Hec Ras - Pag - IV-181 - Intake+desanding Basin

INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON
Bali, Indonesia, June 1ST 6TH , 2014
Upper Gotvand Dam and Hydro Power Plant

Dealing With Salinity in Reservoir
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Challenges, Remedies and Evaluations fffffjfjjfkkfjjj
D. Mahjoob Farshchi & A. Sadatifard

Iran Water and Power Resources Development, Tehran, Iran
2(14pt) d.mahjoob@iwpco.ir & darymah73@gmail.com
H. Hassani & A. Zia

MahabGhodss Consulting Engineering Company, Tehran, Iran
ABSTRACT:
Due to a karstic formation with halite layers which were coming into direct contact with the
reservoir after impounding, salinity has been a crucial challenge in Upper Gotvand Hydro
Power Plant and Dam Project. Using a versatile numerical tool as an important part of
comprehensive studies carried out in this regard, quality conditions were predicted for the
reservoir and also for downstream water before starting the impounding. According to the
numerical results, effective volume of the formation and also dissolution rate were diagnosed
as the predominant parameters. The model also showed that distinct stratification of salinity
was formed in the reservoir depending on density and temperature. Based on these results,
rehabilitative solutions plan was designed and carried out proportional to conditions of each
stage of impounding. It was showed that during the first stage which the reservoir volume was
small, direct contact between the halite layers and reservoir should be prevented somehow to
reduce the dissolution rate. To this purpose, efficiency of different proposed solutions was
examined in a physical hydraulic mode. Accordingly the clay blanket was selected as the final
rehabilitative method of this stage. Furthermore, as the interim part of the rehabilitative plan
three additional intakes were added in the different levels to avoid collecting saline water in
the reservoir keeping the downstream water quality in the allowable limits. Finally as the
lifetime solution, a pipeline which is under construction was proposed to transfer the high
density water of the reservoir bottom to a convenient place. It was showed that the pipeline
can improve the water qualitative conditions starkly. Efficiency of the rehabilitative plan
which was carried out and monitored during the initial years after impounding, is discussed in
this paper in more details.
Keywords: Karst, Halite, Salinity, Impounding.
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1. INTRODUCTION
Gotvand dam is the most downstream one of a cascade of 11 large dams on Karoun River.
Karoun is the largest river by discharge in Iran and just after the Gotvand dam traverses the
Khuzestan plain, the main agricultural area in the south of Iran, before discharges into the
Persian Gulf.
Gotvand Dam is a rockfill dam with a height of 182 meters mainly built to
generate hydroelectric power and provide flood control.
The average annual runoff volume at the dam section is about 13.3 billion m3 and the
reservoir capacity with a length of 90 kilometers is about 5.1 billion m3 at the maximum
normal operation elevation (234 masl).
There is a geological formation consisting of alternate layers of halite, anhydrite and marl,
located in 4 kilometers upstream of the dam axis. This formation with a height of 120 meters
(80.0 to 300.0 masl) is extended 3 kilometer along the left bank of the river. The total volume
of the formation is about 600 million m3 and the area of the halite outcrops is about 150000 m2
(see Fig. 1).
Figure 1. Gachsaran Formation
Since the halite areas were coming into direct contact with the reservoir after impounding and
due to high dissolution rate of the halite, reservoir water quality has been the most technical
challenging concern in Gotvand Project.
This paper tries to explain the issue and its solutions.
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2. APPROACH
In order to study the effects of the formation on water quality of the reservoir and the dam
discharge, the measures were focused to find answers of the following questions:
How many percent of the formation would be involved with impoundment?
How much is the dissolution rate?
How will distribute salinity in the reservoir?
A comprehensive study consisting of in-situ and office investigations was carried out in this
regard. The results showed that the area is extremely karstified with different size of sinkholes.
Geotechnical investigations showed that 4% of its whole volume has been formed by the
cavities without specified connections between them. Furthermore it was turned out that the
formation has been constituted by non continuous alternate layers of halite, anhydrite and marl
and therefore merely a part of halite could be dissolved after the impounding. The total
volume of halite was estimated about 60 mcm.
In order to measure the dissolution rate, extensive physical tests with different laboratorial
scales were implemented. The results showed the dissolution rate of anhydrite is really slow
while that of halite is quite high having remarkable effects on the water quality. These tests
also proved that the salt dissolution is an intricate phenomenon depending on different
parameters such as water temperature, pressure, flow rates, turbidity and pureness. Meanwhile
due to obtaining a wide range of values for the dissolution rate (from 5 to 75 cm of thickness
of sample per day), it was determined to estimate this in a large scale model considering the
real conditions as much as possible.
Afterwards using the estimated requisite parameters such as the involved volume of the salt
and its dissolution rate and a numerical versatile model, the salinity conditions of the reservoir
was predicted and accordingly details of the impounding scenario were defined.
3. NUMERICAL AND PHYSICAL MODELS
3.1 Numerical Model
Water quality in the reservoir and the dam outlet was predicted using two individual numerical
tools MIKE and CEQUAL before impounding. Effective volume of halite, dissolution rate,
entrance mechanism of saline flow into the reservoir and daily temperature (using the 40 year
statistics) were introduced into the model as the most important parameters. The numerical
models will be discussed in details in a paper which is under preparation by the authors.
The results of short and long term analyses showed that both thermal and salinity
stratifications would be formed in the reservoir. Therefore vertical salinity profile would be
made up in the reservoir with high density water layers in the bottom. It was seen that the level
of high density layers would be limited to that of the dam openings dependent on their
discharge capacity. The temperature would be constant during the year in the lower part of the
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reservoir height. It was also foreseen the thermal stratification would be disappeared in the
winter. This would be occurred in the surface layers because the temperature of the upper
layers would not be lower than 12 Celsius degrees due to the climate conditions of the dam.
Furthermore it was seen that the dissolution rate was the most important parameter influencing
the salinity condition. Considering these results a comprehensive remedial plan was design
and carried out to control the salinity issue in the reservoir. This will be discussed in the
following Section 4.
3.2 Physical Model, Needs for Understanding and Prediction
The most reliable information about a physical process such as dissolving and salinity
distribution among the reservoir may be given by experimental measurement. To reach this
achievement, a number of partial physical models with different scales were built. These
models have been shown in Fig. 2. The most notable measurements and features of processes
which expected to be explored during study by the models are as follows:
Evaluating the dissolution rate,

Estimating dissolution rate under currents,
Understanding effect of cover on the halite dissolution
To see stratification in the reservoir more precisely
Testing rate of impounding on behavior of the outcrops of halite and the stratifications
Alternate of the halite and marl layers and also outlets at different levels were foreseen in the
model. Impounding rate was fully under control and stopped at some already determined
levels to see probable instability. At the same time, water quality parameters were measured
along and in the whole depth of model to see stratification. Each test took 3 to 7 days. At the
end of the tests, dissolved mass was determined by weighting the rest of undissolved halite
mass. These were carried out repeatedly for various impounding rates. They were also
implemented to evaluate the efficiency of different alternatives for covering the outcrops
proposed to decrease the dissolution rate.
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Figure 2. Different physical models to measure the dissolution rate
4. REMEDIAL PLAN
According to the results discussed in the previous section, strong stratification of salinity was
predicted to form in the reservoir after impounding. Furthermore the dissolution rate was
diagnosed as a crucial factor in this regard. Therefore in order to deal with the salinity
problem, a comprehensive remedial plan consisting of the following items was carried out:
minimize the dissolution rate and salinity stratification management, filling the sinkholes, the
additional intakes in the different levels, preliminary impounding, monitoring reservoir,
proportional operation scenarios and complementary solution.
4.1 Minimize the dissolution rate and salinity stratification management
In order to reduce the dissolution rate (specially during the first stage of impounding which the
reservoir volume is small) and conducting the high density waters to the bottom preventing
them to be mixed with upper fresh water of the reservoir, it was determined to prevent the
direct contact between the outcrops and water by covering the slopes. To find out the most
efficient coating material, the geological conditions of the area consisting of the alternate
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layers of halite, anhydrate and marl were constructed and coated by the different alternatives
in the physical model and efficiency of each one was evaluated under impounding via separate
experiments:
4.1.1 Geo-Membrane
Although Geo-Membrane has been diagnosed as a successful alternative during the
laboratorial investigations, it was not selected as the justifiable final one due to being
vulnerable against probable large point load perpendicular to its surface and also to large
settlement of its foundation caused by dissolution and in other hand due to its high expenses.
4.1.2 Nano, polyurethane and asphaltic materials

Application of new synthetic materials such as Nano, polyurethane and asphaltic ones were
also investigated in the model. The test results showed that the coating adhesion was
disappeared because the area had been formed by the different materials due to its geological
conditions. Moreover impacts of this alternative are unknown.
4.1.3 Concrete blocks

This alternative was rejected because of lack of enough flexibility against large settlement of
the foundation and also its high expenses.
4.1.4 Clay blanket

In order to examine the efficiency of this alternative, the slopes were stabilized firstly and then
covered by a layer of clay blanket along with a layer of protective riprap. The results showed
that due to high flexibility against large settlement, its tailor-ability, available borrow areas
and justifiable performance expenses, this can be considered as the most efficient solution.
This was confirmed after impounding based on the reservoir monitoring results which will be
discussed in the next section of this paper.
4.2 Filling the sinkholes
To reduce the area permeability, most of sinkholes were filled by slurry.
4.3 The additional intakes in the different levels
Since the numerical and physical results showed that salinity stratification would be formed in
the reservoir, it was determined to add some new intakes to the ones such as bottom outlet,
power plant and spillway intakes which had been constructed in the levels of 123, 160 to185
and 218 (masl) respectively based on the project main objectives. To do this, three intakes
were added in the levels of 90, 110 and 158 (masl), it should be noted that the level of river
bottom is 70 (masl) in the dam axis location. Therefore the project team could apply different
operation scenarios preventing salinity accumulation in the reservoir simultaneous with
providing the adequate water for the downstream people. Validity of these will be discussed in
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the next section based on monitoring results of the reservoir which were observed after
impounding.
4.4 Preliminary impounding
In order to verify the efficiency of the above mentioned plan, a preliminary phase was defined
for the impounding. Based on this, the level of water surface was kept constant for 3 months at
the level of 140 to monitor the reservoir conditions and quality of the water releasing to the
downstream. A relevant plan was also defined for any urgent need to instant depletion. As it
will be discussed in Section 5, it was seen that the predicted solutions were really successful.
4.5 Monitoring the reservoir and proportional operation scenarios
Since beginning of the impounding so far, seven important parameters consisting of soluble
oxygen, electrical conductivity, pressure, density, TDS, temperature and density are measured
online using a hi-tech instrument which was designed and installed in the reservoir. This
system sends out the data to the operation center as vertical profile which shows the water
conditions from the bottom to the surface. Based on these results, it was seen that the
stratification has been formed in the reservoir as it has been predicted before impounding. In
addition, these results are used to calibrate the numerical model and to define proportional
operation scenarios. This model was applied as a tool to predict long term behavior of the
reservoir.
4.6 Complementary solution
Based on the numerical results, a pipeline system as a complementary solution has been
designed to be constructed to transfer the high density water collected in the reservoir bottom
to industrial oil centers in order to use as crude material if needed.
5. RESERVOIR CONDITIONS
As mentioned in Section 4.4, the reservoir conditions have been daily monitored using a high-
tech measuring system. As predicted by the numerical modeling, the monitoring results show
that the thermal and salinity stratifications have been formed in the reservoir after impounding
(see Fig. 3). Furthermore according to these it was turned out that the thermal stratification
will be disappeared at the beginning of the winter. This occurred in a depth limited to the
surface layers (see Fig. 4).
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Figure 3. Salinity distribution in the reservoir
Least but not last the monitoring results indicate that the quality of the reservoir and of the
released water to the downstream have been satisfactory during the three years after
impounding.
Figure 4. Thermal stratification
It should be noted that the monitoring results have been used to precisely estimation of the
halite dissolution rate and calibration of the numerical model which is used by the operation
team to predict the long term conditions of the reservoir as a versatile tool.
6. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
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Inside Gotvand reservoir there is a huge massive formation with the volume of 600
million m3 which contains 60 million m3 of halite. This event could make a crucial
threat for downstream water quality.
Extensive study and vast range of investigations including physical and numerical
modeling proved that a key point to choose a method for dealing with the problem is to
reduce the dissolution rate of halite.
Another key finding is to provide conditions to form strong stratification and prevent
mixing the layers inside the reservoir. Strong stratification means considerable
difference in the salinity and hence in the density of each layer.
In order to reduce the dissolution rate and restrict the direct contact between the water
and halite outcrops, the slopes were covered with the clay blanket and a protective
riprap layer. With regarding to formation of strong salinity stratification in the
reservoir, three additional intakes were added in the different levels. This allowed the
project team to define and apply proportional operation scenarios to prevent
accumulation of saline water in the reservoir in addition to providing adequate water
for downstream people.
To have a practical evaluation on the efficiency of the above mentioned solutions, a
preliminary stage was defined in the impounding plan.
Based on the numerical results, a pipeline system as a complementary solution has
been designed to be constructed to transfer the high density water collected in the
reservoir bottom to industrial oil centers in order to use as crude material if needed.
To verify the numerical results and definition of proportional operation scenarios, a
high-tech monitoring system has been installed in the dam lake. The monitoring results
show that the reservoir quality conditions have been satisfactory from the impounding
time so far.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Special thanks to Mr. Naderan from Iran Water and Power Resources Development Company and Mr.
Zafari from Mahab Ghods Company for their supports.
REFERENCES
Mahab Ghodss Consulting Engineering Company (2011): Upper Gotvand reservoir water
quality modeling report, Iran
Mahab Ghodss Consulting Engineering Company (2008): Upper Gotvand reservoir geology
investigation report, Iran
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Mahab Ghodss Consulting Engineering Company (2012): Upper Gotvand reservoir geology
investigation report, Iran
Mahab Ghodss Consulting Engineering Company (2012): Upper Gotvand reservoir
monitoring Data and Analysis report
Mahab Ghodss Consulting Engineering Company (2013): Upper Gotvand reservoir
monitoring Data and Analysis report
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Integrated Approach for Environmental Management in Tenryu River

Yuichi KITAMURA, Dr.
Technical Director, Chigasaki Research Institute, Electric Power Development Co.,Ltd.(J-POWER), Japan
Yuichi_k@jpower.co.jp
Tetuo MURAKAMI, Dr.

B Professor, Faculity of Domestic Science, Nagoya Womenss University, Japan
ABSTRACT:
The environmental impacts on rivers are unavoidable by dam construction. The sedimentations in
upstream of dams, discharges of turbidity water to downstream and changes in water temperature
are typical environmental issues for dam impoundment. These impacts restricted not only near the
impoundment but also on upstream and downstream. Therefore the more integrated environmental
management approach has been required for the whole river system including from catchment area
to sea.
The "Tenryu River Natural Resources Reproduction Committee" has been established on 2012
through three years preparation. The purpose of the committee is the preservation, and
conservation for the environmental condition of the Tenryu River, especially for inland water
fisheries. The committee is composed of the fishermen's cooperative association, researchers of
ecology and limnology, and the dam administrators. Information about the environment of the
Tenryu and the technical development for fisheries are discussed in the committee over each
standing point.
The committee now gives prominence on three important issue for fishery product; "attached algae
productivity of river with dams", the "spawning bed creation for ayu fish (sweet fish;
Plecoglossus altivelis) and "information dissemination of these research to local communities. In
this report, we present the outline of new approach of the committee for river environment
conservation and reconstruction of inland fisheries in the Tenryu River.
Keywords: Impacts on environmental condition; Multivariate and quantification analysis;

Investigation and evaluation technique; Attached algae; Productivity of river.
1. INTRODUCTION
The environmental impacts of dam impoundment on rivers are subjects which have started
since dam construction. Sedimentation in impoundment discharge of cool and turbid water
to downstream, and changes in nutrient concentrations caused by planktonic algal
production are severe problems in the Japanese rivers which have been constructed dams.
Moreover, these environmental impacts may also effect on lives and distribution of the
aquatic organisms of rivers, and as results may lead to depression of fisheries and changes
in human lives in local communities along the river. The influences does not restrict only
near impoundment, but also wide area which includes lower and upper streams far from
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reservoir. There are also many stakeholders in connection with a river, and therefore the
more synthetic environmental management over the whole river from headstream to sea is
needed.
In this report, we present outline of newly started actions by fishermen, researchers and
dam administrators for conservation of fluvial environment in the Tenryu River, Central
Japan.
2. REPRODUCTION OF THE TENRYU RIVER
2.1. Outline of Tenryu River
The Tenryu River is originated from Lake Suwa in Nagano Prefecture, and it flows
through the mountain area of Okumikawa and the Hokuen, and into the Pacific Ocean (Fig.
1). It has 213 km long, and has 5,094 km2 catchment area. In the Tenryu River, many dams
were built until now for the purpose of flood control, irrigation, and power generation.
Sakuma Dam, the largest one in the river system, is the concrete gravity dam, and has 294
m length and 156 m height built in the middle of the Tenryu River and the electric power
generated provides 1/3 of the potential water power. There are also two small dams for
power generation and irrigation, Akiba and Funagira Dams downstream of the Sakuma
Dam.
Figure 1. Tenryu River system and target area
2.2. The Tenryu River Natural Resources Reproduction Committee
The Tenryu River flows through the erodible area near the Median Tectonic Line in Japan
Islands, and therefore continuously carries a lot of sediment during flood periods. The
accumulative sediment in Sakuma Dam measured in 2013has reached to 37% of reservoir
capacity (327 million m3). Moreover, since the scale of the reservoir is large, discharge of
the turbid water containing clay, silt and fine sand has been severe problems. The turbid
water effects directly and indirectly to the main fishery resources of the sweet fish (referred
later as ayu fish; Plecoglossus altivelis). There is also the tendency for the recreational
fishing person to keep away to use as a fishery field because of turbid water. In recent
years, it is a reason for causing the depression of inland water fisheries.
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Moreover, there are also many stakeholders, and it needs a long period of time for the
understanding the problems, the adjustment, and the implementation of further plan for the
fluvial environment. In many rivers, the fishermens union is the only association that has
legal rights for economic activity. Under the present situation where environmental rights
without economic interests are not common, unions have a strong voice against artificial
interference with their fishing grounds. Therefore the more integrated environmental
management by fishermen has been required for the whole river system, including not only
the dam impoundment, but also up- and downstream.
The "Tenryu River Natural Resources Reproduction Committee" has been established on
2012. The purpose of the committee is the conservation of fluvial environment and
recreation for of inland fisheries especially ayu fish. The committee is composed of the
fishermen's cooperative association, researchers for limnology and ecology, and the dam
administrators. The information about the environment of Tenryu River, and the technical
problems for further development are discussed cross-boundary of the members (Fig. 2).
Figure 2. The Tenryu River Natural Resources Reproduction Committee
3. ENVIRONMENTAL CAPABILITY OF TENRYU RIVER
3.1. Environmental capability containing river ecology
The grasp of the environmental characteristics of the target river is important in the
preservation and the reproduction of in fluvial environment. Instream Flow Incremental
Methodology (IFIM), and Index of Index of Biological Integrity (IBI), etc. are recently
proposed as the methods of evaluating the environmental characteristics including the river
ecology (Nakamura 1999, and Koshimizu1997). But these evaluation methods need the
detailed investigation in the rivers, even if the effective methods which is applicable.
On the other hand, ayu fish is the main fish stocks in the river from which it is distributed
all over rivers in Japan. The ayu fish is the fish representing river ecology environment.
Moreover, the main target of inland water fisheries is the ayu fish in Japan. The ayu fish
has the special feeding habits which use a primary production (attached algae) as food is
(Kitamura 2002). Production of the minute attached algae to grasp is greatly influenced by
water temperature and turbid water compared with another living thing with large-scale
and high mobility.
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For this reason, in many rivers, investigation about the prolonged ayu fish productivity and
various related environment is conducted, and it has been accumulated as official
announcement data. Then, the fluvial environment of Tenryu River was positioned based
on the results of an investigation about main rivers all over the country.
3.2. Relevance of ayu fish productivity and environmental capability
The 22 main rivers all over Japan are compared with Tenryu River about the environment
condition. The information about ayu fish productivity, ayu fish planting, habitation range
of ayu fish, land use of catchment areas, etc., were used about the ecology environment of
a river. The catchment area, the river length, the river bed slope, the reservoir area of
structures (dams, and weir, etc.), and the discharge flow were used about the physical
environment. Furthermore, suspended solid concentration (SS), water temperature,
dissolved oxygen (DO), biological need for oxygen (BOD), etc. were used about the water
quality environment.
The multivariate and quantification analysis was conducted about the relation of the
environmental capability of 22 rivers and the ayu fish productivity with above environment
parameters (Hayashi 1993). Fig. 3 shows the mean value of ayu fish productivity (ratio of
ayu fish productivity with catchment area) in Japan was evaluated to 71kg/km2 for from
1988 to 1998. And the result of the single correlation analysis shows the relation into the
centering on ayu fish productivity between the factors was investigated in Fig. 4.
Figure 3. Comparison of ayu fish productivity of 22 rivers in Japan
Through the principal component analysis, the water temperature, the maximum discharge
flow/average discharge flow, and DO have the positive correlation with the ayu fish
productivity. And the river bed slope, SS, and the ratio of reservoir area and the catchment
area have the negative correlation with the productivity in the factors. 22 rivers were
plotted based on these main ingredients in Fig. 5. The group of high productivity (o) has
been arranged on the 1st quadrant. These results show that the ayu fish productivity of
Tenryu River is located near the boundary of the group of high productivity and the low
productivity.
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Figure 4. Single correlation of ayu fish productivity with environmental factors
Figure 5. Position of 22 rivers with ayu fish productivity by principal component
3.3. Ayu fish productivity of Tenryu River
The ayu fish productivity, ayu fish planting, the physical environment, and the water
quality environment about Tenryu River were analyzed by the regression analysis and the
principal component analysis for the data. The environmental factors were analyzed about
the influence for the change of the ayu fish productivity through 26 years data from 1979
to 2005. Through regression analysis, Fig. 6 shows that the annual change of ayu fish
productivity has high correlation with the ayu fish planting, and is strongly influenced to
the artificial influence. On the other hand, the water temperature, DO, the minimum
discharge flow, and the mean discharge flow have the positive correlation with the ayu fish
productivity.
Moreover, the relation between the change of ayu fish productivity and the environmental
factors were examined through the principal component analysis by using the same
parameter above mentioned regression analysis (Hayashi 1988). Fig. 7 shows the result of
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the analysis that the 1st ingredient has the positive correlation with SS and the mean
discharge flow, and the negative correlation with the water temperature. And it shows that
the 2nd ingredient has the positive correlation with the fish productivity/catchment area,
DO, BOD, and the ayu fish planting.
It shows that the change of fish productivity in Tenryu River becomes higher with BOD
and DO which have high correlation with the main ingredients 2, and the fish planting is
higher years. On the other hand, the change of fish productivity in Tenryu River has no
relation with SS and the mean discharge flow. In addition, the water temperature (from
January to May, and from October to December of the previous year) has small relation of
the ayu fish productivity and the environment factor of river because of small loading to
the main ingredients 1 and the 2nd ingredients.
Figure 6. Estimation of ayu fish productivity by regression analysis (Tenryu River)
Figure 7. Relation about ayu fish productivity and other factors (Tenryu River)
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4. MEASURES AND EXAMINATION METHOD
4.1. Structure of ecosystem, and improvement in fishes productivity
The recovery of ayu fish productivity in Tenryu River is related to SS, the water
temperature, DO, BOD, and the discharge flow through the statistical analysis about
environmental factors. It is convinced through the structure of a river ecosystem shown in
Fig. 8. The quantity of attached algae on the surface of the river bed materials is influenced
because of the change of the water quality, discharge flow, and the organic matter in the
river, and, the fish productivity and DO change with the influences of them as the result.
Moreover, the physical states in the river such as the movement of the bed material and the
particle diameter changes, then the attached algae on the bed material which is the food of
fishes changes, and the fish productivity also changes.
For this reason, the field investigation about the attached algae and DO gives the important
key for the change of the ecology environment of the river, or the fish productivity.
Figure 8. Structure of ecosystem in river system
4.2. Ayu fish productivity of Tenryu River
Adult ayu fish feeds on attached algae (periphytic algae) developing on gravels in the river.
Algal biomass as dry weight, chlorophyll a, and species composition of attached algae
were measured. The species composition of the attached organism and the biomass are not
uniform, and a number of samples for statistical analyses are needed (Otani 2009). For this
reason, the convenient measurement of the attached algae is required in the field. Fig. 9
shows that the results of investigation by the fluorometric method to roughly estimate
biomass and species composition of the attached algae in present research (Beutler 2002).
Biomass of blue-green algae and diatoms in just downstream of the Funagira Dam are
shown in Fig. 10. Dominant species was diatoms. Gravels surface was covered by clay and
silt. The fed part by ayu fish on the gravel (Samples No.41 and 43) was lager biomass than
other part of gravel (Sample No.42). Therefore this suggests the growth of algae will be
influenced by turbid water.
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Figure 9. Measurement of attached algae on gravel by fluorometric method
Figure 10. Algae on gravels at Shiomid bridge downstream of Funagira Dam (left: results of
measurement, right: gravel after fed by ayu fish)
4.3. Production rate investigation
The quality of the ayu fish of primary production foods is influenced to the species
composition of periphytic algal community and the biomass of attached algae. And the
algal productivity is also important factor. The productivity of attached algae is influenced
by the current. It is difficult to estimate the production in the laboratory. Therefore it is
more suitable to observe directly in the open system by which the flow is maintained. We
measure daily fluctuations in the DO, which is changed by algal production and respiration.
Fig. 11, 12, and 13 show the diurnal fluctuations in DO concentration. Fig. 11 shows that
the daily changes in DO in just downstream of Funagira Dam (red line) and lower riffle far
from the dam (blue line). It shows low productivity just downstream of the dam. On the
other hands, Fig. 12 shows productivity just downstream of the dam (red line) was higher
than the Keta River, a tributary without dam (blue line). Fig. 13 shows the long period
investigation of DO at the downstream left bank of Funagira Dam. Algal production and
respiration increased by development of algal community. Thick algal community
indicated by such high productivity was not suitable food environment for ayu fish. Thick
algal community was washed out after heavy precipitation and began succession of algal
community again. Dam impoundment can decrease in frequency such flood event.
Moreover, from the results of the investigation shown in Fig. 13, the production rate (P) of
attached algae of Funagira Dam in the downstream, changes greatly with the renewal time
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and the sunshine conditions, and is estimated roughly 0-20 mgO2/m3/day through the DO
with taking account the water temperature. The respiration rate (R) under the fine weather
is same range in general, and the ratio of P/R is almost 1.0. However, the daylight hours
are short, the breathing may exceed production.
Figure 11. Change range of DO at downstream Figure 12. Daily change of DO at

and lower riffle of Funagira Dam Funagira Dam and Keta River
Figure 13. Long period change of DO, water temperature and rain at downstream of Funagira Dam
5. CONCLUSION
It is introduced about the outline of new approach of the committee for fluvial environment
conservation and reconstruction of inland fisheries in the Tenryu River. The purpose of the
committee is the preservation, and conservation for the environmental condition of the
Tenryu River. In order to make reproduction of Tenryu River successful, it is important to
get to know well about the environmental capability about Tenryu River. Same valuable
conclusions can be drawn as followers:
(1) Through the statistical analysis about 22 rivers in Japan with the official announcement
data, the fluvial environment of Tenryu River was evaluated at the boundary of the
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group of high productivity and the low productivity in Japan, and has the positive
correlation with water temperature, discharge, and DO.
(2) In Tenryu River, the annual change of ayu fish productivity is strongly influenced to
the artificial influence of fish planting. Through the principal component analysis it is
suggested the recovery of ayu fish productivity and the environment improve in Tenryu
River have been necessary to SS, the water temperature, DO, BOD, and the discharge.
(3) The fluorometric method to estimate biomass and species composition of the attached
algae in the field, and the growth of algae on the surface of gravel will be influenced by
turbid water from the results of investigation.
(4) The productivity of attached algae was investigated through the measure of daily
fluctuations in the DO concentration in the river, and changed because frequency of
flood events. The production rate is estimated roughly 0-20 mgO2/m3/day
The committee gives the importance of information dissemination, therefore the

environmental preservation of Tenryu River, technology, and other information are always
disseminated to the various local communities and stakeholders by the homepage (URL:
www.tenryugawa.jp). Furthermore, in the committee, the DNA microarray of the ayu fish
has been created for the first time in the world as the new method of an environmental
impact assessment. Gene expression analysis by the river water of Tenryu River was
conducted, and it investigated about the influence in the gene level. We want to report at
the next opportunity.
REFERENCES
Nakamura S. (1999) : Introduction of IFIM (United States Department of the Interior),

Foundation for Riverfront Improvement and Restoration, Japan (in Japanese).
Koshimizu N. and Matuismiya Y. (1997) : Habitat Environment Assessment of River Fish
Fauna by Index of Biotic Integrity, Japanese Soc. of Fisheries Oceanography: Vol.61,
pp.144-156, Japan (in Japanese).
Kitamura Y., Matsumoto M., and Katsuyama I. (2002) : Development of the Prediction
and Evaluation method for River Ecosystem by the Catches of Ayu fish, Proceedings
o Rivers Engineering and Technology JSCE, Japan (in Japanese).
Hayashi C. (1993): Quantification method, Theory and Method (Statistical Library),
Asakura-Shupan, Japan (in Japanese).
Hayashi C. (1988) : Fundamental Method of Data Analysis, Open University of Japan,
Japan (in Japanese).
Otani H., Kitamura Y., and Shinjo T. (2009) : Study for Evaluation of Attached algae on
Riverbed by Wavelengths Absorbance Method, Journal of Electric Power Civil
Engineering, Japan (in Japanese).
Beutler M., Wiltshire K. H., Meyer B., Moldaenke C., Luring C., Meyerhofer M., Hansen
U. P., and Dau H. (2002) : A Fluorometric Method for the Differentiation of Algal
Populations in Vivo and Situ, Photosynthesis Research 72, the Netherlands.
IV - 20
LIDAR ALS Application for Construction of the Digital Model

of the Dam Reservoir Bowl
A. Kosik
Institute of Meteorology and Water Management, Warsaw, Poland
Anna.Kosik@imgw.pl
K. Mak
E. Sieinski
Institute of Meteorology and Water Management, Dams Monitoring Center, Warsaw, Poland
J. Winter
A. Wita
ABSTRACT:
Accumulation takes place all along during the dam reservoir exploitation. The reservoir
capacity loss and limitation of its usefulness are the consequences. Since one of the
reasons for building dam reservoirs is flood protection, a decrease of the flood capacity
limits their effectiveness. The understanding of the relationships between the water level in
the reservoir and the volume of the water in the reservoir (reservoir capacity curve) is
essential for their correct exploitation.
Digital hydroaccoustic probes combined with GPS receivers mounted on measurement
boats are currently used for bathymetric measurements of dam reservoirs. digital models
of the dam reservoir bowl, a bathymetric map of the reservoir as well as reservoir capacity
curve are drawn upon processed data. The measurements should be carried out during the
maximum water level so that the digital model of the dam reservoir bowl would cover the
whole range of the water level. Unfortunately it is not always possible and additional
geodesy measurements have to be done to the uncovered parts of the reservoir bowl which
may be difficult to reach for the measurement teams because of the slushy conditions.
Additional difficulties may be faced during the measurements of the backwater area due to
shallow water level and limited access to this area by the measurement boat.
In the article a solution to the problem was presented using LIDAR on the uncovered parts
of the reservoir bowl. The Digital Terrain Models of the bathymetric measurements and
LiDAR- ASL were combined. The integrated model of the reservoir area allows for the
dimensional analysis with GIS software as well as other tools including tables, capacity
curves and surface flood area essential for correct exploitation of the reservoir especially
during floods. The results for one of the reservoirs in Poland were presented in the article.
IV - 21
Keyword : sedimentation, bathymetric measurements, losing reservoir capacity, LiDAR-ALS
1. INTRODUCTION
In hydrological studies of reservoirs, it is very important to define the morphometry. First

of all, the characteristics of the size and the characteristics of the capacity, depth and the
bottom of the reservoir.
Stating of those values is possible on the basis of the bathymetric plan of the reservoir
drawn upon a Digital Terrain Model (DTM) of the bottom of the reservoir.
In order to describe the bottom of the reservoir, in the form of a bathymetric plan or a
Digital Terrain Model, a set of points with known parameters, specifying their position in
space, evenly spaced on the surface of the bottom is necessary. This task can be performed
in different ways, depending on the technical possibilities and the desired accuracy of the
plan. The best way to do bathymetric measurement is to use a probe with GPS navigation
receiver. Hydrographic work carried out in this way requires integrated measurement
techniques including differential measurements, DGNSS or RTK as well as probing.
During the measurements the horizontal position of the vessel as well as the depth are
recorded. To develop the Digital Terrain Model of the bottom of the reservoir it is
necessary to precisely link both data in order to avoid errors arising from transferring the
measurements over time.
2. BATHYMETRIC MEASUREMENTS
As far as the bathymetric measurements of water reservoirs are concerned, depth

measurements are usually limited by the shoreline of the reservoir. So beforehand, a file
with the reservoir shoreline, as well as intersection lines for the depth measurements are
essential. Orthophotomaps are best source of information about the shoreline. However
due to the problems which may result form the misinterpretation of some of its fragments,
such as forested parts of the shore, it is necessary to verify or complete some parts through
direct geodetic measurements on location. Another possibility is the determination of the
shoreline on the basis of topographic maps.
GPS Satellite Positioning System marks the position of the vessel in real time with
accuracy to a few inches, allowing for the precise navigation boat along previously
designed profiles .
The data from a GPS receiver combined with probes allow developing the numerical
model of the reservoir bowl. The position of each point is determined by the coordinates
(x, y, z) where x, y, are geodetic coordinates and z is depth. A collection of all the
coordinates describing the bathymetry of the reservoir should be downloaded into GIS
software and interpolated. Consequently, a set of data processed into grid nodes with the
grid size depending on the required resolution. The Digital Terrain Model of the bottom of
the reservoir allows for automatic generation of contours, cross-sections and calculation of
the ground mass volume.
IV - 22
ArcGIS by ESRI extensions-3D Analyst and Spatial Analyst can be applied for the
creation of the numerical models of the bottom of water reservoirs. They allow for the
development of a digital model of the bottom and to plot izobats, in case of the
development of the bathymetric plan of the reservoir (fig. 1).
Figure 1. Digital Terrain Model the bottom of the reservoir, with the generated isobaths
As it was proved, the collection and processing of the bathymetric data is complicated. It
begins with the preparation of measurements by identifying the shoreline and establishing
the basic measurements cross sections. The preparation of the cross section lines aims to
cover systematically the whole area of the probed reservoir in such a way so as to obtain
the best scan possible of the changes in shape of the bottom of the reservoir. Reservoir
capacity research is performed by digital hydroaccoustic probes combined with GPS
receivers.
However, during the hydrographic work, there are frequent complications during the
measurements of the backwater area of the reservoir. It is due to shallow water level and
limited access to this area by the measurement boat. These difficulties can be overcome
with the application of the LiDAR-ASL technology for inaccessible areas, or those
difficult to reach.
3. LiDAR - ASL
LiDAR technology (Light Detection and Ranging) involves measuring distances from
flying aircraft or helicopter to plot points. The time difference between sending and
receiving a single laser pulse is determined. The system includes the emitter, which is a
device producing the laser beam and a receiver, which is the device collecting recurring
data beam after reflection. For uncovered areas the beam, after reflection from the surface
goes back to the emitting unit and is recorded. In the case of land covered by vegetation
(e.g., forests), returning beam is scattered, and is registered as rays reflecting from the
surface of the land, and the tree branches. A cloud of points obtained this way needs to be
IV - 23
filtered depending on the needs. LiDAR data filtration processes are used to build up the
DTM and involve the elimination of the points that have been reflected from the land cover
elements, buildings or vegetation. The most important advantages of LiDAR-ASL which
make it different from mother measurements technologies include:
independence from weather conditions (clouds base higher than the cruising altitude,
only heavy rains and fog have a negative impact),
independence of lighting conditions (scanning at night),
penetration of the vegetation layer,
high density of spatial points
sufficient accuracy of the determination of X-and Y-coordinates, and high accuracy of
determination of Z coordinates,
quick result in the form of finished product,
relatively low costs (especially for large areas).
Unfortunately, LiDAR technology also has disadvantages and among them the following:
penetration of the laser pulse under the water surface,
difficulties in determining skeletal lines and lines of discontinuities in the area,
a large amount of data to be processed during postprocessing.
The bathymetric measurements should be done during high water levels in the reservoir,
while LiDAR should be performed during low water levels. Therefore a Digital Terrain
Model of the reservoir bowl is obtained with an interim zone for which the altitude data
will be repeated. The next stage is the combination of these two models.
4. BATHYMETRIC MEASUREMENTS ON THE EXAMPLE OF TRESNA

RESERVOIR
In conducted tests, Digital Terrain Model and Digital Model of the reservoir bowl has a
raster structure of the pixel size of 0.5 m.
Figure 2. Digital Terrain Model of Tresna reservoirs with the use of LiDAR
IV - 24
Figure 3. Integrated Digital Model of the reservoir bottom with the DTM
made with the use of LiDAR.
In water management the integrated Digital Terrain Model can be used for a variety of
purposes which can be presented in the example of the analyzed reservoir. Here are the
main of them.
4.1. Measurement cross - sections
Generated cross sections based on integrated, DTM may be applied during the assessment
of the reservoir abrasion. For example, DTMs from different measurement dates, can be
compared according to the vertical cross-sections done along the same line. It allows
observing the changes that arise as a result of the erosion.
Figure 4. Automatic generation of the cross-section in a given place.
IV - 25
4.2. Volume calculation
Integrated DTM allows for better calculation of the volume limited by the terrain surface
and planes freely situated in relation to the surface. Therefore, the Digital Terrain Model
prepared in such a way enables the processing of the surface and reservoir capacity curves
for any elevation. A sample spatial analysis based on the integrated DTM allowing for the
calculation of the size and capacity of the reservoir at maximum water level (MaxWL),
was shown in Fig. 5.
Figure. 5. Sample spatial analysis based on an integrated DTM.
Capacity curve as well as the surface curve allows to determine the volume and surface
size for any water level and any layer of the reservoir and additionally to determine on
what altitudes large increase in flooded areas take place.
Capacity curve is a mass diagram curve of the water volume (V) between particular levels.
Table 1 shows the results of the calculations of the reservoir volume and size for different
elevations. Information about the size and volume of the reservoir were collected as a
result of the spatial analyses carried out on the basis of the integrated DTM.
Table 1.
Elevation [m a.s.l.] Area [km2] Capacity [million m3]
MaxWL 344.86 9.89 93.99
344.5 9.83 90.47
344 9.71 85.63
343.5 9.58 80.84
343 9.43 76.13
342.5 9.25 71.49
IV - 26
342 9.04 66.95
NWL1 341.5 8.78 62.53
341 8.44 58.25
NWL2 340.5 8.12 54.14
340 7.74 50.18
339.5 7.27 46.46
339 6.93 42.92
338.5 6.55 39.56
338 6.21 36.38
337.5 5.89 33.37
337 5.59 30.51
336.5 5.33 27.78
336 5.05 25.20
335.5 4.80 22.75
335 4.56 20.41
334.5 4.26 18.21
334 4.01 16.15
333.5 3.76 14.21
333 3.47 12.41
332.5 3.17 10.75
332 2.84 9.25
331.5 2.56 7.90
331 2.28 6.69
330.5 1.97 5.63
330 1.67 4.73
329.5 1.36 3.98
329 1.16 3.36
328.5 1.01 2.82
MinWL 328.36 0.98 2.68
NWL1-Normal Water Level (1.X.-31.V.), NWL2-Normal Water Level (15.VI.-15.IX.),

