonciing l{r a
temperature of 190" F.
Chlorine gas is respiratory irritant. It can cause varying degrees
of irritation to skin, mucous membrane and respiratory systern, i;l
extreme cases, death can occur from suffocation. Hence it is desirabie
to have gas masks in good condition available wherever chlorine
is stored or used. Liquid chlorine may cause skin and e)'e burns
upon contact with these tissues. Dangerous compounds may be formed
when chlorine comes in contact with other gases. If the room is
poorly ventilated and contains'carbon monoxide, escape of chlorinc
may result in the formation of phosgene - a highly toxic gas. F{e nct
chlorine cylinders should be stored,in a cool well-ventilaied iil,.)i-,
The Chlorinc dose dcpends upon the fiiiio..r'ing flact;,r'
(i) Organic matter present in water to be clisinfuc!;i:,
(tt) pH value. of water.
(ttt) amount of carbon di-oxide present in water,
(tu) temperature.
and (u) time of contact.
Our of these, the pH of water has the most important fole to plav.
The State of New York recommends that for drinking water ar pH
J.0, the concentration of free available chlorine after 10 minutes
d'etention time should be 0.2 nigAitre, while at pH equai ro I.ir.
it should be 0.4 mg/litre. At the pH of 7 and I the recommendei
combined'available chlorine residuals are 1.5 and 1.8 mg/litre, respec-
tively after a contact period of 60 minutes.
4. chlorine Dioxide (clo2). According ro Ridenour and Inglos
(1947), bactericidal properties of chlorine dioxide is grearer than
chlorine. The chlorine dioxide gas is unstable, and is therefore produceel
at the point of use by passing chlorine gas through sodiurn chlorite,
The following reaction takes place :
2 NaClOz * Clz = 2NaCl * 2ClOz ...ii i,gi
Until present rime, the use of chtorine dioxicle has been limired
to special water treatment applications such as oxidation of iron.
mangane'sp, and phenolic and chlorophenolic compounds,
for control
of algae. Chlorine dioxide theroetically has about Z.S times
the oxitting
power of chlorine. It does not react with organic maferials
to produce
chloroform, a potentiar'carcinogen. It abJ ooes not react with am=
62 WATER SUPPLY ENGINEERING
= 035 rngll
Also, residual chlorine = 0.2 mg/l
Chlorirc demand = 036 - 0'2= 0'16 ngfi
11.6. APPLICATION OF CHI'RINE
There are two methods of application of c,hlorine to water
to be disinfected :
ltl G
EH CTOR
ii
uu
(9
tst
l d2
a
n
;
l|-$ rd
G
o
=
F
I
EF
JJ
if-"
Cl
td
C\ 5S
l!
z ol r: :l urQ
u|n
rtl I
E
o zl o (, EU
J
I
u
J
l,G
Ei
3
a it9',
o
UJ
E ?7
APPLIED CHLORINE. p.p. m.
during stage II, the combined residual chlorine will gradulttY increase
as the demand for ilisinfection is satisfied, till a point C is reached
where the amount of combined residual chlorine will be maximum.
This stage of'point C is sometimes accompanied by bad taste and
odour. Stage it reflects the forming of combined residuals as the
ammonia or amines react with HOCI that has formed. Further increase
in the applied chlorine will result in decrease in the residual chlorine,
indicating,lr. beginning of the second action, ia oxididation of organic
matrer plesent In *aGr. During this acrion, the relation between
applied-residual chlorine is represented by curve CD, wherein free
ciriorine breaks down chloramines changing them to nitrogen com-
pcunds while the chlorine residual actually drops: .At. poin^t D,
the
trad smell and taste suddenly disappear and the'oxidation of
organic
matter is also complele. tfte resiOual chlorine has its minimum
value. Further addiiion of applied chlorine results in increase
in
tht, residual chlorine ut t.ptoented by line E the slope of
which
wiil be 45". Point D on the curve represents break point since further
as residual
addition of cholrine break through water and appears
have been
chlorine. Actually, upto point c on cuwe B, chloramines
recorded as resiiuaf chlorine while at point D (brgk
point) rrue
residlual free chlorine is reveale'd. The briak
pgint in the chlorination
chlorine curve
il iorrr'*ay be difngd o.t th.e potlt.o\ oryry-residual
at which all, or niarty all, the residualchtorine is free ?hlorya Free
remaining in water
chlorine residual is that part of the total residual
chemically or biologically
{after a specineJ *n,r., period) that will react
ir hvpobhlorous acid or hypochlorite ion'
DISINFE,CTION
a2 0.18
t,,
) 0.4 0.34
0.6 0.48
3
4.8 0.46
4
0.9 0.27
5
1.0 0.18
o
1.2 0.38
7
I 0.58
8 1.4
1.6 0.78
9
'"1
=o
E
lrj
"'l
z o'61
G'
o
)
tJ o.4
)
o o.2
tn
tr/
a
f.o t2
-+ APPLIEO CHLORIXE (mgrll
FIC. 115.
