Ans 1

single-sideband modulation (SSB) or single-sideband suppressed-carrier modulation(SSB-

SC) is a type of modulation, used to transmit information, an audio signal, by radio waves. It is a
refinement ofamplitude modulation which uses transmitter power and bandwidth more efficiently.
Amplitude modulation produces an output signal that has twice the bandwidth of the
original baseband signal. Single-sideband modulation avoids this bandwidth doubling, and the power
wasted on a carrier, at the cost of increased device complexity and more difficult tuning at the
receiver.

Radio transmitters work by mixing a radio frequency (RF) signal of a specific frequency, the carrier
wave, with the signal to be broadcast. The result is a set of frequencies with a strong peak signal at
the carrier frequency, and smaller signals from the carrier frequency plus the maximum frequency of
the signal, and the carrier frequency minus the maximum frequency of the signal. That is, the
resulting signal has a spectrum with twice the bandwidth of the original input signal. In conventional
AM radio, this signal is then sent to the radio frequency amplifier, and then to the broadcast antenna.
Due to the nature of the amplification process, the quality of the resulting signal can be defined by
the difference between the maximum and minimum signal energy. Normally the maximum signal
energy will be the carrier itself, perhaps twice as powerful as the mixed signals.
SSB takes advantage of the fact that the entire original signal is encoded in either one of
these sidebands. It is not necessary to broadcast the entire mixed signal, a suitable receiver can
extract the entire signal from either the upper or lower sideband. This means that the amplifier can
be used much more efficiently. A transmitter can choose to send only the upper or lower sideband,
the portion of the signal above or below the carrier. By doing so, the amplifier only has to work
effectively on one half the bandwidth, which is generally easier to arrange. More importantly, with the
carrier suppressed before it reaches the amplifier, it can amplify the signal itself to higher energy, it is
not wasting energy amplifying a signal, the carrier, that can (and will) be re-created by the receiver
anyway.
As a result, SSB transmissions use the available amplifier energy more efficiently, providing longer-
range transmission with little or no additional cost. Receivers normally select one of the two
sidebands to amplify anyway, so implementing SSB in the receiver is simply a matter of allowing it to
choose which sideband to amplify on reception, rather than simply choosing one or the other in the
design stage.
GENERATION OF SSB
The frequency discrimination or filter method of SSB generation consists of a product modulator, which
produces DSBSC signal and a band-pass filter to extract the
desired side band and reject the other and is shown in the figure
Application of this method requires that the message signal satisfies two conditions:
1. The message signal m(t) has no low-frequency content.
Example: - speech, audio, music.
2. The highest frequency component W of the message signal m(t) is much less than the
carrier frequency fc.
Then, under these conditions, the desired side band will appear in a non-overlapping
interval in the spectrum in such a way that it may be selected by an appropriate filter. In designing the band
pass filter, the following requirements should be satisfied:
1) The pass band of the filter occupies the same frequency range as the spectrum of the desired SSB modulated
wave.
2. The width of the guard band of the filter, separating the pass band from the stop band,where the unwanted
sideband of the filter input lies, is twice the lowest frequency component of the message signal.
When it is necessary to generate an SSB modulated wave occupying a frequency band that is much higher than
that of the message signal, it becomes very difficult to design an appropriate filter that will pass the desired
side band and reject the other. In such a situation it is necessary to resort to a multiple-modulation process so
as to ease the filtering requirement. This approach is illustrated in the following figure 3.16 involving two
stages of modulation.

DETECTION OF SSB
Bandpass filtering[edit]
One method of producing an SSB signal is to remove one of the sidebands via filtering, leaving only
either the upper sideband (USB), the sideband with the higher frequency, or less commonly
the lower sideband (LSB), the sideband with the lower frequency. Most often, the carrier is reduced
or removed entirely (suppressed), being referred to in full as single sideband suppressed
carrier (SSBSC). Assuming both sidebands are symmetric, which is the case for a normal AMsignal,
no information is lost in the process. Since the final RF amplification is now concentrated in a single
sideband, the effective power output is greater than in normal AM (the carrier and redundant
sideband account for well over half of the power output of an AM transmitter). Though SSB uses
substantially less bandwidth and power, it cannot be demodulated by a simple envelope detector like
standard AM.
Hartley modulator[edit]
An alternate method of generation known as a Hartley modulator, named after R. V. L. Hartley,
uses phasing to suppress the unwanted sideband. To generate an SSB signal with this method, two
versions of the original signal are generated, mutually 90 out of phase for any single frequency
within the operating bandwidth. Each one of these signals then modulates carrier waves (of one
frequency) that are also 90 out of phase with each other. By either adding or subtracting the
resulting signals, a lower or upper sideband signal results. A benefit of this approach is to allow an
analytical expression for SSB signals, which can be used to understand effects such as synchronous
detection of SSB.