MinWL-Minimal Water Level, MaxWL Maximal Water Level
On the basis of such a table, it is possible to draw a surface curve and a capacity curve of
the reservoir (Fig. 6.)
IV - 27
Figure 6. The surface curve of the Tresna reservoir.
Figure 7. The capacity curve of the Tresna reservoir.
5. VIZUALIZATION USE
GIS software allows for the representation of the terrain surrounding the reservoir at any
scale with the dynamic change of the viewing position (fig. 8). For better presentation of
the topography you can also apply profiles generated from the NTM (fig. 9 and 10).
IV - 28
Figure 8. DTM of the area surrounding Tresna reservoir.
Figure 9.The DTM of the area surrounding Tresna reservoir with contour lines.
IV - 29
Figure 10. DTM of the area surrounding Tresna reservoir with isobaths of the reservoir bowl.
5. CONCLUSIONS
The article presented an attempt of the construction of the Digital Terrain Model of the
uncovered parts of the reservoir bowl. Digital models have been derived from the
bathymetric measurements and LiDAR measurements of the reservoir bowl combined. The
integrated model of the reservoir bowl obtained in such a way allows for spatial analysis
with the use of GIS software and other tools, including the processing, of the tables, curves
and surface of the reservoir that are essential for the correct exploitation of the reservoir,
particularly in terms of floods. The article presents the results obtained for one of the
reservoirs in Poland - Tresna reservoir.
REFERENCES
Kosik A., New measurement techniques in the assessment of the dam reservoir abrasion
(in polish). Oglnokrajowe Sympozjum Hydrotechnika XV2013. Ustro, 2013.
Kosik A., Kloze J., Wita A.: Study of Sedimentation of Reservoirs in Poland. Proceedings
of International Symposium on DAMS FOR A CHANGING WORLD - Need for
Knowledge Transfer across the Generations & the World. Kyoto, Japan, 2012.
Kosik A., Leszczyski W., Mroziski J., Wita A.: Bed and Banks Changes evaluation of
Water Reservoirs. Proceedings of International Conference Prehradny Dny. Se,
Czech Republic, 2012
LIDAR for Tresna reservoir (in polish). MGGP Aero, 2010.
RESERVOIRS in Poland. KZGW, Warsaw, 2011.
LiDAR application for the observation of the shore abrasion (in polish). Technology and
systems in evaluation of the water quality and dam structures. Task 2 in
research theme DS-B2. IMGW-PIB, Warszawa, 2013.
Tresna water reservoir. Evaluation of the shore abrasion. IMGW-PIB, Warszawa 2010.
IV - 30
Comparative Study On Settling Rate Evaluation

For Soil Particles
In Reservoirs
H. Umino & N. Hakoishi
Public works Research Institute, Tsukuba, Japan
umino@pwri.go.jp
ABSTRACT:
This study aims to present an appropriate method on settling rate evaluation for soil particles in
reservoirs. For the execution of numerical simulation on sediment in reservoirs, it is indispensable
to decide the settling rate of soil particles. Laser diffraction method has been commonly used for
grain size analysis and grain size is converted into settling rate by Stokes Formula, nevertheless, it
has been indicated that the settling rate calculated by this method differs from the actual one. We
obtained turbid water from a river while flooding, investigated and compared settling rate
distribution by settling cylinder method, centrifugal sedimentation method and laser diffraction
method. Settling cylinder method could give reliable results, but it needs a plenty of turbid water
and took long time to get results. Centrifugal sedimentation method could shorten time for analysis,
but the equipment for this method is not disseminated. The laser diffraction method has been
regarded as the standard method. We estimated that actual settling rate was slower than
calculation of the Stokes Formula because several particles formed flocks and each flocks was
porous. Through this study three points were concluded. (1) Settling cylinder method was the most
reliable for evaluating the settling rate of fine particles. (2) Centrifugal sedimentation method
could alternate the settling cylinder method. (3) In case of using laser diffraction method, similar
settling rate distribution to settling cylinder method could be obtained by ultrasonic distribution
treatment.
Keywords: Reservoir, Soil Particles, Settling Rate, Settling Cylinder, Laser Diffraction Method.
1. INTRODUCTION
Sediment accumulation is one of management problems for reservoirs in Japan (Fig. 1.).
Some bypass channels for releasing turbid water from upstream of a reservoir have been
adopted and the effects have been highly evaluated. In case of designing specifications and
practical use of sediment releasing facilities, numerical simulations for sediment
accumulation in reservoirs have been conducted. For accurate simulations, the evaluation
of settling rate is important matter.
This paper aims to present an appropriate method for determining settling rate of soil
particles. Firstly, we collected turbid water from a site of mountainous river while heavy
rainfalls and observed settling rate of particles in settling cylinder. Secondly, we analyzed
grain size distribution of turbid water by using laser diffraction method and centrifugal
sedimentation method. These two methods were relatively easy to get grain size
IV - 31
distribution and then applied Stokes Formula to the conversion from grain size into
settling rate distribution. Finally, we present an appropriate method for determining
settling rate distribution by comparing the results of three methods, i.e., settling cylinder
method, centrifugal sedimentation method and laser diffraction method.
Figure 1. Accumulated Sediment in Nibutani Dam
2. PROCEDURE OF INVESTGATION
In the former paper, presented in ICOLD Kyoto 2012, we had reported the results of
investigation by analyzing the two samples of turbid water flowing into reservoirs after
heavy storm in September 2007. When we presented that paper, we got a comment that we
should compare and discuss the differences of settling rate distribution of soil particles
instead of grain size distribution. In this paper, we report the settling rate distributions of
four samples collected in Yamaguchi River, Tonegawa River System, Ibaraki Prefecture in
Japan while in heavy rainfalls in September, 2010 (Fig. 2.). The procedure of investigation
will be described below.
IV - 32
Yamaguchi R. St.
Sofugamine St.
CA: Catchment Area
Presented by
CA=3.12km2 Geospatial Information
Authority of Japan
Figure 2. Location of Sampling Site
2.1. Measuring Method of Settling Rate Distribution
In case of conducting numerical simulation of sediment accumulation in reservoirs, it is

necessary to determine settling rate distribution of soil particles. Laser diffraction method
has been commonly used for grain size analysis of fine soil particles and settling rate is
converted by Stokes Formula because these methods do not need much effort to get result.
On the other hand, an accurate data of settling rate can be given by conducting settling
cylinder method, however, the size of cylinder and measurement specifications have not
been standardized. In this report, we conducted three types settling rate analysis, i.e.,
settling cylinder method, centrifugal sedimentation method and laser diffraction method
and compared the results. The shape of settling cylinder used in this study is shown in Fig.
3. The specification of measuring method is shown in Table 1.
IV - 33
200
200
2200
2000
Drain
Unit: mm
Figure 3. Shape of Settling Cylinder
Table 1. Measuring Method of Settling Rate Distribution

Measuring Settling cylinder method Centrifugal Laser diffraction
method sedimentation method method
Measuring Settling cylinder SKC-2000 SALD-3000S

instruments
200mm L2.2m Seishin Co.,Ltd. Shimadzu Co.,Ltd.
Measuring Constant temperature Range: 0.3m50 m Range: 0.05m

conditions (20) 3000m
Measuring Water level, Grain size distribution Grain size distribution

items Suspended solids (SS),
Water temperature
Measuring Pouring turbid water until Putting 100mL of Putting 50 to 100mL of

procedure 2m depth. Collecting sample turbid water into turbid water into
water at 0.5m above bottom. instrument, and then instrument, and then
Analysing SS of water. operating. operating.
Measuring 13 times. (0hr, 15m, 30m,1hr,

intervals 3hr, 6hr, 12hr, 24hr, 3days,
7days, 14days, 21days, 1 time 1 time
42days)
Others Unfixed measuring method Not disseminated Ordinarily adopted
IV - 34
The calculation method of settling rate distribution and the conversion method from grain
size into settling rate are as follows:
If a particle in water is regarded to settle distance l from water surface to intake within time
t , average settling rate w(t ) is presented as Eq.1.
l
w(t ) = (1)
t
Among time t , the share of already settled suspended solids F1 (t ) is equal to the difference
of suspended solids between the start of experiment ( t = 0 ) and t , so that F1 (t ) is
presented as Eq.2.
SSt =0 SS (t )
F1 (t ) = (2)
SSt =0
In Eq.2, SS means suspended solids [mg/L].
In Eq.2, F1 (t ) increases gradually with time and one variation of Eq.2 is presented as Eq.3.
In this equation, F2 (t ) gradually decreases with time and increases with settling rate. Eq.3
is corresponding with setting rate accumulation curve.
SS (t )
F2 (t ) = (3)
SSt =0
In condition of single globular particles settlement, moreover, the Reynolds Number of

particle ( Re = d ws / , is coefficient of kinematic viscosity of water.) is less than 1,
both diameter of particle and settling rate can be converted each other.
d 2 g ( s w )
ws = (4)
18
In this equation, settling rate of particle is ws, diameter of particle is d, gravity acceleration
is g, density of particle is s, density of water is w, and viscosity coefficient of water is .
The diameter d is called Stokes Diameter because it is calculated from settling rate by
applied Stokes Formula. In settling cylinder method, turbid water was poured up to the
depth of 2m, then water depth variation and suspended solids were measured at
predetermined intervals.
As mentioned above, in case of executing numerical simulation on sediment accumulation

in reservoirs, laser diffraction method has been commonly used for grain size analysis and
settling rate is converted by Stokes Formula for fine soil particles. On the other hand, it
has been indicated that the settling rate calculated by this method differs from the actual
one (KASHIWAI 2006). In settling cylinder method, the settling rate distribution is
directly measured by observing the variation of suspended solids with time and this
method is regarded to give accurate settling rate.
IV - 35
2.2. Grain Size Calibration
Soil colloidal particles contained in turbid water tend to move at random affected by the
interaction of surroundings. Because of this movement, soil colloidal particles happen to
collide with one another and if strong attraction is acted among these particles a flock
could be formed. In case of grain size analysis, a larger distribution could be obtained if
flocculated particles are directly measured, so that the settling rate distribution tends to be
largely evaluated.
A distribution treatment was considered for the purpose of avoiding excess evaluation of
settling rate. In this study, distribution treatments were introduced in some cases of both
laser diffraction method and centrifugal sedimentation method. An ultrasonic distributor
FU-10C manufactured by TGK Co., Ltd. was used for the distribution treatment. The
procedure of treatment was to add ultrasonic distribution by ultrasonic distributor of 60W
in power and 28 kHz in frequency. The 10 minutes of ultrasonic distribution was given to
1L of turbid water to obtain enough dispersion of particles. The method of distribution is
shown in Table 2.
Table 2. Distribution of Soil particles in Turbid Water

Measuring method Distribution methods
Non-distribution With distribution
Centrifugal Stirring by hands 10 minutes of ultrasonic distribution

sedimentation method (60W)
Laser diffraction method Stirring by hands 10 minutes of ultrasonic distribution

(60W)
2.3. Procedure of Experiment
Firstly, we collected turbid water from mountainous river during heavy rainfalls in
September, 2010. The sample site was Yamaguchi River, Ibaraki Prefecture in Japan.
Sampling was executed once at the time of peak discharge and three times after the peak.
Sampling time and analyzed turbidities were shown in Table 3, precipitation data was in
Fig. 4., and discharge was in Fig. 5.
As mentioned above, settling rates were analyzed by three methods and in some cases the
ultrasonic distribution treatments were added. And then, the differences between settling
rate distributions were considered.
Table 3. Sampling Time and Analyzed Turbidities

Sample No. Sampling Date Sampling time Turbidity Suspended Solids
[NTU] [mg/L]
1 16 SEP 2010 10:55 787 944
2 16 SEP 2010 11:25 432 466
3 16 SEP 2010 12:35 143 189
4 16 SEP 2010 13:50 59 93
IV - 36
Time[h]
00.5 6
6.5 12
12.5
0
2
4
Precipitation[mm/h]
6
8
10
12
14
16 Precipitation
Sofugamine St.)
18
20
Figure 4. Precipitation on Sampling Day
2
1.8
Discharge
1.6 (Yamaguchi River)
1.4
Discharge[m3/s]
1.2 Sampling time

1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 6 12 18
Time
Figure 5. Discharge on Sampling Day
3. RESULTS
The results of experiments and analysis were shown in Fig. 6. to Fig. 9. Firstly, we
consider the results of turbidity (Table 3). The Sample 1 was extracted at the time of peak
discharge and it showed the highest turbidity among the four. The analyzed turbidity
became lower with decreasing discharge. In this study, we could not extract samples at the
IV - 37
phase of increasing discharge; however, preparatory standby at the sampling site should be
taken for investigating turbidity change through all phases.
Secondly, we compare the results of settling cylinder method (Fig. 6. to Fig. 9.). These
figure show that the particles in the residual ratio have higher rate than the certain settling
rate. When we focus on the settling rate of 0.1 cm/s, 57% sediments were faster in Sample
1, 45 % in Sample 2, 33 % in Sample 3 and 22 % in Sample 4. According to the results of
settling cylinder method, the settling rate became slower with time at the phase of
decreasing discharge. It is regarded that the inflow discharge after the peak does less
contribution to the accumulation of sediment in a reservoir; on the other hand, it may cause
long-term persistence of turbid water in a reservoir after floods.
Thirdly, we take Sample 1 as an example and compare the settling rate among different
analysis methods (Fig. 6.). It showed similar curve between settling cylinder method and
centrifugal sedimentation method (non distribution), especially in the range of less than
0.01cm/s. On the other hand, the results of laser diffraction method (non distribution)
showed relatively faster settling rate distribution compared with settling cylinder method
or centrifugal sedimentation method (non distribution).
Fourthly, we consider the effects of ultrasonic distribution treatments. The purpose of

distribution treatment is to avoid excess evaluation of settling rate. From the results of the
Sample 1(Fig. 6.) and Sample 2 (Fig. 7.), the slower settling rates were given in both the
centrifugal sedimentation method and the laser diffraction method by adding ultrasonic
distribution treatment. From these results, some particles in flooding water form flocks and
may cause rapid settlement in a reservoir. In Sample 2, the laser diffraction method with 10
minutes ultrasonic distribution treatment shows relatively similar to the results of settling
cylinder method.
100
90
80
Cylinder
Passage ratio
70
60 Centrifugal
(10min. dist.)
50
Centrifugal
40 (Non-dist)
30 Laser
(10min. dist.)
20
10 Laser
(Non-dist.)
0
1.E-05 1.E-04 1.E-03 1.E-02 1.E-01 1.E+00 1.E+01
Settling rate cm/s

Note: dist. means distribution
Figure 6. Settling Rate Distribution (Sample 1)
IV - 38
100
90
80
Cylinder
Passage ratio
70
60 Centrifugal
(10min. dist.)
50
Centrifugal
40 (Non-dist)
30 Laser
(10min. dist.)
20
Laser
10 (Non-dist.)
0
1.E-05 1.E-04 1.E-03 1.E-02 1.E-01 1.E+00 1.E+01
Settling rate cm/s

100
90
80
Cylinder
Passage ratio
70
60 Centrifugal
(10min. dist.)
50
Centrifugal
40 (Non-dist)
30 Laser
(10min. dist.)
20
Laser
10 (Non-dist.)
0
1.E-05 1.E-04 1.E-03 1.E-02 1.E-01 1.E+00 1.E+01
Settling rate cm/s

IV - 39
100
90
80
Cylinder
Passage ratio
70
60 Centrifugal
(10min. dist.)
50
Centrifugal
40 (Non-dist)
30 Laser
(10min. dist.)
20
Laser
10 (Non-dist.)
0
1.E-05 1.E-04 1.E-03 1.E-02 1.E-01 1.E+00 1.E+01
Settling rate cm/s

According to the results of above mentioned examinations, it was found out that similar
settling rate distribution to settling cylinder method could be obtained by conducting
centrifugal sedimentation method without distribution treatment, however, the results of
laser diffraction method gave relatively faster settling rate distribution especially in the
slow settling rate range and differed from the results of settling cylinder method. It
suggests that if we use laser diffraction method for giving settling rate distribution, it may
cause the results of larger accumulation of sediment in a reservoir compared to the actual
one.
4. CONCLUSION
Through this study three points were concluded. (1) Settling cylinder method was the most
reliable for evaluating the settling rate of fine particles. (2) Centrifugal sedimentation
method could alternate the settling cylinder method because it gave similar settling rate to
the settling cylinder method. (3) In case of using laser diffraction method, grain size
distribution similar to settling cylinder method could be obtained by adding ultrasonic
distribution treatment.
REFERENCES
H. Umino, and N. Hakoishi (2012): A Comparative Study on Grain Size Analysis for
Sediments Flowing into Reservoirs, Proceedings of The International Symposium on
Dams for a Changing World, ICOLD 2012 Kyoto, CD, 2_184, Kyoto, Japan
J. Kashiwai (2006): Coagulation Effects against Turbidity with Natural Coagulant, Dam
Engineering No.236, pp20-pp28 (in Japanese), Japan Dam Engineering Center,
Tokyo, JAPAN
IV - 40
Multi-objective Reservoir Optimization upon Pareto Front Considering
Reservoir Sedimentation
Reservoir withwith
Sedimentation Application to the
Application to Three Gorges
the Three Project
Gorges
ProjecthhdTTjjhkljdjjsgshjhfsdkjhskslsl;s;s;;s;;s;;sjsjkjffffrtttttttfggjfgjgkfkjkj
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F.F. Li, J. Qiu & J.H. Wei
Tsinghua University, Beijing,China
liff03@gmail.com
ABSTRACT:
Among multiple objectives of reservoir operation, increasing power generation and reducing
sediment deposition in reservoir is a pair of great importance, but significantly conflicting
operational goals. To improve the power generation efficiency, a high water level should be
maintained in the reservoir,and thus slow down the flow velocity, therefore, more sedimentation
will be deposited in the reservoir. Due to the contradiction and incommensurability between the
targets, traditional multi-objective optimization methodwhich simply incorporates the targets into a
single objective cannot be usedin multi-objective reservoir operations. Researches onmulti-
objective optimization algorithms found that evolutionary algorithmsare very suitable for solving
this type of problems. Evolutionary algorithms (EA) regard every feasible solution as an individual,
and provide those individuals with better fitness more opportunity to survive by genetic operators,
such as selection, crossover and mutation. This study firstly establishes a formula to calculate the
suspended sediment transport rate for reservoirs according to the diffusion theory and the extended
vertical distribution of suspended sediment. Based on the formula, a multi-objective model
considering simultaneously the sediment transporting efficiency and power generation efficiency is
built, and the Non-dominated Sorting Genetic Algorithm (NSGA) upon ParetoOptimality is used to
find the Pareto Front of the reservoir operation. In this study, the proposed model and method are
applied to the Three Gorges Project in China. A group of measured data of suspended sediment
concentration-relative depth, and flow velocity- relative depth, as well as the actual position and
scale of the spillway are used to calibrate the parameters in the formula calculating the suspended
sediment transport rate. The research results prove the validity of the established multi-objective
reservoir optimization model, and the Pareto Front from the model can provide references for the
practical reservoir operations.
Keywords: Reservoir sedimentation; Multi-objective optimization; Pareto front; The Three

Gorges Project.
1. INSTRUCTIONS
After the completion of the reservoir, the deposition occurs resulting from the raised water
level, and the decreased sediment transport capacity. Reservoir siltation has been one of
the most controversial problems for Three Gorges Reservoir (TGR) from the beginning of
the project. In order to benefit flood control, power generation, navigation, as well as other
designed function, sufficient capacity has to be maintained within the design years for the
TGR. Due to large amount of the sediment load of the Yangtze River, it is necessary to
IV - 41
properly flush the sediment of the river, and take advantage of the abundant runoff of the
Yangtze River to optimize the reservoir operation.
Essentially, the operation of reservoir is a multi-objective optimization problem with

complex constraints, considering power generation, flood control, water supply, irrigation
and other features. However, because of the contradiction and incommensurability between
the power generation and the desilting, the existing studies mainly focus on the theories of
dynamics of river sediment movement, but fail to run in conjunction with other reservoir
targets.
In this study, the power generation benefits and sediment problems are considered
simultaneously, and a multi-objective optimization model is established. A suitable
optimization algorithm for this multi-objective optimization model of cascade reservoirs is
determined.Pareto optimal solutions between improving economic performance and
prolonging service life of reservoirs are found through the change of reservoir operations.
The model presented in this study is applied to the Three Gorges Reservoir (TGR). The
quantitative relationship between enhancing the sediment desiling efficiency and the
responding cost of power generation is analyzed to provide reference for the actual
operation of the reservoir.
2. METHODOLOGY
2.1. Calculation of the suspended load delivery
Gravitational sedimentation causes the vertical concentration distribution of the two phase
flows. From the surface to the bottom, the flow changes from supernatant to turbid flow.
According to the diffusion theory, when the stable sediment concentration distribution of
the suspended sediment occurs along the vertical line, the two-dimensional diffusion
equation for sediment can be expressed as shown in Eq. 1.
+ =0 (1)
Suppose the diffusion coefficient of sediment equals to the momentum exchange

coefficient . From the linear distribution of the shear force in open channel steady
flowsalong the verticalline , as well as the logarithmic distribution of the
longitudinal velocity along the vertical line , Eq.2 can be derived:
(2)
where k=0.4, is the Karman constant.
Plugging Eq.2 into Eq. 1and integrating the function, Eq. 3 can be derived.
( ) (3)
Makingy=a as the reference point, where the sediment concentration is denoted by , Eq.
4 is finally obtained.
IV - 42
(4)
where the exponent Z is expressed as shown in Eq. 5.
(5)
Z is also called suspending indicators. The value of Z in Eq.4 determines the uniformity
degree of the sediment distribution along vertical line. The smaller the Z is, the more
homogeneous the suspended load distributes.
(6)
Eq. 6 is the logarithmic formula of the velocity distribution of turbulent flow. Although it
is derived under the condition near the wall, the experimental research proves that Eq. 6 is
suitable for the entire flowing section except the viscous sublayer.
Using the measured data of runoff and sediment, the parameters in Eq. 4 and Eq. 6 are
calibrated, and thus the vertical distribution of suspended sediment concentration Sv and
velocity U are obtained. According to those distributions, the sediment fluxes at elevation
y per unit time on the flow sectionUSv can be calculated. Integrating USv vertically, the
suspended load discharge per unit can be derived.
The incoming flow into the TGR is larger in flood season, when the water level in front of
the Three Gorges Dam is lower. The reservoir performs characteristics of river channel.
The sediment concentrationand the flow velocity increase significantly, while the
distributions of flow velocity and sediment concentration are not consistent. The surface
flow velocity of the mainstream in front of the dam is greater than other layers. There
appears stratification vertically for the surface, the middle, and the bottom layer. The
sediment concentration at bottom or near the bottom is greater. The main period for
sediment flushing is the main flood season, and the desilting mainlygoes through the
spillway. Calculatingthe average sediment concentration of the spillway with all the
spillway of the Three Gorges Dam open, Eq.7 is derived.
(7)
2.2 Multi-objective optimization model
Increasing power generation and reducing sediment deposition in reservoir is a pair of

greatly important, but significantly conflicting operational goals. To improve the power
generating efficiency, a high water level should be maintained in the reservoir, and less
water should be discharged, which leads to an increment of water storage and also a
deceleration of the flow, as a result, more sediment is deposited in the reservoir. On the
contrary, if more water is discharged for sediment sluice, the water level will be lowered
and the power generating efficiency is reduced. In order to coordinate the contradiction
between sedimentation and power generation in the reservoir operation, this study takes
maximizing the desilting efficiency and the power generation as the objectives to build a
multi-objective optimization model. The comprehensive benefits of the reservoir are
enhanced by adjust the reservoir operation.
IV - 43
2.2.1 Objective function
(1) Objective 1: Maximizing the power generation of the system

Taking maximizing the power generation as one of the operational objective is to utilize
the water head to increase the generation while reducing the abandoned water. The
objective function can be written as:
(8)
where is the total annual power generation; is the average output of each hydro-power
unit; is the time step; is the serial number of the hydropower unit, is the length of the
time.
(2) Objective 2: Maximizing the sediment desilting

Taking maximizing the sediment desilting of reservoir as another objective of reservoir
operation, the sediment should be flushed away by releasing flood waters through spillway
in flood season. The incoming sediment of the TGR mainly comes from flood season, thus
increasing the sediment desilting in flood season according to the calculation equation in
Eq.7, the objective function can be written as:
(9)
where is the suspended sediment discharge from the TGR, with unit ; is the flood

discharge, is the average sediment concentration in the spillway, calculted by Eq.7, with
unit kg/m3.
2.2.2 Decision variables

According to Eq.8 and Eq.9, discharge not only influences power output of the TGR, but
also determines the suspended load of sediment desilting. Hence the discharge from the
TGR is selected as the decision variables. At the same time, the turbine discharge being
used for power generation is distinguished from the flood discharge through the spillway.
In non-flood season, the turbine discharge is regarded as the decision variables; while in
flood season, both the turbine discharge and the flood discharge are considered as the
decision variables. Since the flood season for the TGR lasts for 4 months from June to
September, taking month as the time step, the decision variables can be expressed as:
(10)
When applying Genetic Algorithms (GA), there are 16 genes on each chromosome.
2.2.3 Constraints
The constraints of the operation of the TGR can be classified into:
(1) Constraint on water level

In order to ensure the security and protect the district downstream, the TGR has to reserve
some flood control storage to lower the water level below the flood control level. The
regulation rule also needs to be followed in non-flood season. The safe operation of the
TGR is realized by the control of the water level:
(11)
IV - 44
where and are the allowable lowest and highest level during time ,
respectively.
(2) Constraints on the water discharge of the reservoir

The lower limit of the water discharge from the TGR is to satisfy the needs of navigation
and ecology, while the upper limit of the discharge is the maximum allowable discharge of
the reservoir. Hence, the optimization needs to search the optimum in a large range, and
thus brings about a large number of infeasible solutions. These infeasible solutions lead to
extreme results such as emptying the reservoir or overtopping the dam. The population is
inundated with invalid individuals.
In order to improve the efficiency of the GA, the limits of the discharge of the TGR are set
according to the incoming inflow and the actual operation process, as shown in Eq. 12.
(12)
where and are the minimum and maximum of the inflow in current month,
respectively; and are the minimum and maximum of the actual
discharge in current month, respectively.
(3) Constraints on daily amplitude of variation

As the largest river in China, the Yangtze River undertakes important navigation tasks.
Thus not only the water level of the channel needs to achieve a certain height, but also the
variation of the water level cannot be too violent.
All the constraints are realized by two means: either being satisfied automatically when the
initial and new populations are generated, or being checked after the calculation. The
infeasible solutions are eliminated without taking part in evolution.
2.2.4 State equations

State equations refer to the hydraulic and electric conditions during the calculation,
classified into:
(1) Water balance equation
(13)
where is the storage; is the incoming inflow; is the total discharge of the
TGR, including turbine discharge and the flood discharge .
(2) Water level- storage curve

The relationship between water level and the reservoir storage is presented by piecewise
linear interpolations function :
(14)
where is the water level of the reservoir.
IV - 45
(3) Tailwater level- discharge curve
The relationship between tailwater level and the discharge is also presented by piecewise
linear interpolations function :
(15)
where is the tailwater level.
(4) The characteristic curve of unit output

When the water head is settled, the power output of hydropower unit can be expressed
as the function of the turbine discharge :
(16)
(5) The vertical distribution curve of the velocity

The logarithmic velocity distribution formula in Eq. 6 is adopted to fit the vertical
distribution curve of the velocity in front of the dam, using measured data. The flow
velocity can be presented as a function of the relative depth :
(17)
(6) The vertical distribution curve of the suspended load concentration

The vertical distribution curve of the suspended load concentration is calculated by the
formula in Eq. 4, using the measured velocity data. The suspended load concentration is
the function of the relative depth :
(18)
2.3 Multi-objective optimization algorithms
Multi-Objective Genetic Algorithm (MOGA) is based on genetic algorithms, the research

of which in recent years mainly tends to optimization method upon Pareto optimum. The
basic idea of MOGA is to construct the Pareto non-dominated set of the population, and
make the set approach the optimal boundary closer and closer by evolutionary. Before the
convergence of the algorithms, such a non-dominated set is the local optimum. A new non-
dominated set is constructed for each iteration of the algorithm, i.e. each generation of the
evolutionary.
For a tentative exploration, the MOGA used in this study is relatively simple, mainly
including the following steps:
(1) coding of the chromosome;

(2) calculating the objective function;
(3) genetic operation: selecting m individuals with better objectives from n chromosomes
to proceed crossover and mutation, and generating new population.
After a certain number of generations, the iteration is stopped, and a Pareto Front is
obtained.
3. RESULT
IV - 46
The parameters in this study are set as follows: initial population size: 100; iterations: 100;
the sediment concentration at the spillway in flood season: 0.066738 kg/m3; crossover
probability: 0.75; mutation probability: 0.02; and the variation amplitude of the daily
discharge is 500 m3/s.
Figure 1 shows the evolutionary process of the Pareto Front. The green scatters signify the
objective values of the initial population; the blue data points indicate the objective values
of the non-dominated individuals after iteration once, i.e. the Pareto Front. The red points
are the Pareto Front after 5 iterations. Similarly, the pink points and the cyan points are the
Pareto Front after 10 iterations and 25 iterations respectively, both of which almost overlap
on the black points indicating the Pareto Front after 100 iterations. Thus, the algorithm
converges quickly to the optimum right after 10 iterations.
Figure 1. Evolutionary process of the Pareto Front.
Extracte the Pareto Front information of the 100th iteration in Figure 1 to analyze. The
maximum annual power output of the Pareto optimum in the 100th generation and
corresponding sediment discharge are shown in Table 1, as well as the maximum annual
sediment discharge and corresponding power output.
Table 1 Analysis on Optimums of Pareto Front

Max Power Corresponding Sediment Max Sediment Corresponding Power
Output Discharge Discharge Output
(x107kw) 8
(x10 t) (x108t) (x107kw)
8.1151 0.1003 0.1033 7.8733
(+5.29%) (+0.10%) (+3.09%) (+2.15%)
Comprehensive analysis on Figure 1 and Table 1 implies:
IV - 47
(1) The number of the non-dominated solutions decreases with the iteration going on.
Such property indicates the convergence of the algorithm. GA has been proved being
convergent, i.e., it will finally converges to a certain Pareto Front if the iteration is infinite.
(2) Both the power generation and the sediment desilting have room for optimization.
From Table 1, it can be told that there are optimizing rooms for both the power generation
and the sediment desilting. The maximum annual power output can be enhanced by 5.29%
with the cost of increasing 0.10% sedimentation; while the maximum annual sediment
desilting can be improved by 3.09%, with the annual power output only increasing 2.15%.
It should be illustrated that this study takes the historical hydrologic series as the input
without taking the uncertainty of the inflow into account. Thus the result here only
provides a theoretical optimal operation given the known inflow.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This work was conducted in collaboration with the China Three Gorges Corporation, supported by
Key Projects in the National Science & Technology Pillar Program during the Twelfth Five-year
Plan Period (Grant No. 2013BAB05B05 & No. 2013BAB05B03), and China Postdoctoral
Sustentation Fund(Grant No. 2012M521488 & No. 2013T60104).
REFERENCES
Srinivas, N., Deb, K. (1994): Multi-Objective function optimization using non-dominated
sorting in genetic algorithms, Evolutionary computation, 2: 3, 221-248.
Alexandre, M.B., Darrell, G.F. (2008): Use of Multi objective Particle Swam Optimization
in Water Resources Management [J], Journal of water resources planning and
management, 134: 3, 257-265.
Chen L., McPhee, J., Yeh, W.W.G. (2007): A diversified multi-objective GA for optimizing
reservoir rule curves [J], Advances in water resources, 30:1082-1093.
Janga, R.M., Nagesh, K.D. (2007): Multi-objective differential evolution with application
to reservoir system optimization [J], Journal of computing in civil engineering, 21: 2,
136-146.
Li, F.F., Shoemaker, C.A., Wei, J.W., Fu, X.D. (2012): Estimating maximal annual energy
given heterogeneous hydropower generating units with application to the Three
Gorges system, Journal of water resources planning &management, 139: 3, 265-276.
Li, F.F., Wei, J.W., Fu, X.D., Wan, X.Y. (2012): An effective approach to long-term
optimal operation of large-scale reservoir systems: case study of the three gorges
system [J], Water resources management, 26: 14, 4073-4090.
IV - 48
How water column stability affects the surface chlorophyll a in a deep

subtropical reservoir and the time lags under different nutrient
hhdTTjjhkljdjjsgshjhfsdkjhskslsl;s;s;;s;;s;;sjsjkjffffrtttttttfggjfgjgkfkjkjf backgrounds?
fffffjfjjfkkfjjj
2(14pt)
M. Zhang & Z.Y. Sun
China Three Gorges Corporation, Beijing, P. R. China
zhang_min5@ctg.com.cn
M. Zhang & Q.H. Cai

Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China
ABSTRACT
Cyanobacterial blooms are threatening the sustainable uses of the water resources in large
reservoirs, therefore a better understanding of how to control the cyanobacterial blooms is
urgently needed. Hydrodynamic conditions are considered to be very important to the control of
algal blooms. However, many traditional studies used weekly or daily measurements, which may
miss important event of physical process of the water-body, and cause inaccurate evaluations. In
this study, high frequency (15-min interval) measurements of the water column stability using
thermistor chains was used to analyze the effect to the surface chlorophyll a (Chl a), and the time
lags under different nutrients backgrounds in the Xiangxi Bay, Three Gorges Reservoir, China.
Cross-correlation analysis between the relative water column stability (RWCS) and Chl a was
performed in different stages divided by TN/TP ratio = 29. The results showed that water column
stability above the euphotic depth influenced surface Chl a most significantly. Lower RWCS (< 20)
could limit the increase of the Chl a concentration; higher RWCS caused significant increase of the
Chl a only when the nutrients were not limited (TN/TP < 29). In the water-body with very low Chl
a concentration (almost 0), about 2 days were needed to cause the significant increase of Chl a.
During the bloom period, decline of RWCS could decrease the Chl a significantly in a very short
time (about half an hour). Therefore, we could reduce the water column stability to control the
cyanobacterial bloom through regulating the water level of the reservoir.
Keywords: hydrodynamic; time lag; high-frequency monitoring; Three Gorges reservoir
1. INTRODUCTION
The growth of phytoplankton is regulated by a variety of environmental factors, e.g.