DISINFESI'ION 69
doses of free and combined chlorines are used, then the combined
chlorine will take 100 times as long as the free chlorine to achieve
the same degree of kill. Hoather (1949) found that in a clean well
water with traditional ratio of added ammonia to chlorine of I to
3, the chloiine killed -the bacteria more quickly than it combined
with ammonia. This is illustrated in Fig. 11.6. since ammonia
is often naturally present in water,it is therefore usual to add sufficient
chlorine to react with the amount of natural ammonia present and
a futher dose of chlorine sufficient to create an excess of free chlorine
for speedy disinfection.
o
;
tu
&
f
u
I
t
h
oz
lrJ
I
o \
o
o
{T
t!
q
l-
o. I
TIME IN MINUTES
5.Temperatureofwater.Reductioninthetemperaturecf
power of both
warer results in substantial decrease in thc killing
free and combinecl chlorine. ln order to have rc}%
bactericidai
with decrease
activity, the requirement of residual chlorine increases
in remperarure and increase in pH, as is clear from Fig'11"7'
o8
E
o,
3
tr.,
a
(r
o
.J
(J
)
f,
o o.2
6
lrj
(r
,t'/
t
,
I
\
PISTON PISTON
ROD ROO
DISCHARGE
tr
SUCTION SUCTION
(o) (b)
FIG. I4.3. ROTARY PUMP
In the rotary pump, no valves are required and the flow is
practically continuous. The pumps which use the above principle
of rotary displacement are : gear, lobe, screw, moyno and vane pumps.
These pumps are not in common use in water works.
L4,4. CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
When a certain mass of liquid is made to rotate by an external
force, it is thrown away from the central axis of rotation and a
centrifugal head is impressed which enables it to rise to a higher
level. A centrifugal pump worK on this principle. The centrifugal
pump emplop a rotating impeller with water being drawn at the
hub ar qe of the pump impeller and discharged through a spiral
casing by virtue of the centrifugal force developed dqe to the rotation
of the impeller. In addition to the centrifugal action, as rhe liquid
passes through the revolving wheel or impeller, its angular momenturn
changes, which also results in increasing the pressure of the liquid.
Based on the types of casing provided, cenrrifugar pumps are
classified into rwo rypes :
Wn'l'l1tt SUPPLY ENG lN EERINC
IMPELLER
SECTION AT Y Y
GUID VANES
VE NTURI AIR
TUEE
TH ROAT
trl
,g
o.
z PIPE
o
F
(J
f
o
ll
(a) Hsnd :
pumps Hand pumps are used only for shallow
wells. The commonly used two types of hand pumps are (a) pitcher
puntp and (b) force pump.A pitcher pump essentially consists of
a cylinder in which a plunger with a valve moves up and down,
and a check valve at the bottom of the cylinder, as shown in Fig.
14.8 (a). Itrequires priming.
Ttre principle of operation of a force pump is the same as
that of pipcher pump, except that it is enclosed at thetop and therefore
can be used to force the water to higher elevations, or against pressure "
STUfFf9lO
TRAP TUSI
Pt-ulR ROO SPOUT
vlLvE
VALVE PLUXCTN
GLAS': F9E FlPf
fp TAxt(
discharge llow
Such punrps also have air chamber to even out thc
(Fig 14.8 b).
(r)Reciprocatingtypewellpumps'Recipro.catingtypepumps
wells of very
are used for dcep wells-oi very small capacity and for
pump'
gieat depth beyond the . field of the deep ,_well centrifugalconsists
Wind rnills mai be usecl as source of power. The pump
WORKING
HEAO
OI SCHARGE
WELL CASING
OUTSIOE
PLUNGER ROO
PLUNGER
rNstoE
PLUNGER ROO
CYLINDER
PLUNGER
of three essential parts (Fig. 14.9) : (t) the power head, (tt) the
pump rods, and (tii) working barrel or cylinder. The power head
is pliced on the ground surface. The pump rods run from the power
treaO to the working barrel and connect the plungers. Fig. 14.9 shows
a two stroke well pump with two plungers. Both the plungers move
independently,. because one of the rods is hollow and permits the
solid rod to move within it.