ANS 2
A communications satellite is an artificial satellite that relays and amplifies radio telecommunications signals via
atransponder; it creates a communication channel between a source transmitter and a receiver at different
locations on Earth. Communications satellites are used for television, telephone, radio, internet, and military
applications. There are over 2,000 communications satellites in Earths orbit, used by both private and government
organizations.[1]

Wireless communication uses electromagnetic waves to carry signals. These waves require line-of-sight, and are
thus obstructed by the curvature of the Earth. The purpose of communications satellites is to relay the signal
around the curve of the Earth allowing communication between widely separated points.[2] Communications
satellites use a wide range of radio and microwave frequencies. To avoid signal interference, international
organizations have regulations for which frequency ranges or "bands" certain organizations are allowed to use.
This allocation of bands minimizes the risk of signal interference.

Communications satellites usually have one of three primary types of orbit, while other orbital classifications are
used to further specify orbital details.

Geostationary satellites have a geostationary orbit (GEO), which is 35,786 kilometres (22,236 mi) from Earths
surface. This orbit has the special characteristic that the apparent position of the satellite in the sky when
viewed by a ground observer does not change, the satellite appears to "stand still" in the sky. This is because
the satellite's orbital period is the same as the rotation rate of the Earth. The advantage of this orbit is that
ground antennas do not have to track the satellite across the sky, they can be fixed to point at the location in
the sky the satellite appears.
Medium Earth orbit (MEO) satellites are closer to Earth. Orbital altitudes range from 2,000 to 35,786 kilometres
(1,243 to 22,236 mi) above Earth.
The region below medium orbits is referred to as low Earth orbit (LEO), and is about 160 to 2,000 kilometres
(99 to 1,243 mi) above Earth.

As satellites in MEO and LEO orbit the Earth faster, they do not remain visible in the sky to a fixed point on Earth
continually like a geostationary satellite, but appear to a ground observer to cross the sky and "set" when they go
behind the Earth. Therefore, to provide continuous communications capability with these lower orbits requires a
larger number of satellites, so one will always be in the sky for transmission of communication signals. However,
due to their relatively small distance to the Earth their signals are stronger.
Low Earth Orbiting (LEO) satellites[edit]

Low Earth orbit in Cyan

A low Earth orbit (LEO) typically is a circular orbit about 160 to 2,000 kilometres (99 to 1,243 mi) above the earth's
surface[ and, correspondingly, a period (time to revolve around the earth) of about 90 minutes.

Because of their low altitude, these satellites are only visible from within a radius of roughly 1,000 kilometres
(620 mi) from the sub-satellite point. In addition, satellites in low earth orbit change their position relative to the
ground position quickly. So even for local applications, a large number of satellites are needed if the mission
requires uninterrupted connectivity.

Low-Earth-orbiting satellites are less expensive to launch into orbit than geostationary satellites and, due to
proximity to the ground, do not require as high signal strength (Recall that signal strength falls off as the square of
the distance from the source, so the effect is dramatic). Thus there is a trade off between the number of satellites
and their cost.

DOMSAT

Domestic satellites are used to provide various telecommunication services, such as voice, data, and video

transmission (T.V channels), with in a country. Satellite cell phones allow global travelers and those in remote areas

to avoid landlines and terrestrial cell phone services entirely. Satellite cell phones relay your call to a satellite and
down through a hub to the end user. This means that most of the earth's geographical area is now accessible by a

satellite cell phone! Third party providers of satellite cell include Satcom Global, Roadpost Satcom, Online Satellite
Communications, and others.