nutrients, light, water temperature, predator, hydrodynamic conditions, etc. (Paerl and
Huisman 2008, Bouman et al. 2011). All of the factors impact directly or indirectly the
general phytoplankton composition, through their synergistic effects. High concentrations
of nutrients are indispensable to the algal blooming, but not the determined factor. In some
areas, the algal blooms always break out accompanying with the increased water
temperature, and the presence of the stratification (Bleiker and Schanz 1997, Carrias et al.
2001). Some studies found that the blooms did not break out in the littoral zones with high
IV - 49
levels of nutrients content, but in the pelagic zone with weak water disturbance
(Buranapratheprat et al. 2008).
In light of the important role of hydrodynamics to the breakout of the algal blooms, many
researchers focused on the study of the hydrodynamics conditions effect in recent years,
especially the influence of the water mixing regime, water retention time and water column
stability relevant with stratification. Becker et al (2010) found that, in a deep
Mediterranean reservoir, increases in water-column stability during spring stratification led
to phytoplankton biomass increases due to the dominance of small flagellate functional
groups. Jones and Elliott (2007) found that the shortage of the water retention time under a
fixed nutrient load resulted in a reduced chlorophyll concentration; longer water retention
time caused the spring bloom to start earlier and the autumn bloom to persist longer.
Despite the hydrodynamic conditions are of great importance, most previous studies
always used discrete weekly or daily data to assess the hydrodynamic conditions and
evaluate the effect to phytoplankton (Coloso et al. 2008). In reservoirs, however,
hydrodynamic conditions change frequently due to water level fluctuations and the diel
variations of the water temperature. Weekly or daily measurement may miss the important
event of the physical processes, e.g. deepening of the stratification, and lead to the
imprecise estimation about the effect of the hydrodynamic parameters. Additionally,
organisms cannot immediately track the environmental changes. There are specific time
lags between physical disturbance and their influence to the phytoplankton (Millet and
Cecchi 1992). Therefore, high-frequency and continuous monitoring becomes more
important. In recent years, auto-monitoring devices have been used widely (Staehr et al.
2010, Coloso et al. 2011). In this study, we measured the water temperature profile and
chlorophyll a using a automated device at high-frequency, in order to analyze more
accurate quantitive relationships between hydrodynamic parameters and chlorophyll a.
In view of previous studies revealed that light, temperature and nutrients are essential to
the algae growth, we hypothesized that the water column stability plays an important role
in algal blooms dynamics when the resources (light, temperature and nutrients) are
available. To test our hypothesis, we divided the study period into several stages according
to the availability of the resources, analyzed the correlations between the water column
stability and surface chlorophyll a content in different stages, and discussed the time lags
between them. Although it may be very important to the phytoplankton community
composition, we did not consider the zooplankton grazing in this study, because it is also
influenced by the water column stability (Coyle et al. 2008).
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS
2.1 Study Site
The sampling site is located in the middle region of the Xiangxi Bay, Three Gorges
Reservoir (TGR) of China (Fig.1). TGR is the largest man-made reservoir in China, with
flood control as the most important task. Xiangxi river, is the largest tributary of the TGR
near the dam. Since the impoundment of the TGR in June 2003, the lower reach of the
river evolved as the Xiangxi Bay. As the slowing down of the water velocity and the
prolonging of the water retention time, the risk of the eutrophication increased. The algal
blooms broke out more frequently and seriously, especially in the middle region of the bay
IV - 50
(Ye et al. 2007, Xu et al. 2009). This region belongs to the lacustrine zone according to the
zonation theory of Straskraba and Tundisi (Straskraba and Tundisi 1999). The stable
environment of this zone contributed a lot to the outbreak of the algal blooms.
Figure 1. Location of the study site
2.2 Field Sampling and Data Analysis
The survey was carried out during the flood season of 2008 in the Xiangxi Bay.
Cyanobacterial blooms broke out from 1 June to 23 July. The monitoring site is located at
the Xiangxi Ecosystem monitoring station of Chinese Academy of Sciences/China Three
Gorges Corporation (Fig. 1). During the study period, water level of the TGR fluctuated
between144.66 and 146.84 m (Fig.2). The depth of the study site ranged from 12.3 ~ 14.5
m, and less than 13.0 m in most time. Therefore, we consider 12 m as the depth of the
whole water column.
Figure 2. Water level fluctuations (m above sea level, m a.s.l.) of the Three Gorges Reservoir from
1 June to 23 July of 2008
Water samples were collected (0.5m underneath the surface) every day, except 5 to 18 June
when weekly samples were collected, for water chemistry analysis (total nitrogen (TN),
IV - 51
total phosphorus (TP)). The samples were stored in a plastic bottle pre-cleaned and
acidified to pH < 2 with sulfuric acid. The water chemistry was measured with a
segmented flow analyzer (Skalar San++, Netherlands). Simultaneously with the water
sampling, transparency (Sd) was measured using 20 cm diameter Secchi disk.
Photosynthetically available radiation (PAR) was monitored using a quantum sensor (Li-
cor 192SA, the Unite State of America (USA)) at 5-min intervals from 6:00 to 19:00
during the daytime. The depth of the euphotic zone was calculated as 2.7 times the
transparency (Cole 1994). The water level data of the TGR was provided by China Three
Gorges Corporation. The surface chlorophyll a (Chl a) was measured with a multi-
parameter water quality sonde (YSI, EDS 6600V2, USA). The measurements of water
temperature profile were carried out using a thermistor chains. Both the measurements
were 15 min intervals. The thermistor was placed at 1 m intervals from 1 m to 12 m. The
YSI and thermistor chains were combined by a data logger device (EcoTech Umwelt-
Mesysteme, GmbH, Germany), in order that they could make the synchronous
measurements.
Relative water column stability (RWCS) was used to describe the hydrodynamics
conditions (Padisk et al. 2003), as Eq. 1:
(1)
in which: Db: density of the bottom water; Ds: density of the surface water (1m); D4, D5:
the water density at 4 and 5 respectively.
High values of stability indicate water column stratification, while low stability signifies
mixing. In order to identify the depth which could cause significant effect to the surface
Chl a, we calculated the RWCS of each depth from 2 m to 12 m at 1 m intervals. For
example, the relative stability of the column above 3m, we call it 3m-RWCS (Db is the
water density of 3m), and the relative stability of the column above 12m, we call it 12m-
RWCS (Db is the water density of 12m).
Cross-Correlation analysis was used to display the correlationships between the time series
over a selected range of time differential (lags), using SPSS 16.0 software. The 15-min-
interval data was used, therefore, 1 lag represents 15 minutes. In the analysis, we set the
maximum lag number as 400, and compared the cross-correlation coefficients (CCF) under
different lags between RWCS and Chl a.
3. RESULTS
3.1 Physical and Chemical Conditions
The daily PAR showed the highest value in 26 June and 8 July (Fig. 3), 1161 and 1172
mols-1 m-2, respectively. But the instantaneous maximum appeared in 11:00 ~ 12:00 on
23 June, with PAR higher than 2420 mols-1 m-2. The fluctuation of PAR was not
remarkable, except in7 ~ 9 June, 20 ~ 22 June and 22 July, with PAR less than 300 mols -
1
m-2. The euphotic zone was very deep in the beginning of the study period, and became
shallower after 11 June, (Fig. 3) with the average euphotic depth 3.83 m (range: 0.54 ~
10.26 m). It ranged from 2 m to 5 m in most time. Surface water temperature in the
IV - 52
Xiangxi Bay fluctuated between 23.06 and 30.75 , and exceeded 25 in most time.
There were evident stratifications, especially when water temperature increased (Fig. 4).
Figure 3. Variations of the daily photosynthetically available radiation and the euphotic depth in
the Xiangxi Bay from 1 June to 23 July of 2008.
WT ( )
-2
29
-4
28
Depth (m)
27
-6
26
-8 25
24
-10 23
22
-12
21
20
-14
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51 53
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23
June July
Figure 4. Isolines of daily average water temperature (WT) profile, and daily average relative
water column stability (RWCS) of different water column (2m water column to 12m water column,
1m interval) in Xiangxi Bay from 1 June to 23 July of 2008. The white area is bottom of the bay.
Corresponding to the water stratification, the RWCS increased as the stratification became
more evident (Fig. 4). RWCS of the upper water column was much lower comparing to
that of the whole water column (12 m), and it showed marked fluctuations, implying the
water exchange in the upper water column was very frequent. RWCS was much lower
before 9 June, especially that of the upper water column. From 10 June, it gradually
increased and reached the peak on 14 June, however, the increasing magnitude of 2m-
RWCS was very small. Then, it experienced several times obvious fluctuations.
TN content ranged from 1.14 to 2.30 mg/L, and TP ranged from 0.022 to 0.125 mg/L (Fig.
5). TP showed a temporal pattern of high-low-high-low, with evident decrease in the end
of June and July, which caused the fluctuations of TN/TP ratio.
3.2 Surface Chlorophyll a
Two phases could be obtained based on the fluctuations of Chl a: 1 ~ 29 June, and 30 June
~ 23 July. The maximum of Chl a concentration in the first phase was 75.30 g/L (14
June), and 46.70 g/L in the second phase (16 July) (Fig. 6).
IV - 53
Figure 5. Daily variations of the nutrients in surface water in the Xiangxi Bay from 1 June to 23
July of 2008. The dot line in the figure of TN/TP ratio represents TN/TP = 29.
Figure 6. Variations of the Chl a in the Xiangxi Bay from 1 June to 23 July of 2008
3.3 Cross-Correlation Analysis between Water Column Stability and Chlorophyll a
In order to confirm the hypothesis we proposed, we need to divide the whole study period
into several stages according to the availability of these resources. Light is the essential
condition for the phytoplankton growth, but it could not be the limiting factor for algal
blooms, especially, cyanobacteria dominance is related to the low light intensity (Mur
1983). Therefore, we consider the PAR of the Xiangxi Bay during the study period cannot
limit the phytoplankton growth. Cyanobacteria generally grow better at higher temperature
(often above 25 ) than do other phytoplankton species such as diatoms and green algae
(Jhnk et al. 2008, Paerl and Huisman 2008). However, it is not necessarily inevitable that
cyanobacteria will grow to bloom proportions in aquatic ecosystems (Brookes and Carey
2011). Thereby, we considered the water temperature in the study period also could not be
the limiting factor for cyanobacteria growth.
The research of Smith (1983) indicated that, cyanobacteria tended to be dominant in low
TN/TP ratio waters. When TN/TP ratios are greater than 29, it would limit the
cyanobacteria dominance. Therefore, in this study, the whole survey period was divided
into 4 stages according to TN/TP ratio = 29: S1 (1 ~ 17 June); S2 (18 June ~ 1 July); S3 (2
~ 14 July); S4 (15 ~ 23 July). Among the 4 stages, weekly monitoring of water chemistry
IV - 54
was performed from 6 to 17 June of S1, we considered those days as one stage according
to the overall changing trend of TN/TP ratio.
Cross-correlation analysis was carried out between RWCS above different depth and Chl a
of different stages (S1 ~ S4 and the whole period). We extracted the highest CCF and the
relative lag number (Table 1).
Table 1. The Cross-Correlation Coefficient and the lag number between the RWCS of each layer
and the surface chlorophyll a (p < 0.05). A: all data during the study period. (1 lag represents 15
minutes)
RWCS
2m 3m 4m 5m 6m 7m 8m 9m 10m 11m 12m
A CCF 0.28 0.32 0.34 0.32 0.28 0.25 0.21 0.18 0.17 0.14 0.13
lag 195 101 103 104 97 97 97 98 97 97 97
S1 CCF 0.49 0.61 0.69 0.70 0.69 0.66 0.64 0.60 0.54 0.47 0.44
lag 202 202 202 200 200 200 199 199 200 200 200
S2 CCF -0.32 -0.40 -0.47 -0.49 -0.46 -0.41 -0.38 -0.37 -0.37 -0.37 -0.37
lag -109 -112 -112 -112 -112 -111 -125 -207 -207 -207 -312
S3 CCF 0.43 0.54 0.62 0.64 0.63 0.58 0.51 0.46 0.40 0.34 0.28
lag 0 0 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
S4 CCF 0.42 0.60 0.51 0.39 0.30 0.34 0.32 0.27 0.19 0.11 0.04
lag 0 2 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3
The whole period: When the data of the whole study period entered the analysis, the
relationship between RWCS and Chl a was significant, but the CCF was very low.
S1: About 200 lag number (50 hours) was found for the response of Chl a to changes of
RWCS. The highest CCF appeared between 5 m-RWCS and Chl a, indicating the stability
of the water column above 5 m caused most significantly effect to surface Chl a. S2: All of
the lag numbers were minus, indicating no significant effect was caused by RWCS to Chl a.
S3: The lag number between 2m-RWCS and Chl a, and 3m-RWCS and Chl a were both 0,
implying that Chl a responsed quickly following thedisturbance of the water column above
2m and 3m. The response time of Chl a to the RWCS of other water columns was 30 min
(2 lags). The CCF between 5m-RWCS and Chl a showed the highest value. This indicated
that, the disturbance of the upper 3m water column caused simultaneous influence to the
surface Chl a, but the effect of RWCS above 5m was most prominent. S4: Similar with S3,
the changes of 2m-RWCS affected significantly Chl a immediately, but the influence of
3m-RWCS was most remarkable, with the lag delay 30 min (2 lags).
4. DISCUSSION
Light is inevitable for the phytoplankton growth, and very important to the accumulation of
the phytoplankton biomass (Mitchell et al. 1991). Euphotic zone is the maximum depth of
the light zone suitable for phytoplankton photosynthesis. It could influence the vertical
distribution of the phytoplankton biomass (Becker et al. 2008, Znachor et al. 2008). After
11 June, the euphotic depth in the Xiangxi Bay ranged from 2m to 5m. At the same period,
the average residence depth of the cyanobacteria also fluctuated between 2m and 5m
(Wang et al. 2011). In S1 and S3, what influenced the surface Chl a most significantly was
the stability of the upper part of the water column, especially the water column above 5m.
IV - 55
Therefore, we concluded that, during the bloom period, cyanobacteria mainly concentrated
in the euphotic zone, and the stability of the water column above the euphotic depth caused
most remarkable effect to the surface Chl a concentration.
Water column stability is one of the most important factors influencing the prevalence of
cyanobacteria (Bouman et al. 2011, Brookes and Carey 2011). Cyanobacteria can benefit
from their vertical migration in the stratified water, by regulating their buoyancy which
give them the advantage in competing with other species (e.g. diatoms, green algae) for
nutrients and light (Dokulil and Teubner 2000, Jhnk et al. 2008). But in those regions
with high river flow or short residence time, the intensive water disturbance could limit the
phytoplankton biomass (Alpine and Cloern 1992). During our study period, there was a
similar fluctuation trend between RWCS and Chl a. In the beginning of S1, RWCS was
usually lower than 20, especially in the water column above 5 m. Therefore, the Chl a
concentration was very low although the nutrients contents and the TN/TP ratio were all
suitable. We concluded that lower RWCS (< 20) of the water column restrained the growth
of the phytoplankton and limited the cyanobacteria bloom.
As the increase of the RWCS, together with enough nutrients, Chl a concentration
increased in S1. However, it decreased in S2 although RWCS was similar with that in S1.
Higher TN/TP ratio usually limited the cyanobacteria dominance (Smith 1983), and
therefore the higher TN/TP ratio in S2 caused the decrease of the Chl a. This confirmed
our hypothesis that high RWCS could trigger the cyanobacterial bloom only when the
nutrients, water temperature and light could not be the limiting factors.
Time lags, or delays, are common in many systems. For example, the effect of toxic
phytoplankton bloom to zooplankton mortality occurs after some time lapse (Sarkar et al.
2007); bacterial biomass was positively correlated with Chl a with a time lag of 4 days
(Weisse et al. 1990). Some researcher also studied the time lags between Chl a and the
environmental factors, e.g. the study of Nezline and Li (2003) in the Santa Monica Bay
indicated that chlorophyll biomass correlated significantly with air temperature with a time
lag of 5 days. These studies usually considered only one environment factor, and neglected
the synergistic effect caused by other factors. In this article, if we did not consider the
effect of nutrients and used all data of the study period to perform the analysis, a
significant correlationship and the relative lag time could also be obtained, but with lower
CCF and inaccurate lag time. The analysis based on the data of different stages, however,
indicated the lag time was different under different backgrounds. The correlationship was
positive both in S1 and S3, while the response time of Chl a to RWCS was different, 50 h
and 30 min, respectively. S1 and S3 were the two phases of this cyanobacterial bloom.
Usually, the phytoplankton biomass of the first algal bloom decreases due to the nutrients
exhaustion. Then with recharged of the nutrients and the favorable water environment, the
second phytoplankton bloom would break out rapidly (Weisse et al. 1990). This could be
one of the main reason why the response time in S3 was much shorter than that in S1.
Additionally, the average 5m-RWCS during the Chl a increase period of S1 (1 ~ 15 June)
was 32.52 (range: 0 ~ 112.15), while that in S3 was 69.49 (range: 5.74~ 189.42), impling
that higher RWCS could be another main factor causing the increase of the surface Chl a in
a short time.
It is clear that short-term dynamic of the water column stability, especially the stability of
the upper part water column could impact the surface Chl a significantly. When nutrients,
water temperature and light are sufficient, stable water environment could cause the
IV - 56
prominent increase of Chl a within about 2 days, and lower stability (less than 20) could
limit the cyanobacteria growth. Water column stability is usually depends on water
temperature, water disturbance and residence time. Temperature could not be controlled
artificially, but the other two factors are related to the water level fluctuations of the
reservoir. As a highly regulated man-made system, the water level fluctuations of
reservoirs mainly depend on the inflow discharge from upstream and the water demand of
the downstream. Therefore, in the prevalence period of cyanobacterial blooms, we could
reduce the water column stability to limit the algae growth by regulating the water level
fluctuations of the reservoir, in order to control the cyanobacterial blooms.
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IV - 58
Study and practice of reducing sedimentation in the tail area of the Three
Gorges Reservoir
Zhou Man
China Three Gorges Corporation, Yichang,, China
zhou_man@ctgpc.com.cn
Hu Xinge
China Three Gorges Corporation, Yichang,, China
Xu tao
China Yangtze Power Co., Ltd., Yichang, China
ABSTRACT:
After the impoundment of the Three Gorges Reservoir, major erosion period in the tail area
changes from September and October under natural condition to fluctuating period from April to
June. In order to increase the erosion in fluctuating period and reduce the sedimentation in local
reaches which may block navigation. Regulations to reduce sedimentation in the tail area of the
reservoir are presented based on one-dimensional unsteady flow-sediment model. The results show
that the optimal operation schemes with high erosion are as follows: the water level in front of the
dam is in the range of 160~162m; the discharge at Cuntan hydrometric station is above 7000m3/s;
and the rate of declining water level is between 0.4m/d to 0.6m/d. According to the results
above, experiments were successfully carried out in the fluctuating period of 2012 and 2013. The
total measured erosion quantity in the tail area are 2.411 million m3 and 4.413 million m3
respectively, which imply good effects on reducing sedimentation. Besides, the measured data in
2012 are used to validate the mathematical model. Comparison between the measured data and the
calculated results show that the model is essentially effective on qualitative calculation and
basically reasonable for quantification in most of the reaches.
Keywords: sediment; reducing sedimentation; practice; the Three Gorges Reservoir
1. GENERAL INTRODUCTIONS
Sedimentation of the Three Gorges Reservoir involves a series of important problems, such
as lifespan of the reservoir, flood level raised in the terminal of backwater zone, the
influence to navigation in the tail reaches (from Dadukou section to Fuling section in
Chongqing, including the Jialingjiang river), as well as the sediment erosion downstream
the dam[1]. Among all the problems, sediment erosion and deposition in the tail reaches has
a critical priority. The main conclusion of this problem in the preliminary design is that the
navigation condition and wharf operation can benefit from the initial normal operation of
the reservoir under the conditions of hydrologic series in the 1960s regardless of the
reservoirs upstream. In the middle and later periods of the reservoir operation, the wharf
operation will be affected by deposition and navigation-obstructing gradually. However,
sediment problem in the tail reaches can be solved by optimizing reservoir operation and
improving channel[1].
IV - 59
Since impoundment in 2003, the inbound sediment of the Three Gorges Reservoir has
largely decreased compared to the preliminary design, which creates opportunities to
optimize operation. Measured data show that the sediment deposition is better than
expectation in the preliminary design. Yet, major period of erosion in the tail reaches
changes from September and October under natural condition to fluctuating period from
April to June because of impounding water in advance. In addition, after experimental
impoundment of 175m water level, as the water level rising in the flood season, sediment
deposition is gradually increasing upstream[4]. Erosion occupies the main position in the
tail reaches, but a cumulative deposition appears in local area, which may have adverse
effect on navigation. In this paper, in order to increase the erosion and avoid adverse effect
on navigation, one-dimensional unsteady flow-sediment model is adopted to study the
regulations of reducing sedimentation in the tail reaches, attempting to benefit the
navigation by optimizing operation of the Three Gorges Reservoir.
2. RESERVOIR OPERATION AND CHANGES OF SEDIMENT EROSION AND

DEPOSITION
2.1. Reservoir operation
The arrangement of the Three Gorges Reservoir impoundment in preliminary design is as
follows: storage level is raised to 135m in 2003, entering cofferdam power
generation period; storage level is raised to 156m in 2007, entering the stage of initial
operation. How to raise the storage level up from 156m to the normal storage level 175m
depends on the resettlement situation, and the observed sediment deposition in Chongqing
port, the tentative schedule of which lasts for 6 years [1]. When the reservoir reaches the
normal water level of 175m, in the flood season from June to September the water level
must be maintained below the flood control level of 145m. When the inbound flow of the
Three Gorges Reservoir is more than 55000m3/s, the reservoir is put into the operation of
flood control. After the flood, the level drops to the flood limit level. The reservoir begins
impoundment again in October after flood season[1].
Compared with the preliminary design, since impounding of the Three Gorges Reservoir,
the work of complex construction, relocation and resettlement, geological disaster
prevention have been ahead of the initial design and sedimentation situation is better than
anticipated. Phased impounding is achieved ahead of schedule. Storage level reached 156m
in October 2006, a year in advance compared to the preliminary design. On September 28th,
2008, the Three Gorges Reservoir started to experimentally impound water to the normal
level of 175m, 5 years ahead of the preliminary design[3]. Simultaneously, compared with
the preliminary design, the operational conditions have changed greatly since the
impoundment of the Three Gorges Reservoir, such as the constructions of the reservoirs
upstream, the reduction of the inbound flow and sediment, and the increase of the water
utilization. Under the new conditions, from 2008 to 2012, regulations were optimized,
including impounding water in advance, raising limit water level, regulating small and
medium floods, illustrated specifically as follows : (1) water storage time is changed from
October 1st in the initial design to September 28th, September 15th, and September 10th step
by step; (2) the highest level can be raised to 146.5m without increasing the burden of the
flood control downstream; (3) based on real-time rainfall forecasting, small and medium
floods are utilized. Then comprehensive benefits such as flood control, power generation
and navigation are improved through the optimized regulations.
IV - 60
2.2. Changes of sediment erosion and deposition
2.1.1. The sediment erosion and deposition on the whole
From 2003 to 2012, due to the sediment blocking of the upstream reservoirs, conservation
of water and soil, as well as climate change, the annual inbound sediment is 190 million
tons, which is 62.7% less than the initial design (509 million tons). And the annual inbound
sediment will continue reducing with the reservoirs upstream gradually put into operation.
In 2013, due to the impoundment of the Xiangjiaba and Xiluodu power station, the annual
inbound sediment is only 130 million tons. As the inbound sediment reduces greatly, the
average annual sediment deposition (144 million tons) is only 42% of the preliminary
design. After the optimized operations are carried out in the Three Gorges Reservoir, the
average annual deposition is only 45% of the initial design. As to the distribution of
sedimentation, the deposition area is gradually moving upstream with the impoundment.
However, 99% of the deposition is below 145m, the dead water level of the Three Gorges
Reservoir. Only 1% is in the fluctuating backwater zone.
2.1.2. Features of sediment erosion and deposition in the tail reach
Table 1. Erosion and deposition in the main urban area of Chongqing (from September 5th, 2008 to
October 15th, 2012)
reaches The quantity of erosion and The depth of erosion and deposition
deposition (m)
3
(million m ) average maximum
The whole reach -2.284 -0.07 8.7
The upper reaches -2.216 -0.14 2.7
of Chaotianmen
The lower reaches 0.057 0.01 8.7
of Chaotianmen
The Jialingjiang -0.125 -0.01 3.2
river
+: deposition; -: erosion
Major period of erosion in the tail reaches is from the middle of September to the middle
of October under natural condition (the discharge at Cuntan hydrometric station is between
12000 to 25000m3/s). Second period is from the middle of October to the end of December
(the range of the discharge at Cuntan hydrometric station is 500012000m3/s). Sediment
stops moving when the discharge at Cuntan hydrometric station is less than 5000m3/s.
After the experimental impoundment to the water level of 175m, deposition is gradually
replaced by erosion from the middle of September to the end of December under natural
condition. Major period of erosion in the tail reaches changes to fluctuating period. From
September 5th, 2008 to October 15th, 2012, features of sediment erosion and deposition in
the tail reach are different from year to year. In the flood season, deposition occurs in most
of the years except for the year of 2010. The inbound flow and sediment are relatively high
in the year of 2012 with the deposition of 2.756 million m3. In the impoundment period,
deposition exists in 2008, 2010 and 2011, yet little erosion exists in 2009. In fluctuating
period, erosion is dominant in most of years except 2010. The erosion quantity is larger in
fluctuating period with large deposition in flood season and impoundment period[4]. As to
the distribution of deposition, the erosion quantity are 2.216 million m3 and 125 thousand
m3 in the Jinglingjiang river and the upper reaches of Chaotianmen respectively, and the
IV - 61
deposition quantity in lower reaches of Chaotianmen is 57 thousand m3, as demonstrated in
Table 1, which has no impact on navigation.
3. PROPOSAL FOR THE REGULATION OF REDUCING SEDIMENTATION
Regulation of reducing sedimentation in fluctuating period in the tail reach of the Three
Gorges Reservoir aims at increasing erosion, and carrying sediment to the dead storage of
the Three Gorges Reservoir. The target region is the tail reach of the Three Gorges
Reservoir, which is located in the main urban area of Chongqing. Key parameters such as
the optimal time of regulation, daily reduction of the water level, initial water level in front
of the dam and the discharge at Cuntan hydrometric station should be proposed in this
study.
3.1. The preferred time for regulation

Due to the experimental impoundment to the water level of 175m, an important period of
erosion in the tail reaches turns into early April to late May. With water flow and sediment
concentration increasing, deposition occurs in the reach gradually after middle June. Since
the inbound flow and sediment of the Three Gorges Reservoir in late April too low to
erode the sediment, the effect of reducing sedimentation is poor. Also, fluctuation too early
is not beneficial for navigation. But as time goes on, with the conditions for daily reduction
less than 0.6 m/d, high water level in early stage goes against fluctuating to the
flood limit level. So the preferred time for regulation is early May.
3.2. The initial water level in front of the dam and discharge at Cuntan hydrometric
station
In order to fix the initial water level in front of the dam and the discharge at Cuntan
hydrometric station, one-dimensional unsteady flow-sediment model is developed to
calculate the erosion and deposition in the tail reaches with different combination of the
water level in front of the dam and discharge at Cuntan hydrometric station [5-6]. The
computation district covers the mainstream from Zhutuo section to the dam of the Three
Gorges Reservoir with a length of 760km and 14 tributaries including the Jinglingjiang and
the Wujiang river. The combination of the water level in front of the dam and discharge at
Cuntan hydrometric station is listed below: (1) the discharge at Cuntan hydrometric station
of 7000, 9000, 12000 and 15000m3/s respectively; (2) the water level in front of the dam of
155, 157, 160, 162 and 165m; (3) duration of 1, 2 and 3 days.
For comparison, regulation is divided into two parts: (a) basic regulation: the water level in
front of the dam remains invariable; (b) regulation of reducing sedimentation: the water
level in front of the dam reduces by increasing the outbound flow with 5000m3/s based on
the basic regulation, and the following conditions for daily reduction less than 0.6 m/d
(requirement of slope stability of the Three Gorges Reservoir) should
be met simultaneously.
IV - 62
water level in front of the dam(m)
-10
155 157 160 162 165
-20 7000a
7000b
-30
(ten thousand m)
9000a
3
quantity
9000b
-40
12000a
12000b
-50
15000a
15000b
-60
-70
Figure 1. Erosion and deposition of different regulations in major urban area of Chongqing(3 days)
water level in front of the dam(m)

155 157 160 162 165
0
-1
-2
(ten thousand m)
3
7000
quantity
-3
9000
-4 12000
-5 15000
-6
-7
Figure 2. Reducing sedimentation of different regulations in major urban area of Chongqing(3

days)
Figure 1 and 2 show the erosion and deposition of different regulations in major urban area
of Chongqing for 3 days. The calculated results for basic regulation demonstrate that with
low water level in front of the dam, high discharge at Cuntan hydrometric station and long
duration of regulation, good effect is achieved. Comparatively, the calculated results for
regulation of reducing sedimentation indicate that great effect is high water level in front of
the dam and long duration of regulation. In order to achieve good effect of reducing
sedimentation, the discharges at Cuntan hydrometric station of 12000, 9000 and 7000m3/s
are suitable as the water level in front of the dam are 165, 155 and 162m respectively; and
when the water level in front of the dam are 160 and 157m, lower discharge at Cuntan
hydrometric station leads to good effect.
Approximately, the terminal of backwater zone with different water levels in front of the
dam are as below: 145m-Fuling section, 157m-Tongluoxia section, 160m-Chaotianmen
section, 162m-Jiulongpo section, and 165m-Dadukou section. Measured data indicate that
IV - 63
the main urban area of Chongqing is still in natural state as the water level in front of the
dam is below 157m. Then, sediment transport is less affected by the water level of the
Three Gorges Reservoir. As the water level in front of the dam increases to the range of
160162m, the terminal of backwater zone covers most of the main urban area of
Chongqing including Chaotianmen section and Jiulongpo section. Then, the water level of
the Three Gorges Reservoir plays a great role in sediment transport. Take all factor in to
consideration, when the water level in front of the dam is in the range of 160162m and
the discharge at Cuntan hydrometric station is 7000m3/s, it is suitable for implementing the
regulation of reducing sedimentation.
3.3. Proposal for regulation of reducing sedimentation
10 years from 1991 to 2000 are adopted as typical years for the calculation of sediment
erosion and deposition. The results show that as the water level in front of the dam is above
160m, it is disadvantageous for sediment transport when the daily reduction of the water
level is less than 0.1m; on the contrary, the daily reduction of the water level more than
0.2m is better. In order to attain good effect, the range of daily reduction for 0.40.6m is
suitable in consideration of the probability of the inbound flow and sediment.
Analysis suggests that the water level in front of the dam has greatest influence on the
erosion in the tail reach. And it is efficient to reduce the water level when the inbound flow
and sediment increase. So regulation of reducing sedimentation can be proposed as
operating the water level in front of the dam reducing 0.5m/d for 10 days when the water
level in front of the dam is in the range of 160162m and the discharge at Cuntan
hydrometric station is above 7000m3/s. The deficiency is that the water level in front of the
dam and the discharge at Cuntan hydrometric station are not simultaneously satisfied.
Fortunately, this difficulty can be resolved when the operation of reservoirs in upper
reaches including Xiangjiaba and Xiluodu hydropower station are carried out in
coordination with the Three Gorges Reservoir.
4. REGULATIONS PRACTICE OF REDUCING SEDIMENTATION

Based on the research above, in the fluctuating period of 2012 and 2013, when the water
level of the dam and the discharge at Cuntan hydrometric station basically satisfy the
condition of reducing sedimentation in the tail reach, regulation practice of reducing
sedimentation are carried out.
4.1. Regulation practice in 2012

May 7th ~ 18th, 2012, the first regulation practice of reducing sedimentation in the Three
Gorges Reservoir was implemented, lasting for 12 days. During the first regulation period,
average discharge of Cuntan hydrometric station was 6850m3/s. The water level of the dam
fell 5.21m accumulatively (from 161.97m to 156.76m) and average daily reduction of the
water level was 0.43m/d. Measured data showed that the tail reach broadly eroded and the
total erosion quantity were 2.411 million m3 from Dadukou section to Fuling section in
Chongqing (include the Jinglingjiang river, totally length of reach is 169km). Thereinto,
the erosion quantity is 1.011 million m3 in the main urban area of Chongqing and 1.4
million m3 from Tongluoxia section to Fuling section. As to the distribution of
sedimentation, the erosion quantity is 0.843 million m3 in the main stream of main urban
area in Chongqing(from Dadukou section to Tongluoxia section, the length of reach is
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35.5km), 0.168 million m3 in the Jinglingjiang river (from Jingkou section to Chaotianmen
section, the length of reach is 20km) and from Tongluoxia section to Fuling section, there
is erosion in the upper reaches of Qingyanzi section in Linshi town and deposition in lower
reaches. The erosion quantity is 2.939 million m3 from Tongluoxia section to Linshi town
(length of reach is 86.2km), yet quantity of 1.538 million m3 sediment deposites from
Linshi town to Fuling section.
4.2. Regulation practice in 2013

May 13th~20th, 2013, the second regulation practice was implemented, lasting for 7.5 days.
During the test, average discharge of Cuntan hydrometric station was 6209m3/s. The water
level of the dam fell to 4.43m accumulatively (from 160.17m to 155.74m) with the average
rate of 0.59m/d. Measured data showed that the total erosion quantity is 4.413 million m3
in the tail reach. And the erosion quantity of 0.333 million m3 was in the main urban area
of Chongqing and 4.08million m3 from Tongluoxia section to Fuling section.
Compared with the year of 2012, the second regulation practice sedimentation is more
effective in 2013, especially from Tongluoxia section to Fuling section:
On the one hand, the total erosion quantity in 2013 is 4.08 million m3 from Tongluoxia
section to Fuling section, which is approximately 1.9 times of that in 2012.
On the other hand, erosion and deposition appear simultaneously in 2012 from Tongluoxia
section to Fuling section. And there is erosion in the upper reaches of Qingyanzi section in
Linshi town and deposition in lower reaches. The erosion quantity is 2.939 million m3 from
Tongluoxia section to Linshi town, yet quantity of 1.538 million m3 deposite from Linshi
town to Fuling section. In 2013, erosion occurrs all along the reaches. It is noted that Luoqi
and Qingyanzi sections as the significant deposition areas in the past change to erosion, the
erosion quantity are 0.182 and 1.245 million m3 respectively. Contrastively in the period of
reducing sedimentation in 2012, the erosion quantity is 1.614 million m3 in Louqi section
and Qingyanzi section presents deposition with quantity of 0.362 million m3( mainly in
Niusiqi reach with quantity of 0.583 million m3).
5. REGULATION OF REDUCING SEDIMENTATION MODEL VADIDATION

Table 1. Erosion and deposition in the major urban area of Chongqing
Mesured Calculated
Absolute Relative
Reaches data(ten data(ten
3 3 error(%) error(%)
thousand m ) thousand m )
Dadukou-Chaotianmen -52.7 -80 -27.3 51.8
Chaotianmen -Tongluoxia -31.6 -10 21.6 -68.4
Jingkou-Chaotiamen in the 16.8 -100
-16.8 0
Jingling rive
Dadukou-Tongluoxia -84.3 -90 -5.7 6.8
the main urban area of 11.1 -11.0
-101.1 -90
Chongqing
Tongluoxia-Linshi -293.9 -310 -16.1 5.5
Linshi-Fuling 153.8 340 186.2 121.1
Dadukou-Fulin (inculding the 181.1 -75.1
-241.1 -60
Jinglingjiang river)
+: deposition; -: erosion
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In this paper, the observed data of sediment in 2012 is used to validate the mathematical
model. The calculation results are summarized in Table 2. Most reaches are found to erode
except Linshi town to Fuling section due to the observed data. Overall, the calculated data
is qualitatively consistent with the observed data and basically reasonable in quantitative.
Sediment with large quantities deposited in Niusiqi reach is the reason for highest error of
Linshi town to Fuling section. Analysis indicates that sediment deposited because of the
morphology characters along with section area suddenly increasing and the flow velocity
suddenly reducing accordingly. Most of one-dimensional models are mainly applied to
solve the computation problem for long period of time and long reaches. Yet since the
statistical time and length is not long enough in this study, quantitative error is unavoidable.
Also Linshi town to Fuling section is in the critical reach between erosion and deposition
and has a major impact by local morphology, which leads to low accuracy. So the
computation results can generally provide support for the regulation of reducing
sedimentation in fluctuating period of the Three Gorges Reservoir. As the observed date
accumulated and deep understanding for the rule of erosion and deposition in the tail area
of the Three Gorges Reservoir, the present model should be improved for high precision.
6. CONCLUSION
After experimental impoundment of 175m water level, erosion occupies the main position
in the tail reaches, but a cumulative deposition appears in local area. And the rule
of sediment movement changes greatly. Major period of erosion in the tail reaches changes
from September and October under natural condition to fluctuating period from April to
June.
A one-dimensional unsteady flow-sediment mathematical model is developed to propose

the regulation of reducing sedimentation in fluctuating period of the Three Gorges
Reservoir, which is applied in fluctuating period of 2012 and 2013 with good results. The
deficiency is that the water level in the front of the dam and the discharge at Cuntan
hydrometric station are not simultaneously satisfied. Fortunately, this difficulty can be
resolved after the operation of reservoirs in upper reaches carried out in
coordination with the Three Gorges Reservoir.
Measured data in the regulation of reducing sedimentation in fluctuating period in 2012 is
used to verify the accuracy of the model. It demonstrates that the calculated data is
qualitatively consistent with the measured data and basically reasonable in quantitative. In
order to increase the accuracy of the present model, deepened understanding of the rule
of sediment movement in the tail reach of the Three Gorges Reservoir and improving the
present model are necessary.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The work reported in this manuscript is a part of the research program funded by China 12th
five-year national science and technology support plan sediment regulation and control and
multi-objective optimizing operation of the Three Gorges Reservoir(Grant No. ,
2012BAB04B05).
REFERENCES
IV - 66
Yangtze river water resource commission. (1992). Preliminary design report of the Three
Gorges Project. Yangtze river water resource commission. Wuhan, China.
XIE, J.H. (1987): Simple explanation of sediment problem in the Three Gorges Project,
Yangtze River, (2):1-11,Wuhan, China.
ZHANG, S.G. and ZHOU, M. (2011): Operation and regulation of the Three Gorges
Reservoir, Engineering Sciences, 13:7, pp. 61-65. Beijing, China.
Yangtze river water resources commission, Bureau of Hydrology. (2013): Hydrology and
sediment observation report in 20082012 of the Three Gorges Reservoir. Yangtze
river water resource commission, Bureau of Hydrology. Wuhan, China.
HUANG, R.Y. and HUANG, Y. (2009): Preliminary study on 1-D numerical simulation of
unsteady flow and sediment transport in mainstream and tributaries of the Three
Gorges Reservoir area, Journal of Yangtze River Scientific Research Institute, 26:2,
pp. 9-13. Wuhan, China.
HUANG, R.Y., LI, F. and ZHANG, X.B. (2012): Numerical simulation of flow and
sediment transport in the early stage of Three Gorges Reservoir operation, Journal
of Yangtze River Scientific Research Institute, 29:1, pp. 7-12. Wuhan, China.
IV - 67
BIODIVERSITY MANAGEMENT PLAN

IN THE PROJECT AREAS OF THE UCPS HEPP DEVELOPMENT
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A. Heryana, T. Indora & A. Nugroho
PT PLN (Persero)UIP VI , Bandung, Indonesia
arief.heryana@pln.co.id
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ABSTRACT:
PT PLN (Persero) is currently planning the development of Upper Cisokan Pumped Storage
hydroelectric power plant (UCPS HEPP) which has a capacity of 1040 MW (4 x 260 MW) located
in the province of West Java. The land area that must be acquired is covering 720 Ha, consisting of
citizen lands and forest lands. As a project that will occupy forest lands and requires relatively
large areas, one of environmental issues arises is the biodiversity issues. In 2012, PLN has
conducted biodiversity study aimed to analyze the vulnerability of flora and fauna that live in the
project areas, and also to complement the previous studies data. At least 376 species of plants and
159 species of fauna from different classes have been identified in the project areas, including 9
species of mammals and 18 species of birds are reserved. The studies also mentioned that with or
without the presence of UCPS HEPP project, the sustainability of some species in the project areas
will not be able to last a long time considering the forest as a habitat for fauna obtain a high
pressure, either due to illegal hunting or because of land clearing by local residents. In order to
protect the biodiversity levels at the project site, PLN has compiled a biodiversity management
plan as a reference for the construction and operational activities of UCPS HEPP. Biodiversity
management plan will use an adaptive management approach to make in situ conservation as a
priority. Some of the management actions that will be performed including the improvement of
habitat quality around the project areas, the development of a corridor for wildlife movement,
community involvement to protect areas from the activities of illegal hunting and collaboration
with relevant stakeholders, especially stakeholders in the management of forest conservation areas.
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Keywords: HEPP, Upper Cisokan Pumped Storage, biodiversity, conservation
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1. INTRODUCTION
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In an effort to increase the power supply capacity in the electric power shortage regions
and to diversify energy resources for the sake of conventional fuel saving, the Government
of Indonesia is actively promoting development of alternative energy for coal, oil and
natural gas. Particularly, the development of hydroelectric power plants is strongly
encouraged because there are abundant hydroelectric power resources in the country.
Under the circumstances, PT PLN (Persero) has planned to develop a new hydroelectric
power plant at the West Java Province where the energy demand has been increasing
8.97% a year on average. PLN intends to proceed with the development of Upper Cisokan
Pumped Storage Hydroelectric Power Plant Project. The total installed capacity of the
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UCPS HEPP Project will be 1040 MW. Four pump turbines are to be installed, each
turbine unit having a nominal capacity of 260 MW (for generating). The UCPS HEPP
Project will be the first pumped storage project in Indonesia. It will be located about 150
km southeast of Jakarta in the upstream region of the Cisokan River Basin, the
main tributary of the Citarum River, in West Java Province, Republic of Indonesia.
The Citarum River, the largest river in West Java with its catchment area of about
6,000 km2, runs northward into the Java Sea.
The UCPS HEPP Project has two reservoirs, the upper reservoir and lower reservoir, each
having an active volume of 10 million m3. At peak hours, the water will flow from the
upper reservoir to the lower reservoir to generate electricity. At base load, the water
collected in the lower reservoir will be pumped back to the upper reservoir, using electrical
energy supplied from power plants that bear the base load. Operation of UCPS HEPP
provides a cheaper method for PLN to meet the daily peak load and the additional load
demand.
Upper reservoir water surface area at the maximum height of the water level is 80 Ha and
while the lower reservoir is 260 Ha. The total area of land required for the whole project is
720 Ha, which covers an area of 382 Ha of forest lands and citizen lands area of 338 Ha.
Based on the land utilization map issued by the Government of West Bandung Regency
and Cianjur Regency, general land usage patterns in the project area consists of forest,
mixed farms, fields, cultivated and settlements. Most of the land requirements is forested
which is a production forest managed by Perum Perhutani. Types of plants grown in
production forests are pine and teak. Most of the forest is a secondary forest patches from
fragmented forest production. Secondary forests are generally found in locations that are
difficult to reach by people such as cliffs, river banks and other location including water
fall. The forest is generally predominantly dominated by forest trees, including Baros
(Magnolia glauca), Manglid (Magnolia blumei), Teureup (Artocarpus elasticus), Kiara
(Ficus spp), and several species that are commonly found in destructed forest, such as
Mara (Macaranga spp).
2. BIODIVERSITY CONDITIONS IN THE LOCATION OF THE PROJECT
As a project that will occupy forest area and requires large lands, one environmental issue
that arises is the issue of biodiversity. EIA documents prepared in 2007 stated that the level
of biodiversity in the UCPS HEPP Project area is quite high. In the area surrounding the
project plan and recorded fauna species particularly of the class Mammalia, herpetofauna,
Pisces, and Aves. Total species recorded was 85 species, consisting mostly of class Aves
(birds) i.e. 53 species, then as many as 11 species of Mammalia, Reptiles as many as 6
species, Pisces (fish) as many as 3 species, and Amphibian as many as 3 species.
In 2012, PLN conducted a survey of flora and fauna in the project area again. This survey
aimed to complement biodiversity information from previous reports and analyze the level
of vulnerability of the flora and fauna that are in the project area. Studies conducted over 1
year in two different seasons (rainy season and dry season). The study found that at least
376 plant species: 268 genera and 160 families inhabited the UCPS HEPP Project area.
Based on the field study, the forest area in the watershed Cisokan has been seriously
disturbed as indicated by the opened area which covers up to 90% of the study area. Based
on satellite imagery sighting photo which used as the basis of a field study, at least there
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are seven types of land use, i.e. a) secondary forest with some remaining primary forest
trees, b) pine forest, c) mixed-garden, d) garden for planting dried paddy and annual crops,
e) paddy field along the river bank at the level area, f) residential areas distributed in
several locations near watershed area, g) river.
While for the fauna, there were 30 mammal species, 81 bird species, 15 fish species and 33
amphibian and reptiles existed in HEPP-UCPS (Quarry, Access road, Upper dam, Lower
dam and Transmission area). Nine of 30 mammals species were treated as protected
species under Indonesian law, CITES, and IUCN. In addition, among 81 bird species, 18
species were also protected species. None protected species of either fish or herpetofauna
found in this study area. In addition to direct observation, observation was also made by
installing a 10 camera traps in the vicinity of the lower reservoir for 3 months and managed
to record the presence of wildlife including several endangered animals as follows:
a. Panthera pardus melas (Leopard)