(c) Centrifugal well pumps. Centrifugal pumps used in a
deep well may have a number of impellers mounted on a shaft
clriven by a motor mounted above the well. The number of impellers
may be as high as 20, depending upon the head, and may be of
the mixed flow or propeller type or with vanes and guide passages
leading to the nexi impeller above, in which case they are callec!
rurbini pumps. Deep weil turbines are available for diameters varying
from 1b cm to 35 cm and their usual lengths vary from 20 to 60
cm. For each 5 to 8 m lift, small diame"ler impellers or bowls ,are
used in series. The lowest impellers are of centrifugal type and the
upper impeilers are of mixed flow type. The driving shaft is enclosed
in a pipe, anO the space between"the two Pip"s serves as an outlet
for water. In a latei clevelopment of centrifugal pumps, the motor
is placed just below the impellers. The motor is designed to run
in water. is lubricated ancl .water cooled. The windings are enclosecl
in water tight stainless steel casings. The elctric current is conducted
down by a water Proof cable.
14.9. CENTRIGUAL PUMP INSTALI-ATION
Figr 14.lb shows a typical installation for centrifugal pump
used for pumping out warei'from a sump. The installation consists
of the following comPonents.
(t) Strainer/screen
(tt) Foot valve
(tii) Suction PiPe
(tr) Accentric reducer
(r) Centrifugal PumP
(ut) ExPander
(vii) Check valve
(vlii) Gate valve or discharge valve
(o) DeliverY PiPe'
ACCENTRIC PUMP
RE D UCER EXPANDR I DISCHARG
{_ valve
--T-1
I
SuCTlON
!{EAD
z
SUI{P
F-,
J*
(^o.
FOOT
VALV
TRAINER
HAX.
SHUT. OFF
HEAD
HEAo
z I
H
IE
l! o
td lr,
I
q
I z
at i
o lrorro
L,l
I OI SC HA RGE
OISCHARGE (A)
H = Head in meters
N = rotstional speed, in rpm.
TABLE I.4.1 SPECIFIC SPEED
MANIFOLO
ABr 8C r C0
obr bc. cd
o
lrl
I'
9n
tr
F
H
9x
I
OISCTIARG
3- PUMPS
t
o
lr,
I
J
F
o
F
OISCHARGE ---,>
tb)
FIG. 14.14. PUMPS OPERATING IN SERIES
It is to be noted that all the pumpes in series operation are
to be op6rated simultaneously.
t4.r2, VARIABLE SPEED OPERATION
The.discharge of a single pump can be varied by rhe use
of variable speed motors, so as to suit the operating requirements
of the system.
I
I
3 (H-Q' CURYE
o AT SPEED HI
trl
I
IJ
E
l-
td H-Q CURVE
I
T
I
Q ----+
OISCHARGE
FIC. 14.15. EFFECT OF SPEED CHANGE ON PLIN,'P CFLARJdC"|ER.:ST1{:S
a' Li lv{PS A"\iD PUMP ING 100
2
lld H:=",(ff ...(14.3)
-r
hoi
I
Hr
T: I
ln,t I
*
t
I
Fn = pressure at inlet
Pu = vaPour pressure
po = ambient atmospheric pressure
101 WATER SUPFLY ENGINEERING
where Hs=hr*nt+9
2g
...(14.s)
\'-"'' 4i
NpsH ==Po-P,
pg h,-[0,.
- "o * TgJ ...(14.6)
"
The minimum value of static lift is then given by
' vi
h,,^in =P" :!'-
ps (NPSH )^,^ - (n,
..'*tsi
i
"'(i4'7;
where H''| is total head (or the manometric head) across the pump.
Thoma found that the cavifatian number is strongly related to the
specific speed.
Recently, electro-submenible pumps of small to medium size
have been introducei. Such PiPes aie immersed in the sump
weli
to the specified depth, ttrus ivbiding the use of suction pipes and
thereby ilimin.ting the problems of cavitation and cooling.
.