The INTELSAT Organization was established in 1964 to handle the myriad of technical and administrative problems

associated with a world wide telecommunication system. The international regions served by INTELSAT are divided in

to the Atlantic Ocean region (AOR), the Pacific Ocean Region (POR), and the Indian Ocean region (IOR). For each

region , satellites are positioned in geo-stationary orbit above the particular Ocean, where they provide a

transoceanic telecommunication route. In addition to providing trans oceanic routes, the INTELSAT satellites are used

for domestic services within any given country and regional services between countries. Two such services are vista
for telephony and Intelnet for data exchange.

Ans 3
Microwave transmission is the transmission of information or energy by microwave radio waves. Although an
experimental 64 km (40 mile) microwave telecommunication link across the English Channel was demonstrated in
1931, the development of radar in World War II provided the technology for practical exploitation of microwave
communication. In the 1950s, large transcontinental microwave relay networks, consisting of chains of repeater
stations linked by line-of-sight beams of microwaves were built in Europe and America to relay long distance
telephone traffic and television programs between cities.Communication satellites which transferred data between
ground stations by microwaves took over much long distance traffic in the 1960s. In recent years there has been an
explosive increase in use of the microwave spectrum by new telecommunication technologies such as wireless
networks, and direct-broadcast satellites which broadcast television and radio directly into consumers' homes.

Microwave radio relay is a technology for transmitting digital and analog signals, such as long-distance telephone
calls, television programs, and computer data, between two locations on a line of sight radio path.
In microwave radio relay, microwaves are transmitted between the two locations with directional antennas, forming
a fixed radio connection between the two points. The requirement of a line of sight limits the distance between
stations. Precise distance between stations of a microwave link is a design decision based on path study
analysis of terrain, altitude, economics of tower construction and required reliability of the link.

Beginning in the 1950s, networks of microwave relay links, such as the AT&T Long Lines system in the U.S.,
carried long distance telephone calls and television programs between cities.[1] The first system, dubbed TD-2 and
built by AT&T, connected New York and Boston in 1947 with a series of eight radio relay stations.[1] These included
long daisy-chainedseries of such links that traversed mountain ranges and spanned continents. Much of the
transcontinental traffic is now carried by cheaper optical fibers and communication satellites, but microwave relay
remains important for shorter distances.

Microwaves are widely used for point-to-point communications because their small wavelength allows
conveniently-sized antennas to direct them in narrow beams, which can be pointed directly at the receiving
antenna. This allows nearby microwave equipment to use the same frequencies without interfering with each other,
as lower frequency radio waves do. Another advantage is that the high frequency of microwaves gives the
microwave band a very large information-carrying capacity; the microwave band has a bandwidth 30 times that of
all the rest of the radio spectrum below it. A disadvantage is that microwaves are limited to line of sightpropagation;
they cannot pass around hills or mountains as lower frequency radio waves can.

Microwave Radio Communications

Advantages & Disadvantages

Microwave radio signals are electromagnetic waves short wavelengths and high high frequencies
between 500 MHz to 300 GHz. About 35 percent of all terrestrial communication is maintained by
microwave radio relay systems. There are various types of microwave radio communication
systems, operating anywhere between 15 miles to 4,000 miles, including feeder service or intrastate
microwave systems and long-haul microwave systems.

Microwave radio systems can broadcast large quantities of information because of their high
frequencies. Microwave repeaters also give microwave communication systems the ability to
transmit data over extremely long distances. A repeater receives the transmitting signal through one
antenna, converts it into an electrical signal and then retransmits it again as a microwave signal at
full strength. Microwave radio communication systems propagate signals through the earth's
atmosphere. These signals are sent between transmitters and receivers that lie on top of towers.
This allows microwave radio systems to transmit thousands of data channels between two points
without relying on a physical medium like fiber optics or wire cables.

Microwave communication systems have relatively low construction costs compared with other forms
of data transmission, such as wire-line technologies. A microwave communication system does not
require physical cables or expensive attenuation equipment (devices that maintain signal strength
during transmission). Mountains, hills and rooftops provide inexpensive and accessible bases for
microwave transmission towers.