Two of the 10 camera traps shot the leopard in the secondary forest near the next new
lower dam, which is in Gowek Forest and Pasir Nangka. The existence of leopards in this
region is also supported by direct observation in the field such as feces, traces and
scratches on trees that were found in the area of the Cisokan River. The analysis of the
camera trap indicates that only a single leopard was documented to inhabit this lower dam
area. Considering the population size and the habitat condition which were not able to
support their survival, it can be ascertained that under present conditions this leopard will
not be able to survive in this area.
b. Prionailurus bengalensis javanensis (Leopard Cat)

By using 10 camera traps, a leopard cat was documented to exist in the lower dam. After
establishing camera traps during 3 months, two camera traps successfully recorded a
leopard cat at two different locations, which is in Palisiran and Pasir Nangka. Based on the
analysis of camera traps record, it is possible that the two camera sets recorded the same
individual since those two camera traps were set up within a short distance (< 1 km), it can
be concluded that at least there is a leopard cat inhabited the lower dam area. As an
illustration, Palisirian and Pasir Nangka area where the leopard cat was recorded by camera
traps were bushes and mixed-garden areas which were always used for gardening by local
residents. Based on the analysis of the population size and their habitat, whether there is
UCPS project or not, the leopard cat is going to be extinct in the lower dam.
c. Hylobates moloch (Gibbon)

Based on the field observation in the area study, there were at least seven Java Gibbons
inhabit the Curug walet, Powerhouse, Cimanggu and the secondary forest Gowek near to
the next new Lower Dam. Their existence in this area was under serious threats, especially
the habitat conversion. Land clearing and illegal logging of their habitat have been
conducted for a long time.
d. Presbytis comate (Grizzled Leaf Monkey)

The existence of Grizzled Leaf Monkey in the Upper Dam, based on the interview data as
well as direct observation in the field. At least, four individuals of Grizzled Leaf Monkey
were observed during the 1 st survey in the mixed-garden of Cibuluh area. The existence of
the Grizzled Leaf Monkey in the Lower Dam were identified by hearing of the voice and
documentation in the field results. During this study four sub populations of Grizzled Leaf
Monkey were successfully documented in the following areas: the secondary forest Gowek
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(near to the next new Lower Dam); surrounding Cilengkong river; Cadas Gantung area,
and upstream of Cisokan River (Bojong Salam village).
e. Trachypithecus auratus (Javan Langur)

In this survey in the lower dam, about 21 individuals were recorded. Total population is
still relatively high in this region due to the ability of adaptation to their food which not
only depends on one kind of food available all the year. Their population found in the
powerhouse area (Cimanggu, Cilengkong River, and Curug wallet) and secondary forest
Gowek (near the next new lower dam).
f. Tragulus javanicus (Lesser Mouse-Deer)

Lesser Mouse-Deers were found in Palisiran, Cimanggu, Batu Bedil dan Gowek Forest.
Based on the analisys of camera traps, there was a possibility that the detected individuals
were different individuals. Therefore, it is concluded that there were minimally four mouse
deer in this lower dam area. Their natural habitat is primary forest, but these animals can
adapt to the secondary forest as a result of the habitat degradation. The main threats of
these animals are the habitat degradation and the animal hunting to consume the meat.
Whether there is UCPS HEPP Project or not, the existence of mouse deer is threatened to
be extinct resulted by the fast habitat damage in this area.
g. Hystrix javanica (Javan Porcupine)

The camera traps set in Palisiran could document the existence of Hystrix javanica,
whereas an observation in the Upper Dam area found one. Therefore, it is concluded that
there was minimally one Hystrix javanica in the lower dam area and one in the upper dam
area. Hystrix javanica is an animal which is active in the night time. The habitats are
various, ranging from secondary to primary forests. Hystrix javanica is one of animals
hunted by local community. The high economic value of the meat and the high medical
specialty of the parts of body triggered the lower population almost in all Java areas. For
this reason, whether there is a UCPS HEPP Project or not, the existence of this animal is
threated by the illegal hunting in this area.
h. Manis javanica (Pangolin)

The existence of Manis javanica was gained only from observations, i.e. the foot marks
and the active lair. The difficulty to find Manis javanica in this area describes the
population which was very low resulted from the vast illegal hunting since this animal has
high economic value. Manis javanica was one of animals which is highly hunted by local
community. For this reason, whether there is a UCPS project or not, the existence of this
animal is threatened by illegal huntings.
i. Birds
The total bird species found in all survey location of the entire project area was 81 species
from 37 families. Of the total, 11 species were birds endemic in Java, 1 species was in the
category of Near threatened IUCN, 7 species were in Appendix II CITES and 18 species
were the protected by Indonesian government regulation. The richness of the highest
species was found in the lower dam area and the lowest species in the quarry. The group of
birds which will be affected by the project construction is the bird group which is very
tolerant to any disturbance and is a group of deforestation survivor going on hundreds of
years, local extinction will probably not happen.
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j. Fish
The study in Cisokan watershed found 15 species of fish from 10 families, 11 types of
which were indigeneous fish, 4 of which were the introduced fish. This was caused by the
community activities that took the fish using insecticide (Potassium, Thiodan and
Takodan) especially in the dry season so that many fish species were missing in this water
system. This phenomenon shows that the construction of UCPS in Cisokan watershed will
not affect seriously the fish species diversity in this area.
k. Herpetofauna
The study in the UCPS HEPP Project found 33 species, i.e. 17 amphibies and 16 reptiles.
All species of herpetofauna in this area are not included either in the list of fish protected
by Indonesian government regulation or in the category of Appendix CITES and other
conventions. The result of the study shows that some species of herpetofauna found in all
UCPS project areas were common species found either around occupant residences, paddy
fields, gardens, mixed-plantations (talun), or rivers. The common species living in various
types of habitats can easily find new habitats and they easily can ajust the new place when
there is an environmental change. The construction of UCPS project will not disturb the
conservation of these common species because they can still find a new similar habitat in
the surrounding area.
3. THE THREAT TO THE BIODIVERSITY IN PROJECT AREAS
The condition of the forest in the upper reservoir areas were seriously threatened by
logging and clearing the forests for farming purposes, especially on the hills. Some areas
still existed, undisturbed, especially at the valleys with very steep edges (angle > 65%). In
this area, a lot of large decayed logs were resulted from logging. They used only the good
timber for building constructions.
Based on the study conducted also known that there was a serious threat to the habitat of
mammals in this lower dam. The main threat was the change of land use of the secondary
forest turned into rice fields or agricultural areas by local residents. This activity will
certainly lead to the rise of open land in both the valley and the location of areas with steep
slope, so that the area was originally a secondary forest turned into agricultural land.
This condition leads to forest fragmentation into small spots of secondary forests and the
loss of forest corridors that connect between a forest spot with other spot forest. This
process continuously occurred parallel with the resident population increase, and their
needs for residential and farming area. It threatens the survival of the mammals, especially
for the big mammals which are difficult to adapt to the open area. They need a specific
habitat such as more heterogeneous forests.
Forest habitat area which is getting smaller and the pressure of increasing population
activity created conditions which do not favor the development of animal population. As
an example, there is only a single leopard inhabited this lower dam. This leopard will not
be able to survive in this area. Even if there were a couple of them, they would not survive
since their habitat in the lower dam was seriously threatened by illegal logging and land
clearing. Naturally, they will possibly survive only up to first generation since there is no
sub population that is necessary to exchange their genetic resources. Breeding with their
parents will lead to survive possibly up to second generation due to their genetic
degradation. As an illustration, the condition of the secondary forest Gowek where the
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leopard was successfully recorded by the camera traps started to degrade and the size was
less than 10 ha. Illegal logging occured continuously eventhough the accessibility of this
forest was limited due to the steep hill.
4. BIODIVERSITY MANAGEMENT PLAN IN THE PROJECT AREAS
Environmental is one of the essential requirements in the implementation of construction

activities and operation of UCPS HEPP. In order to protect biodiversity at the project site,
PLN has prepared biodiversity management plan. The purpose of biodiversity management
plan is to prepare mitigation required to:
Protect, and whenever possible improve the quality of habitat at the project site.
Protect and restore the greenbelt area in the reservoir as an additional habitat for local
wildlife.
Protect, and whenever possible improve the survival of endangered species in the
project area.
The planned mitigation would include at least the following three components:
a. Remnant secondary forest
- No reduction in the population of endangered species
- Maintenance and protection of the secondary forest remnants.
b. Recovery of Greenbelt
- Recovery using local forest species.
- Protection from the construction, agriculture, land clearing, settlement, hunting or
harvesting.
c. River Environment
- No reduction in the population of food species for the surrounding community.
- No reduction in the population of local fish species
Some of the management actions that will be performed include:

1. Limiting the use of the access road just for the benefit of the project. This is done to
prevent land clearing/forest for agriculture and wildlife poaching by local and non-
local residents whose access is getting easier with the access road.
2. Improving understanding of wildlife protection and a ban on hunting/catching wild
animals to the public and construction workers.
3. Building a wildlife corridor for the movement of the column that has been defined as
the movement of an alternative pathway. This corridor is expected to be a path that
connects the movement of wildlife between forest spot to spot one another forest.
4. Signaling in plants/vegetation (trees/shrubs) found a place/habitat nest, feed and animal
movement places in order not to be disturbed land clearing and construction activities,
at least until these animals to be relocated by in-situ.
5. Compiling standard procedures for the implementation of construction activities in the
region which borders the wildlife habitat, including the handling and rescue procedures
when the animals entering the project areas.
6. Conducting handling and rescue against animals were found nesting with a long
incubation period.
7. Collaborating with relevant stakeholders, the main stakeholders in the management of
forest conservation areas.
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Biodiversity management plan will use an adaptive management approach to make in situ
conservation as a priority. Adaptive management process includes the development of
typical policies or repetition programs which begins from the initial investigation and
identification of the problem, find the option for mitigation of impacts, develop and
implement prevention efforts, and to monitor and review the results of the program before
the loop starts again. Implementation of this effort will involve PLN, construction
supervision consultants, contractors, communities, NGOs working in the field of
conservation, Perum Perhutani as forest stakeholders, and other government agencies such
as Natural Resources Conservation Agency and Ministry of Forestry.
5. CONCLUSION
Based on the above, there are several conclusions as follows:

a. UCPS HEPP Project area is an area that has a high level of biodiversity. There are 9
species of mammals and 18 species of birds are protected. The area around the Lower
Dam are regions with the highest level of biodiversity.
b. There are a few activities around the project that pose a threat to the survival of
wildlife. The main threats caused by illegal hunting and shifting function of secondary
forests into paddy fields or agricultural use by local residents.
c. Sustainability of protected species in the project area remains threatened, either with or
without the presence of UCPS HEPP Project.
d. With the goal of protecting biodiversity levels at the project site, PLN has developed a
biodiversity management plan with an adaptive management approach to guide the
management of biodiversity in the implementation of construction activities and
operation of UCPS HEPP
e. Implementation of biodiversity management plan will involve various stakeholders,
including PLN, contractors, communities, NGOs, Perum Perhutani as forest
stakeholders and other government agencies.
REFERENCES
PPSDAL Unpad. 2013: Laporan Isu dan Opsi, Bandung, Indonesia.
PT PLN (Persero). 2007: Analisis Dampak Lingkungan PLTA Cisokan Hulu Pumped
Storage, Bandung, Indonesia.
Pusat Penelitian Biologi LIPI (Sutrisno H., et. Al). 2012: Studi Flora dan Fauna pada Lokasi
Proyek PLTA Upper Cisokan Pumped Storage, Bogor, Indonesia.
Rahmat A. 2009: Survei Keragaman Hayati UCPS, Additional Environmental Studies,
Bandung, Indonesia.
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Reservoir sedimentation and the dredging solution
S.C. Ooijens
IHC Merwede, Kinderdijk, The Netherlands
sc.ooijens@ihcmerwede.com
I.W. Wieling
IHC Merwede, Kinderdijk, The Netherlands
G. Busser
IHC Merwede, Singapore, Singapore
ABSTRACT:
Sedimentation is a large problem for many reservoirs and hydro power plants. It leads to clogging
(too) close to the turbines, a disruption of the sediment balance in rivers, loss of capacity and
eventually to the reservoir falling into abeyance. Quite some sediment management strategies are
more or less suitable; yield reduction by means of afforestation, slope protection, bypassing,
sluicing, venting or flushing. Though implementation of these strategies might be unwanted
because of practicality or timing (too late). Raising the dam or building a new one is often not a
preferred option.
An alternative option is to actively remove the sediment out of the reservoir by using
existing and/ or innovative dredging techniques. This can be done by clearing the turbine entrance,
restoring the sediment balance in a river or just by removing sediments.
Dredging solutions for these reservoirs demand specific systems and techniques. In many
cases the dredgers have to be transported and mobilized in mountainous regions which requires
the dredger to be dismountable and easy transportable. Another challenge is the supply restriction
of energy in these remote areas. The equipment has to be operated in environmentally vulnerable
areas and therefore requiring a well-designed product taking into account these specific
conditions. Many reservoirs are up to 200 meters deep and demand unconventional dredging
methods. Needless to say that the options for getting rid of the sediment are challenging.
In this paper the authors will highlight several state-of-the-art techniques for removing
sediment by means of dredging equipment.
KEYWORDS: SEDIMENTATION, DREDGING, MAINTENANCE, DAMS, HYDROPOWER
1. INTRODUCTION
This paper can be considered as an effort to bridge the worlds of the large dams and the
dredging technologist. A knowledge transfer will help both parties to better asses dredging
scenarios for dams. Written by dredging specialists, this paper focusses on introducing
reservoir dredging from a technological point of view. Addressing researchers, designers,
engineers and owners working with sedimentation challenges.
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Every reservoir has unique characteristics and therefore each of them will need a special
sedimentation strategy. Figure 1 states a classification of different strategies.
Afforestation and vegetation
Settling and storage basins

Yield reduction
Slope and bank protection
Sediment check dams
Sediment bypassing
Routing Sediment sluicing
Turbidity current venting
Flushing
Removal Mechanical
Hydraulical
Figure 1. Sedimentation strategies, adapted from [1]
There are dredging solutions available that often remain underexposed; many
sedimentation handbooks and sediment management studies discuss only basic dredging
solutions and wrongly conclude that dredging is an unprofitable option. New-build dams
also benefit from an early assessment of the dredging scenario including a sedimentation
strategy.
There is no such thing as a one size fits all strategy for reservoir dredging and dredging is
not always the best option when it comes to solving sedimentation problems. Studying the
feasibility of the dredging scenario it is common practice to compare the costs of the
operation with the cost of the capacity of a new-build dam. The value of the dredging
solution can also be assessed using indirect aspects:
- Impossibility to expand the reservoir or no locations for new-build
- Value of the uptime of the turbines
- Value of the produced electricity
- Value of water
- Environmental benefit of extending the life of the reservoir
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- Ecological benefit of bringing sediments back into the river, nutrients, spawning
areas
- (Environmental) costs of alternative strategies; flushing
- Costs of decommissioning the dam.
Considering dredging as a method to mitigate sedimentation in a reservoir requires insight

in the sedimentation process in the reservoir but also in the available dredging methods.
Choosing the right (most effective) equipment then improves the economics of the dam
and the reservoir.
This paper is an overview of state-of-the-art solutions for dredging of reservoirs. Specific

differences and conditions considering reservoirs will be addressed and the corresponding
dredging solution. Solutions for sediment removal (mechanically and hydraulically) and
also a solution for supporting flushing, sluicing and venting will be discussed.
2. DIFFERENTIATION OF THE SEDIMENTATION PROBLEM
Every reservoir is defined by its own local circumstances and constraints. These
constraints can be technical, economic, social and political. The circumstances and
constraints together determine the need for sedimentation mitigation, and thus the solution
has to be tailor made in order to be effective.
Sedimentation problems can be divided into three main categories. These different
problems will influence the selection of the specific dredging solution.
Plugging the turbine

This is a very local sedimentation problem. Even deep reservoirs, where capacity loss is
not an urgent problem, sedimentation can raise problems. If flushing of sediments is not
possible or allowed dredging can bring relief.
Loss of capacity
The severity of capacity loss of a reservoir due to sedimentation problems depends on the
sedimentation yield. Storage losses of 1% per year are an estimated average [2]. problems
will eventually occur but however will be recognized after years of operation. In some
areas the annual loss is much higher with a negative effect on the life time . In these cases
the problem is more urgent and for a sustainable operation relatively high volumes of
sediment have to be taken away.
Sediment balance in the river

A dam causes an unnatural disturbance in a river. This means that not only the normal flow
in a river is changed (leading to an environmental impact), but also the sediment flux.
Sedimentation in a reservoir can lead to erosion downstream and a loss of nutrients. A
well-known example of this is the Ashwan Dam in the river Nile. Sedimentation does not
directly lead to a capacity loss of the dam, but causes problems further up in the course of
the river: first of all the riverbanks are in shortage of nutrients and second an increased
erosion of the river and coastline are caused by the disturbance in the sediment flux.
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3. TECHNICAL DIFFERENTIATION FOR DREDGING
There are a lot of aspects to consider when assessing dredging scenarios. These can be
differentiated by:
- The function of the reservoir
- Location of the dam
- Sediment type
- Sediment location
- Dimensions
Legislation & regulation
Seasonal variation
Accessibility Location
dam
Water conservation
Environment
Function
reservoir Rock / gravel / sand / clay
Flood prevention Hydro-energy
Sediment type
Waste and wood Organic sludge

Landslide
Delta
Sediment Turbine inlet Quantity
location
Dump zone
Dimensions
Bed reservoir
Depth
Transport distance
Figure 2. Relevant technical aspects for dredging scenario
Most important parameters are type of sediment and depth of the reservoir.
3.1. Sediment type
One of the main parameters for deciding on which dredging operation is suitable, is the
combination of characteristics of the sediment. These affect the sedimentation itself but
also influence the chosen mitigation solution.
Since hydro reservoirs are a large sedimentation basin, all soil types that are transported by
the river leave their traces in the reservoirs. In general, non-cohesive materials with a
larger gain size diameter are found at the entrance of the reservoir as they quickly settle.
Closer to the dam smaller particles tend to settle. Over time these smaller particles form a
layer of cohesive clays. In order to effectively dredge these cohesive soils a solution
incorporating the use of a mechanical excavation tool (such as a grab or a cutter) needs to
be put in place.
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An additional complicating factor is the debris on the bottom (mainly trees that have fallen
into the river).
3.2. Depth
An important parameter for dredging is the dredging depth. On average with dredging
operations such as waterways maintenance dredging, depths run up to approximately 25
meters. However for hydropower dams this can be significantly deeper. This challenges
dredge equipment designers to keep productions, positioning and costs in balance.
4. THE DREDGING SOLUTION: DREDGING METHODS AND RESERVOIR

DREDGERS
The aspects described in chapter 2 and 3 will determine the selection of the specific
dredging method and of course also the dredging equipment.
The development of dredging equipment for reservoirs requires additional considerations:
Transport equipment - modular, lightweight

Since most reservoirs are located in mountainous regions it is required to use transportable
equipment which can be deployed on location.
Clean environment - no emission, low ecological damage and low noise levels
Since many reservoirs are located in environmentally sensitive areas environment friendly
measures in the design of equipment is required.
Maintenance dredging - all year long dredging vs. a short dredging phase
In many situations the problems are only then recognized when sedimentation leads to
urgent problems. In other words, when turbines get plugged or get high wear rates, when a
loss of capacity has led to significant downtime or when downstream erosion has led to
environmental problems, people start to search for a solution. As for the dredging system
this also influences the choice. Although it took years for the sedimentation to settle,
suddenly an urgent solution is required. The needed capacities put a strain on the technical
standards of the equipment (leading to a high CAPEX) and make it more difficult to find a
way to deposit these high volumes of sediment. Alternatively all year long maintenance
dredging requires smaller dredging equipment (low CAPEX) and results in prevention of
urgent dredging campaigns.
Electric drive
Due to environmental regulation, and taking into account the difficult fuel logistics of
bringing fuel into the mountains, often an electric power supply and drive is preferred.
As stated reservoir dredging can benefit from a dedicated solution in excavation, transport
and processing of the sediment. However in general the solutions can be categorized in 4
classical types of equipment, which can be reengineered to the above given requirements.
4.1. Cutter Suction Dredgers
Cutter Suction Dredgers (CSD) are estimated to cover about 80% of all large-scale
dredging operations in reservoirs. Due to the slurrification process and the hydraulic
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transport relatively high production rates can be achieved. Since these dredgers use an
excavation tool they can handle most of the soil types. Even for cohesive materials such as
clay the dredgers can be equipped with specific excavation tools such as a dredging wheel.
It can dredge up to a significant depth (approximately 85 meters).
Figure 3. Dredging wheel
The CSD is a relatively large dredging solution. To work in mountainous regions it has to
be made dismountable for transport.
Figure 4. Typical transport of a CSD
4.2. TT-pumps
A cost effective method for dredging is a submersible pump suspended from a land-based
crane or from a pontoon. Typical pipe diameters range from 100 [mm] up to 500 [mm].
Combined with a cutter or jet-water system the pump can be used to dredge compacted
non-cohesive material. No forces can be applied to the pump so it is mainly used for spot
dredging in front of the turbine inlet. Since the pump is suspended on a wire high dredging
depths can be reached (up to at least 200 meters). The system can be transported inside a
standard container.
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Figure 5. Pontoon with TT-pump
4.3. Mechanical dredgers
Land-based grabs, draglines and excavators can be made floating and placed on pontoons.
Optimized equipment for work on water can be more effective. Since mechanical dredgers
only dig and bring the material up, the material will be dumped in a barge or rehandling
plant. Their ability to handle debris such as trees and boulders makes them effective tools
for certain hydro-power lakes. Since a grab is hoisted with a wire a large dredging depth
can be reached. However at larger depths the cycle time will be higher and production will
be lower.
4.4. Crawlers
The crawler is a remotely operated dredger with a vertical transport system and a
supporting pontoon. The system can be compared with ROVs. For example de Beers in
Namibia is using a crawler at depths up to 140 meter for mining diamonds. These tools
enable dredging at a large depth of relativity cohesive soils which cannot be dredged
effectively with mechanical dredgers or TT-pumps. Until now the investment costs are
relatively high, but the technology is maturing at a high pace.
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a.
b.
d.
c.
Figure 6. a) CSD, b) submersible TT-pump, c) grab, d) crawler
4.5. Dredging to support sediment flow
Dredgers can be used to create artificial density currents. Agitation dredging or jet water
technology is used to suspend the sediments. The sediment must be able to form a stable
suspension (i.e. fine sand) and a minor slope is requirements for good operation. Bottom
outlets or a diversion channel must be present, so the sediments can be sluiced out of the
reservoir.
Water injection dredgers are basically high flow pumps on a vessel with a jet bar for
injecting the water in the sediment. Typical flow per meter jet bar is 1000 [m3/h/m] and
typical pressures range from 1,5 [bar] to 5,0 [bar]. The effectiveness of this method is a
combination of a dredger and a dredging strategy. Modelling of the reservoir, the dredger
and induced currents is recommended.
In preparing a flushing operation, using an agitation dredger can be effective. It is possible

to prepare the reservoir bed for more effective flushing and to increase the sediment flow
during flushing.
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Water Injection Dredger
Turbidity current
Bottom set bed Bottom outlet
Figure 7. Water Injection Dredger
4.6. Selecting a dredger
With different local situations and different total morphological solutions the selection of a
dredger will be part of the total scheme. As can be seen dredgers can be selected for a
range of situations.
Table 1. Indicative table to the use of dredging equipment as per constraint

Soil Depth Capacity
Gravel Sand Clay Silt Debris
CSD + + + + < 85 m High
TT-pump + + + < 200 m Moderate
Mechanical/ grab + < 200 m Low
ROV/ crawler + + + + < 200 m Moderate
Agitation/ WID + < 20 m High
+ possible solution
Taking into account the type of sedimentation problem in practice the cutter dredger is
selected for a large number of reservoirs. However the selection of a dredger should be
considered separately for each reservoir.
Table 2: Indicative table to the use of dredging equipment as per problem

Inlet Capacity Sediment
balance
CSD + ++ ++
TT-pump + +
Mechanical/ grab + + +
ROV/ crawler +
Agitation/ WID +
+ possible solution ++ highly possible solution
When assessing dredging solutions not only the excavation should be considered, but also:
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Processing
The processing can vary from bringing the sediment back in to the river downstream,
dumping in a dumping location within the lake or on land (landfill), reuses of sand for
concrete, etc.
Transport
The transport of sediment can be by pipelines but also by using barges and if needed by
trucks or a conveyor.
For these process steps a wide range of solutions is available, which again will have their
influence on the costs. The selection of a dredger system is a complex issue. The final
selection will depend not only on the chosen technical solution but also on many
circumstances including dumping location, local requirements, local facilities, etc.
6. CONCLUSIONS
With many reservoirs aging, sedimentation will become more and more a challenge.
Solutions to mitigate sediments get more attention when the life time of a reservoir can be
extended or operational costs can be lowered. Not only the costs of the measures but also
the natural sediment balance and local environment are nowadays taken into account.
Every reservoir has its own characteristics. Taking into account the local situations a total
sediment solution can be drafted by specialized engineering firms. Depending on the local
situation dredging can be a part of the solution and provide an active intervention to bring
back a natural balance.
There is a wide range of equipment available. When assessing dredging scenarios it is

recommended to evaluate using the right equipment in mind. Dredging systems can be an
integrated part of an effective and sustainable sediment management system.
REFERENCES
[1] Kantoush, S.A. Sumi, T. (2010): River Morphology and Sediment Management
Strategies for Sustainable Reservoir in Japan and European Alps, Annuals of Disas. Prev.
Res. Inst, No. 53 B, Kyoto Univ., Japan.
[2] Morris, G.L., Fan, J. (1998): Reservoir Sedimentation Handbook, McGraw-Hill Book
Co., New York.
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Aerating Turbines at the new Dam Toe Hydroelectric Power Plants

at the existing Belesar & Peares Reservoirs (Spain)
V. Mendiola & G. Rodrguez

Gas Natural Fenosa engineering
vmendiola@gasnatural.com
ABSTRACT:
Gas Natural Fenosa has designed and built two new dam toe power plants on the existing
Belesar and Los Peares reservoirs, both located in the Mio River (Galicia, North-western
Spain).
The new Belesar II and Los Peares II hydroelectric power plants will be equipped with two
Francis vertical axis turbines each. Each turbine at Belesar II will be 10.4 MW with a flow
rate of 10 m3/s, and each turbine at Peares II will be 9.1 Mw with a flow rate of 11.5 m3/s.
These dam toe power plants have been designed and built in an effort to add a greater
presence of self-supply and renewable energy to the Spanish energy system as well as to
recover the aquatic habitat of the dam toe river stretches which originally featured an
insufficient flow rate upstream the discharge of the existing power plants.
The decision was made to create a by-pass in the dam bottom outlets for the intake to the
new power plants. However, given the significant depth at which these outlets are located
and the natural reservoir stratification processes, this will mean water will be used with
low dissolved oxygen content during some months of the year. Releasing water with low
dissolved oxygen levels into the river would cause critical harm to the river habitat.
In order to solve this problem and include the environmental variable into the new
projects, Gas Natural Fenosa is adding Andritz Hydro turbine air injection systems to the
design of the new power units that will make it possible to reach the ideal dissolved oxygen
values at the discharge of the new power plants for the aquatic life in the Mio river
stretches downstream from the Belesar and Los Peares dams.
Keywords: water quality, oxygen, hydroelectric, dam toe power plant
1. INTRODUCTION
After the second half of the 20th century, Spain saw the greatest development of
hydroelectric projects, going from an installed power of nearly 1,900 MW in 1950 to
nearly 11,000 MW in 1970 (Espejo & Garca, 2010). During this period, the economic
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liberalisation and government stimulation programmes allowed private companies to build
most of the major hydraulic regulation and power generation infrastructures. At the time,
the hydroelectric potential in north-western Spain stood out due to its abundant water
resources and land morphology.
It was in fact in Galicia, in the northwest of Spain, where Fuerzas Elctricas de Noroeste
S.A. (FENOSA) built the Belesar (1963) and Los Peares (1955), dams and their power
plants associated on the Mio River.
Figure 1: Location of the Belesar and Peares dams
1.1 Hydraulic Power Plants at Belesar and Los Peares
During its construction, Belesar dam was considered an engineering benchmark in

Europe. Its an arch dam with two gravity abutments. The dam height is 127 m above the
riverbed. The height above the foundation is 132 m and the crest length is 500 m, including
the abutments.
The dam features two ski jump spillways, one in each abutment with a maximum
evacuation flow of 4,000 m3/s.
The dam also features four bottom outlets comprised of 1.50 diameter pipes. The flow
capacity of each one of the outlets is 40 m3/s for a total capacity of 160 m3/s.
The main data for the reservoir and the power plant are as follows:
Table 1. Belesar Power Plant and reservoir main data

Belesar Reservoir
Reservoir capacity 654 Hm3
Area 2,000 ha
Annual average inflow 100 m3/s
Belesar Power Plant
Number of power units 3
Unit flow rate per power unit 67 m3/s
Installed capacity 225 MW
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Los Peares dam and reservoir are located immediately downstream from Belesar
reservoir on the same Mio River.
Peares is a gravity dam with a circular layout, a crest length of 261 m and a height of 92 m
above the riverbed. The spillway is located in the middle of the dam and it features four
spans (15 m each) which house the Stoney floodgates. The spilling capacity at Normal
Operation Level is 3,568 m3/s.
The dam features two bottom outlets on the left bank and the horizontal pipes have 2 m
diameter. The water evacuated by the bottom outlets is conducted via a parallel canal to the
stilling basin, discharging downstream from this basin through a lateral spillway. The
theoretical flow capacity of each bottom outlets is 50 m3/s.
The main data for Los Peares reservoir and the power plant associated are as follows:
Table 2. Los Peares Power Plant and reservoir main data

Los Peares Reservoir
Reservoir capacity (MNL) 182 Hm3
Surface area 535 ha
Annual average inflow 100 m3/s
Los Peares Power Plant
Number of power units 3
Unit flow rate per power unit 67 m3/s
Installed capacity 160 MW
Figure 2: Belesar Dam Figure 3: Los Peares Dam
1.2. Belesar II and Los Peares II Power Plants
In the 21st century, it was needed to optimise the facilities built years before, as well as
reinforce the sustainability of the existing infrastructures. These issues led to the new dam
toe power plant projects at Belesar and Los Peares, which would maintain a base flow in
the Mio River affected by the dams to get the environmental recovery of the river courses
located between the dams and the discharge of the respective power plants.
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Figure 4: Plan view sketch of the Belesar infrastructures
Belesar II HPP would allow water flows from the foot of the dam, providing the
environmental recovery of the river bed. Furthermore, in order to minimize the
environmental impact of the new construction it will use part of the existing Belesar HPP
facilities, taking the flow from the middle-bottom outlets of the dam and using an existing
cavern as location for the new powerhouse.
Table 3. Belesar II Power Plant main data

Belesar II Power Plant
Number of power units 2 Francis
Flow rate per power unit 10 m3/s
Maximum net head 113 m
Unit capacity 9.7 MW
Figure 5: Three-dimensional model of the new Belesar II Hydroelectric Power Plant
Just like Belesar II, Peares II HPP will take the flow from the bottom outlets of the dam.
The tailwater race of the new power plant will be at the foot of the existing Peares dam, so
the water will flow again all along the river bed.
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Table 4. Peares II Power Plant main data
Los Peares II Power Plant
Number of power units 2 Francis
Flow rate per power unit 11.5 m3/s
Maximum net head 83 m
Unit capacity 9.1 MW
Figure 6: Three-dimensional model of the new Peares II Hydroelectric Power Plant
2. ISSUE
Although the new Belesar II and Peares II HPP projects were already designed in order to
optimise the use of pre-existing facilities and to recover the riverbed, there was discussion
on the possibility that if the water was taken from the dam bottom outlets it may be poor in
dissolved oxygen during the period of thermal stratification of the reservoirs.
Most aquatic organisms need dissolved oxygen (DO) to survive and grow. Plus, DO is
important for: photosynthesis, oxidation-reduction, mineral solubility and the
decomposition of organic matter.
Besides causing the death of species due to anoxia or hypoxia, discharging water with
insufficient dissolved oxygen could cause undesirable environmental effects on the fish
and macro invertebrates such as (EPRI, 2002):
Effects on their growth

Effects on their reproduction
Effects on their behaviour and swimming abilities
Poorly formed eggs and larvae
Reduced fish diversity
Greater susceptibility to disease
Changes in the trophic chain
Changes in the composition and abundance of macro invertebrates.
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On the other hand, the release of water with anoxia or hypoxia caused by a hydroelectric
facility has risks and effects for the developer such as:
Fines and sanctions due to the breach of the law.
Restrictions on the operation of the power plant by competent authorities
Damages to a companys corporate image.
In an effort to avoid all of the undesired effects outlined above, Gas Natural Fenosa
conducted a preliminary analysis of the limnology of the Belesar and Los Peares reservoirs
to identify possible baseline problems related to oxygen insufficiency at the bottom of the
two reservoirs, which is where the water would be taken for the new power plants.
Figure 8: Profiles of Belesar reservoir during the 2012 stratification months
Figure 9: Profiles of Peares reservoir during the 2012 stratification months
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The data found (figures 8 and 9) showed that the two reservoirs featured thermal
stratification, which takes some time to form in the summer but last throughout the
autumn. This is perhaps because they are large reservoirs.
Likewise, hypoxia and even anoxia levels were found in the hipolimnion which
corroborates the problem of the lack of oxygen at the bottom of the reservoirs.
3. ANALYSIS OF ALTERNATIVES AND CHOSEN SOLUTION
After verifying the existence of the problem, the different technological solutions available
to mitigate the risk detected were studied.
The scientific literature was consulted with different options for action found basically as
EPRI texts (2002, 2009).
Figure 10: Analysis of alternatives studied
The key was finding the most favourable cost/benefit solution to increase the dissolved
oxygen levels from 0 mg/l in the intake to 6mg/l in the riverbed, as established by current
law. Diagnosing the problem during the design phase of the two new power plants was
decisive.
Finally, and in accordance with the literature previously consulted (Fisher et al, 2009)
(Hopping, March & Wolff, 1999), with references to the fact that systems integrated in the
design of the electromechanical equipment, are the ones that offer the best cost-benefit
system with the lowest efficiency losses and the best guarantee for results, the decision was
made to include the oxygen gain technology and guarantee criteria for the aerating turbines
in the tender documents.
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3.1. Aerating turbines
The company Andritz Hydro was finally awarded with the contract for the aerating
turbines for the two power plants, as they offered oxygen gain guarantees with an aerating
system in the draft tubes of each generator.
The system consists of: (1) a blower that supplies compressed air, (2) a natural entrance of
air for natural suction of the turbine and (3) an air duct that connects the two previous
suppliers to a profiled manifold attached to the draft tube outer wall along the periphery
(4), connected to the inside by a serial of holes, and (5) protected from the stream through
internal deflectors located upstream the holes.
(4)
(2)
(3) (1)
Figure 11: Aerating system installed and developed by Andritz Hydro
The compressor is equipped with a 75 kW engine and a frequency variator that allows it to
operate from 33 Hz to 60 Hz.
By varying the quantity of air introduced and the initial proportion of dissolved oxygen in
the water, the proportion of oxygen finally absorbed by the turbined water will vary. This
is achieved by varying the frequency, with the possibility of introducing air flows from
1500 Nm3/h (33 Hz) to 3000 Nm3/h (60 Hz). The system includes a pressure gauge with
an indication of the pressure, and a PT100 probe to ensure the parameters of the introduced
air are correct.
The goal of this system is to feed the draft tube with air by natural suction and/or with
compressed air in order to get an acceptable level of DO downstream the draft tube, to
facilitate and allow fish life and also minimizing the effect on the efficiency.
The cost of the aerating systems was less than 7% of the total cost of the electromechanical
equipment for the two power plants.
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4. RESULTS
In 2013, the aerating devices were tested in the two power units at Los Peares II
Hydroelectric Power Plant, due to the fact that construction and assembly ended prior to
the thermal stratification break in Los Peares reservoir.
The testson the devices in both Los Peares II units were successful, even in the worst case
scenario, with the water starting with 0 mg/l of DO in the dam bottom outlets where the
intake for the new power plant is located. All expectations were met as far as the dissolved
oxygen gain (from 0 to 4 mg/l) at the tailrace is concerned, and with barely any efficiency
losses (0.5%) with the aerators operating at full load.
Moreover, although the water at Los Peares II tailrace channel had 4 mg/l of DO, the
turbulence created barely a few metres downstream by existing rapids, increased the DO to
at least the 6 mg/l required by the administration.
Figure 12: Peares II HPP tailrace Figure 13: Downstream rapids that raise the DO
The graphs in figure 14 show the results obtained in the tests of the Los Peares II
generators, always starting at 0 mg/l of DO in the intake.
Three different situations were observed through the results:
With low loads (up to 40%) and starting with 0 mg/l of DO in the intake, the
natural ventilation connected to the aspiration pipe is enough to reach values of up
to 7.5 mg/l of DO in the discharge.
With a 50% load, oxygen is added via the natural ventilation but it does not exceed
3 mg/l, meaning aerators must be used even though not used at full power.
From 60% to 100% load for each generator, the natural ventilation hardly
contributes any oxygen to the unit discharge meaning the level of DO must be
raised to 4 mg/l using the aerators.
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9
DO(mg/l) 6
5 UnitI.AirOFF
4 UnitII.AirOFF
UnitI.AirON
3
UnitII.AirON
2
0
40 50 60 70 80 90 100
LOAD(%)
Figure 14. Results of the aerator tests at the Peares II Power Plant
5. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
It is important to take into account the environmental variables in project design phases
given that this is the phase when the greatest cost-benefit results can be achieved to
mitigate environmental and social problems.
Likewise, and specifically for hydroelectric projects, it is essential to have representative

and quality baseline data on the social and environmental scope of the project, given that it
is only with solid data that solid decisions can be made and possible problems or
opportunities for the project can be detected.
For this article, it was essential to have limnological data on the two reservoirs during the
project design phase. This made it possible to detect the anoxia problem at future power
plants and prevent later problems, both for the environment and the company.
If a similar problem is detected in a design phase of a hydroelectric project, the option of

integrating aeration in the electromechanical equipment seems ideal, given that it reduces
maintenance costs and efficiency losses are normally low. These losses even disappear
when the aerating devices are not activated during most part of the year, when due to
seasonal variances the water at the bottom of the reservoir has sufficient dissolved oxygen.
REFERENCES
Espejo,C. ,Garca, R. (2010): Agua y energa: produccin hidroelctrica en Espaa,

Investigaciones Geogrficas, 51: pp. 107-129. Universidad de Alicante, Spain.
Maintaining and Monitoring Dissolved Oxygen at Hydroelectric Projects: Status Report,
EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2002 1005194.
Hydropower Technology Roundup Report: Technology Update on Aerating Turbines.
EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2008. 1017966.
Foust, J.M. , Fisher, R.K. , Thompson, P.M. , Ratliff, M.M. , March, P.A. (2009):
Integrating Turbine Rehabilitation and Environmental Technologies: Aerating Runners for
Water Quality Enhancement at Osage Plant, Waterpower XVI, Penn Well Corporation.
Hopping, P. N., P. A. March, and P. J. Wolff. 1999. Justifying, Specifying, and Verifying
Performance of Aerating Turbines. Proceedings of Waterpower 99. New York, New
York: American Society of Civil Engineers.
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EFFECTIVE SEDIMENT CONTROL IN A RESERVOIR