14.14. SYSTEM IIEAD CURVE
design a pumping station, knowledge
In order m effectively
of the rotul dynamic head GDn against-wlich.the py-mp.m,,st operate,
is essential. The TDH is refresented by the fo[owing equation
TDH=Hsr*hu*hu ...(14.8 *)
PUMPS AND PI.JMPINC
w2
where Hsr = total static head (or lift) i.e. elevation difference
between the pumping source and point of delivery
It6 = head loss in suction pipe
Itr,t - head loss in delivery pipe ( i.e., friction, valves,
vekrcity head etc.)
TDH = r(iral dynamic head H which is definecl as the rise
in tota! heaci across the pump.
Eq. 14.8 {ai is also sometimes expressed as follows :
+
I
otscHARGE _-r_
FIC. I4.I7. SYSTEM HEAD CURVE.
A plot of rDH versus discharge is known as system head
cun,et shown in Fig. 14.17. Each point on the sptem head curve
denotes the head comprising of (l) sratic head |isr, (ii) head loss,
.Ffr and (iii) velociny head, H,. It shoutd be noted ttraf the sptem
head curve will vary with discharge (e) since Hy and Hv ?ta both
a function of discharge. In addition, the static head Hsr may also
vary as a result. of fluctuating water levels. obviotsly, the static
head is more at low warer level (L!u-) ind less at high'water level
(HwL) of the sump well. Ttre cori*poricing s'6rem cu'ies are shown
in Fig. 14.18.
The friction hgad (Hi is the sum of (i) head lossq in the
entire length ofr.he.piping, from the foot valve io ttri nriar point
of
f*tju:.v pipjng (ir) loss in the varves (foot ralve, nor-rerurn ralve and
:sstarrng valves), and (rlr) losses in bends tees, elb,ows,
reducers etc.
3s should. be elearly noted that the sptem head
curve will
*hange by-any changes made in the s)6tem, trrt, as change in tengttr
sr size of piping ere.
103 WATER SUPPLY E}.iGINEERINC
t
I
I
I
o
F
(Hs,TlUwU
OISCHARGE ---+
FIC. I4.I8. SYSTEM HEAD CURVES
14.T5. OPERATING POINT OR OPERATING RANGE OF A
PUMP
The operating point of a pump is the point of intersection
of the system-head-curve with the H-Q characteristic curve of the
pump, as shown in Fig. 14.19.
I SYSTEM
I
o HEAO CURVE
lrl
,I PUMP
CURVE
OfSCxARGE +
FIC. 14.19. OPERATING POINT OF PUMP
As indicated earlier, the system head cunie will change due
to any change made in the s]6tem. If the system head curve changes,
the oprating point will shift. This is more particular when the
water level in the sump fluctuates. Therewill be two s)6tem-head-curves
corresponding to LWL and HWL, as shown in Fig. t'4.20. Hence
if the level of water in the suction would deplete during pumping
from HWL to LWL the operating point of the pump would vary
from a low-head high- dishcarge point (Pr) to high-head low-dishcarge
point (Pt as shom in Fig. 14.20. The range benreen points Fr
and Pz is known as the operating range of the pump, due to fluctuations
in water' level in the sump.
PUMPS AND PLJMPINC 104
t
<t
lrJ
DISCHARGE +
F'IG. 14,20. OPERATTNG RANGE OF PT'MP
S}STEH IAO
t
rr
I
o
-l T
"'t t'i'
ll
Il_
oiscHARGE _+
(o) PU}.PS IX SERIEs
I
I
o
trJ
I PUMP
"' i \oxf
Ql 02
, DISCHARGE
--
(bI PIJMPS fi PARALLEL
16.1. INTRODUCTION
a
1"59
DISTRII]UTION OF WATER 160
DISTRIBUTION
RESERVOIR
HT.HEADLOSS fH
r-i=EFFECTIVE t{Ao
{o } GRAVITY SYSTEM
ELEVATD RESRx/O|R
#'S6:: IT
tT
OISTRIBUTION AREA !H.
ffi'tt"
{b} COMEINO GRAfTY AND R.TIPITG
1-:;ftf'.":l
STATIC HEAO LINE
f*===
u{I_.1
H.
units are located on a hill, and the source cf warer supply (ie"
a lake or reservoir) is also located behind the hill, pumpihg may
be required to conveywater from the rawwater source to ttre puhRcation
works. The purified water then flows entirely under gravity. This
is the most reliable and economical distribution
,syst6m.