Disadvantage

Microwave radio systems do not pass through solid objects. This can be problematic in cities with a
lot of tall buildings or mountainous regions if you want to send a signal from one end of the city to the
other. There are ways to work around this, like erecting repeaters between two towers if an object is
blocking them. Signals can also be bounced off of solid objects and even the ionosphere. It is even
possible to bounce microwaves off of the moon, in earth-moon-earth communications known as
moon bouncing

Electromagnetic interference, or EMI, can obstruct or degrade the performance of microwave

signals. Electric motors, electric power transmission lines and wind turbines can all emit EMI that
disrupts microwave communication. Wind turbines, for example, scatter and diffract TV, radio and
microwave signals when placed between signal transmitters and receivers. Microwave radio
communication can also be degraded by heavy moisture in the atmosphere, snow, rain and fog, in a
phenomenon known as rain fade
ANS 4
Processor operations mostly involve processing data. This data can be stored in memory and accessed from
thereon. However, reading data from and storing data into memory slows down the processor, as it involves
complicated processes of sending the data request across the control bus and into the memory storage unit and
getting the data through the same channel.

To speed up the processor operations, the processor includes some internal memory storage locations,
called registers.

The registers store data elements for processing without having to access the memory. A limited number of
registers are built into the processor chip.

Processor Registers
There are ten 32-bit and six 16-bit processor registers in IA-32 architecture. The registers are grouped into
three categories

General registers,
Control registers, and
Segment registers.
The general registers are further divided into the following groups

Data registers,
Pointer registers, and
Index registers.

Data Registers
Four 32-bit data registers are used for arithmetic, logical, and other operations. These 32-bit registers can be
used in three ways

As complete 32-bit data registers: EAX, EBX, ECX, EDX.

Lower halves of the 32-bit registers can be used as four 16-bit data registers: AX, BX, CX and DX.

Lower and higher halves of the above-mentioned four 16-bit registers can be used as eight 8-bit data
registers: AH, AL, BH, BL, CH, CL, DH, and DL.

Some of these data registers have specific use in arithmetical operations.

AX is the primary accumulator; it is used in input/output and most arithmetic instructions. For example, in
multiplication operation, one operand is stored in EAX or AX or AL register according to the size of the
operand.
BX is known as the base register, as it could be used in indexed addressing.

CX is known as the count register, as the ECX, CX registers store the loop count in iterative operations.

DX is known as the data register. It is also used in input/output operations. It is also used with AX register
along with DX for multiply and divide operations involving large values.

Pointer Registers
The pointer registers are 32-bit EIP, ESP, and EBP registers and corresponding 16-bit right portions IP, SP,
and BP. There are three categories of pointer registers

Instruction Pointer (IP) The 16-bit IP register stores the offset address of the next instruction to be
executed. IP in association with the CS register (as CS:IP) gives the complete address of the current
instruction in the code segment.

Stack Pointer (SP) The 16-bit SP register provides the offset value within the program stack. SP in
association with the SS register (SS:SP) refers to be current position of data or address within the
program stack.

Base Pointer (BP) The 16-bit BP register mainly helps in referencing the parameter variables passed
to a subroutine. The address in SS register is combined with the offset in BP to get the location of the
parameter. BP can also be combined with DI and SI as base register for special addressing.

Index Registers
The 32-bit index registers, ESI and EDI, and their 16-bit rightmost portions. SI and DI, are used for indexed
addressing and sometimes used in addition and subtraction. There are two sets of index pointers

Source Index (SI) It is used as source index for string operations.

Destination Index (DI) It is used as destination index for string operations.

Control Registers
The 32-bit instruction pointer register and the 32-bit flags register combined are considered as the control
registers.

Many instructions involve comparisons and mathematical calculations and change the status of the flags and
some other conditional instructions test the value of these status flags to take the control flow to other
location.

The common flag bits are:

Overflow Flag (OF) It indicates the overflow of a high-order bit (leftmost bit) of
data after a signed arithmetic operation.
 Direction Flag (DF) It determines left or right direction for moving or comparing
string data. When the DF value is 0, the string operation takes left-to-right direction and
when the value is set to 1, the string operation takes right-to-left direction.

Interrupt Flag (IF) It determines whether the external interrupts like keyboard
entry, etc., are to be ignored or processed. It disables the external interrupt when the value
is 0 and enables interrupts when set to 1.

Trap Flag (TF) It allows setting the operation of the processor in single-step mode.
The DEBUG program we used sets the trap flag, so we could step through the execution one
instruction at a time.