Pranoto.SA, Suripin,Suharyanto
Diponegoto University
Pranotosa2001@yahoo.com
Djoko Legono
Gajah Mada University
Isdiana
River Research Center,Surakarta
ABSTRACT
Sedimentation in a reservoir cannot be avoided. The average rate of sedimentation on the storage
volume reduction of a reservoir in the world is about 1 % per year (Yoon,1992), meanwhile, the
storage volume reduction in several reservoir in Indonesia reaches 1,64% to 2,83% per year
(Atmojo,2012). These sediments accumulations in the reservoir will continually reduce the storage
volume, thus the intended functions of reservoirs for flood control (Atmojo, 2013), irrigation and water
supply, electric generation, etc. will also reduced and not optimal.
Some of sediment control measures have been practiced in reducing sediment accumulation in
reservoirs around the world. In principle, there are two approaches i.e., reduce the sediment input to a
reservoir by land conservation, construction of check dam, sand pocket, diversion channel, etc. and
reduce the sedimentation in the reservoir by sluicing, turbidity current, dredging, and flushing (Morris
and Fan, 1998; Emamgholizadeh et al., 2006).
This paper presents the performance of sediments reduction from a reservoir by flushing, sluicing,
and disturbing flushing based on some laboratories results (Atmojo,2012). It is expected that this
paper can contribute to elicits some finding on the selection of which suitable method for sediment
reduction from a reservoir.
Keywords: control on reservoir sedimentation, flushing, sluicing, disturbing flushing.
INTRODUCTION
Sedimentation in a reservoir cannot be avoided. The average rate of sedimentation on the
storage volume reduction of a reservoir in the world is about 1 % per year (Yoon,1992),
meanwhile, the storage volume reduction in several reservoir in Indonesia reaches 1,64% to
2,83% per year (Atmojo,2012). These sediments accumulations in the reservoir will
continually reduce the storage volume, thus the intended functions of reservoirs for flood
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control (Atmojo, 2013), irrigation and water supply, electric generation, etc. will also reduced
and not optimal.
Some of techniques for reservoir sedimentation control are available. Principally they are:
1. To prevent sediment material from entering the reservoir,
2. To prevent settlement of the sediment material in the reservoir, and
3. To remove sediment material which are already settled in reservoir.
The measures to prevent sediment material to enter into a reservoir is by reducing erosion
upstream i.e., by constructing check dam, sand pocket, and/or by diversion channel. The
measures to prevent the sediment material from settled down is by opening flushing gate
during river flood or by opening under sluice gate such that higher consentrated sediment to
flush out and not settling in (venting) (Morris and Fan, 1998; Emamgholizadeh et al., 2006).
Meanwhile, the sediment already settled in a reservoir can be removed by flushing, disturbing
flushing, and dredging (Jugovic et al., 2009; Tallebbeydokti and Naghshineh, 2004; Shen,
1999).
This paper discusses the performance of reservoir sedimentation control by sluicing, flushing,
and disturbing flushing based on physical model.
METHOD AND MATERIAL

This paper presents the sediment control with the physical hydraulic model, to model sediment
removal by means of sluicing, flushing, and flushing with disturbed (disturbing flushing). The
model is performed at River Research Center Surakarta, based on prototype of design flushing
gate at Gajah Mungkur Dam (JICA, 2007), and the sediment material is represented by coal
ash. Basically, the data used is from research on the sluicing and disturbing flushing
performed by River Research Center Surakarta, in addition to the flushing model by
Pranoto.SA.
Modelling Procedures:
The physical model made is using length scale 1:66.67.
Slucing Modeling: The sediment material poured at upstream 350 cm from gate at the rate of
60 liter/hour. The discharge and gate openings are 5.5 l/s with opening 2.50 cm; and 11.02 l/s
with opening 5.30 cm. The water level at upstream of the gate is constant 13.95 cm. After each
model running is finish, the sediment material leaved behind will be measured. Therefore the
flushed sediment can be calculated, and efficiency is known by comparing with the poured
sediment number before running.
Flushing Modeling: it is aimed to analyse the scouring of sediment already settled in by
opening flushing gate. Its modeled with 3.00 cm sediment thickness and maintained upstream
water level at 13.95 cm. the gate is then opened for one hour for each discharge variation. It
uses discharge variation similar to those used for sluicing model. The sediment material is first
made wet by 14% of water to prevent it from floating. It is then slightly compacted with 3.00
cm thicks. After each modeling is finish, the remaining sediment material can be measured.
Therefore the flushed sediment can be also analysed.
Disturbing Flushing: is aimed to model the amount of flushed away of sediment when the
sediment has already settled in by flushing with disturb (disturbing flushing). In reality, the
disturbed may caused by excavator action. The sediment thickness is similar to flushing
model, i.e. 3.00 cm. However, during the flushing it is also combined with disturbing the
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sediment. After finishing each model run, the remaining sediment material as well as the
flushed away sediment can be calculated. The modeling used the similar discharge and
opening with sluice model.
Material:
The water used is circulating water pump from ground reservoir and the used water flow back
into the ground storage. The model situation and the gate position is shown at Figue 1, 2, and
3. The flushing gate has dimension of 2x11.25 cm. The length of storage 495.00 cm, the width
of storage 250.00 cm. The velocity measurements at upstream is conducted by Laboratory
current meter SV. 108 with blade seri-A, at downstream it used V-Nocth B=0.945 m, D=0.331
m which has been calibarated. The sediment material used is coal ash with unit weight 1.558
kg/l. The sediment used before and after model running is measured at the same water content.
Pump
Water Supplay Canal
Flushing Gates Stilling Bazin

Drain Canal
Baffle
Structure
Stilling Bazin
Figure.1 Model Situation
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Step plate
Location of Water level
measurement
Elevation of Sediment
Figure.2 Long Section of Flushing Gate
Figure.3 3D of The Flushing Gate and Photo
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MODELLING AND RESULT
The modeling result of sluicing, flushing and disturbing flushing are shown at Table 1, 2, and
3 respectively.
Sluicing Model:
The result of the sluicing model run is shown at Tabel.1. It shows that the percentage of
sediment removal is 30% (from discharge 5.51 l/s) and 35.83% (for discharge 11.02 l/s). It
shows common trend that higher discharge is higher sediment removal
Table 1 Percentage of Sediment Release Result From Sluicing Method
Discharge Vol Sediment Gate u/s Vol Sediment Sediment

(l/s) Before Running Opening Water level After Running Removal (%)
(liter) (cm) (cm) (liter)
5.51 60 2.50 13.95 42.00 30.00
11.02 60 5.30 13.95 38.50 35.83
Flushing Model:
The result of flushing model is shown at Tabel.2. It shows that the percentage of sediment
removed using this flushing method is 4.21% and 6.18% which are much smaller than that
used by sluicing.
Table 2 Percentage of Sediment Release Result From Flushing Method

(liter) (cm) (m) (liter)
5.51 272.00 2.50 13.95 260.55 4.21
11.02 275.00 5.30 13.95 258.00 6.18
Disturbing Flushing:
The results from using disturbing flushing is shown at Tabel.3. It a glance, the percentage of
sediment removal is 22.48% and 23.52% for discharge 5.51 l/s and 11.02 l/s respectively.
In general that we see only the sediment remove, we will conclude that the most effective
measure is sluicing, then disturbing flushing, and the lastly by flushing only.
Table 3 Percentage of Sediment Release Result From Disturbing Flushing Method
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(liter) (cm) (m) (liter)
5.51 231.76 2.50 13.95 179.65 22.48
11.02 231.76 5.30 13.95 177.25 23.52
DISCUSSION
In order to justify the efficiency of sediment removal, it need to also consider the sediment
removal per unit of water discharge. The sluicing method is more effective due to mainly to
the stage of sediment material which are not yet settled in. Therefore, in this case, there does
not requires energy to overcome initial tractive force to move the sediment material.
Meanwhile, the purely flushing will require energy to overcome the initial tractive force in
order to move the sediment material, which therefore reducing the sediment to be removed.
Similary, in disturbing flushing, although additional energy has been given to strirred the
settled in sediment, still not all settled in sediment can be strirred up. The removal of sediment
result from that method is higher than purely flushing, but still lower then that result from
sluicing. In fact, for disturbing flushing will also depend on the duration and speed of
disturbing.
60
Slucing Flushing Distr Flushing
50
40 35.83
Efficincy-%
30
30 23.52
22.48
20
10 4.21 6.18
0
2.5 5.3
Gate Opening-cm
Figure.4 Sediments Removal Efficiency
Table 4 Average Removal of Sediment Result From Sluicing
Discharge Gate Sediment Sed Remove per Average Removal

Q (l/s) Opening Cm Remove (%) liter Disch (%) of Sediment %
(1) (2) (3) (4)=(3)/(1) (5)
5.51 2.5 30 5.44 4.35
11.02 5.3 35.83 3.25
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Table 5 Average Removal of Sediment Result From Flushing
(1) (2) (3) (4)=(3)/(1) (5)
5.51 2.5 4.21 0.76 0.66
11.02 5.3 6.18 0.56
Table 6 Average Removal of Sediment Result From Disturbing Flushing

(1) (2) (3) (4)=(3)/(1) (5)
5.51 2.5 22.48 4.08 3.11
11.02 5.3 23.52 2.13
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

Conclusion:
1. The sluicing method is more efficient compare to the flushing and disturbing flushing
2. The efficiency of sluicing 1.4 times higher than disturbing flushing, and 6.6 times higher
than flushing.
3. Sediment flushing by maintaining upstream water level constant is more efficient for
frequent small discharges than bigger discharges.
Recommendation:
In order to the sharper modeling result, advanced modeling needs to include:
-More discharge variation
-Large running time
-More upstream water level variation.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I sincerely thanks to the River Research Center Surakarta, who has allowed me to conduct this research
at laboratory. Specially thanks to all colleges who has helped this research well.
REFERENCES
Atmojo P.S,2012. The Effect of Water Level on The Effectiveness of Sediment Flushing,
International Journal of Waste Resources, Vol 2, N0 2 (2012), p 20-31.
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Atmojo PS, 2013. Sedimentation Effect in Reservoir Toward The Declining Fuction of Flood
Control, International Seminar on Water Related Disaster Solutions, Jogyakarta,
Indonesia.
Emamgholizadeh, S., Bina M., Fathimoghadam, M., and Ghomeyshi, M., 2006. Investigation
and Evaluation of the Pressure Flow Flushing Through Storage Reservoir, ARPN
Journal of Engineering and Applied Science Vol. 1, No.4, December 2006.
JICA, 2007, Final Repot, Volume III Supporting Report I : The Study on Countermeasure For
Sedimentation in The Wonogiri Multipurpose Dam Reservoir in The Republic of
Indonesia, Directorate General Of Water Resources Ministry of Public Works The
Republic of Indonesia
Jugovic, J.C., Stefan, S., Schuster, G., Nachtnebel, HP, 2009. Hydraulic Flushing of Alpine
Reservoir, International Symposium on Water Management and Hydraulic Engineering,
,1-5 September 2009 , Ohrid/Mecadonia
Morris G.L, Fan J, 1998, Reservoir Sedimentation Handbook Design and Management of
Dam,Reservoir, and Watersheds for Sustainable Use, McGrow-Hill Companies,Inc.,
New York.
Shen, H.W, 1999. Flushing Sediment Through Reservoir, Journal of Hydraulic
Reasearch,Vol.37, 1996, No.6
Talebbeydokhti, N. and Nagheshineh, A., 2004. Flushing Sediment Through Reservoir,
Iranian Journal of Schience and Technology, Transaction B, Vol.28, No.B1, 2004.
Yang Chih Ted, 1996. Sediment Transport Theory and Practice, McGraw-Hill,Singapore.
Yoon,Y.N,1992, The State and The Prospective of Direct Sediment Removal Method From
Reservoir. International Journal of Sediment Research, 7, No 2, 99-116
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Ways to Improve Water Quality in Diponegoro Reservoir at Krengseng

Watershed, Semarang
2(14pt
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Grace Lucy Secioputri & Rahmat Kurniawan
Civil Engineering, Diponegoro University, Semarang, Indonesia
gracelucys@hotmail.com
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Suseno Darsono
Civil Engineering, Diponegoro University, Semarang, Indonesia
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Sudarno
Environmental Engineering, Diponegoro University, Semarang, Indonesia
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ABSTRACT
This paper explains how to maintain and improve water quality of the Diponegoro Reservoir.
Krengseng watershed is located in Banyumanik sub-district and Tembalang sub-district, which is
part of Diponegoro University campus area. The influent water to the reservoir mostly comes from
urbanize areas, therefore the quality of the reservoir inflow will fit with domestic wastewater
quality standards. In order to improve the reservoir water quality, domestic wastewater sewerage
systems and treatment plants are necessary for the Krengseng watershed area. Water samples were
taken from the Krengseng River at 17 locations during the end of the dry season. Parameter such
as COD, DO, pH, temperature, nitrogen, and phosphate was determined. From the results of
samples, concentrations of COD, nitrogen and phosphate exceeded the water discharge criteria.
Therefore, a wastewater treatment plant should be designed. Septic tanks as primary treatment and
anaerobic filters as secondary treatment were chosen for the treatment plant. EPA SWMM 5.0 was
utilized to analyze and design the sewer system. A small bore sewer was used as the main idea for
the sewer system. Specifications of the piping system must meet the following criteria; such as
minimum pipe slope more than 0.006, flow rate between 0.6-3 m/s, and water flow quantity in the
pipe between 0.2-0.8 of the pipe diameter. Total cost for this design was Rp 133.819.636.500.
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Keywords: Water Quality, Wastewater, Sewerage System.
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1. INTRODUCTION
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Diponegoro dam is located in Krengseng River and the dam is still under construction. The
main purpose of the reservoir is for education. The reservoir also can be used to reduce the
peak of Krengseng River flood and as a source of water for local domestic water treatment
plant. The catchment area of the reservoir is part of Tembalang and Banyumanik sub-
district, which is used as residential area, business and industrial areas. During the dry
season, most of the reservoir inflow comes from domestic wastewater. It is important to
improve and to maintain the quality of water influent using domestic wastewater treatment
systems. According to The Agency for Regional Development and Central Bureau of
Statistics City of Semarang, the population growth rate of Semarang is quite high. Based
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on the City of Semarang population data in 2012, Tembalang sub-district population
growth rate is around 3.69% and Banyumanik sub-district population growth rate is around
1.09%. Moreover, all faculties of Diponegoro University had moved to new campus at
Tembalang sub-District. This will cause the number of houses and business area in
Tembalang sub-District and Banyumanik sub-District increasing. As the increasing
population, the quantity of domestic wastewater will also increase.
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Nowadays, the drainage system in Tembalang and Banyumanik sub-districts are still a
combined system and all of the water flows into Krengseng River. It makes the quality of
influent water-to-water body not compliant with the wastewater standards of the
Environmental State Minister Regulation No.112 Year 2003. Therefore, a domestic
wastewater treatment system should be planned in order to obtain wastewater quality that
suitable with wastewater standard.
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2. METHOD OF STUDY
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Investigating the existing water quality of Krengseng River and designing wastewater
networks are two activities in this study for improving the future water quality reservoir.
According to topographical conditions and flow directions, the Krengseng river watershed
consists of 17 sub-catchments (see figure 1). These seventeen outlets of sub-catchment
were determined as sampling location for the river water.
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Sampling of river water was conducted during dry season. The river discharge, flow
velocity, pH, and DO were measured. In addition, parameters such as COD, Ammonium,
Nitrate, Nitrite and Phospate were measured from water samples in laboratorium (Sudarno
et al, 2013).
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Figure 1. Krengseng River Sub-Watershed
Reference: Sudarno et al, 2013.
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On site physical condition and topographical maps, population, infrastructure facilities, and
socioeconomic condition of catchment area are required for designing the wastewater
system. These data will be used for analyzing the most suitable domestic wastewater
system such as pipe diameter, pipe slope, flow rate in pipe, and dimension of the
wastewater treatment plant. According to the topographical condition of the catchment area
and in order to minimizing operational costs, the wastewater system was implemented
using a gravitational system. EPA SWMM 5.0 hydraulic software was utilized for
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analyzing the hydraulic dynamics of the open channel pipe networks such as; flow rate,
pipe slope and flow quantity in pipe network.
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3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
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3.1. Water Quality
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Water quality of sampling point is summarized in Table 1. Parameters, expecially COD,
NH3, NO2- and Phosphate exceed the recomendation value, that might cause a loss in
exosystem fuctnion and increase risk of downstream eutrophication. A control over COD
and nutrient loads into river which are asociated mainly with human activity, should be
taken.
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Table 1 Water Characteristic
Sampling TSS COD NH3 NO2 - - N NO3- - N Phosphate
Location (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l)
T1 30 45* 4,23* 0,01 0,02 0,27*
T2 68 45* 3,65* 1,61* 4,05 0,19
T3 26 33* 4,99* 0,01 0,16 0,16
T4 70 70* 7,29* 0,01 0,28 0,17
T5 26 30* 3,39* 1,75* 0,26 0,16
T6 300 47* 3,86* 0,90* 0,10 0,19
T7 114 30* 3,16* 0,61* 0,06 0,27*
T8 62 285* 2,98* 1,12* 0,12 0,25*
T9 60 113* 1,40* 0,45* 0,41 0,51*
T10 90 77* 53,08* 0,54* 0,52 0,27*
T11 20 113* 3,78* 0,44* 0,22 0,30*
T12 180 30* 4,43* 0,61* 0,33 0,31*
T13 112 65* 4,59* 0,50* 0,30 0,25*
T14 180 53* 4,20* 0,64* 0,15 0,31*
T15 62 40* 4,50* 1,20* 4,40 0,29*
T16 62 28* 4,49* 0,38* 0,01 0,25*
T17 120 23 4,25* 10,11* 0,25 0,30*
* exceeds the river water quality standard according to Government Regulation No. 82
Year 2001
Reference : Sudarno et al, 2013.
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3.2. Service Area
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In order to plan wastewater treatment system, service area should be determined. The
wastewater treatment was located at a lower elevation than local residence, so that the
system could avoid the utilization of pumps. Also, the wastewater location must be close to
the river so that the wastewater influent can easily flow into river. Here are the steps:
The service area for the wastewater treatment system in the Krengseng River
catchment area was divided into several zones or sub-service areas. According to
topographical condition of the Krengseng River catchment area was divided into 24
zones or sub-service areas, the sub-service area cannot be determined according to
administrative areas. The locations of each sub-service area are shown in figure 2.
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Diponegoro
Education
Dam
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Figure 2. Service Area
Reference: Grace and Rahmat, 2013.
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The pipes of the sewerage system should be placed along the roadside and equipped
with a manhole for every pipe junction. A manhole should also be placed every 50 m
for the purpose of sewerage maintenance of a straight-line pipe.
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3.3. Wastewater Sewerage and Treatment Plant Design
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Banyumanik and Tembalang sub-districts are still served with combined drainage system
that will cause degradation in the water quality of the Krengseng River. For that reason, the
wastewater network system must be separated with a drainage system. Based on recent
study of domestic wastewater management in Banyumanik and Tembalang sub-districts,
99% of houses have been equipped with septic tank (Rahman, 2012). Therefore, a small-
bore sewer system was chosen as a domestic wastewater sewerage system which is most of
the influent water into the domestic wastewater sewerage system only contains minimum
sediment (Grace and Rahmat, 2013).
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A domestic wastewater system with gravitation flow was planned for this domestic
wastewater system. Septic tank was selected as the primary treatment of the system and an
anaerobic filter as the secondary treatment. An anaerobic filter system was chosen for
maximizing the quality of outflow water, because it will decrease BOD until 70-90%. Also
this system is compatible for treating domestic and industrial wastewater with low TSS
(Grace and Rahmat, 2013).
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3.4. Pipe Design
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An open channel flow assumption was used to calculated the pipe dimensions, with flow
discharge in pipe between 0.2 m3/s<D<0.8 m3/s, flow velocity between 0.6-3 m/s, and
minimum pipe slope was 0.006 or 0.6%. PVC for wastewater or PVC class D was used for
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the domestic wastewater network with pipe diameters from 48 mm until 267 mm and the
total length was 69.905,26 m
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3.3.1. Wastewater Treatment Plant Design
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In this design, septic tank was used as primary treatment and anaerobic filter as secondary
treatment with a wastewater influent BOD values of 250 mg/l. This value was based on
assumption from literature which stated that normally BOD5 values for domestic
wastewater are from 100-250 mg/l and COD values are from 200-600 mg/l. The
wastewater treatment plant dimensions design was calculated from the domestic
wastewater discharge which used the average domestic wastewater discharge. Here are the
steps for analyzing dimensions of the wastewater treatment plant:
a. Septic Tank
Calculation of COD effluent from septic tank.
COD removal is estimated based on the effect of sediment settlement and settling time or
HRT. In this case HRT was assumed to equal to 2 hours. Figure 3 is a graph that shows the
relationship between domestic wastewater settling time and COD removal rate.
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Multiplier Factor for
COD Removal Rate
Settling Time (hour)

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Figure 3. Domestic Wastewater Settling Time with COD Removal Graphic
Reference: Development of Settlement Environmental Health Directorate, 2013.
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Equation (1) and Equation (2) are equations for estimating COD removal rate from septic
tank.
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SS Ratio /COD
COD removal = multiplier factor (1)
0.6
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The multiplier factor can be determined from figure 3.
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% %
COD ef luent (%) = (2)
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Calculation of BOD removal
Correlation between BOD removal and COD removal is not linear. Therefore for the
domestic wastewater correlation between the percentage of COD removal and BOD
removal used multiplier factor shown in figure 4.
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Multiplier
factor
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Figure 4. Correlation between COD Removal Percentage and Multiplier Factor for BOD
Removal
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In order to calculate BOD removal rate from septic tank, Equation (3) and Equation (4) is
needed.
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BOD removal = multiplier factor COD removal (3)
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The multiplier factor can be determined from figure 4 and COD removal can be
determined from equation (1).
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BOD ef luent = (100% %BOD removal) BOD (4)
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Calculation of septic tank volume
Each gram of BOD removal will produce 0.005 liter of sludge. Figure 5 shows the
relationship between the sludge shrinkage and storage time.
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Months
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Figure 5. Correlation between Sludge Shrinkage and Storage Time
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Equation (5) is an equation for estimating the required volume for septic tank.
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Required Volume = (Sludge Volume + V) + 10% (Sludge Volume + V) (5)
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Where :
Sludge Volume = time of storage (month) x 30 x average domestic wastewater discharge x
lt/gr BOD removal x (BOD influent BOD effluent)/1000 x volume
every one gram
V = HRT x flow rate/hour
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b. Anaerobic Filter
Calculation of COD removal
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Temperature is an important factor and it will affect the pollutant decomposition in
anaerobic system. Normally, Indonesian average temperature is above 25oC. The
correlation between temperature and temperature factor for COD removal is illustrated in
figure 6.
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Temperature Factor
Temperature OC
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Figure 6. Correlation Between Temperature Factor in COD Removal and Temperature
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Anaerobic decomposition process is affected by the initial COD content (wastewater
strength) which shown in figure 7.
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Strength
Factor
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Figure 7. Correlation Between COD Removal Strength Factor and COD Value
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Media filter area also affected the capability of anaerobic filter to decompose pollutants.
The correlation between COD removal factor and media filter area (specific surface area)
is shown in figure 8.
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SSA factor
SSA in m2/m3
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Figure 8. Correlation between COD Removal Factor and Media Filter Area
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As well as septic tank, the HRT also effects the COD removal. Figure 9 demonstrate the
correlation between HRT and COD removal.
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COD Removal Factor

HRT (hour)
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Figure 9. Correlation between COD Removal Factor and HRT
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The more chambers used in anaerobic filters it will produce 4% more efficient per
chamber, although the effective volume in chambers were unchanged. To calculate COD
removal, Equation (6) is needed.
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CODremoval = f.temperature x f.strength x f.SSA x f.HRT x (1+(total chamber x efficiency per
chamber)) (6)
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Where f. temperature is a COD removal factor due to the temperature which is shown in
figure 6, f. strength is a COD removal factor because of the initial COD content shown in
figure 7, f.SSA is a COD removal factor due to the specific surface area of the media filter
which is shown in figure 8 and f. HRT is a COD removal factor due to the settling time in
chamber which is shown in figure 9.
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If the result > 0.9, 0.9 will be used as an upper ceiling for the BOD removal in anaerobic
filter system. If the result < 0.9, then that resulted number will be used. Final COD effluent
can be calculated with Equation (7) and Equation (8)
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Final COD effluent after being processed = (100% - %COD removal) x COD influent (7)
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= ( ) / (8)
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Calculation of BOD removal
It has the same calculation concept with BOD removal in septic tank.
Calculation of anaerobic filter volume as secondary treatment
Anaerobic filter dimension is determined based on the required volume of the anaerobic
filter was calculated by Equation (9)
[Blank line 10 pt]
Volume = HRT in anaerobic filter x average wastewater discharge/ 24 hours (9)
[Blank line 10 pt]
Table 2 illustrates the final wastewater treatment plant dimension design per zone or sub-
service area and the wastewater treatment plant design shown in figure 10. Polypropylene
and gravel was used as a media filter.
[Blank line 10 pt]
Table 2. Wastewater Treatment Plant Dimension
Dimension (m) Dimension (m)
Zone Unit Zone Unit
Length Width Height Length Width Height
A ST 8.5 5.5 3 C ST 6 5 3
AF 2.5 7 3 AF 2.5 6 3
B ST 7 4.5 3 D ST 7 5 3
AF 2.5 5 3 AF 2.5 6 3
IV - 110
Dimension (m) Dimension (m)
Zone Unit Zone Unit
Length Width Height Length Width Height
E ST 11 7 3 M ST 10 5.5 3
AF 2.5 9 3 AF 2.5 6 3
F ST 13.5 7 3.5 N(1) ST 9 4 3
AF 3 9 3.5 AF 2.5 5 3
G(1) ST 8.5 5 3 N(2) ST 4.5 4 3
AF 2.5 7 3 AF 2.5 5 3
G(2) ST 9.5 6.5 3 O ST 10 5.5 3
AF 2.5 7 3 AF 2.5 6 3
G(3) ST 4 3 3 P ST 7.5 4.5 3
AF 2.5 4 3 AF 2.5 6 3
H ST 7.5 4 3 Q ST 4 4 3
AF 2.5 4 3 AF 2.5 5 3
I ST 8.5 5.5 3 R ST 6 4 3
AF 2.5 6 3 AF 2.5 5 3
J ST 8 3.5 3 S ST 13 7 3
AF 2.5 4 3 AF 2.5 8 3
K ST 5.5 4 3 T ST 5 4.5 3
AF 2.5 7 3 AF 2.5 6 3
L ST 10.5 5 3 U ST 12.5 8 3
AF 2.5 7 3 AF 2.5 9 3
Explanation: ST = Septic Tank
AF = Anaerobic Filter
[Blank line 10 pt]
[Blank line 10 pt]

Figure 10. Typical of Wastewater Treatment Plant
[Blank line 10 pt]
[Blank line 10 pt]
3.5. Cost Estimation
[Blank line 10 pt]
The estimate total cost of the project including tax for the construction of domestic
wastewater treatment system was Rp 133.819.636.500,-. The total cost comes from the
following components;
Preparatory work, Rp 906.284.978,-
Pipe work, Rp 37.347.365.704,-
Manhole work, Rp 8.130.608.577,-
Wastewater treatment plant work, Rp 66.252.177.514,-
Other such as road reinstallation work, Rp 9.017.778.024,-
[Blank line 10 pt]
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IV - 111
CONCLUSION
[Blank line 10 pt]
The river water quality investigation showed that the water temperature, pH and Nitrate
from the Krengseng river water can fulfill water quality level II. However, TSS,
Phosphate, Nitrite, COD and DO from the Krengseng river are over allowable water
quality level II. Therefore, eutrophication is a possible problem which may occur at the
Diponegoro education reservoir (Sudarno et al, 2013).
[Blank line 10 pt]
Therefore, domestic waste water systems for the Krengseng river was needed to solve the
eutrophication problem and maintain reservoir water quality at the Diponegoro education
reservoir. The total pipes length of domestic wastewater sewerage system was 69.905,26
m. The wastewater sewerage system utilized the small-bore concept, septic tank and
anaerobic filter with Cascade Filterpak YTH1140Polypropylene and gravel as filter media
in anaerobic filter system. The total cost of the domestic waste water system was Rp
133.819.636.500,- .
[Blank line 10 pt]
A mathematical model should be developed for improving and monitoring of the reservoir
water quality, since the main purpose of the reservoir is for education. However, it is
necessary to conduct further research in order to find an accurate BOD value and BOD
removal rate. This will result in a domestic wastewater treatment plant which is more
efficient and project cost will be reduced. Moreover, a further population survey for more
details regarding the on-site population is necessary. This will make the average
wastewater discharge value closer with the real on-site conditions.
[Blank line 10 pt]
It should be introduced and socialized to the inhabitants or residence of the Krengseng
watershed area because of the public participation is an important key for operating and
maintaining the domestic sewerage system.
[Blank line 9 pt]
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REFERENCES
[Blank line 9 pt]
Agency for Regional Development with Semarang City and Central Bureau of Statistics,
Semarang City. (2012): Semarang City population profile, pp.55. Semarang,
Indonesia.
Development of Settlement Environmental Health Directorate. (2013): Wastewater Lesson
1. Dissemination and Socialization Sector of Settlement Environmental Health. The
Ministry Of Public Works Directorate General Of Cipta Karya, Indonesia.
Elshemy1, M. Le, T.T. H.,Meon, G. and Heikal, G. (2010): First IAHR European
Congress Available from:
http://web.sbe.hw.ac.uk/staffprofiles/bdgsa/IAHR_2010_European_Congress/Papers
%20by%20session%20final/Eco-Hydraulics%20II/EHIIe.pdf [Accessed 24th
February 2014].
Environmental State Minister Regulation No.112 Year 2003. (2003). Indonesia.
Rahman, Nova Henri. (2012): Study Research of Domestic Wastewater Management in
Tembalang, Candisari, Banyumanik, and Pedurungan Sub-District, Final Paper on
Environmental Engineering. Diponegoro University, Semarang, Indonesia.
Secioputri, Grace Lucy and Kurniawan, Rahmat. (2013): Design of Domestic Wastewater
Sewerage System for Krengseng Watershed, Semarang, Final Paper on Civil
Engineering. Diponegoro University, Semarang, Indonesia.
Sudarno, Nugroho H., Samudro G, Manjo D. A. M., Wiratama F. A. (2013): Study of
Eutrophication Risk in Diponegoro Education Dam, Semarang, Indonesia.
IV - 112
The Relationship Between Polycentropodidae Larva (Trichoptera) Abundance

and Characteristic Sediment anda in Sempor Reservoir,
Kebumen, Central Java fffffjfjjfkkfjjj
2(14pt)
Kisworo Rahayu, Bondhan Wiriawan & Rr. Vicky Ariyanti
BBWS Serayu Opak, Yogyakarta, Indonesia
rahayukisworo@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this research is to know the relationship between the abundance of
Polycentropodidae larva in Sempor Reservoir with the sediments characteristic and other
environmental factors that influence the abundance of Polycentropodidae larva. This larva is used
as aquatic indicator that states how rich organic material is in sediment. Sediment characteristics,
i.e. sandy or clay or silt has influence on larvas live cycle. Larva benefited nutrients from clay
more than from sand. Therefore, the higher the rate of larva, the more clay sediment the reservoir
has. This also shows potency of additional bed load.
Samples of sediment was taken by using Petersen Dredge, measured 25 x 30 cm2, while samples of
water on sediments surface was taken by using water sampler, in four different stations, namely;
station I (Pakuwuhan), station II (Pengantalan), station III (Kumambang), and station IV
(Kedungwringin). To obtain Polycentropodidae larva sample, the sediment was filtered by sing
mesh net size 20-60 m, and the sample were identified and calculated. Data analysis for this study
uses Anava test and DMRT test. Correlation test was used to know the relation of abundance with
environment factors.
The result showed that the highest of abundance Polycentropodidae larva is 53,3 ind/m2 in station
IV (Kedungwringin), and the lowest 4 ind/m2 in station II (Pengantalan). Physical and chemical
characteristic of sediment are influencing the abundance Polycentropodidae larva. While other
environment factors that contributed much influence in the abundance of Polycentropodidae larva
are Ca, N, detritus and depth. This study concludes that the use of larva as indicator of sediment
characteristics can help to determine type of sedimentation condition in a reservoir.
Keywords: Polycentropodidae larva, sediment characteristic
IV - 113
I. BACKGROUND
Reservoir is an artifical lake where water collected and stored by means of building a
dam. Current usage for a dam is not just a reservoir for irrigation and flood control
alone, but for a variety of purposes such as hydroelectric power generation, propulsion
machinery urban needs, irrigating canals and fisheries.
Sempor Reservoir is an artificial lake located in the village of Sempor, District
Sempor, Kebumen Central Java Province. This reservoirs catchment is located on the
south side of South Mountain Serayu. In this catchment flows Pletuk river, Bleduk
river and Penusupan river are accommodated to fill the reservoir. Sempor Reservoir
catchment is located at altitude 7 30' 00'' to 7 35' 00'' and langitude between 109 25' 57''
to 109 33 27.
Sempor Reservoir catchment area consist of 3 sub-catchments, namely:
1. Sub-catchment Pletuk with an area of 23.5 km2;
2. Sub-catchment Bleduk with an area of 15.4 km2;
3. Sub-catchment Penusupan with an area of 4.1 km2.
Sempor reservoirs began operating early in 1978, located in the catchment area of
approximately 43 km2 for the reservoir with a complex physical condition. This area
has a slope that varies from 25 50 degrees. The soil type is mostly regosol podzolic,
with land use of forest and non-forest. Area of non-forest area has reached 42% of the
reservoir catchment area consist of paddy fields, dry fields and villages (Mardjohan,
1980). If this condition continues to progressed there will be degradation of the forest
functions, which is green belt as rainwater catchment and the carrying capacity of the
reservoir waters Sempor. Haryanto (1999), reported that there had been forest logging
around the reservoir Sempor primarily located in Pengantalan river basin about 36 m2
each year. Logging is a major problem because it can lead to erosion and resulting
sedimentation of reservoirs. Increased sediment and eutrophication will accelerate the
silting of reservoirs and affect the ecological condition of the reservoir waters. Harsono
in Anonymous (2002) states that by the end of September 2012, reservoirs silting
sedimentation Sempor reach 12 million m3. In addition to this, inevitable influx of
river flows into the reservoir which cause sediment transport and in the end created
silting process of reservoirs sediment. Improved materials that goes in a particular
reservoir waters will make changes to the reservoir environment. An example of this
condition can be seen in a marine sedimentation that describe the process of erosion in
the catchment area, but it can also reflect the productivity of lakes or reservoirs.
II. PROBLEM
Land in the catchment of Sempor Reservoir is earmarked for green belt, but many of
which are used for agriculture and settlements that can be a source of pollutants and
sediment into the reservoir. Activities of residents around the reservoir and as well as
its catchment area produces waste that goes into the reservoir, which can cause
decrease in reservoirs water quality. This condition will cause the sedimentation
process to go faster and eutrification process may occur that ultimately will affect the
lives of aquatic organisms.
III. OBJECTIVES
1. Assessing the abundance of larvae Polycentropodidae in Sempor Reservoir.
2
IV - 114
2. Assessing the relationship between the abundance of larvae Polycentropodidae with
Sempor Reservoir sediment characteristics.
IV. BENEFIT OF RESEARCH

Results are expected to complete the information of Sempor Reservoirs Limnological
and provide information to the repertoire of science, society, and as consideration
materials for Sempor Reservoirs manager and related agencies.
V. REVIEW OF LITERATURE
a. The Position of The Taxonomy and General Characteristics
Polycentropodidae ( Caddisfly Larvae )

Classification Polycentropodidae :
Phylum : Arthopoda
Class : insects
Division: Endopterygota
Order : Trichoptera
Family : Polycentropodidae ( Stehr , 1987)
Polycentro larvae live in a wide variety of aquatic habitats ranging from swamps,
reservoirs and rivers. Its small and soft body shape (delicate) Larvae
Polycentropodidae is included in division of Endopterygota (holometabola) then it
metamorphosed perfectly, from gelatinous eggs laid in surface water or moist soil.
These eggs will hatch after 3-4 days and become larvae that live in the sediment at the
bottom of a river or lake
The advantages of the presence of larvae Polycentropodidae on nutrient-rich lake
community is assumed not only as members of the ecology, but also as agents of
nutrient cycling. Larvae in aquatic habitats are mostly plant eating aquatic detritivor
(Stehr, 1987). Larvae adapt to live in the waters and sediments of the stream to avoid
bottom waters by constructing a building from grain of sand and detritus (caddis)
(Ward, 1992).
Although larvae Polycentropodidae is not considered for its great economic benefits,
but it is an important component of biological organisms indicator to determine the
quality of water (Mackay & Wiggins, 1978). Polycentropodidae larvae usually
function as food for fish and other aquatic vertebrates. Polypodidae larvae have a wide
range of variation in sensitivity to pollution of the dam's and it is able to live at high
temperatures and low levels of oxygen (Rosenberg & Resh , 1993).
b . Abundance
An abundance of organism is marked by number of individuals in a population that is
found in all specific areas. The above statement illustrates the magnitude of population
abundance in an area. Abundance of a population is influenced by competitors or
predators in the physical condition of environment and level of available resources
(Odum , 1971).
c . Sediments and sedimentation

Sediment is one very important part in the aquatic ecosystem. This is due to its
function as habitat for organisms. Sediment is transported materials in the form of
IV - 115
suspension or precipitated minerals (bed load) by water or wind (Linsely , 1949).
Sources of sediment derived from a material in which there is not only a mechanical
activity alone but also a form of biological activity of vegetation biomass or animal
biomass (Goenadi , 2003). The water from river flows into reservoir, while carrying
sediment. In these reservoirs, the material may undergo deposition due to various
influence factors. The force of gravity, weight materials, reduced water velocity and
turbulence of the river is all factors that led to deposition. Therefore, material
deposition took place in the reservoir, then the process is commonly known as
reservoir sedimentation (Gupta , 1979) .
The materials can be deposited as elementary charge (bed load) and suspension load.
What is meant by elementary charge sediment are particles moving in a way gliding on
the river bottom layer, while the suspension is charge particles moving above the
elementary charge and mixed with the flow (Hsien Wen Sien , 1971). In addition to the
above charges are dissolved load, which is the chemical composition of the water,
which is produced from a variety of gas and can also be produced from materials
dissolved during its journey through rock or a solution derived from chemical reactions
and caused by human activities (John, 1971). This can lead to the accumulation of
sediment into nutrient and materials that are toxic and cause environmental degradation
in basic freshwater ecosystem.
VI. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Sampling in this research is using a Petersen Dredge sediments method and surface
water sampling using a Van Dorn Water Sampler. Another tool is a plastic bag to place
sediments, water jerry cans to place water samples, benthic filter -rise size 20, 40 and
60 mesh to filter sediment samples, a thermometer to measure temperature, pH meter
to measure the degree of acidity, DO kit to measure the oxygen content dissolved
The study includes three phases of the research:
1. Preparation, in the form of field surveys, preparation tools and materials used for
research
2. Implementation in the field
a. Sediment sampling was conducted at four locations: Station I
(Pakuwuhan) , Station II (Pengantalan) , Station III (Kumambang) and IV
Station (Kedungwringin) , each of 20 stations were taken at random
replications. Sampling using a Petersen Dredge 25 x 30 cm2.
b. Measurement of physical - chemical parameters, including: measurement
of temperature, light transparency, DO, CO2-free, alkalinity, pH, firmness
3. Laboratory observations such as measurements of available N, available P, organic
C and soil texture as well as the identification of benthos.
Data analysis
Data from benthic samples obtained by Petersen dredge 25 x 30 cm2 area expressed in
units. Benthos abundance calculated using the following formula:
O
N x10.000
A.S
Description:
N = abundance
IV - 116
A = area of the mouth dredge
S = Number of decision to dredge
O = Number of individuals counted (WELCH, 1952)
Correlation analysis will examine the relationship between the variables change. The
results of the study analyzed the correlation between larval Polycentropodidae includes
correlation with environmental parameters sediment and detritus types.
VII . RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The results showed the presence of larval abundance Polycentropodidae are likely to
differ in four observation stations are Station I (Pakuwuhan), Station II (Pengantalan) ,
Station III (Kumambang) and IV Station (Kedungwringin) .
Results abundance in the study area is described in Table 1 below.
Table 1 . Larval Polycentropodidae abundance in the reservoir Sempor
Abundance (individuals/m2)
Station
Augustus November February
I 3.3 0 4
II 0 4 0
III 20 8 7.3
IV 33.3 6 14
Differences Polycentropodidae larval abundance in the four stations during the month
of August, November and February habitat conditions thought to be caused either
physically or chemically conditions. Differences habitat conditions can affect the
abundance of larvae Polycentropodidae. Polypocentropodidae larvae are abundant in
station IV (Kedungwringin), which has caused physical and chemical environmental
conditions that are suitable or appropriate to the life of the larvae include a shallow
container, adequate oxygen content and abundant detritus. Environmental conditions
are also associated with the current weather situation of research timing. Increased
rainfall will cause the water level rise will lead to increased volume of the reservoir
and extending inundation area. Inundation area around the dam were mostly consists of
pine trees, teak trees and shrubs will soon decay into organic waste. This flooding
could be expected to result in the number of minerals in water that is supplied from the
mainland that are now flooded. Thus, flooding will enrich waters nutrients. Increased
mineral and material suspended in water can be derived from the surrounding soil
erosion by rainwater and into the waters of lakes or reservoirs. In fertile waters, it
would make organisms population stability, including the population of
Polycentropodidae larvae.
a. Reservoir water environment parameters of Sempor