Fig. 16.1 (a) sliows the system in which ff" is the desired
effective head.
2. Combined grayity and pumping system. This is the most
common system adopted in most of the cases" Generally, the water
purification work are locdted almost at the same level as the area
of distribution - specially when source of raw water supply is a river
or d reservoir foimed behind a dam. [n order to oUidiri sufficient
distribution pressure, filtered water is pumped into clear water reservoir
(C.W.R.) located either on a higher ground or elevated on a tower.
The water from the elevated resdrvoir then flows under gravity, as
illustrated in Fig. 16.l (b).
3. Pumping system. In this system, water is pumped directliv
into the distribution system to achieve the required pressure, as shown
in Fig. 16.1 (c). Such a s)6tem is not desirable" Generally doubie
pumping is required, first to Pump raw water from the source io
the treatment works and then to pump purified water direct into
the distribution mains. The pumps have to be run at varylng speeds
according to the variations in the consumption. In case of the power
failure, the entire water distribution system of the localiry is disturbed.
The system also requires constant attendance.
16.3. PRESSURE IN DISTRIBUTION MAINS
Adequate pressure should be available in distribution mains
at all points located even at the remotest spots. The desired pressure
depends upon the following : (i) the height to which water is require'd
to be supplied (u) fire fighting requirements (iii) whether the suppit'
is metered or not, and (iv) availability of funds. The following pressures
are considered satisfactory :
(a) Raidential distrbts :
Upto 3 storeys : 2 kg/cmz
3 to 6 storey heights : 2 to 4 kg/cmz
6 to 10 storey heights : 4 to 5.5 kg/cmz
Above 10 storeys : 5.5 to '7 kglcmz
(D) Csmmqical dMri*: 5 kg/^'.
In towns with single storeyed buildings, a minimum of 6 metres
of residual pressure should be available. Full fire pressures_should
constantly be maintained in the distribution system. The Naticnal
I-} iSTRiBUTI O N OII WATER 162
o._T*y serue
,as storage for emergencies
such as outbreak
*f fire, failure of pumps or bursting of-mains
! 5' They
:; absence
ii:
maintain the desired pressure in the main constantly.
cf rhese, the pressure will fall as the demand of water
il:ereases" They provide and maintain desired pressure
.l reas.
even in rembie
-. __
{.S.
tH
I Lof o&arr
^*:Ir*;;;
(180)
WATER SUPPLY ENG INEERING
767
22Y
?l
'E 20h
!=l ,.[
g ''l
;,ol
F<l
Gt2
?,o
I
Ea
6L
g ffi'e-EFoog =S-d
-+. TlltE OF
DAY
FIG.153.I{YDR0GRAPHMETHoDoFEQUALISINGSToRA6E
G)(AMPLE 16.1)
ntslggigsL t tgI?'J:'E' i ? t"11'.?
to vari ous m i cro-organ i s m s found in
I be pathoB-enic' Howel;r, all bacterial
present in
wastewater, some ot'wnichGay and reduce
wastewater are not nu.n,,r"t; some
ofthese help to treat the wastewater
the cost of treatment Plants' and biological
Table 8.2 gives a surnmary of PhYsical, chcnrical
their sources.
characteristics of wastewater and
OF WASTEWATER AND THEIR
SOT'RCES
TABLE A.Z
",dHERACTERTSTICS
Sources
Characleristics
C he mical charac te r is Ii cs
2.
(a) Orgotic wastes
(t CarbohYdrates Domestic, commercial and industrial
and industrial wastes
(tr) Fats, oils and greases Domestic, commercial
(itt) Pesticides Agricultural wastes.
(rv) Phenols Industrial wastes
(v) Proteins Domestic and commercial wastes
Domestic and industial wastes
Ityil Surfactants Natural decay of organic materials'
ItO others
ltal Inorgo'ric
Domestic wastes, domestic water supply'
ground water
ItO Alkalinitv
infiltration.
(rD Chlorides iN.*if. water supply, domestic wastes' groundwater
infi lration, water soft eners'
(ii, HeavY metals Industrial wastes.
(iu) Nitrogen Domestic and agricultural wastes'
(v) pH lndustrial wastes.
(yi) PhosPhours Oo."t,i. and industrial wastes, nature runoff. .
-Oo*.tti. wastes
(vi,l Sulfir water supply, domestic and industrial
(vttr) ToxiccomPouncls lndustrial wastes.