Sign Flag (SF) It shows the sign of the result of an arithmetic operation. This flag
is set according to the sign of a data item following the arithmetic operation. The sign is
indicated by the high-order of leftmost bit. A positive result clears the value of SF to 0 and
negative result sets it to 1.

Zero Flag (ZF) It indicates the result of an arithmetic or comparison operation. A

nonzero result clears the zero flag to 0, and a zero result sets it to 1.

Auxiliary Carry Flag (AF) It contains the carry from bit 3 to bit 4 following an
arithmetic operation; used for specialized arithmetic. The AF is set when a 1-byte arithmetic
operation causes a carry from bit 3 into bit 4.

ANS 5
(I) Double-sideband suppressed-carrier transmission (DSB-SC) is transmission in which frequencies produced
by amplitude modulation (AM) are symmetrically spaced above and below the carrier frequency and the carrier
level is reduced to the lowest practical level, ideally being completely suppressed.

In the DSB-SC modulation, unlike in AM, the wave carrier is not transmitted; thus, much of the power is distributed
between the sidebands, which implies an increase of the cover in DSB-SC, compared to AM, for the same power
used.

DSB-SC transmission is a special case of double-sideband reduced carrier transmission. It is used for radio data
systems.

DSB-SC is basically an amplitude modulation wave without the carrier, therefore reducing power waste, giving it a
50% efficiency. This is an increase compared to normal AM transmission (DSB), which has a maximum efficiency
of 33.333%, since 2/3 of the power is in the carrier which carries no intelligence, and each sideband carries the
same information. Single Side Band (SSB) Suppressed Carrier is 100% efficient.
Spectrum plot of a DSB-SC signal:

The equation of AM wave in its simplest form i.e. single tone modulation, is expressed as :

From this equation, it is obvious that the carrier component in AM wave remains constant
in amplitude and frequency . This means that the carrier of amplitude modulated wave does
not convey any information .

In power calculation of AM signal, it has been observed that for single-tone sinusoidal
modulation, the ratio of the total power to the carrier power is :

ANS 5 (IV)
Intel 8086 microprocessor is a first member of x86 family of processors. Advertised as a "source-code compatible"
with Intel 8080 and Intel 8085 processors, the 8086 was not object code compatible with them. The 8086 has complete
16-bit architecture - 16-bit internal registers, 16-bit data bus, and 20-bit address bus (1 MB of physical memory).
Because the processor has 16-bit index registers and memory pointers, it can effectively address only 64 KB of memory.
To address memory beyond 64 KB the CPU uses segment registers - these registers specify memory locations for code,
stack, data and extra data 64 KB segments. The segments can be positioned anywhere in memory, and, if necessary,
user programs can change their position. This addressing method has one big advantage - it is very easy to write
memory-independent code when the size of code, stack and data is smaller than 64 KB each. The complexity of the
code and programming increases, sometimes significantly, when the size of stack, data and/code is larger than 64 KB.
To support different variations of this awkward memory addressing scheme many 8086 compilers included 6 different
memory models: tiny, small, compact, medium, large and huge. 64 KB direct addressing limitation was eliminated with
the introduction of the 32-bit protected mode in Intel 80386 processor.
Intel 8086 instruction set includes a few very powerful string instructions. When these instructions are prefixed
by REP (repeat) instruction, the CPU will perform block operations - move block of data, compare data blocks,
set data block to certain value, etc, that is one 8086 string instruction with a REP prefix could do as much as a
4-5 instruction loop on some other processors. To be fair, the Zilog Z80 included move and search block
instructions, and Motorola 68000 could execute block operations using just two instructions.
The 8086 microprocessor provides support for Intel 8087 numeric co-processor. The CPU recognizes all
Floating-Point (FP) instructions. When the FP instructions reference the memory, the CPU calculates memory
address and performs dummy memory read. The calculated address, and possibly read data, is captured by the
FPU. After that the CPU proceeds to the next instruction, while the FPU executes the floating-point
instruction. Thus, both integer and floating-point instructions can be executed concurrently.
Original Intel 8086 CPU was manufactured using HMOS technology. Later Intel introduced 80C86 and
80C86A - CHMOS versions of the CPU. These microprocessors had much lower power consumption and
featured standby mode.