Aquatic environmental parameters such as measurement of physical factors, namely
water chemistry measurements of temperature, transparency, pH, alkalinity, dissolved
oxygen, dissolved carbon dioxide, firmness, detritus dry weight, levels of C - organic,
available N, available P and sediment texture are used.
b . Reservoir sedimentary characteristics of Sempor
IV - 117
Physical characteristics of Sempor Reservoir sediments are generally arranged by the
clay fraction (0 < 63 micrometer), except at the edges with a depth of 0-5 m at Station
III composed mainly by sand. Low organic matter characterizes chemical
characteristics of sediments, generally below 10 % (>100 mg.g - 1 sediment), the
proportion of organic carbon < 4 % and C: N ratio is relatively high.
Table 2. Characteristics of Reservoir Sediment Sempor
C- Organic
Location Sediment Organic Ratio Materials Silt/Clay Sand Dust
Strata (m) Texture (%) C:N (%) (%) (%) (%)
Station I
0-5 Clay 1,225 120,46 1,68 69,72 4,2 26,09
5 - 10 Clay loam
10 - 15 Silty clay
15 - 20 Clay
20 - 25 Clay
Station II 1,09 76,52 1,81 53,71 7,3 38,95
0-5 Silty clay
5 - 10 Clay
10 - 15 Silty clay loam
15 - 20 Clay
20 - 25 Clay
Station III 0,82 48,27 2,03 28,85 9,31 61,83
0-5 Sand
5 - 10 Clay
15 - 20 Clay
20 - 25 Clay
Station IV 0,81 78,35 1,58 30,98 18,98 50,04
0-5 Silty clay
5 - 10 Clay
Clay fraction and dust are the dominant reservoir sediment Sempor, even by further
study, it is indicated that the location of the station, especially the first (Pakuwuhan),
which is fine fraction of clay showed a fairly high proportion is 69.72 %. Natural state
and size of the catchment area of the lake or reservoir is the determinant of the input
material buildup. The area around the reservoir Sempor is largely a forest, which is
57.67 % of the total area of the reservoir area catchment Sempor. This contributes to
low erosion components and supports the high proportion of clay.
c. Relationship with the larvae Polycentropodidae reservoir sediment

characteristics Sempor
Larvae Polycentropodidae is one of the aquatic insects of the order Trichoptera that
lived aquatic sediments. Therefore, sediment characteristics are the factors that
determine the distribution and abundance of aquatic insect larvae especially
Polycentropodidae. From the results analysis on the sediment from four stations, it is
known that there are 3 types of Sempor sediment texture, namely clay, clay loam and
silty clay. There is a difference between the sediment composition of clay, sand and
IV - 118
dust. The results showed that the sediment at the four stations have a relatively lower
content of sand than clay and found the relative abundance of different
Polycentropodidae larvae. The big difference in the composition of the sediment in the
Sempor reservoir is a result of suspected effect on Polycentropodidae larval
abundance.
Results of correlation analysis between sediment textures with Polycentropodidae
larval abundance indicate that the sand content in the sediment gives negative affect
larval abundance. Substrate of sand and gravel content the least amount of food for the
larvae. While the clay content of the sediments showed a positive and significant
impact on Polycentropodidae larval abundance. The higher the clay contents the higher
the Polycentropodidae larvae abundance.
VII. CONCLUSION
1. Highest larval abundance Polycentropodidae 53.3 individuals/m2 at Station IV
(Kedungwringin) and the lowest is 4 individuals/m2 at Station II (Pengantalan).
2. Physical and chemical characteristics of the sediment reservoir effect on larval
abundance Polycentropodidae.
3. Environmental parameters that give influence on larval abundance levels
Polycentropodidae are Ca, N, detritus and container.
IV - 119
REFERENCE
Goenadi, S. 2003. Sedimen Transport, dalam makalah Seminar Nasional Optimalisasi

Fungsi Danau Sebagai Mikrokosmos.
Gupta, B.L. 1979. Water Resources Engineering and Hydrology. New Chand Jain. New
Delhi.
Haryono, E. 1999. Distribusi dan Kemelimpahan Larva Chironomus sp (Diptera

Chironomidae) di Waduk Sempor. Skripsi. Universitas Gadjah Mada.
Linsely, R.K. Kohler, M.A&Paulhus, IKH. 1949. Applied Hydrology. McGraw-Hill.New

York.
Mackay, R.J&G.B. Wiggins. 1978. Ecological Diversity in the Trichoptera. Annual

Review of Entimology. http://www.Tolweb.org/tree?group=Trichoptera&contgroup=
Endopterygota (dk 2 Maret 2013).
Mardjohan. 1980. Studi Volume Penimbunan Sedimen di Waduk Sempor Kabupaten

Kebumen Jawa Tengah. Skripsi. Fakultas Geografi. UGM. Yogyakarta.
Rosenberg, D.M.&V.H. Resh (editor). 1993. Freshwater Biomonitoring and Benthic

Macroinvertebrates. Chapman and Hall. New York http://www.tolweb.org/tree?
group=Trichoptera&contgroup= Endopterygota (dk 2 Maret 2013).
Stehr, F.W. 1987. Immature Insect. Volume 2. Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company. Iowa.
Ward, J.V.1992. Aquatic Insect Ecology. Biology and Habitat. John Willey and Sons Inc.
New York.
8
IV - 120
Simulating the effects of reduction in dam height on water quality of reservoir

(Case study of Baghan Dam)
Seied morteza Rad
Office of Technical Planning, Bushehr Bureau of Water, Bushehr, Iran
Rad_civil2000@yahoo.com
Bahman Yargholi
Asist. Prof., Agricultural Engineering Research Institute (AERI), Karaj, Iran
Fereidoon karampour
ABSTRACT
Water harvesting and dam building have been orthodox approaches to address water shortages in
IRAN. A prime goal of dams is providing reliable resources for drinking and agricultural uses,
where both quantity and quality have outmost importance. The water quality in dams is a function
of the geometry of reservoir, long term planning for dams, water residence time in the reservoir,
climatology of the region, and temperature and quality stratifications. In order to ensure
appropriate water quality in reservoirs, simulation of water quality, by including temperature and
quality gradients as a function of depth of reservoirs, before construction of dams is a vital
prerequisite. In this contribution, temperature and quality stratifications of water in the Baghan
dam in Busher province in south of IRAN, are simulated at depths 48 and 60 meters using the CE-
QUAL-W2 software. The input parameters for simulation include temperature, phosphorous,
biological oxygen deficit, soluble oxygen, total dissolved solids, and algae growth which were
sampled and monitored monthly in a time span of one year. Results indicate that for a twelve
percent reduction in dams height the concentration of phosphorous and algae exhibit 50 and 43
percent reduction, respectively, where TDS increases by eight percent and ammonium and nitrate
do not show significant differences. In conclusion, reduction in the height of dams not only
decreases the construction costs but also improves water quality of reservoirs and environmental
health.
Keywords: Dam reservoir quality simulation, CE-QUAL-W2, temperature stratifications,

quality stratifications
1. INTRODUCTION
Iran is located in an arid/semi-arid area. In such regions, dam construction is of vital

importance in controlling water steams for future uses such as drinking, agricultural
irrigation, industrial uses and hydropower. To meet such demands, dam construction and
surface water controlling establishment were always of special focus in economic
development planning. Considering several restrictions on water quality and quantity, the
demand for a decision tool becomes important. Several factors affect water quality in a
dam reservoir. This could be to an extent where the water quality at the outlet is
IV - 121
significantly different from that of inlet. Climate, reservoir shape, inlet stream quantity and
quality are the most affecting features triggering such factors.
Temperature stratification and subsequent qualitative stratification are the most important
processes occurring in dam reservoirs. Such phenomena are directly affected by surface
water temperature, which cause temperature and density gradient from water surface to the
depth. Stability of this phenomenon is basically related to stratification power and mixing
factor forces. Mixing forces include wind and dynamic forces from inlet and outlet
streams. required work to be done is also dependent to stratification power, size and shape
of the reservoir. Stratification power is a function of temperature difference between upper
layer (Epiliminion) and lower layer (Hypoliminion). As a result, since dam construction is
an expensive and effortful item, to ensure water quality features for different uses and also
reservoir water quality management, identifying relationship, rules and factors affecting
water quality is essentials (Bani saeid et al. 2003, Wells, S. 2002). For exact assessment of
dam construction effects on water quality in ordinary situations long waiting time until the
end of construction and putting into operation and then sampling different depths (for at
least 1 year) is required. This involved time-taking, costly efforts which are only practical
during exploitation period. Today, water quality simulation has extended its application in
water resources planning and policy making to reduce costs and save time. These models
are prepared by using mathematical methods, such as, finite elements to solve physical,
chemical and biological processes equations and depict reservoir and outlet stream water
quality overview (Yargholi et al, 2008)
Baghan dam which was constructed to meet drinking demands, irrigation uses and
industrial needs is located over a branch of Mand river, 6 km southeast of Baghan village,
170 km southeast of Bushehr in 52 and 56 East and 28 and 8 North, as shown in Figure
1. Baghan dam is 55 m height with the dam reservoir volume of 30.5 MCM and a lake area
of about 2.05 km2. Average precipitation is estimated about 376 mm and average annual
temperatures of the basin and construction site are 21.7 and 24.8 centigrads accordingly.
Based on hydrologic studies, average annual yield of the river in construction site is 31.1
MCM with minimum, maximum and average electric conductivity of 785, 11620 and 2383
S/cm (Afrazpimayesh Consulting Engineers , 2007). Based on previous researches
(Yargholi et al, 2008), many of the dams in Iran, has been affected by several
environmental problems like high salinity and eutrophication due to different factors such
as weakness of accurate studies and water quality monitoring in all stages, from designing
to operation and even after operation-time (Yargholi et al, 2008).
map. 1: Baghan dam position
IV - 122
Numerous models have been composed in order to simulate and evaluate water quality
systems; HEC-5Q, WASP7T DYRESSM, CE-QUAL-W, WQRRS are among these
models (Yargholi et al, 2008, Rezaei benis, 2007). In this study, based on previous
researches and comparisons on models abilities to simulate water quality, CE-QUAL-W
has been chosen to simulate outlet water quality for different uses.
In a research by Arhami et al, 2003, Temperature changes, Dissolved Oxygen and Total
Dissolved Solids in Latian dam reservoir was modeled using HEC-5Q. Results of the study
show acceptable reliability of the model in simulating parameter changing trends and
stratification (Arhami, M et al, 2003). Also, Bani saeid ,2003, studied water quality
changes and stratification in Cheragh Weiss dam using HEC-5Q (Bani saeid, et al, 2003)
They estimated minimum environmental water demand, released from dam outlet, using
maximum allowable Nitrogen and Phosphorus concentration in release water. Sarang
compared in-situ observations in Boukan dam reservoir with that result from HEC-5Q in
simulating water quality and stratification (Sarang, et al, 2003). Tafarroj (Tafarroj, et al,
2007) simulated TDS and temperature in Kandak dam reservoir using HEC-5Q. Results
show that selective release during non-irrigation months in order to save flood streams
leads to reservoir water quality improvement. Results from eutrophication and temperature
stratification simulation in Shahr-e-Bijar dam reservoir using CE-QUAL-W2 model
showed that the reservoir water is classified as fresh and outlet water has high BOD and
low dissolved oxygen concentration (Yargholi et al, 2008). Markofsky and Harleman
(Markofsky and Harleman, 1973) have developed a mathematical water quality model
based on DO concentration, which is then put together with temperature stratification
simulation model. Kuo and Yan (Kuo and Yan, 2000) simulated water quality of the Fitsui
dam reservoir using WASP5 and CE-QUAL-W2 model. Results from the study showed
that the reservoir is rich in nitrogen, but algae expansion is limited due to lack of phosphor.
In this study, the results from stratification and quality simulations of Baghan dam
reservoir in before and after height reduction are presented (Tabel 1). Taking into account
salinity limitations of water resources in Bushehr province and Baghan river, the main goal
in this study is to assure water salinity condition in dam reservoir and its outlet stream and
also comparing it with irrigation standards.
Tabel.1: Dam characteristics before and after height reduction

Factor Height of 62 meters Height of 54 meters
Water supply for agriculture, Water supply for agriculture,
purpose of dam
industry and drinking industry and drinking
Normal level 260 246 m
Reservoir volume at
63 MCM 32 MCM
normal level
Height 62 m 54 m
Adjustable water
18 18.5 mcm
( annually)
CE-QUAL-W2 model is used for the reason. This model was developed by Environmental
Engineering center of the US Army with cooperation of civil and environmental
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engineering department of the Portland state university, in order to simulate the river-
reservoir system. From a hydrodynamic point of view, CE-QUAL-W2 model can forecast
changes in water level, velocity and temperature. Since temperature changes leads to
subsequent changes in water density, calculations related to temperature is implanted in
hydrodynamic system and it should not be eliminated from calculation processes. In water
quality investigations every combination of water quality parameters in simulation could
practically be taken into account or be eliminated from the process. The algorithm to study
water quality in this model is completely componential and other water quality parameters
could be easily added via additional sub-plans.
Input model data is reservoirs shape and geometry, initial and boundary conditions,
hydraulic parameters, daily inlet and outlet discharges, daily water temperature, water
quality concentrations and meteorological parameters. Input data which is presented as
bth.npt files is extracted from topographic maps by taking elements within the reservoir
length. Volume-area and height relationships are important in assessing geometrical shape
presentation accuracy. In this section each elements width, length and angle within the
reservoir length is presented to the model. Meteorological data that are presented to the
model in met.npt format involves: air temperature, dew point, cloudiness, wind velocity
and wind direction in daily time scales. Inlet and outlet stream daily data are presented in
qin.npt and qot.npt file formats. Water quality data includes studied factors in weekly
format by cin.npt are presented to the model. Water temperature is also presented
separately in daily time scales under tin.npt file formats. Using long time data history in
the construction site, the time period between 1997 and 1998 was chosen due to existence
of rainy, dry and average precipitation seasons and the model was simulated in daily time
scale.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUTION
Figure1 shows simulated water temperature in Baghan dam reservoir within a 5 year
period. As is shown in the figure, reservoir includes a stratification cycle which lasts for at
least 10 months of a year. This stratification starts in mid February and reaches its peak
during summer months. The stratification is weakened during the cold season due to
decline in input energy to the reservoir and gradually disappears. Results show that the
complete mixing occurs during late January and early February and temperature changes
from surface to depth is not meaningful. New cycle commences again from mid-February.
Based on simulations, maximum difference between upper and lower levels of the
reservoir is about 24 centigrade which occurs during June. Within June and July the depth
of upper layer is about 2 to 4 meters and the mid-layer is 10-15 meters. However, by
decreasing input solar energy, the depth of upper layer gradually increases. This depth
reaches 6-10 meters during early fall. At the same time, depth of the mid-layer reduces to
10 meters. The procedure goes on until the two layers mix and overturn occurs.
Figure 2 shows temperature profile in Baghan dam reservoir depth during selected days of
the year. As shown in figures, trends in water temperature changes within the depth and
also changes in layer depths are detectable. In addition to this, as could be noticed in figure
3, changes in the temperature of inlet water to the reservoir and outlet water from it during
the 5 year simulated period is shown. It is clear from the diagram that the temperature of
the outlet stream from the reservoir during the cold seasons is less or merely equal to that
of inlet stream, and is lower than the inlet water otherwise. This difference is maximized
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during the summer. Analyzing results from the simulations of the outlet stream shows that
strong fluctuations in upstream entering water temperature to the reservoir is balanced in
outlet streams.
Fig. 1: Water temperature profile in Baghan dam Fig. 2: Water temperature simulation results in
reservoirs depth in monthly time-scale depth during the 5 year period
As discussed before, analyzing existing and performed water quality records suggests that
water salinity (Electric conductivity) is known as the most critical restricting water quality
parameters. Water EC fluctuates between 785 S/cm during flood season to 11620 S/cm
within the dry period with an average electric conductivity of about 2383 S/cm.
Comparing these results to those presented by FAO (700-3000 S/cm: low to moderate
restriction, more than 3000 S/cm: high restriction for irrigation), Baghan river water
quality is of low to moderate restriction in average situation and high restriction in extreme
events. (FAO 1985). Figure 3 shows Electric Conductivity simulation in Baghan dam
reservoir dam during a 5 year period. As it is clear from the figure, changes in the reservoir
water EC are simultaneous with those of temperature stratification. Temperature
stratification also changes depending on fluctuations of the inlet stream to the reservoir.
These fluctuations are particularly a function of river hydrologic features. For example, the
electric conductivity of the water increases during the dry season. Based on these results,
during the dry season, which is also simultaneous with the end of chosen period, EC
increases. This could be mainly because of decreased entering flood streams to the Baghan
dam reservoir, which works during normal time periods as an adjustment to the reservoirs
water quality.
Figure 4 shows the EC profile in Baghan dam reservoir depth during different months of
the year. As it could be noticed in the figure, a detectable trend in EC of different depths
and changing layer depths is recognizable. During January, while no stratification could be
detected, EC is merely constant in all depths. In other months, such as; February, March,
April and May, Electric conductivity of upper layers is less than that of lower levels, while
in other unnamed months the phenomenon is inverse. The important point here is the inter-
dependency of temperature stratification and EC layering. As for figure 2, EC alteration
within the upper 15-17 meters is not significant, while a dramatic variation could be
detected within 17-25 meters, and again from these depths to the river bed, changes are not
considerable.
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Figure 5 shows changes in water quality of different dam height within a 5 year period.
Results show that the
- At 48m normal level, outlet phosphate concentration decreased considerably. At
first normal level, 248m, outlet TDS on moist years decreased compared to 260m
but at dry years, reservoir with 260m normal level has less outlet TDS.
- For ammonium and nitrate, reservoir with 260m normal level, has little difference
from better condition compared to 248m.
- Totally, decrease in reservoir eight compared to previous one, apart from reducing
running costs, has been accepted for reservoir water quality as well as
environmental issues, and in spite of little increase in water EC, resulted in
considerable decrease in reservoir phosphorous concentration and also maintaining
the reservoir freshness and inhibited from eutrophication which is the problem of many
of dams in Iran, especially in tropical and southern provinces.
Alinity of in-stream and out-streams differ significantly and that the difference is of bigger
domain during raining seasons, compared to dry season. The diagram shows that, although
the salinity of out-stream water is lower than that of in-stream; fluctuations in outlet
streams EC are also of very smaller amplitudes. This could be explained by longer
retention times of reservoir water (almost a year) and also water quality balancing because
of high volume, less saline inlet streams during floods. As it is observed in the results of
simulation, the electric conductivity of the released water is always below 3000 S/cm,
which could be even lower during wet periods. An interesting point is the increasing trend
of the outlet stream EC during the simulation of the dry period along with a decrease in the
difference between inlet and outlet stream ECs. Analyzing electric conductivity of outlet
streams from sluices with different levels, as shown in table 1, shows the variations in
water quality of different levels, as well as stratification in all months. Based on model
results, the best water quality could be reached in upper levels between February and April,
mid-levels during May and June and lower levels for months July to December. In January
water quality is homogenous within all layers due to complete mixing.
Fig. 3: Baghan dam reservoir EC-depth profile in Fig. 4: Results of the 5 year EC simulation in
different months different depth
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Table 1: Average EC of different levels and proposed optimum level for withdrawal
Electric conductivity in different levels of Baghan dam (S/cm) Preferred
Month
Upper levels (180-175) Mid levels (170-165) Lower level (155-150) withdrawal level
January 2577 2572 2575 All
February 2150 2518 2568 Upper
March 2257 2540 2565 Upper
April 2350 2586 2564 Upper
May 2710 2520 2558 Mid - lower
June 2717 2525 2560 Mid lower
July 2945 2430 2570 Mid
August 3185 2450 2565 Mid
September 3220 2455 2562 Mid
October 3005 2510 2565 Mid
November 2880 2752 2565 Lower
December 2830 2780 3571 Lower
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Fig. 5: Comparing outlet TDS , Algae,NO3 and Po4, results at different Scenarios
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CONCLUSION:
The temperature stratification in Baghan dam reservoir is actually very strong and stable.
This phenomenon is more severe during hot seasons, particularly July and August. During
these months, the temperature difference between upper and lower layers reaches 20
centigrads. Temperature variation gradient is very high between 20-25 and 35-40 meters,
while little or no variation is detected in upper and lower layers. In dam reservoirs, outlet
stream water quality shows less variation, compared to that of inlet water due to
temperature stratification, longer retention time and water quality layering. During
summer, outlet stream temperature is about 5-10 centigrade cooler than inlet water. The
latter is very important from an ecological point of view, since dissolved oxygen
concentration increases and maintains aquatic life. Inversely, inlet and outlet stream
temperature converges during cold season. In addition to longer retention time in dams
reservoirs, stratification due to EC has caused alterations between inlet and outlet water
streams. The difference between the two ECs ranges from 0 to 500 S/cm during different
months and years. Figure 6 shows that released water salinity was significantly higher than
inlet water during flood events. However, during following months after the flood season,
salinity of the outlet stream decreases, causing considerable difference between in and out
water qualities; this difference ranges from 500 S/cm, within the first and second months
after the flood season, to lower difference. Analysis show that the difference between in
and out water salinity was higher during upper-normal water year (1997-1998), and lower
differences within lower-normal months (last months of the simulation period) because of
lower precipitations and diminution of flood streams. Electric conductivity, which assumes
to be the major restricting parameter in Baghan river for drinking and irrigation uses, is
balanced in the reservoir during the year, meaning less limitations for water withdrawals.
Simulation results suggests an average outlet water salinity of about 2600 S/cm which
ranges from 2400 to 3000 S/cm, while time averages salinity of inlet water streams is
about 3000 S/cm. Table 1 shows that the release water quality from different sluices
differ within months and that water quality simulation results could be utilized as a reliable
tool to manage water withdrawals for different uses and required qualities. According to
Table 2, mean gravimetric concentration of qualitative parameters and also their mean
annual weight in reservoir outlet are as following Table.
Table. 2: mean gravimetric concentration of quality parameters in reservoir (mg/l)
qualitative inlet outlet in normal outlet in normal level 260
parameters
NO3 6.9 level4.89
246 m m
4.25
PO4 - 0.0013 0.006
NH4 0.03 0.01 0.01
TP 0.04 0.003 0.01
TN - 4.93 4.29
BOD 3.54 0.01 0.02
TDS 921 883 817
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According to above results, all simulated parameters concentration in reservoir are
permissible level for domestic and agricultural uses. Considering to the appropriate quality
condition of reservoir water, outlet quality from different reservoir levels are in standard
level but pool level from 220 to 230 creates best condition for water quality of reservoir
outlet.
Decreasing reservoir level in comparison with previous one, apart from decreasing running
costs, most accepted with the regard of reservoir water quality as well as environmental
issues and has better condition and in spite of slight increase in water EC, resulted in
considerable decrease in reservoir phosphorous content and maintenance of reservoir
freshness and inhibition of reservoir eutrophication which is the threat for most of dams in
Iran, especially in tropical and southern provinces.
REFERENCES:
Afrazpimayesh Consulting Engineers , 2007. final report of Bagan dam environmental
assessment report.
Arhami, M., Tajrishi, M., Abrishamchi, A. 2003. Modeling the latian dam water quality. J.
water and waste water. 44, 2-14.
Bani saeid, N., Rezaei benis, N., Jafarzadeh, N. 2003. prediction of water quality change
and stratified Cheraghvise dam water quality with HEC-5Q. 7th international
River Engineering seminar. Shahide chamran university . ahvaz, 202-215.
Kuo, J. T., Yang, M. D. (2000).Water quality modeling in reservoirs, proceedings of the
Fourteenth Engineering Mechanics Symposium (EM2000) of the American
Society of civil Engineers,
Markofsky, M., Harleman, D.R.F (1973).prediction of water quality stratified reservoir
Hydraulic division, ASCE, 99(5), pp. 703-729
Maleki, R., vali samani, M., Mohammadi, K. 2007. Investigation the drainages effects on
pesyan river water quality with WASP6. National Irrigation and drainage seminar.
Shahide Chamran university . ahvaz, 54-68.
Rezaei benis, N. 1997. A systematic approach on the patterns of opration of the dams in
Irarn and their quality and quantity management. Title MSC hesis, Amirkabir
University and Technology.
Study and Modeling the Kondak dam water quality with HEC-5Q . Proceeding of the 7th
international River Engineering seminar. Shahide chamran university . ahvaz,
120-133.
Sarang, A., Tajrishi, M., Abrishamchi, A. 2003. Modeling the Bokan dam water quality. J.
Tafarroj, N., Rezaei benis, N., Izadjo, F. 2007. Study and Modeling the Kondak dam water
quality with HEC-5Q . Proceeding of the 7th international River Engineering
seminar. Shahide chamran university . ahvaz, 120-133.
Wells, S. (2002) Basis of the CE-QUAL-W2 Version 3 River Basin Hydrodynamic and
Water Quality Model, Proceedings, 2nd Federal InterAgency Hydrologic
Modeling Conference, Las Vegas, July 28-Aug 1, 2002.
Yargholi, B., shiati, K., dehzad, B. 2008. Simulation of The Shahre bijar dam Water
quality and eutrofication. Proceedings of soil and water pollution Seminar.
Aborihan university. waramin, 38-53.
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Thermal and salinity Stratification Modeling of Dalaki Reservoir

with the aim of agricultural use study
Bahman Yargholi
Asist. Prof., Agricultural Engineering Research Institute (AERI), Karaj, Iran
Yar_bahman@yahoo.com
Jahan Kadkhodapour
Fereidoon karampour
ABSTRACT
For water sector decision makers, dam construction is typically regarded as a common measure of
water crisis prevention by taming surface waters. Under the impact of dimensions, reservoir
retention time, climate, thermal stratification and eutrophication, water quality of reservoirs is
degraded and consequently, outflow quality becomes different from the inflow. Situated in an arid
area, Dalaki River Basin in the South of Iran is faced with several water quality-quantity
shortages, particularly from the aspect of salinity. This limitation is an issue of much importance
for agricultural activities as the largest water user of the Region.To ensure the appropriate quality
of water for different users, water quality monitoring and modeling is essential before dam
construction to prepare an applicable tool for water quality management of reservoir and to
propose the best elevation of intake gates. In this study, results of water quality modeling of Dalaki
Reservoir, which is under construction in Dalaki Basin, are presented. Regarding the fact that
main restriction of Dalaki river is recognized as salinity, water quality is thoroughly simulated in
order to analyze this parameter. For this purpose, based on water quality data obtained from one-
year water quality monitoring program with a monthly frequency, thermal and salinity
stratification of the reservoir are simulated using CE-QUAL-W2. Results depict that thermal
stratification will be occurred during March to November, in which from June to July temperature
differences will reach up to 18 centigrade. Salinity stratification modeling also depicts that TDS in
various elevations will fluctuate up to 800 mg/lit. The results provide an appropriate tool of water
quality management to take water from different elevations during the year.
Keywords: Dalaki Reservoir Water Quality Modeling Salinity Thermal stratification CE-
Qual-W2
1. INTRODUCTION
Iran is located in an arid/semi-arid area. In such regions, dam construction is of vital
importance in controlling water steams for future uses such as drinking, agricultural
irrigation, industrial uses and hydropower. To meet such demands, dam construction and
surface water controlling establishment were always of special focus in economic
development planning. Considering several restrictions on water quality and quantity, the
demand for a decision tool becomes important. Several factors affect water quality in a
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dam reservoir. This could be to an extent where the water quality at the outlet is
significantly different from that of inlet. Climate, reservoir shape, inlet stream quantity and
quality are the most affecting features triggering such factors. Temperature stratification
and subsequent qualitative stratification are the most important processes occurring in dam
reservoirs. Such phenomena are directly affected by surface water temperature, which
cause temperature and density gradient from water surface to the depth. Stability of this
phenomenon is basically related to stratification power and mixing factor forces. Mixing
forces include wind and dynamic forces from inlet and outlet streams. required work to be
done is also dependent to stratification power, size and shape of the reservoir. Stratification
power is a function of temperature difference between upper layer (Epiliminion) and lower
layer (Hypoliminion). As a result, since dam construction is an expensive and effortful
item, to ensure water quality features for different uses and also reservoir water quality
management, identifying relationship, rules and factors affecting water quality is essentials
(Bani saeid et al. 2003, Wells, S. 2002).
For exact assessment of dam construction effects on water quality in ordinary situations
long waiting time until the end of construction and putting into operation and then
sampling different depths (for at least 1 year) is required. This involved time-taking, costly
efforts which are only practical during exploitation period. Today, water quality simulation
has extended its application in water resources planning and policy making to reduce costs
and save time. These models are prepared by using mathematical methods, such as, finite
elements to solve physical, chemical and biological processes equations and depict
reservoir and outlet stream water quality overview (Yargholi et al, 2008)
Dalaky dam which was constructed to meet irrigation uses and industrial needs is located
over a branch of Dalaky river, 25 km Northeast of Dalaky city, 100 km Northwest of
Bushehr. As shown in Figure1. Dalaky dam is 105 m height with the dam reservoir volume
of 260 MCM and a lake area of about 9.1 km2. Average precipitation is estimated about
330 mm and average annual temperatures of the basin and construction site are 15.2 and
18.1 centigrade accordingly. Based on hydrologic studies, average annual yield of the
river in construction site is 580 MCM with minimum, maximum and average TDS of 1660,
7604 and 4614 S/cm (Yekom Consulting Engineers, 2012)
Based on previous researches (Yargholi et al, 2008), many of the dams in Iran, has been
affected by several environmental problems like high salinity and eutrophication due to
different factors such as weakness of accurate studies and water quality monitoring in all
stages, from designing to operation and even after operation-time (Yargholi et al, 2008).
Map. 1: Dalaky dam position
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Numerous models have been composed in order to simulate and evaluate water quality
systems; HEC-5Q, WASP7T DYRESSM, CE-QUAL-W, WQRRS are among these
models (Yargholi et al, 2008, Rezaei benis, 2007). In this study, based on previous
researches and comparisons on models abilities to simulate water quality, CE-QUAL-W
has been chosen to simulate outlet water quality for different uses.
In a research by Arhami et al, 2003, Temperature changes, Dissolved Oxygen and Total
Dissolved Solids in Latian dam reservoir was modeled using HEC-5Q. Results of the study
show acceptable reliability of the model in simulating parameter changing trends and
stratification (Arhami, et al, 2003). Also, Bani saeid ,2003, studied water quality changes
and stratification in Cheragh Weiss dam using HEC-5Q (Bani saeid, et al, 2003) They
estimated minimum environmental water demand, released from dam outlet, using
maximum allowable Nitrogen and Phosphorus concentration in release water. Sarang
compared in-situ observations in Boukan dam reservoir with that result from HEC-5Q in
simulating water quality and stratification (Sarang, et al, 2003). Maleki, suggested that
drainages are among the most affecting sources of pollution in Pasikhan river, Guilan
(Maleki, et al, 2007). In this study, Ammonium, Nitrate, Nitrogen and Phosphate
concentrations were measured and compared to simulation results from WASP6. Results
show that WASP6 model could simulate river water quality with great accuracy. Tafarroj
(Tafarroj, et al, 2007) simulated TDS and temperature in Kandak dam reservoir using
HEC-5Q. Results show that selective release during non-irrigation months in order to save
flood streams leads to reservoir water quality improvement. Results from eutrophication
and temperature stratification simulation in Shahr-e-Bijar dam reservoir using CE-QUAL-
W2 model showed that the reservoir water is classified as fresh and outlet water has high
BOD and low dissolved oxygen concentration (Yargholi et al, 2008). Markofsky and
Harleman (Markofsky and Harleman, 1973) have developed a mathematical water quality
model based on DO concentration, which is then put together with temperature
stratification simulation model. Kuo and Yan (Kuo and Yan, 2000) simulated water quality
of the Fitsui dam reservoir using WASP5 and CE-QUAL-W2 model. Results from the
study showed that the reservoir is rich in nitrogen, but algae expansion is limited due to
lack of phosphor.
Since Dalaky river water salinity is the main limiting water quality factor, in this study it is
desired to study water quality changes of the Dalaky dam reservoir from temperature
stratification and TDS point of view, using CE-QUAL-W2. The main goal is to investigate
temperature stratification situation and reservoir salinity and determining salinity in
different depths in order to manage withdrawals with reliable quality for different uses
from determined water levels. For this mean, changes in upstream inlet water quality
(temporal TDS changes along with changes in different levels) were simulated using
gathered base data, exact dam components identification, choosing indicator period, that
were themselves extracted from long-time water quality data and monthly quality
monitoring during a one year period. To do so, in addition to simulation of dam reservoir
water quality, the quality of releasing water is also simulated.
In this study, the results from stratification and salinity simulations of Dalaky dam
reservoir are presented. Taking into account salinity limitations of water resources in
Bushehr province and Dalaky river, the main goal in this study is to assure water salinity
condition in dam reservoir and its outlet stream and also comparing it with irrigation
standards. CE-QUAL-W2 model is used for the reason. This model was developed by
IV - 133
Environmental Engineering center of the US Army with cooperation of civil and
environmental engineering department of the Portland state university, in order to simulate
the river-reservoir system. From a hydrodynamic point of view, CE-QUAL-W2 model can
forecast changes in water level, velocity and temperature. Since temperature changes leads
to subsequent changes in water density, calculations related to temperature is implanted in
hydrodynamic system and it should not be eliminated from calculation processes. In water
quality investigations every combination of water quality parameters in simulation could
practically be taken into account or be eliminated from the process. The algorithm to study
water quality in this model is completely componential and other water quality parameters
could be easily added via additional sub-plans.
Input model data is reservoirs shape and geometry, initial and boundary conditions,
hydraulic parameters, daily inlet and outlet discharges, daily water temperature, water
quality concentrations and meteorological parameters. Input data which is presented as
bth.npt files is extracted from topographic maps by taking elements within the reservoir
length. Volume-area and height relationships are important in assessing geometrical shape
presentation accuracy. In this section each elements width, length and angle within the
reservoir length is presented to the model. Meteorological data that are presented to the
model in met.npt format involves: air temperature, dew point, cloudiness, wind velocity
and wind direction in daily time scales. Inlet and outlet stream daily data are presented in
qin.npt and qot.npt file formats. Water quality data includes studied factors in weekly
format by cin.npt are presented to the model. Water temperature is also presented
separately in daily time scales under tin.npt file formats. Using long time data history in
the construction site, the time period between 1973 and 1977 was chosen due to existence
of rainy, dry and average precipitation seasons and the model was simulated in daily time
scale.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUTION
Figure 1 and 2 shows simulated water temperature in Dalaky dam reservoir within a 5 year
period and different months. As is shown in the figure, reservoir includes a stratification
cycle which lasts for at least 9 months of a year. This stratification starts in mid February
and reaches its peak during summer months. The stratification is weakened during the cold
season due to decline in input energy to the reservoir and gradually disappears. Results
show that the complete mixing occurs during late January and early February and
temperature changes from surface to depth is not meaningful. New cycle commences again
from mid-February.
Based on simulations, maximum difference between upper and lower levels of the
reservoir is about 20 centigrade which occurs during July. Within June and July the depth
of upper layer is about 6 to 10 meters and the mid-layer is 10-15 meters. However, by
decreasing input solar energy, the depth of upper layer gradually increases. This depth
reaches 15meters during early fall. At the same time, depth of the mid-layer reaches to 25
meters. The procedure goes on until the two layers mix and overturn occurs.
Figure 2 shows temperature profile in Dalaky dam reservoir depth during selected days of
5 year. As shown in figures, trends in water temperature changes within the depth and also
changes in layer depths are detectable. In addition to this, as could be noticed in figure 3,
changes in the temperature of inlet water to the reservoir and outlet water from it during
the 5 year simulated period is shown. It is clear from the diagram that the temperature of
the outlet stream from the reservoir during the cold seasons is less or merely equal to that
of inlet stream, and is lower than the inlet water otherwise. This difference is maximized
IV - 134
during the summer. Analyzing results from the simulations of the outlet stream shows that
strong fluctuations in upstream entering water temperature to the reservoir is balanced in
outlet streams.
Fig. 2: Dalaky dam reservoir Temperature-depth profile in different months
Fig. 2: Water temperature simulation results in depth during the 5 year period
As discussed before, analyzing existing and performed water quality records suggests that
water salinity (TDS) is known as the most critical restricting water quality parameters.
Water EC fluctuates between 1660 S/cm during flood season to 7600 S/cm within the
dry period with an average TDS of about 4614 S/cm. Comparing these results to those
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presented by FAO (700-3000 S/cm: low to moderate restriction, more than 3000 S/cm:
high restriction for irrigation), Dalaky river water quality is of low to moderate restriction
in average situation and high restriction in extreme events. (FAO 1985)
Figure 3 shows the EC profile in Dalaky dam reservoir depth during different months of
the year. As it could be noticed in the figure, a detectable trend in EC of different depths
and changing layer depths is recognizable. During January, February and December TDS
of lover layers is less than that of upeper levels. In other months, such as; March, April,
May and TDS of upper layers is less than that of lower levels, while in other unnamed
months the phenomenon is inverse. The important point here is the inter-dependency of
temperature stratification and EC layering.
Figure 4 shows TDS simulation in Dalaky dam reservoir during a 5 year period. As it is
clear from the figure, changes in the reservoir water EC are simultaneous with those of
temperature stratification. Temperature stratification also changes depending on
fluctuations of the inlet stream to the reservoir. These fluctuations are particularly a
function of river hydrologic features. For example, the TDS of the water increases during
the dry season. Based on these results, during the dry season, which is also simultaneous
with the end of chosen period, EC increases (the ending part of figure 1). This could be
mainly because of decreased entering flood streams to the Dalaky dam reservoir, which
works during normal time periods as an adjustment to the reservoirs water quality.
Figure 5 shows changes in TDS of inlet and outlet streams within a 5 year period. Results
show that the salinity of in-stream and out-streams differ significantly and that the
difference is of bigger domain during raining seasons, compared to dry season. The
diagram shows that, although the salinity of out-stream water is lower than that of in-
stream; fluctuations in outlet streams EC are also of very smaller amplitudes. This could
be explained by longer retention times of reservoir water (almost a year) and also water
quality balancing because of high volume, less saline inlet streams during floods. As it is
observed in the results of simulation, the TDS of the released water is always below 3000
S/cm, which could be even lower during wet periods. An interesting point is the
increasing trend of the outlet stream EC during the simulation of the dry period along with
a decrease in the difference between inlet and outlet stream ECs.
Analyzing TDS in reservoir in different month, as shown in Figure 3, shows the variations
in water quality of different levels, as well as stratification in all months. Based on model
results, the best water quality could be reached in upper levels between December, January
and February; mid-levels during June, july and August; lower levels for September,
October and November. In march and april water quality is homogenous within all layers.
IV - 136
Fig. 3: Dalaky dam reservoir TDS-depth profile in different months
Fig 4: Results of the 5 year TDS simulation in different depth
IV - 137
Fig. 5: Changes in TDS of inlet and outlet streams during simulation Dalaky dam reservoir
In order to evaluation the effect of reservoir thermal stratification on reservoir water and
outlet different scenarios as followings were evaluated:
- Scenario 1 (main status): use of upper pool for reservoir water deployment without
application of the effect of reservoir's structure dissolving.
- Scenario 2: the effect of 15% salinity on structures dissolution over two years from first
exploiting year and use of upper pool for reservoir water deployment.
- Scenario 3: use of upper pool and lower deployment at 250 m level spontaneously, without
application of the effect of reservoir's structure dissolving.
- Scenario 4: use of lower deployment at 250 m level spontaneously, without application of
the effect of reservoir's structure dissolving.
- Scenario 5: use of lower deployment at 250 m level and water overflow at this level in
order to reservoir cleaning, without application of the effect of reservoir's structure
dissolving.
Table 1 show the reservoir outlet TDS at different Scenarios and compares them with
scenario 1 (main status). In order to study the effect of different pool levels on outlet
quality, 220 and 230 m levels separately introduced to model. After model running for 5-
year simulation period with same conditions, reservoir outlet quality amounts compared
with each other.
Table 1: mean weight outlet TDS at different Scenarios
Scenarios 1 2 3 4 5
Outlet TDS (mg/l) 3033 3171 3053 3059 3043
4. CONCLUSION
The temperature stratification in Dalaky dam reservoir is actually very strong and stable.
This phenomenon is more severe during hot seasons, particularly June, July and August.
During these months, the temperature difference between upper and lower layers reaches
20. In addition to longer retention time in dams reservoirs, stratification due to TDS has
caused alterations between inlet and outlet water streams. The difference between the two
TDSs ranges from 0 to 800 mg/l during different months and years. Figure 6 shows that
released water salinity was significantly lower than inlet water.
IV - 138
Reservoir has summer stratification. Stratification initiated on late March until December
month for 9 months. Water temperature difference between upper and lower layers in July,
August and June months reaches to 20 C. On dey, summer stratification became weak and
became complete mixture for two months. By increasing temperature in March, summer
stratification forms again.
Having regard to high TDS levels in inlet, TDS concentration in reservoir reaches 4000
mg/l which decreased by flooding inlets in winter months and early spring.
TDS concentration profile changes in depths based on stratification intensity, so that in
winter after layers disturbance, TDS concentration in lower layer is much more. This trend
continues in spring. By increasing stratification intensity and warming up of surface layers,
TDS amounts of upper layers increased too. In this situation, mid layers has the least TDS.
In fall, most TDS concentration is related to upper layers and the least amounts is related to
lower ones. The effect of reservoir internal structures dissolving on outlet quality could be
considerable. In order to study the effect of these structures dissolving on reservoir water
quality, it is necessary to determine of exact dissolution and applied in reservoir
simulation.
The effect of using pools by considering the simulation results and available data in long
term period on outlet TDS concentration is not considerable, but by water harvesting from
layers with appropriate quality at growing season and water deployment from saline layer
at flooding period or non-cultivation season, we could manage reservoir water quality.
In order to model calibration, it is suggested that measuring the water quality parameters
especially in dam place continued and measurements regularly and monthly should be
conducted even after dam water filing.
REFERENCES
Yekom Consulting Engineers , 2012. final report of dalaky dam environmental