(c) Cases
(,) Hydrogen sulfde Decomposition of domestic wastes
(it) Methane Decomposition of domestic wastes
(iit) OxYgen oor"rii. water supply, surface water infiltration
3
l aiotogi"o! characteristics
Open water courses and treatment plants
| | fil Animals
Open water courses and treatr-nent plants
\ I (ii) Plants
Dornestic wastes ; treatment plants
| | riiil Protista
I 1(iv) Viruses Dontesttc wastes
from urtne' protelns,
organic matter in sewage consists of urea
continuous decomposition and in
carbohydrates, t'ats and soaps l'hese undergo
-Th.process, pass through several slages, resolving
that
.i.;iri
itffi
llt \-n.4^f1\- I Lr\rJ I t\_D 16J
into simpler elements such as nitrogen, hydrogen, carbon and o.xygen with
small quantities of sulphur and phosphorous. These elements ultimately
combine by means of chentical and biological actions to form inorganie
substance. Hence be fore \\'c take up physical, chemical and biolo!ical
characteristics, let u.s first stuc| the cycles of decomposition through which
the
organic nlatter pass u,ith passaqe of time,
I
UL..
z zl
SJ 9 9r
E Fl
,n
-'Ftr
d)
?o\
do\
It! s{
v!q .Eo E
-l
t!l
k, Lr luti), EI
.g\ tr Fr
S,Il \". \ z
o
tol
\e ."6\, N uJt
ol
NITRITES tNO2) ol
ANIMAL ,4
PROTEIN :(n
z
o
LI
,i t")
2, Carbon cYcle
The carbon cycle corresponding to biochemical ,degradation
or decornposition of. carbonaccous oryanic nniter is also an endless
chain connecting rhe processes of life and decay of both animal
and plant wor!<.i:. 'Il'is is illustrated in Fig. 8.2.
CiP:,ONACEOUS I I. DECCMPQSITION CARBON
ORGANIC D I-OXIDE
MATTER (OXIDATION) (C02)
t-
7\ ?
v,
J
U
"$r ttj
.r-
lp
\q ,sZ
u{\ F.
o
(L
N
\
\ z
t \r\ra. I
F
9
F
(J
E o
\"'o o i o
trl
\i* \t: V'
trj o c(
z z ni d
o qF
F
(L
F z
ANIMAL IL rn
E
PRorEn'ts =
an
)
0
z z
o
(, o
Lt
I r;
FIG. 8.3. SULPHUR CYCLE.
Main steps
1. The decomposirion of sulphurous organic matrer, through
the action of anaerobic bacteria, in absence of orygen, results in
the formation of hydrogen sulphidc (Hz S).
_2. -.By process.of oxidation, HzS is first converred into sulphu.
and. finally to sulphates.
3. Sulphates, when consumcd by plants, through photosynthesis,
.
charrges into plant proteins.
4- Animals @nsume the plant proteins.'This results in the
formation of animal proteins.
5. wastes produced by animals and their dead bodies results
in the formation of sulphurous organic matter.
IE7
WASTE\A/ATER CHARACTERISTICS
z
e
F
o-
f,
t't PHOSPI-OTTOUS FROM
z
o
U
A.RTIFICIAL OR
EMICAL SOURCE
3
FIC. 8.4 PHOSPHORUS CYCLE-
sleps:1.(a) Plans consume pho_sphorus Present in soil through
photosynihetic action and grow. (b) Plants may also consume phos-
pnoruj sdpplied from artificial or chemical sources' such as manure
etc., and thereby grow.
2. The plants are consumod by animals and the phosphorus
clements is thus transferred to animals.
3. The wastes produced by animals and.their dead bodies
iesults in the transfer of phosphorus back to soil..
4. The death or dqcay of plant life also results in the transfer
of phosphorus back to soil. Thus, the phosphorus cycle is completed.
5. Cslclum cycle. Calcium ryclc also relates to the maintenancc
of level of calcium in the soil. Calcium rycle is shown in Fig. 8.5.