assessment report.
Yekom Consulting Engineers , 2011. final report of dalaky dam hydrology assessment
report.
Arhami, M., Tajrishi, M., Abrishamchi, A. 2003. Modeling the latian dam water quality. J.
Bani saeid, N., Rezaei benis, N., Jafarzadeh, N. 2003. prediction of water quality change
and stratified Cheraghvise dam water quality with HEC-5Q. 7th international
River Engineering seminar. Shahide chamran university . ahvaz, 202-215.
Kuo, J. T., Yang, M. D. (2000).Water quality modeling in reservoirs, proceedings of the
Fourteenth Engineering Mechanics Symposium (EM2000) of the American
Society of civil Engineers,
Markofsky, M., Harleman, D.R.F (1973).prediction of water quality stratified reservoir
Hydraulic division, ASCE, 99(5), pp. 703-729
Maleki, R., vali samani, M., Mohammadi, K. 2007. Investigation the drainages effects on
pesyan river water quality with WASP6. National Irrigation and drainage seminar.
Shahide Chamran university . ahvaz, 54-68.
Rezaei benis, N. 1997. A systematic approach on the patterns of opration of the dams in
Irarn and their quality and quantity management. Title MSC hesis, Amirkabir
University and Technology.
Study and Modeling the Kondak dam water quality with HEC-5Q . Proceeding of the 7th
international River Engineering seminar. Shahide chamran university . ahvaz,
120-133.
IV - 139
Sarang, A., Tajrishi, M., Abrishamchi, A. 2003. Modeling the Bokan dam water quality. J.
Tafarroj, N., Rezaei benis, N., Izadjo, F. 2007. Study and Modeling the Kondak dam water
quality with HEC-5Q . Proceeding of the 7th international River Engineering
seminar. Shahide chamran university . ahvaz, 120-133.
Wells, S. (2002) Basis of the CE-QUAL-W2 Version 3 River Basin Hydrodynamic and
Water Quality Model, Proceedings, 2nd Federal InterAgency Hydrologic
Modeling Conference, Las Vegas, July 28-Aug 1, 2002.
Yargholi, B., shiati, K., dehzad, B. 2008. Simulation of The Shahre bijar dam Water
quality and eutrofication. Proceedings of soil and water pollution Seminar.
Aborihan university. waramin, 38-53.
IV - 140
Underground Dam in karst Region, case study

Bribin Seropan, Yogyakarta, Indonesia
Nugroho, Bani. [1] & Pranantya Pulung A. [2]

[1]
Doctoral Candidtate,
Geological Department, Padjajaran University,
Bandung Indonesia
bani@trisakti.ac.id
[2]
Researcher, Research Center for Water Resources,
Research and Development Agency,
Ministry of Public Works, Indonesia
ABSTRACT
Karst topography is a geological formation shaped by the dissolution of a layer or layers of soluble
bedrock, usually carbonate rock such as limestone or dolomite, and also in gypsum. Karst is an
unique area that consist of several distinctive surface features, with cenotes and sinkholes (also
called dolines) being the most common. biggest challenges in karst areas are the provision of water
to meet the requirement of drinking water and irrigation. Although it appears arid on the surface,
karst region has an abundant water resources in the subsurface, whics is lays in underground river
or intrafracture current. In order to produce the subsurface water, several attemps has been
made,some of them has been sucseed. Most of the method applied are very expensive so it can only
be applied to meet the needs for households. Another new technology and method has been
developed as a prototipe is combining undergrounds dam with hydropower. One prototipe has been
made to answer the requirements for cheap and sustained water. Trough this technology,
expectations for the provision of cheap water can be achieved. Another expectation is this
technology can be developed in other karst areas that require cheap prices water.
Keywords: underground dam, karst, hydropower, irrigation
IV - 141
INTRODUCTION
Gunung Kidul, is a unique area because it has a typology of karst topography , namely the
formation of a typical landscape in carbonate rocks ( limestone ) as a result of tectonic
processes followed by the dissolution and the presence of a crack formed where water
flows ( Sir McDonald , 1982) .
Availability of water in arid areas is a necessity that can not be avoided. Despite the
surface water, but water is available that have poor quality and requires intensive
processing to be used as a source of raw water. In addition, in karst areas , surface water
often can not be available all year round and its presence is often far from areas that need
it. As a result, the use of groundwater as a source of raw water to meet the needs of a
mainstay of domestic , industrial and irrigation .
Water sources are underground karst areas , such as caves or underground rivers is a
challenge that must be faced in the provision of water , such as in the area Pawonsari
(Pacitan, Wonogiri and Wonosari), West Nusa Tenggara, East Nusa Tenggara and other.
Required for the utilization of technology to raise the water from the water source to
effectively and efficiently so that the user community is able to perform operations and
maintenance (sustainable).
One of the main problems is the cost to remove the water in the underground river to the
surface. The amount of the fee due to the method of water removal is commonly done
using electricity or diesel. As the solution is hydropower technology , which although it
has some limitations but is very cheap to operate (Wibawa, 2005) .
In implementing this technology research is needed to address the various issues that arise
in its application . The prototype installation has been built and are in the area Sindon,
Dadapayu, Semanu, Gunung Kidul, the underground river in Bribin for water . In today's
discussion , will be presented on the development of hydropower in an underground river
in the cave Bribin take the example of an underground river in Bribin and installations in
Sindon (BBWS Serayu - Opak , 2010)
Hydropower
Hydro-power or water power is power derived from the energy of falling water and
running water, which may be harnessed for useful purposes. Since ancient times, hydro-
power has been used for irrigation and the operation of various mechanical devices, such
as watermills, sawmills, textile mills, dock cranes, domestic lifts, power houses and paint
making.
Water's power is manifested in hydrology, by the forces of water on the riverbed and banks
of a river. When a river is in flood, it is at its most powerful, and moves the greatest
amount of sediment. This higher force results in the removal of sediment and other
material from the riverbed and banks of the river, locally causing erosion, transport and,
with lower flow, sedimentation downstream.
In smaller scale, hydropower ussually called as microhydro, which is implemented in one
of Gunung Sewu caves at Gunung Kidul, Yogyakarta. Micro-hydro is a technology that
can be applied to small-scale water resources to change the existing hydropower potential
into electrical power and other equipment or players include water pumps, rice milling
machine, etc., which will indirectly useful to support social and economic activities of
society in the countryside e.g see fig 1 and 2.
IV - 142
Benefits of hydropowers, because these technologies utilize renewable resources, the
operating costs and lower maintenance compared to diesel engines that use fossil energy
(fuel). Its application is relatively easy and environmentally friendly, does not cause
pollutions. If this technology is used to rotate the water pump, because the pump is not
driven safely with electric motors as other benefit that besides better efficiency. If the
installation of the turbine system in such a way that irrigation water turbines can be fed
back to the channel, the efficiency becomes greater, because then the irrigation water
increased power use.
Figure 1. Schematic system of Hydropower turbine (Wibawa, 2005)
Figure 2. Example of instalation for crossflow type turbine, located in Leles-Garut, Indonesia
Geology
Gunung Sewu Karst limestone composed of Middle Miocene to Upper Pliosin called
Wonosari Formation and Oyo Formation ( Bote , 1929) . Limestone is composed of
massive coral limestone in the southern part and the northern part of the layered limestone
( Rahadjo et al . , 1995) . Total thickness of limestone more than 650 m . Coral limestone
lithology varies , but is dominated limestones are rudstones , packstones , and framestones
. Formation bedrock of Wonosari and Oyo in the form of volcanic rock formations and
volcanic clastic Oligocene - Miocene age (Semilir, Nglanggran, Sambipitu, Oyo,
Wonosari, Kepek Formation).
This formation is found at several locations to base of Gunung Sewu karst . Wonosari
Formation and Oyo Formation raptured Quaternary Period began starters, forming steep
cliffs high (25-100 m) along the southern edge (Balazs 1968; van Bemmelen 1970; Surono
IV - 143
et al . 1992; NLI 1994). North-south pressure due to the meeting of tectonic plates that
produce intense deformation and fracture produces stocky northeast-southwest, northwest-
southeast, north-south and east-west (Balazs 1968; van Bemmelen 1970; Surono et al.
1992; NLI, 1994, Haryono, et al., 2005) .
In physiographic Gunung Sewu Karst Mountains are part of the South Island of Java (van
Bemmelen, 1970). South Mountains resulting from the appointment process which started
since the beginning of the Late Tertiary or Quaternary. The northern part of the Southern
Mountains zone of depression is separated from the island of Java by faulting. Gunung
Sewu itself is characterized by karst hills.
On the north side, Gunung Sewu Karst experiencing the bending and shaping faults at
Wonosari Basin and Basin Baturetno. In the second depression, limited karstification
process and its surface is covered by silty soil with a thickness up to 10 m (Waltham et al.,
1983, Samodra, 1983). Karst morphology growing in Gunung Sewu Karst is a type of cone
karst or karst Kegel . This form was first introduced by Lehman (1936) and named Type
Gunung Sewu e.g. see table 1.
Table 1. list of geoogical formation in Wonosari and its surroundings
Karst, The term is derived from Slovenian Kras - means barren rocky land. Nowadays the
term is used to describe a region or landscape that has undergone a process of dissolving in
space and geological time. Ford and Williams (1989) defines as a karst terrain with
distinctive hydrology as a result of rock-soluble and has a well-developed secondary
porosity.
Some karst region identifier ( Ford & Williams, 1989) are as follows:
1. The presence of closed basins or valleys and dry in a variety of sizes and shapes
2. Scarcity or absence of surface drainage or river
3. The presence of the cave of the underground drainage system.
Limestone is a rock that has a composition karbonatan dominant, therefore the karst region
can grow well in an area with limestone lithologies. A region can be regarded as karst
areas where it has been undergoing a process of karstification. Kartisifikasi is a series of
processes ranging from the lifting of the limestone surface of the earth due to the earth
IV - 144
(endogenous) and a process of the dissolution of the limestone, in space and geological
time scales to finally produce a distinctive karst landscape. If a region has a composition of
limestone karstification process but have not experienced it can not be said to be a karst
area (Koesoemadinata, 1987).
The system is very different hydrogeological characteristics of karst regions with non-karst
areas. Porosity limestones are dominated by secondary porosity where the water escapes
through cracks (Fracture), rock layering (bedding plane) and faults (fault) on the limestone
formations. While the space between the grains of porosity values (primary) and the
permeability of the limestone reefs (nonklastik) is very low (Fetter, 1994). Primary
porosity and permeability will be high if the clastic limestone because it has a space
between the grains .
The flow of water in the aquifer flows simultaneously dissolving limestone bedding plane ,
fractures and faults. Most stream of water flowing through fractures and bedding plane has
a large hydraulic conductivity. The nature of the limestone aquifer is not continuous
laterally and not uniform due to the flow of water on limestone aquifer flowing through
cracks and bedding plane. The flow of incoming water will flow immediately passes to the
baseflow. The accumulated flow pattern forming subsurface flow like a river as on the
surface. In the same time enlarge the dissolution process cracks and bedding plane aisle
cave system formed. The halls of the cave serves as a corridor leading to the underground
river system (Koesoemadinata, 1987).
Base flow in the river is generally underground water table and aquifer limestones tend to
be flat (flat water table). Water supply underground river and stream surfaces can come in
through the mouth of the cave is horizontal (shallow holes) or vertical cave (Sink Hole)
and infiltration and surface soil layers above that go through small cracks below the soil
layer. The flow of the underground river water may reappear on the surface as springs
(Kars Spring) or out of the outlet of the cave stream (Sir McDonald, 1982).
The existence of an underground river (underground river) flowing in the cave can be said
to be certain bare existence and its potential if it had been done a search and mapping of
the cave. Another method to determine the initial certainty where the water in the cave is
located and where the flow of water, the water needs to be traced using chemical or
radioisotope.
Tracking ground water (water table) in an underground river in the karst region is
complicated and not simple, this is due to the terrain of the cave is an extreme
environment, the search techniques are needed as well as mapping the hallway cave system
(caving) safely. Search for tracking cave underground river system is one of the
applications of science Speleology (Yulianto, 2010).
Hydropower in karst area

Usefulness of Micro Hydro Power Water Pump or hydropower is to to raise the water from
the lower to the higher energy by utilizing the flow of water that has a high water elevation
(Head) and certain large flow rate. Microhydro generally used for raw water to meet the
needs of rural settlements and small-scale irrigation is available on the condition of high
water fall at least 2 m and has a water discharge that is sufficient to enable the turbine
(Wibawa, 2005).
Microhydro working principle is to make the process of change of potential energy into
kinetic energy. There are several advantages to applying the principles Microhydro,
IV - 145
including the operation does not require any special skills. Another advantage is that it can
work automatically continuously for 24 hours, relatively very little noise when operated.
High efficiency is also an advantage because the water pump turbine wheel is rotated by a
belt transmission and does not require electricity, so it is very efficient. Operational and
maintenance costs because it does not require a small electric or diesel fuel in the
operation, and only requires periodic replacement of the transmission Oil. Besides these
advantages, there are some drawbacks, including the pumping discharge is relatively small
compared with the discharge required for the proper functioning of the turbine and capital
costs are still relatively high, especially for The turbine because production is still
dependent on the order, not mass-produced (Wibawa, 2005).
The method used in the study in Bribin - Sindon, Wonosari, using secondary data obtained
from the results of geological, geotechnical, so the creation of an underground river weir
and the complementary data, consists of several fields, including the field of Speleology. In
hydrological investigations, the tool "Automatic Water Level Recorder" and the calculation
of discharge in open channels. Used in the field of hydraulics and hydrology Speleology
measurement data as a baseline by using numerical calculations. Overall the secondary
data is used for the results of the investigation and development for the feasibility of
hydropower installations. In its application, the result is to get economic calculation cost to
get the water to the surface.
DISCUSSION
Bribin is an underground river that is located in Semanu , Gunung Kidul and this place
made a prototype experiment in conducting underground river damming for the
hydropower manufacture. Based on measurements of the Acyntyacunyata Speleological
Club (ASC), as the initial overview.
Bribin is one area in Gunung Kidul-Yogyakarta which has a quite large potential
underground river. Implementation work underground river water utilization in the Region
Bribin conducted by the Central River Region Serayu-Opak (BBWS), General Directorate
of Water Resources, Ministry of Public Works, Government of Yogyakarta Special
Province, the Batan, In collaboration with the Institute for Water Resources Management,
Hydraulic and Rural Engineering (IWK), University of Karlsruhe, the German Federal
Government.
Feasibility studies have been carried out by the Center for Serayu-Opak since 1998 with
the results of the comparison between the amount of water demand by the avaiability
value. Utilization of water using a pump with diesel power does not result in the growth of
water users (supply for connected households, industry and agriculture). Therefore, water
management systems that support the development of new measures set evenly on the
entire region, the need of the hour terutarna operation. Within the scope of the feasibility
study (2000-2002), conducted on behalf of the Ministry of Research and Education of the
German Federal Government (BMBF), the Institute for Water Resources Management,
Hydraulic and Rural Engineering (IWK).
Bribin Caves chosen because it is the right location to implement this idea. It features
water inside the cave can accommodate approximately 400,000 m3. Underground river
flow in the dry season 1000 It/s is sufficient , after damming the water level as high as 15
meters. With the installation of micro-hydro power plants underground number four (4)
units will be able to drain the water 70 It/s is continuous to the ground. And this will be
IV - 146
sufficient for drinking water to a population of 75,000 inhabitants consume 80
It/person/day. While the dry season will be able to meet the needs of the population with
the same number, but with the consumption of 10 It/person/day.
Management of underground river systems in the Bribin area done with stem and cover the
whole underground cavern hole so the water level can increase. With the rising water level,
will also raise the height difference of water pressure (head) to be eligible to drive the
water pump micro water pump to the surface, e.g see fig.3, even up to 130 meters height of
Kaligoro of the local ground level. Height difference (head) to be achieved by the micro
water pump is approximately 240 meters .
Figure 3. Schematic representation of the underground river damming up Sindon Bribin (without
scale, source: IWK)
Bribin cave is located about 45 miles Southeast of Yogyakarta city. Their path is
Yogyakarta - Wonosari-through road leading towards Bedoyo. Located 100 meters from
the road Wonosari - Bedoyo. Seropan located in Gunung Kidul - Yogyakarta. Bribin an
underground river with river sufficient capacity both slope and flow rate.
Hydraulics installation in Sindon, has been completed and the evaluation phase. Based on
the evaluation results, while the analysis is done is to review the performance of micro
hydro has a design 20 liters / sec at each station with a tap 13 meters high. Based on
information from the management field, micro pump it works well, but is still constrained
geological problems. Installed micro-hydro installation consists of five pieces of micro
water pump, e.g see fig. 4. University of Karlsruhe develop micro hydro water pump with
9 step (nine step pump).
IV - 147
Figure 4. Situation of pump and turbine isntallation at Bribin
(Source: Puslitbang SDA)
Figure 5. Pump and turbine sceme of Bribin Installation

(no scale, Source: Puslitbang SDA)
The results of the calculation or estimation of the cost of the construction of this
installation is a very significant savings. The savings are calculated based on a comparison
of conventional pumps use electricity to pump hydro. The comparison result can be seen in
the table below, see table 2.
Table 2. The results of the comparison of conventional electric pump with hydro pump.
Condition / Price / cost

Asumption
Pump Discharege/ 124.400 m / month
month
(Rainy season: 5
modules in
operation)
Pump discharge / 74.600 m / month
month
(Dry sason: 3 modul
in operation)
IV - 148
Pump discharge / 1,07 million. m /
year year
(5 months rainy
season, 6 month dry
season)
Average price / m 3.000 IDR / m
water
Konventional pump 3,21 billion
cost / year IDR
hydropower cost / 0,43 billion
year IDR
Benefits of 2,78 billion
hydropower / year IDR
With a total of 1,005,919,803 m3 of water requirements in Wonosari, the water supply in

the area Wonosari would be very expensive. Simple illustration shown below.
1.005.919.803 m3 x 3000 IDR/m3
= 3.017.759.408.370 IDR per year
Maintenance costs to be incurred for the installation of hydropower, in Sindon amounted to

430 million IDR/year for discharge pumping of 100,000,000 m3. In a simple calculation of
operating costs amounted to 4.3 IDR/m3 pump . Then the operating costs to be incurred by
hydropower amounted to 4,325,455,152 IDR. With this comparison, the energy cost
savings reached 3,013,433,953,218 IDR.
Besides the many advantages of the installation hydropower, in karst areas, there are other
things that should be of concern is a lot of leaks in the ceiling installation due to high water
on the upstream side of the column. water led to hydraulic pressure rock crevice and
seepage occurs at the ceiling until intalasi . Already done in the form of grouting treatment
step upstream to prevent seepage .
Over time , it has been done several times on the channel discharge measurements , the
discharge was recorded only at 9 liters/sec/pump, and the pump capacity that can be
switched in parallel is 2 pieces. This is due to the increase in intensity seepage happened
on the ceiling of the cave. with higher intensity of seepage, worried would affect the
stability of the walls and ceiling of the cave, so it should be a decrease in the water column
height in the upstream. By decreasing the water column is high, then the pumping
discharge were also significantly reduced.
CONCLUTION
The application of a hydropower station in Wonosari prototype experiment shows
that it can be used as a reference for the manufacture of multiplication.
The method of implementation is doing contructing dam for the entire wall of the
cave, so there are some problems that arise from it.
Containment methods that need to be done differently with more attention to
ecological problems and the stability of the cave.
IV - 149
Underground dam with hydropower instalation is the most efficient achievable
technology today to fullfill the water requirements for karst arid area.
TABLE OF REFERENCE
Ford, D. and Williams, P. (1989) Karst Geomorphology and Hydrology, Unwin Hyman Ltd.,
London.Fetter, 1994.
Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), 2010, Pre-Design of the Hydropower Plat with Wood Stave
Pipeline in Gua Seropan, Joint Project Integrated Water Rescources Management (IWRM) in
Gunung Kidul, Indonesia, Yogyakarta.
Koesoemadinata, 1987. Reff Carbonate Exploration, Institut Teknologi Bandung, Bandung.
Mori, K., M. Asano, and T. Shirakawa. 1996. Lithology and Permeability of Lyukyu Limestone in
Sunagawa Subsurface Dam in Miyakojima (in Japanese). The Japan Geology Association.
Pusat Litbang Sumber Daya Air, 2009, Pengembangan Teknologi Reservoir Bawah Tanah, Laporan
Akhir, Bandung.
Akhir, Bandung.
Akhir, Bandung.
Pusat Litbang Sumber Daya Air, Pengkajian Penerapan Mikro Hidro Standar untuk Masyarakat
Pedesaan, Laporan Akhir, Desember 2001.
Pusat Litbang Sumber Daya Air, Pengkajian Dan Penerapan Pompa-Hidro Untuk Penyediaan Air
Baku Dan Tenaga Listrik Di Daerah Pegunungan, Laporan Akhir, Desember 2004.
Sir McDonald, 1982, Laporan Penyelidikan Gunung Pegunungan Sewu, vol. III, di Kabupaten
Gunung Kidul, Wonosari-Daerah Istimewa Yogyakarta.
Suharyadi, 1984, Geohidrologi, Jurusan Teknik Geologi fakultas Teknik Universitas Gajah Mada,
Yogyakarta.
Wibawa, Yanto, 2005, Studi potensi penerapan mikrohidro untuk penyediaan air baku dan tenaga
listrik di saluran irigasi Tumiyang, Grumbul, Jurangmangu, Desa Tumiyang Kecamatan
Pekuncen, Kabupaten Banyumas, Propinsi Jawa Tengah, Puslitbang SDA, Bandung.
Yulianto, Bagus,2010, Goa Seropan Bahan Referensi IWRM, Yayasan Acintyacunyata,
Yogyakarta.
IV - 150
Water Quality Management by Free-selective Air-lock Intake

hhdTTjjhkljdjjsgshjhfsdkjhskslsl;s;s;;s;;s;;sjsjkjffffrtttttttfggjfgjgkfkjkjf fffffjfjjfkkfjjj
Hideaki Kawasaki
Japan Dam Engineering Center, Tokyo, Japan
kawasaki@jdec.or.jp
Hiroki Yamamoto
Yachiyo Engineering Co., Ltd., Tokyo, Japan
Kazuhiro Kuwahara
Marsima Aqua System Corp., Ohsaka, Japan
ABSTRACT:
Selecting the intake depth of the reservoir is beneficial for quality management of the reservoir and
water supply. This paper presents a selective intake system based on the air-lock method which can
be operated and maintained easier than conventional systems.
The free-selective air-lock intake systems (another name: Continuous Siphon) are rapidly extended
for these ten years. Nowadays, they are in operation at 5 dams, and under construction at 2 dams
in Japan. Firstly, this paper describes these situations.
Secondly, this paper describes the basic study to validate the shape of intake tube which decided by
hydrologic accounting. The loss coefficient affecting the shape of intake tube was validated to be
2.5 in this study using hydraulic model experiment and numerical model simulation. The results of
model studies are also evaluated by comparing with the measurement results of one of the system
in operation.
Thirdly, this paper presents the design and construction case of this intake system in Yubari-
Shuparo dam located in the north Japan, which is the latest and one of the biggest systems
completed. Its maximum amount intake water is 83m3/s and its range of intake depth is 45m.
Additionally, this intake system in Yubari-Shuparo dam enabled to intake water from one or more
tubes simultaneously, using inverse V-shaped tubes which are placed at different elevations, while
the other intake tubes are stopped by air-locking. Further, this intake system realized the high
economic performance by no use of multistage metal gates which include parts to be frequently
maintained such as rubber sealants and wire ropes, no use of heavy steel structures and hoist
equipment, and no tower structure on the dam crest.
Keywords: free-selective air-lock intake system, compressed air, air-lock, safe design
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
Selecting the depth of water intake is beneficial in managing the quality of water supplied
from a dam. Water intake should ideally be positioned low in order to take water at all
times from fluctuating reservoir water level. On the other hand, water at bottom of a
reservoir may have negative impact on downstream environment for reasons such as
excessively cold temperature or low level of dissolved oxygen.
IV - 151
In order to solve this problem, selective water intake system has been developed as a
facility that freely changes the depth of water intake and predominantly takes surface water
from fluctuating water level at reservoir.
However, conventional selective water intake system mainly uses steel multistage gate and
hoist. This has resulted in extremely high construction cost for dams with large water
intake volume and intake depth. Moreover, high cost is required for maintenance related to
watertight rubber used at watertight area between each gate.
1.2 Free-selective Air-lock Intake System
The free-selective air-lock intake system is a new intake system with air-lock multistage
continuous structure that has compressed air locked into reverse V-shaped pipe. It is an
ingenious gateless water intake system in that it does not use any gates. The technology
was initially developed in the 1990s as multistage air-lock selective intake system applied
at Haji Dam. Since then, it has evolved into current shape as Continuous Siphon by
placing intake pipes continuously and separating them with a partition.
As of February 2014, this intake system is already in use at five dams, i.e. Shitsumi Dam
(Shimane), Obara Dam (Shimane), Tono Dam (Shimane), Kurokui Joryu Dam
(Yamaguchi), Yunishigawa Dam (Tochigi). Construction work for this intake system is
also under way at two dams, i.e. Yubari Shuparo Dam (Hokkaido) and Kirimegawa Dam
(Wakayama). Both are scheduled to go into service in 2014.
Releasing air from the tube Receiver

tank
Supplying
compressed Air compressor
air to the tube
Reservoir Dam Dam Dam

body Reservoir body body
Unlocked
Reservoir
Air-locked
Valve Valve Valve
Figure 1. Conceptual diagram of the operation of free-selective air-lock intake system
2. FREE-SELECTIVE AIR-LOCK INTAKE SYSTEM
2.1 Basic Principle
The free-selective air-lock intake system uses steel reverse V-shaped intake pipe and air
control unit. It makes intake possible from any water level as a result of air-locked
condition created by passing water through intake pipe at any water level and filling other
intake pipes with compressed air. Pneumatic control system consists of compressor,
receiver tank, feed valve and exhaust valve. Opening the feed valve sends compressed air
into intake pipe to perform air lock. Opening the exhaust valve releases the air inside
intake pipe into atmosphere to pass the water.
IV - 152
Air supply/release pipe
Unlocked
Free flow spillway on the dam crest tube
Operation room
Flood control
capacity Receiver tank
Compressor
Normal water level Air locked tubes
Emergency gate Free-selective
air-lock intake
Intake tubes Energy

dissipater
Screen
Power plant
Intake tubes
Discharge control
Conveyance pipe facility
Figure 2. Conceptual diagram of free-selective air-lock intake system
3. BASIC RESEARCH RELATED TO THE SHAPE OF INTAKE PIPE
3.1 Difference in Water Level during Water Intake and Loss Coefficient
Water level difference d, which corresponds to head loss at intake pipe with flowing water,
occurs inside and outside the intake tower of the free-selective air-lock intake system
during water intake. This water level difference d coincides with difference in water level
between upstream and downstream sections inside the air-locked intake pipe.
Consideration is required when examining the shape of intake pipe so that upstream water
level will not overflow from the highest point of intake pipe due to this difference in water
level during normal operation.
Here, water level difference d can be expressed by formula (1) using loss coefficient f of
intake pipe. Loss coefficient f is a coefficient determined by the pipe shape and roughness
of pipe interior. Although it can be obtained by calculation based on hydrologic empirical
formula, multifaceted verification through hydrologic experiments was required as it is a
value that affects the basis of facility's function.
IV - 153
v2
df
2g (1) Reservoir
Intake tower
d
Whereas
d: Difference in water level during water v
Water-level
intake
difference
v: Flow velocity inside intake pipe
d
g: Gravitational acceleration
f: Loss coefficient at intake pipe
Figure 3. Conceptual diagram of water level

difference during water intake
3.2 Verification of Loss Coefficient
3.2.1 Design Value of Loss Coefficient

Head loss from inflow and friction obtained from hydrologic accounting came to 2.2.
However, loss coefficient was set at 2.5 to allow some leeway in the track of a similar
precedent.
3.2.2 Hydrologic Model Experiment

One-tenth scale hydrologic model based on the free-selective air-lock intake system at
Obara Dam was used for the experiment in order to verify the loss coefficient. Loss
coefficient based on the results of hydrologic model experiment shown in Table 1 was 3.04.
Table 1. Loss coefficient at hydrologic model experiment

1/1 0 model Measured and converted values
Flow rate 0.025 m3/s 8.0 m3/s
Number of plates used 1 1
Intake pipe width 0.4m 4.0m
Intake pipe height 0.2m 2.0m
Flow speed 0.63 m/s 2.0 m/s
Difference in water level at water intake 0.062 m 0.62 m
Loss coefficient - 3.04
Figure 4. Hydraulic model Figure 5. Photo of hydraulic model
IV - 154
3.2.3 Numerical Model Simulation
Numerical model simulation was conducted based on selective water intake facility at
Shitsumi Dam in order to verify the loss coefficient. Difference in water level during
water intake was calculated by simulation and was used to inversely calculate the loss
coefficient.
The purpose of conducting this numerical model simulation lies in grasping the deviation
of loss coefficient in numerical model simulation by comparing with the results of
experiment at the facility that is actually built in preparation for improving the shape of
intake pipe in the future.
The results of numerical model simulation are shown in Table 2. Loss coefficient was 1.92.
Table 2. Loss coefficient at numerical model

1/1 numerical model
Water density 997.0 kg/m3
Water kinematic 8.572 E-7 m/s2
viscosity coefficient
Air molecular weight 29.0 kg/kmol
Air viscosity 1.772 E-5 Pa-s
Analysis program CFD-ACE+
Figure 6. Mesh pattern of numerical model
Table 3. Loss coefficient at numerical model

Flow rate 8.0 m3/s
Number of plates used 1
Intake pipe width 3.0m
Intake pipe height 0.70m
Flow speed 1.905 m/s
Difference in water level at water intake 0.354 m
Loss coefficient 1.92
Figure 7. Simulation of numerical model
3.3 Comparative Verification with Actual System Test
A test was conducted while water was running through the actual system. Loss coefficient
calculated from difference in water level inside and outside the tower during the test
conducted with running water came to 2.33.
Table 4. Loss coefficient at on-site test

Flow rate 7.1 m3/s
Flow speed 1.690 m/s
Difference in water
0.34 m
level at water intake
IV - 155
3.4 Summary of Loss Coefficient
The results of loss coefficient calculation from hydrologic accounting, hydrologic model
experiment and numerical model analysis are summarized in Table 5. Loss coefficient
obtained from hydrologic accounting was below the design value of 2.5 which is adequate.
Loss coefficient from hydrologic accounting was smaller than that on the actual system test
while loss coefficient from numerical model analysis was greater than that on the actual
system test.
The deviation between the actual system and hydrologic model obtained here will be used
for verification of the functions of large facilities in Chapter 4.s
Table 5. Summary of loss coefficient

Loss coefficient Difference with actual system test
Hydrologic accounting 2.17 +7.3%
Hydrologic model 3.04 +29.9%
Numerical model 1.90 -17.6%
Actual system test 2.34 -
4. APPLICATION IN LARGE INTAKE FACILITIES
4.1 Yubari Shuparo Dam
Yubari Shuparo Dam is a multipurpose dam under construction on Yubari River which is
part of Ishikari River Water System in Hokkaido.
Table 6. Yubari Shuparo Dam Specifications

Yubari Shuparo Dam Specifications
Type Gravity concrete dam Yubari-Shuparo Dam
Location Southern region of
Yubari City, Hokkaido
Dam height 110.8 m
Crest length 390.0 m
Dam volume Approx. 941,000 m3
Water surface area 15.1 km2
Total reservoir capacity 433,000,000 m3
Maximum water utilization 83 m3/s
discharge
4.2 Adoption of Free-Selective Air-Lock Intake System
As Yubari Shuparo Dam has large maximum water utilization discharge of 83 m3/s,
selective water intake facility that covers this singlehandedly will be the largest of its kind
in the country.
The free-selective air-lock intake system has been adopted as a system superior in terms of
economy and maintenance. Compared to other systems, however, it had inferior water
intake performance from reservoir surface due to the depth of water intake required for
securing the distance from intake pipe to water surface.
IV - 156
4.3 Improvement of Surface Water Intake Performance
The shape of intake pipe was improved to take water from locations closer to reservoir
surface than conventional intake pipes. The shape of rim was moved upward to improve
intake performance from the surface without changing the condition of water level
difference. The results from verification of loss coefficient for the improved intake pipe
are described below.
Figure 10. Conceptual diagram of improved intake pipe
4.4 Verification of Loss Coefficient Using Numerical Model
Loss coefficient of 2.5 was also selected in the design phase for Yubari Shuparo Dam as well.
In this study, loss coefficient for the improved intake pipe shape was verified by using a
numerical model. As shown in Table 7, loss coefficient obtained from numerical model
comes to 2.49 in view of the 17.6% deviation included in the numerical model formed in
this study. Consequently, validity of design value 2.5 was verified. Conditions of analysis
are same as those in Table 2.
Table 7. Loss coefficient of improved intake pipe

Water level difference at water intake
83m3/s
according to numerical model
Velocity inside pipe 2.767m/s
Deviation of numerical model 17.6%
Loss coefficient considering deviation 2.49
Figure 11. Simulation of numerical model
5. CONSTRUCTION IN YUBARI SHUPARO DAM
Lastly, the case of Yubari Shuparo Dam will be introduced to exemplify the construction
of the free-selective air-lock intake system.
5.1 Fabrication
Intake pipe must have an integrated structure using welding connection and installed in
order according to the placement process of dam body concrete. For this reason, intake
pipe was not divided in the direction of span. Instead, it was divided into three parts in
IV - 157
depth direction on each layer so that it will conform with shipping restrictions. In addition,
welding and air-tightness test were performed repeatedly on each intake pipe parts to meet
high air-tightness requirements, and pre-assembly identical to actual installation was
performed to simplify replication on the site.
Air control unit was comprised of commercially available compressor, air-driven ball valve,
vacuum pump and receiver tank among others. Air-driven ball valve and manual ball
valve were combined and mounted on a frame to serve as an air control unit, and was
transported to the site after a performance test and leakage inspection..
Figure 12. Intake Pipe

Welding
Figure 15. Intake Pipe Temporary

Assembly
Figure 17. Air Control Unit

Airtightness Test
Figure 18. Air Control Unit

Interior
Figure 16. Bottom Intake Pipe
Temporary Assembly

Assembly
5.2 Construction
As RCD method is used for placement of concrete for the dam body, each placement is
performed over a period of approximately 7 days. For this reason, intake pipes were
installed by setting up a temporary assembly base on the upstream area of the left bank in
order to avoid impact on concrete placement. Intake pipes that were transported in segments
were assembled and were lifted by 300t crawler crane to the top of the dam body for
installation. Stages for temporary storage of materials were built successively around and
above intake pipes that were lifted to the dam body. These stages were equipped with
sliding scaffold, power generator, welding machine and compressor in order to perform the
IV - 158
construction without placing the materials on the dam body concrete placement surface. As
a result, it was possible to install intake pipes completely separate from concrete placement
for dam body and the installation was ultimately completed prior to concrete placement.