Steps
1. Calcium prcsent in soil is carried away to water bodies
(such as rivers, lakes sea etc.) through surfarc runoff.
r88 \\,NSTE WATER ENG tNEt]T{ I NC
\\,ATE R
BODI ES
I. SURFACE
RUNOFF
CALCIUM
tN sorLs PLANTS
ANI MALS
4b. CONSUMPTION 40. COI{SUMPTION
WaStewater
into receiving waters' it is essential to ensure that atleast
in it. If Do is less, the aquatic animals
4 p.p;m. of DO is presJnt
i6''nrn etc- are titety to be killed near the vicinity of disposal'
,Tlre .presence of DO in wastewater is desirable because it prevents
]:-- fo*ution of noxiousdetermine
itt odoun'
the DO content o[ waslc*'atcr
trt is essential to
so as to se{cct proper lreatm(nl
before it is subjected to treatment'
contenl of fresh.wastewater is soon depleted
ln",troO. The small, DO
.- due to aerobic decomposition. The
aOual quantity of DO is governed
of orygen in atmosphere
OyiO solubility of oxygen (ii) partia.l pt:'s.Yt:
t"mp".utore,- a1O (iv) purity (satinity, suspended solids etc.)
i,iij in"waterl.
i,f in" DO of the wastewater decreass aq the rempcraturc
increases. The solubility of DO in wastewateA is
only 95o/o o( thar
io'Oir,itt"O water. DO content of wastewater may be dctcrnrined
,'f by winkter'r method ,
'i\,. ,\,
I ia.e. Ary9FLI-DE!44ND
As stated"eartier(the presence of oxygen.is essential for thc
- I
livclihood of organisms. The'aeroblc action continues'only till the
.,i
oxygel is prcxrenLi4w?tl1ryg"r,an$ Sfter that anaerobic action begins
resulting in purreracuon. rntS, brfgen is aemt{i{ci,i in wastewater
for the oxidation of both inorganic as well as organic ma-[er. Thtrs
demand of oxygen may bb expressed in the following ways :
., r(i) Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) (t0. C,ltf5l oxygerr
demand'(COD) (,,0l,Totat oxygen demand OOD) (iv) Thcoretical
oxygen demand Cfh.OD) )
In addition to these, the arpount of organic mutter Prcsent
hay ,also be'determined by the total organic carbon (TOC) rcst.
D ,
- u\\l .
aiz. 'ntocuntrlcel gxycnx onM,q,xn (BoD)
l{nrt ffi- ,ra-a-rr /Drrn\ ic q rnnrtrrre nf rha
[*lii'ft'r..";:{$""'?#;t*::rf
dilutld
iiry}.#ff'...*'i
sampte is then
sample i, *o'u'L'-Th; gr*r"rirtt;j. Th; DO of the
sample
dars ar 2.,c in an air ,,gh..
is itrcrr again *;;';' Tit loi''i"r ;il;t 9t
t'h:' oxvsen consumed
itt" oirr"ren@
found;;'oy calcuratinc'
"content
tturing in.uu"tioi-i,,n"n of bO .nd ,t.
final of DO'
bcrwccn ,t. iniiirt conrcnt
--$i,11'l',*-J',:'ffii:l:,
BOD is thcn comp$:"d. ,rlo$ rJs oT"J3.t*,1:.,1-
BoDs = fdi9f,c;f
;:;':l
wherc rliturion 1311s =#gesamPle
f*;
r rLJ
wnsGwnreR CHARASI bt{ls i'q'q
.Forexample,iflmlofwastewaterisdilutedtomakcl00 will be
m.l of test sample the d,i.tution ratio or dilution factor
in 3@ ml size
ioozl = 100. Generally, BOD resrs are pcrformed. the bottle and mi'red
ir<jb-uo,iro. lr 5 ml of wastewater is placed_in purc aerate<J water)
ii,n ,n. specially prepared dilution water (or
;;:;;;" im ri ditui.A'sample, the dilution'ratio yillof bc equ:tl
i; jOOZS = 60. The dilution raiio is selected on the basis expected
will be avallahle
,]ttg"-of BODs so that adequate nutrients and oxygen
dilutio.ns are prcparcd
O"rir.tg the incubation period. Normally, several
io'-i"r the complete range of possible values. Table 8'4 gives the
irng" of BOD that can be measured with various dilutions cxPresscd
eith?r as percentage mixtures or as ml directly pjpetted into J00-ntl
gOp Uotiles. BOb is expressed either in PPI o!-tl mg pcr litre
VARIOUS
TABLE S.I. SObS MEASURABLE WITIT
DILUI'IONS OF SA'V{PLES
or ?=e-K'=10-K
Lo. =-
...(s.90)