In-situ Assembly
Figure 22. Intake Lowering In

Installation
Lowering In
Operation room
Intake tower
Receiver tank
Emergency gate
Reverse
V-shaped tube Figure 23. Air Pipe Installation
Screen
Figure 24. Receiver Tank Installation
Conveyance pipe (83m3/s)

Reverse
V-shaped tube
Figure 26. Outline Drawing of Yubari Shuparo Dam Figure 25. Yubari Shuparo Dam
Intake Facilities Intake Facilities
IV - 159
6. CONCLUSION
Fundamental study was conducted on the free-selective air-lock intake system with regard
to loss coefficient f on intake pipe which is a design parameter unique to this intake system.
In addition, knowledge obtained from this study was used to verify the design adequacy of
a larger system. Main conclusions are as follows.
1) This intake system, which is a new format of selective intake system, enables intake of
water from any layer by filling and releasing air in reverse V-shaped intake pipe. For
this reason, obtaining water level difference generated inside air-locked intake pipe
through calculation is important in determining the shape of intake pipe.
2) As water level difference generated inside air-locked intake pipe will be equal to head
loss of water passing through at intake pipe with flowing water, setting the correct loss
coefficient f for intake pipe will be very important in designing this intake system.
Confirming the adequacy of intake pipe loss coefficient f leads to establishment of
intake pipe shape design method for various intake volume requirements.
3) Intake pipe loss coefficient f was obtained from water level difference measured
between inside and outside the intake tower in hydrologic model, numerical model
and actual system, and was compared with the results of hydrologic accounting.
Deviation between the results of numerical model simulation and actual system was
grasped as a result.
4) Comparative results of intake pipe loss coefficient f was used to compensate the
results from numerical model simulation in order to verify the design adequacy of the
free-selective air-lock intake system at Yubari Shuparo Dam.
5) This intake system has many materials that are buried into the dam body. At Yubari
Shuparo Dam, however, assembly was performed prior to placement of concrete for
the dam body by using sliding scaffold to carry out the construction without affecting
the concrete placement.
REFERENCES
Kawasaki,H. Nakagawa,T. Katsuyama B. (2011), Development and Operation of Free-
Selective Air-Lock Intake in Shitsumi Dam, Proceedings of the International
Commission On Large Dams 79th Annual Meeting, Luzern.
Kawasaki,H. Kina,T. Hashimura,K. Tsukayama,S. (2001), Study on a New-Type Selective

Intake Facility, Dam Engineering,Vol.11,No.4, pp.275-288, in Japanese.
IV - 160
The New Practical Method For Screening Musty-odor / Non-odor

Species In Oscillatoriales (Cyanophyta)
F.KIMURA
Senior Researcher of Water Quality Research Division , Japan Water Resources Environment Center
f-kimura@wec.or.jp
T.HOMMA
A water quality management section chief, Civil Engineering and Eco-technology consultants Co., Ltd.
K.USHIJIMA
Project assistant professor, Laboratory on engineering for sustainable sanitation,
faculty of engineering, Hokkaido University
E.FURUSATO
Assistant Professor, Graduate School of Sci. and Eng. Saitama University
Y.TANAKA
Senior Engineering Adviser, Water Resources Department, Japan Water Agency
ABSTRACT:
A musty-odor problem, caused by cyanobacteria belonged to Oscillatoriales, is not understood
enough in reservoirs. One of causes, Oscillatoriales has morphological similar species including
musty-odor / non-odor species. Musty-odor species cannot be identified by present morphological
identification technique or a separation method of green / brown strains using a fluorescence
microscope. Recently, Komrek and Anagnostidis have proposed a new classification system of
Oscillatoriales. It is revealed that the detailed classification research based on this classification
system can determine a separation of musty-odor / non-odor species. As a result, cases of
successful separation of musty-odor / non-odor species in Oscillatoriales have increased. However,
classification and identification of Oscillatoriales based on a new classification system is too hard
to be directly applied in a regular phytoplankton monitoring, since it is performed by focusing on
motility of trichome and detailed morphological characteristics at high magnification with
microscope. In order to implement the daily water quality management, an elucidation and
measures of musty-odor phenomenon in dam reservoirs, it is necessary to develop simple method
for identification of musty-odor species, which is based to a new classification systems proposed by
Komrek, et al. This paper introduces the consideration on a development of new morphological
identification method to discriminate musty odor-species from Oscillatoriales. This method will be
possible for reservoirs to predict risk of a musty-odor outbreak. This identification has been
characterized by having adopted four new standards in a conventional standard. We assumed four
conditions as classification standards.
Keywords: Oscillatoriales (Cyanophyta), morphological identification, 2-Methylisoborneol
1. INTRODUCTION
IV - 161
To Japanese tap water, we expect to be hygienic and good taste water. Under such
circumstances, 2-Methylisoborneol (hereinafter 2-MIB) and geosmin, which are
responsible for musty odor, were established as quality demand standards of a tap water
based on the Water Supply Act of March 2003. Generally, a musty-odor producing
materials are produced from some Cyanophyta and Actinomycetes. The abnormal bloom
of Cyanophyta associated with the eutrophication of lakes, swamps, dams and reservoirs is
often the cause of the production of such materials. Water suppliers and dam managers
have implemented various measures to preserve water quality as a measure to solve musty
odor problems. Although such measures have produced definite effects, they have not
provided fundamental solutions. One of the reasons that musty odor problems have not
been eliminated is the problems concerning the morphological identification of algae,
including, Phormidium tenue, belonging in Oscillatoriales, Order Nestocales and Class
Cyanophyceae (hereinafter Phormidium tenue), which is considered to be the algae that
cause abnormal odor and taste. In many cases, the problems of 2-MIB induced abnormal
odor and taste in dams and reservoirs are thought to be originated in Phormidium tenue.
Yet, some have pointed out that some organisms in this species produce 2-MIB, while
some do not. Studies have verified that they belong in genetically different groups. As a
method to distinguish them at fields, methods such as focusing on the differences in
antenna pigment have been suggested, but exceptions have also been reported. Therefore,
it has been concluded that accurate screening of these two is difficult. Thus, as in many
cases, a clear relationship between variations in the cell density of Phormidium tenue and
the 2-MIB concentration is not recognized. As a result, studies have neither fully revealed
the mechanisms of the onset of abnormal odor nor the taste and the effects of reducing
them. This situation is forcing people at fields where Phormidium tenue has been found,
but no 2-MIB has been detected, to conduct management while being anxious about the
onset of problems which could occur at any time. In 2005, Komrek and Anagnostidis
suggested a new classification system for Cyanophyceae based on unique viewpoints
which differ from conventional perspectives. Studies in Japan are also starting to report
cases suggesting the possibility of screening musty-odor / non-producing species based on
detailed algae classification research conducted using the method of Komrek and
Anagnostidis. Yet, it is difficult to use this morphological identification of Cyanophyceae
directly based on the new classification system at actual fields because it is conducted by
focusing on detailed morphological characteristics of algae and the mobility of trichome.
Therefore, it is necessary to develop simplified identification methods so that people at
actual fields can identify musty-odor producing species with their identification techniques
and in their identification environment using the classification method suggested by
Komrek et al. in order to use the method for daily water quality management and finding
causes of the musty odor phenomenon. This paper is introducing the simple identification
manual for Phormidium tenue (hereinafter manual) that the authors have been working to
develop since 2011 and reporting the results of verifications conducted using the data
obtained from 2011 to 2012.
2. IDENTIFICATION MANUAL
2.1. Overview of the simple identification manual
The authors prepared the simple identification manual which is intended to separate
Phormidium tenue into musty-odor and non-producing species based on comparisons
between conventional morphological identification methods and morphological
IV - 162
identification based on Komrek and Anagnostidis, 2005, research of published literature
on musty-odor causing algae, and results of morphological identification at Kasumigaura.
This manual adopted the following four conditions as classification standards which were
prepared by organizing the findings of past research in addition to conventional
morphological identification standards for Phormidium tenue which is based on cell
diameter: 5 m or less and the L/W ratio of a cell (the ratio between the length (L) and the
width (W) of a cell): 6 or less. This enables the selection of four types of musty-odor
producing species from 14 species of Phormidium tenue, which used to be identified as
one species without conducting detailed morphological identification, and distinguishing
ten remaining species as non-producing species. (See Fig 1 and Table 1.)
(i) Cell diameter: 0.5 to 2.5m
(ii) L/W ratio of a cell: 2 to 5
(iii) Deformation at the tip of a cell: None
(iv) Cleavage on cell wall: Available
Based on the above, 2-MIB producing algae can be distinguished among Phormidium
tenue only by simple observation under a microscope without depending on the detailed
identification of species by Cyanophyceae classification experts who are very limited in
number.
Cell diameter(W)0.5 to 2.5m
Cell diameter(W)5m or less
L/W ratio of a cell6 or less
L/W ratio of a cell2 to 5

Deformation at the tip of a cell : None
Deformation at the tip of a cell : Available
Cleavage on cell wall : Available
Cleavage on cell wall : None
Figure 1. Point of interest on the simple identification manual
2.2. Expected effects of using the simple identification manual
This simple identification manual cannot reveal names of existing algae species. Its feature
is to enable the screening of species which produce musty odor and ones which do not
produce the odor. There are mainly two effects expected from using this manual. One is
that it enables the identification and forecast of the risks of musty odor generating in higher
accuracy than conventional methods in regular water quality monitoring. This means that
incorporating this manual into daily water quality monitoring (e.g. periodical water quality
investigation) in dams and reservoirs where Phormidium tenue is found but no musty odor
is detected, enables identification of whether the detected Phormidium tenue belongs in the
group of musty-odor producing species.
IV - 163
Table 1. Correspondence between the species name and point of interest on the manual
Deformation at the tip of a cell
Available None
Cell diameter L/W ratio Cell diameter L/W ratio
The species name 0.52.5m 25
The species name 0.52.5m 2 5
Komvophoron cf. minutum Pseudanabaena catenata
Komvophoron schmidlei Pseudanabaena limnetica
Available
Leptolyngbya tenuis Pseudanabaena galeata

Cleavage on cell wall
Geitlerinema sp. Pseudanabaena biceps

Planktolyngbya limnetica
Leptolyngbya sp.
Geitlerinema nematodes Geitlerinema amphibium
Geitlerinema splendidum Limnothrix redekei
None
Limnothrix planktonica
Jaaginema gracile
The species name The species name that is based on the identification by experts.
(Gray Hatching is 2-MIB producing algae)
Thick line box Grope of 2-MIB producing algae that is based on the simple identification manual
In rangeBothOut of range
In addition, this manual enables the forecasting the increasing risks of the onset of musty
odor if a group of musty-odor producing species starts to be detected although no such
species were found in the same dams and reservoirs before. Such forecasts can be used for
the implementation of detailed investigations and the provision of smooth communication
and warnings to relevant organizations. This is an extremely beneficial in water quality
management. The other point is the possibility of progress in revealing mechanisms at the
onset of musty odor which used to have many unknown aspects. As mentioned earlier, in
many cases, no clear relationship is recognized between variations in the cell density of
Phormidium tenue and the concentration of 2-MIB which are identified using the currently
available morphological identification methods. Yet, if the onset of odor can be identified
by specifically extracting the group of musty-odor producing species, analyzing its
responses to environmental factors of the same time enables one to specify the preferred
environment for the bloom of musty-odor producing species, which can then be used for
effective measures to prevent the bloom. A case in which morphological identification was
actually conducted and examined based on this manual is introduced below. Phormidium
tenue is being detected almost throughout the year in dam K in Japan. Yet, the onset of its
bloom is not necessarily synchronized with the bloom of 2-MIB. Similarly, no clear
relationship is found between the peak value of the cell density of Phormidium tenue and
the peak value of the 2-MIB concentration. Therefore, the mechanism of the onset of the
musty odor had not been revealed. Therefore, Phormidium tenue at the surface was
identified and counted at the center of the lake (see Fig 2) based on this manual. As a result,
2-MIB was found in two timeframes, from early April to early July (period (i)) and from
mid-August to late September (period (ii)). A clear difference found here was that in the
period (i), a group of musty-odor producing species was found, whereas no musty-odor
producing species were found in the period (ii). This suggests that the bloom of the group
of musty-odor producing species in the reservoir water became the cause of the production
of 2-MIB in the period (i), while 2-MIB was detected in the water of the reservoir although
the group of musty-odor producing species was not present in the water in the period (ii).
Also, algae investigation found no musty-odor producing algae besides Phormidium tenue.
IV - 164
This indicates that the musty odor in period (ii) occurred because there was a source of
odor outside of the water of the reservoir, and 2-MIB was supplied to the water in the
reservoir in a dissolved state from the source. Given this finding, people at dam K are now
looking for sources of the odor outside of the reservoir and investigating and examining the
mechanisms of the supply of musty odor from the source to the lake water. As discussed
above, the development of the simple identification manual is necessary for improving the
level of water quality management in dams and reservoirs (early detection of problems and
the establishment of better methods to counteract problems).
1.E+04
Total 2-MIB producing algae 2-MIB nonproducing algae
Cell density (cells/mL)
1.E+03
1.E+02
1.E+01
1.E+00
15
T-2-MIB D-2-MIB P-2-MIB
2-MIB Concentration
12
9
(ng/L)
0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Figure 2. Correspondence relationship between identification and count that is based on the
simple identification manual and 2-MIB concentration
T-2-MIBIt means total 2-MIB. We extract the 2-MIB algal cells by sonication method, to
analyze the 2-MIB of all of the water.
D-2-MIBIt means dissolved 2-MIB. The obtained value by analyzing the 2-MIB, which are
dissolved in water
P-2-MIBIt means particulate 2-MIB. The difference between the D-2MIB and T-2-MIB.
3. VERIFICATION OF THE SIMPLE IDENTIFICATION MANUAL
3.1. Method of verification
Verifications are conducted based on the method below to check whether musty-odor
producing species can be accurately identified by people at fields based on this manual.
People at fields as used here means engineers in private companies that are identifying,
counting, and analyzing algae as a part of periodical water quality examinations in
reservoirs. They are expected to be capable of identifying and counting algae using
classification books and pictorial references which are commonly used today.
y Eighteen samples, including the Phormidium tenue collected from August to October,
2011 and from July to August, 2012 in dam K in Japan (ten samples from 2011 and
eight samples from 2012) were sent to the people at fields, who examined them
under microscopes based on this manual.
IV - 165
y In the microscope examination, they identified Phormidium tenue and then examined
(i) cell diameter, (ii) the L/W ratio of cells, (iii) deformation at the tip of the cell, and
(iv) the presence of cleavage on cell walls; and took photographs of targeted algae.
y Results obtained in the microscope examination were plotted in the recording format
shown in Fig 3.
y Photographs taken by the people at fields were examined, and Phormidium tenue in
the sample was identified based on Komrek and Anagnostidis, 2005.
y The result of the identification by Komrek and Anagnostidis, 2005 was compared
with the results of the microscope examination conducted by people at fields to
check their ability to accurately identify algae.
6.0
Explanatory notes
Deformation
5.0 Available None
Available

Cleavage
4.0
None

L/W ratio
3.0
Criteria of the manual
2.0
Criteria of a conventional
1.0
0.0
0 5 10 15
Width(m)
Figure 3. The recording format for verification
3.2. Result of verification
The result of the verification of the samples is described below. Fig 4 shows entries of the
results in a recording format, and Fig 5 shows species that were identified in this
verification.
y A hundred and twenty five filamentous algae were found within a size category
which would be classified as Phormidium tenue in conventional classification
systems.
y The morphological identification of these 125 filamentous algae by the authors based
on the photographs taken by the people at fields found nine species shown in Table 2.
Among them, Pseudanabaena catenata was the only 2-MIB producing species.
y Sixteen filamentous algae were recognized as 2-MIB producing species, and 109
filamentous algae were recognized as non-2-MIB producing species based on the
manual.
y The result of the comparison between the 16 filamentous algae recognized as 2-MIB
producing species and the result of additional morphological identification conducted
IV - 166
by the authors is as follows: Nine filamentous algae belonged in the genus
Pseudanabaena (Pseudanabaena catenata: 2-MIB producing species), and
remaining six filamentous algae belonged in the genus Geitlerinema (Geitlerinema
nematodes: non-2-MIB producing species), the genus Jaaginema (Jaaginema
gracile: non-2-MIB producing species), and the genus Leptlyngbya (Leptlyngbya sp.:
non-2-MIB producing species).
y Among the non 2-MIB producing species listed above, Geitlerinema nematodes is
supposed to be classified as Deformation at the tip of a cell: Available, Cleavage on
a cell wall: None, and Jaaginema gracile as Deformation at the tip of a cell: None,
Cleavage on a cell wall: None. However, the people at fields identified both of them
as Deformation at the tip of a cell: None, Cleavage on a cell wall: Available.
y The comparison of the 109 filamentous algae identified by the people at fields
identified as non-2-MIB producing species with the result of the morphological
identification by the authors found that all of them were non-2-MIB producing
species.
6.0
Explanatory notes
Deformation
5.0 Available None
Available
,
4.0 Cleavage
None

3.0
L/W ratio
Samplesthathavebeen
determinedtobemusty
odorproducingspecies
2.0
bycheckingtheexpert
1.0
0.0
0 5 10 15
Width(m)
Figure 4. The result of the entry into the recording format
IV - 167
Pseudanabaena catenata Leptolyngbya sp.
Limnothrix redekei Komvophoron sp.
Figure 5. The main appearance species has been confirmed this research
Table 2. The verification of classification results between expert and people at fields
Deformation at the tip of a cell
Available None
Cell diameter L/W ratio Cell diameter L/W ratio
Available
Geitlerinema sp. Pseudanabaena catenata

Cleavage on cell wall
Komvophoron sp. Leptlyngbya sp.
Geitlerinema nematodes Geitlerinema amphibium

None
Geitlerinema splendidum Limnothrix redekei
Jaaginema gracile
3.3. Adequacy of the simple identification manual
In this verification, the people at fields could not specifically isolate 2-MIB producing
species using the manual. Yet, they were able to eliminate 109 out of 125 filamentous
algae (six species) as non-2-MIB producing species and narrowed down the candidate of
odor-causing algae into 16 filamentous algae (three species). The same person at fields
identified two species belonging in the genus of Geitlerinema and Jaaginema based on this
manual during the verification conducted over two years. The identification by the person
in 2011 did not match with the identification based on this manual, but this mistake was
accurately corrected in the verification in the following year. These two species have
microscopic granular structures which scatter light in low-magnitude observation (x100 to
200), and make a cell appear as if it has a cleavage on the cell wall. Therefore, the
magnitude of a microscope needs to be x500 to x1,000 in some cases to accurately identify
whether a cell really has a cleavage on the cell wall. Providing proper descriptions and
IV - 168
explanations for classification in the manual is necessary for species which require special
attention like this. At the same time, people at fields need to have some experience with
these classifications. In addition, Planktolyngbya limnetica, which belongs in the same
category as musty-odor causing algae (the genus Pseudanabaena) constantly form clearly
visible mucilaginous sheaths; thus, it can be easily distinguished from species in the genus
Pseudanabaena, which do not form mucilaginous sheaths. Other species in the genus
Leptolyngbya (Leptlyngbya sp.) do not necessarily form mucilaginous sheath, and it is
difficult to clearly distinguish them from musty-odor causing algae. These points are the
issues which need to be improved in this manual. The verification above indicated a
possibility that people at fields can screen musty-odor / non-producing species among
Phormidium tenue using this manual. There is great value in improving the accuracy of
screening 2-MIB producing species at fields in terms of water quality management at dams
and reservoirs.
4. FUTURE STUDIES AND PERSPECTIVES
This paper discussed the development of a new morphological identification manual which
allows people at fields to identify Phormidium tenue that used to be identifiable only when
musty-odor and non-producing species are present in the same water, and examined its
accuracy and workability at fields. As a result, the screening of musty-odor / non-
producing species using this manual is found to be possible to a level that can be
effectively used in actual operations, although there is a necessity to add descriptions for
species which require special attention in identification and some experiences of people at
fields. This verification indicated the adequacy of this manual.
There are still issues to be solved, however, concerning the adequacy of this manual,
certainty of implementing this process by people at fields, and usability at fields because
the result obtained this time is based on the verification targeting samples from one dam,
and that verification only examined one person working at the fields. Therefore, the
manual needs to be properly improved by continuing to accumulate and examine more data
and adding descriptions with sketches and examples with photographs. The authors are
now collecting samples from multiple reservoirs and conducting examinations targeting
multiple people at fields. While this manual was only targeted to Phormidium tenue, there
are reports from actual fields on musty odors caused by the genus Oscillatoria and by
geosmin. Also, both musty-odor and non-producing species are present in large quantities
in algae which used to be considered as a part of the genus Oscillatoria.Based on the above,
these algae need to be organized in similar fashion and added in manuals in the future. In
addition, if the use of this manual improves confusion at fields caused by the mixed
presence of musty-odor / non-producing species which originate in problems in
classifications, the analysis of morphological characteristics of these taxonomical groups is
expected to progress, which results in the implementation of more appropriate measures to
protect water quality.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This paper provides a report on some of the outcomes of The Third Study Session Concerning
Morphological Identification Methods for Oscillatoriales (Cyanophyta). In the process of writing
this report, the author et al. received much advice from Mr. Kaoru Niwa, chief of engineering at
Token C.E.E. Consultants, and Mr. Makoto Kuno, senior engineer at Japan Water Agency, who
participated in the study session as observers. We appreciate their support.
IV - 169
REFERENCES
Akiba, M. (2003): Examinations of odor in tap water, Water supply and wastewater, Vol.
45:11, Japan. (In Japanese)
Yamamura, S. (1993): Background on revising the Water Supply Act, Public Health
Research, Vol. 42:4, Japan. (In Japanese)
Japan Water Works Association (1999): Guidelines on preventing abnormal odor and taste
in water which are caused by biological factors.pp.6, Japan. (In Japanese)
Oikawa, E. and Ishibashi, Y (2004): Species specificity of musty-odor producing
Phormidium tenue in Lake Kamafusa, Water Science and Technology, Vol. 49:pp.
41-46, IWA, UK.
Nakamura, T. (1987): Taxonomical and morphological examination of Phormidium tenue,
Japanese Society of Water Treatment Biology, Attachment 7:pp. 69, Japan. (In
Japanese)
Kudo, K., Kawakami, T. and Yamada, T. (2004): Phormidium and musty odor in dams and
reservoirs, Journal of Japan Society of Hydrology and Water Resources, Vol. 17:pp.
331-342, Japan. (In Japanese)
Matsukawa, M., Inagaki, N. and Otomo, T. (2008): Lake management at the Kamafusa
Dam Current condition of aeration measures and new efforts, The 2008
presentation of engineering researches of Tohoku Regional Development Bureau,
Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism, Japan. (In Japanese)
Sato, H. and Amano, M. (2007): Effect of shallow reservoir and lowered water level on 2-
MIB The Watarase Reservoir as an example, Ecology and Civil Engineering
Society, Vol. 10:pp. 141-154, Japan. (In Japanese)
Komrek, J. and Anagnostidis, K. (2005): Cyanobacteria 2. Teil/2nd Part: Oscillatoriales.
In: B. Bdel, L.Krienitz, G. Grtner and M. Schagerl (Ed.) Ssswasserflora from
central 19/2, Elsevier/Spectrum, Heidelberg, Germany.
Honma, T. (2007): The flora of Oscillatoriales (Cyanophyta) in Kasumigaura, The Annual
Report of Ibaraki Kasumigaura Environmental Science Center, Vol. 3:pp. 24-128,
Japan. (In Japanese)
Kimura, F., Honma, T., Maeda, M. and Matsukawa, M. (2013): Effects of musty-odor
producing materials and musty-odor causing algae supplied from upstream areas on
musty odor in dams and reservoirs, Dam Engineering, Vol.23:1:pp. 39-49, Japan. (In
Japanese)
Kimura, F., Honma, T., Ushijima, K., Furusato, E. and Tanaka, Y. (2013): Efforts to
develop morphological identification method for Oscillatoriales (Cyanophyta) with
focus on odor-producing/non-producing properties. Dam Engineering, Vol.23:4,
Japan. (In Japanese)
IV - 170
Assessment of Capacity and Water Level Profile

at the Cidanau Head Work fffffjfjjfkkfjjj
2(14pt) Headwork
Sustaining Cidanau
Satyanto K. Saptomo, Budi I. Setiawan, Z. Akbar Murdiono, Rizqah Pangestu
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Bogor Agricultural University (IPB), Indonesia
saptomo@apps.ipb.ac.id
M. Budi Saputra, Saritomo

PT. Krakatau Tirta Industri (KTI), Cilegon, Indonesia
ABSTRACT
This study aims to evaluate the hydraulics of Cidanau Headwork at the downstream of Cidanau
River to assess the urgency of Headwork Redesign and river dredging after decades of
establishment. This paper is the first part that present the evaluation of Cidanau River capacity and
the profile of water level at Cidanau Weir. The first was done by Nakayasu Method and HEC-MHS
model to estimate the dependent flow. The 100 year dependent flow and PMF were estimated at
49.83452 x106m3 and 11.021586 x106m3 which are still sufficient as the abiotic and biotic
ecosystem in the surrounding could be preserved. The second analysis was conducted by estimating
the sedimentation which caused the increase of water level over the weir during the last 10 years
by analyzing river base profile. During the past 10 years there had been the decreasing in the river
water quality due to sedimentation. The sedimentation was estimated between 451.232 to 822.528
m3/year and had increased the water level 0.05 m above the weir. The results had shown that there
are changes in Cidanau Weir due to sedimentation, but either the capacity or water level profile
are still acceptable.
Keywords : river hydrology, sedimentation, Cidanau Watershed, industrial water
1. INTRODUCTION
Cidanau watershed lays at 105 57 00 - 106 22 00 East and 5 21 00 - 6 21 00
south, has an area of 22620 ha is the most important watershed in the industrial and
regional development of Banten Province, especially western part of Serang and Cilegon
city. It is divided into flat plain cosists of Rawa Danau Natural Reserves and paddy fields
with total area of 8821ha; and surrounding hilly sub-catchments which stream are flowing
to the plain. In the last twenty years, Cidanau experienced environmental degradation
which endangers its sustainability.
Cidanau rivers water is diverted by the establishment of Cidanau Headwork at the
downstream, which is operated by Krakatau Industrial Water Company (KTI) for industrial
as well as domestic use clean water supply of the surrounding areas The headwork is
located 600 m from the estuary and has length of 30m. Intake discharge is regulated by
sluice gate which then transmited to the sandtrap and sump pump and finally sent to water
treatment plant, which is operated from Pump Station.
IV - 171
Decreasing of Cindanau river capacity will have impact to decreasing of its water quality,
which should be prevented through better river management. The effort can be initiated
with determination of quantity and quality of potential contaminant that get itu the stream
such as solids from erosion. Determination of sedimentation which also related to water
level and the capacity of river will be the basis for decision making of effort to manage and
normalization of the river.
This paper is the first part of the subject of weir evaluation by using hydrological,
headwork structures hydraulic and design, and river topographic data. The objective of this
study presented in this paper is to evaluate the current Cidanau river capacity and water
level profile which information are required in the maintenance planning of the weir.
2. METHODOLOGY
The assessment of river capacity and water level based on hydrology and biophisical data
which includes: climatology data (Ciomas st., Serang st. and Padarincang st.) from 1996-
2012, land use, discharge and water level. Discharge analysis was done by using HEC-
HMS which then to be compare with discharge from Nakayasu (Fig.1). The result is to be
compared with rating curve of Cidanau River which uses water level data recorded by
AWLR (Automatic Water Level Recorder) owned by Krakatau Industrial Water (KTI).
Data input for HEC-HMS area land use, rainfall and discharge.
Figure 1. Flow chart of River Capacity Assesment
HEC-HMS modeling utilizes six components which are meteorology, loss, baseflow, direct
run-off, routing and reservoir. Steps on HEC-HMS modelling is presented in Fig.2.
IV - 172
Meteorological Component
Rainfall
Pervioussurface Impervious surface
Loss Component Direct Runoff component
Losses Direct Runoff
Aquifer
Routing
Baseflow Component
component
Baseflow River and canal
Component of
Reservoir
Reservoir Operator
Catchment outlet
Figure 2 HEC-HMS Modeling Steps
Data processing was started with determination of missing rainfall data, followed by
propable rainfall frequency analysis and finally probable rainfall calculation. By using
synthetic unit hydrograph, flood discharge was analysis. There are 4 synthetic unit
hydrograph which were done, the most proper method to be used in this case is Nakayasu
Method (Fig) which is also known to be suitable for tropical region such as Cidanau
Watershed in Indonesia.
Flood Routing calculation is the fundamental for maksimum water level calculation and
maximum outflow discharge. In principle, Flood Routing calculation used continuity
equation as follow :
Qinflow Qoutflow = ds/dt (1)
where:
Q inflow : Inflow (m3/s)
Q outflow : Outflow (m3/s)
S : Water storage in dam (m3)
IV - 173
t : Time according to flood hydrograph(k)
Outflow is the run off over spillway which affected by inflow. Taking into account inflow
and spillway dimension, the outflow hydrograph can be obtained. Keluaran dari outflow
Spillway adalah hidrograf outflow. For the dam safety purpose, flood routing was
calculated based on 100 year and PMF discharge.
Spillway Capacity was calculated following the next equation:
Q = C.B. H3/2 (2)
where:
Q = discharge over spillway (m3/det)
B = spillway width (m)
H = Head over spillway (m)
C = Coefficient of discharge over spillway
In this case width and elevation of spillway are 25 meter and 87.5 meter.
Water surface elevation measurement was carried out by using Automatic Water Level
Recorder (AWLR) and Sofware HEC-RAS, on the completion of the above data
processing. As for the sedimentation, contour/topography of the river in different years
were compared to and so the sedimentation can be estimated.
Figure 3. HSS Nakayasu (Kamiana, 2011)

3.1. Rainfall analysis
There are missing rainfall data, namely of Ciomas Station from 2007 to 2010. In order to
substitute the missing data, Normal Ratio Method was used by utilizing data from the
nearest two stations : Serang and Padarincang. Examples of the estimation is as follows:
- Rainfall at Padarincang Januari 2007 (RA) = 242 mm

- Averaged annual rainfall of Padarincang = 2334 mm
- Rainfall at Serang Januari 2007 (RB) = 207 mm
IV - 174
- Averaged annual rainfall Serang = 1528 mm
- Averaged annual rainfall Ciomas = 2336 mm
The following Table 1 shows the substitutes of missing data of Ciomas in year 2007-2010:
Tabel 1. Subtituting rainfall data for Ciomas.

Tahun Jan Feb Mar Apr Mei Jun Jul Agt Sep Okt Nop Des
2007 438 460 677 267 317 157 147 71 12 243 134 565
2008 667 807 411 268 180 107 0 170 85 306 615 348
2009 722 665 301 228 232 140 35 3 67 138 706 152
2010 782 422 392 146 295 329 475 284 686 516 378 439
Consistency of the new data was analyzed by using double mass curve. Comparison of
rainfalls of Ciomas to Serang and Padarincang which are completed is showed in
following Fig. 4.
Figure 4. Double Mass Curve of Ciomas Station to Serang and Padarincang
The relationship between averaged data from Serang and Padarincang to Ciomas is
represented with the value of = 1.082 and = 0.756. Correction factor was obtained 0.7.
Correction to Ciomas data from year 1996 to 1999 was also done by dividing data with
correction factor and the data was plotted to chart shown in Fig. 5.
Figure 5. Double Mass Curve of corrected Ciomas Station data to Serang and Padarincang
Corrected Double Mass curve shows no significant slope changes to the uncorrected one.
This suggests that new data to Ciomas Station Data is consistent.
IV - 175
Thiesen method was used with using the 3 stations data. Thiesen polygon was made GIS
software, afterwhich stations points and each area of influence to Cidanau watershed was
determined. Fig 6 shows the area of influence by Thiesen Polygon, where upper part is
influenced by Cilegon station, left part is by Serang station and lower part is by
Padarincang station. Table 2 shows the extents of each polygon. Recapitulation of rainfall
of the region is as shown in Fig. 7.
Figure 6. Cidanau Watershed division with Polygon Thiessen
Table 2. Influence extension of rainfall station to Cidanau Watershed
No Station Area Weighing

(km2) factor
1 Serang 76.984 0.346
2 Ciomas 62.010 0.279
3 Padarincang 83.291 0.375
Total area 222.286 1.000
Figure 7. Recapitulation of maximum rainfall
3.2. Probable Rainfall Frequency Analysis

Frequency analysis was done statistically using parameters of mean ( X ), standard
deviation (dS), variance coefficient (Cv), skewness coefficient (Cs) and kurtosis
coefficient (Ck). The parameters were calculated based on the recorded maximum
averaged daily rainfall within the last 20 years.
IV - 176
Table 3. Statistical Parameters
Parameters Variables Calculation results

Number of data n 17.000
Standard Deviation SD 22.906
Variety Coefficient Cv 0.745
Skewness Coefficient Cs 1.564
Kurtosis Coefficient Ck 2.937
Median (Sx) 19.399
Table 4 Statistical parameters of each distribution type
No Distribution Requirements Calculations

1 Normal ( ) = 68.27% Cs = 1.564
( 2) = 95.44% Ck = 2.937
0
3
2 Log Normal = 3 + 3 Cs = 0.9
= 8 + 6 6 + 15 4 + Ck = 1.8
16 2 + 3
Cs = 0.9
Ck = 1.8
3 Gumbel = 1.14 Cs = 1.56
= 5.4 Ck = 2.937
4 Log Pearson III Other than above values Cs = 0.9
Ck = 1.8
Values obtained from distributions were tested for compatibility. After calculation result
was compared with the requirement, Log Pearson III was choosen as the distribution for
this case with Cs = 0.9 and Cv = 0.195.
3.3. Nakayasu Flood Analysis
Probable flood was calculated using Nakayasu synthetic unit hydrograph Fig. 8. Probable
flood discharge was calculated based on rainfall of 100 years dan PMF (Probability
Maximum Flood) based on probable rainfall and the catchment characteristic. Area that
was taken into accounts are before the Curug Betung Waterfall (upper Cidanau
Watershed):
1. Catchment area before waterfall (A1) = 192.56 km2

2. Length of main river before waterfall (L1) = 18.31 km
3. Catchment slope before waterfall ( I1 ) = 0.11358
4. Catchment area below Waterfall (down stream) (A1) = 21.37 km2
5. Length of main river below Waterfall (L1) = 8.0595 km
IV - 177
2500
2000
Tr 2 Tahun
1500
Tr 5 Tahun
Discharge (m3/s)
Tr 10 Tahun
1000 Tr 25 Tahun
Tr 50 Tahun
Tr 100 Tahun
500
Tr 200 Tahun
RPMF
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
-500
Hour
Figure 8. Recapitulation of Hydrographs for each return periods.
Inflow and outflow flood discharge for return periods 2 to 1000 year (PMF) are shown in
Table 5. Summary of flood routing for return periods of 100 years and PMF are shown in
Table 6.
Table 5. Inflow and Outflow Discharge
Flood Discharge (m3/det)

2 5 10 25 50 100 200 1000
years years years years years years years Years
Imax (m3/s) 107.71 192.10 275.24 422.71 571.87 763.96 1010.96 2225.27
Omax (m3/s) 7.82 11.67 14.95 20.08 25.39 31.85 39.63 57.95
Table 6. Flood routing recapitulation using Nakayasu Method
No. Description Inflow Outflow Water Storage

(m3/s) (m3/s) elevation (m) (1000 m3)
1 100 763.96 39.23 + 93.88 49834.52
2 PMF 1892.82 70.625 + 95.14 110215.86
3.4. HEC-HMS
Three hydrographs in HEC-HMS was calculated: Snyder, SCS and Clark. In order to
obtain the hydrographs, the following data were used: 1. Rainfall; 2. Sub Catchment Area;
3. Weight of each sub catchment in regards of the previously made Thiesen Polygons; 4.
All HEC-HMS basin model parameters; 5. Control specification in HEC-HMS simulation;
6. Precipitation analysis with gage weights methods. Based on this calculation, flood
routing was carried out and the result is shown in Table 7
Table 7 Flood routing recapitulation using HEC-HMS
No. Description Inflow Outflow Water elevation Storage

(m3/s) (m3/s) Air (m) (1000 m3)
1 100 253.86 210.63 + 92.11 9638.92
2 PMF 736.72 310.93 + 93.48 37672.70
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3.5 HEC-RAS
Water level profile was estimated using HEC-RAS assuming discharge from 1 m3/s to 60
m3/s occured. The outflows of every return period from previous flood routing (Table 5)
which are 7.82 m3/s, 11.67 m3/s, 14.95 m3/s, 20.08 m3/s, 25.39 m3/s, 31.85 m3/s, 39.63
m3/s, and 57.95 m3/s were input into HEC-RAS to obtain water level profile (Fig. 9) to
obtain respective water level. These elevation data for year 2001 and 2012 were then
compared. Based on the programs results (Table 8), rating curves were made to show
relation between water level and discharge over the weir (Fig. 10).
Figure 9. Plotting Discharge Data in HEC-RAS
Figure 10. Rating curves for 2001 and 2012.
IV - 179
Table 8 Water level increase at Cidanau Weir
Debit Water Surface (m) Tinggi Di atas Mercu

Periode
Sungai
Ulang 2001 2012 2001 2012 Kenaikan
(m3/s)
Tr=2 7.82 3.66 3.69 0.21 0.24 0.03
Tr=5 11.67 3.73 3.76 0.28 0.31 0.03
Tr=10 14.95 3.78 3.82 0.33 0.37 0.04
Tr=25 20.08 3.85 3.90 0.40 0.45 0.05
Tr=50 25.39 3.92 3.98 0.47 0.53 0.06
Tr=100 31.85 4.00 4.06 0.55 0.61 0.06
Tr=200 39.63 4.08 4.15 0.63 0.70 0.07
RPMF 57.95 4.25 4.35 0.80 0.90 0.10
In year 2001 mean level of river water was 0.46 m over the weir crest, while in 2012 for
every return period was increased to 0.51 m. This is caused by sedimentation, which
estimated happened between 451.232m3/year to 822.528m3/year. Sedimentation that
happens within 10 years had increased water level 0.05 meter.
4. CONCLUSION
The 100 year dependent flow and PMF were estimated at 49.83452 x106m3 and 11.021586
x106m3, which are still sufficient as the abiotic and biotic ecosystem in the surrounding
could be preserved. The second analysis was conducted by estimating the sedimentation
which caused the increase of water level over the weir during the last 10 years by
analyzing river base profile. During the past 10 years there had been the decreasing in the
river water quality due to sedimentation. The sedimentation was estimated between
451.232 m3/year to 822.528m3/year and had increased the water level 0.05 m above the
weir. The results had shown that there are changes in Cidanau Weir due to sedimentation,
but both the capacity and water level profile is still acceptable for present condition.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This study is an outcome of the joint research and activity between Bogor Agricultural University
(IPB) and Krakatau Industrial Water Company (KTI). The authors express their gratitude to IPB
and KTI for the support.
REFERENCES
Kamiama. 2011. Analisis Hidrologi. Jogjakarta

Budianto, Muh.Bagus.2007.Kalibrasi Parameter Hidrolika Sungai Pos AWLRJangkok Bug
Bug.Lombok
Hindarko, Ir. S.2002.Drainase Kawasan Daerah.Jakarta : Esha.
Istiarto.2012. Simulasi Aliran 1-Dimensi Dengan Bantuan Paket Program Hidrodinamika
HEC-RAS.Yogyakarta. (http://istiarto.staff.ugm.ac.id/.)
Kamiama, I Made.2011.Teknik Perhitungan Debit Rencana Bangunan Air. Yogyakarta:
Graha Ilmu.
Suripin, Dr, Ir, M.Eng. Diktat Kuliah Hidrolika dan Mekanika Fluida. UNDIP.
Triatmodjo, Bambang.2008. Hidrologi Terapan.Yogyakarta: Beta Offse,t Yogyakarta.
IV - 180
Evaluating the Hydraulic of Cidanau Weirs Intake

(Sustaining Cidanau Headwork Part 2)
2(14pt)
Satyanto K. Saptomo, Budi I. Setiawan, Asep Suryadi
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Bogor Agricultural University (IPB), Indonesia
saptomo@apps.ipb.ac.id
M. Budi Saputra, Muhammad Nasir

PT. Krakatau Tirta Industri, Cilegon, Indonesia
ABSTRACT
This study aims to evaluate the hydraulics of Cidanau Headwork at the downstream of Cidanau River
to assess the urgency of Headwork Redesign and river dredging after decades of establishment. This
paper is the secondpart that focuses on the re-calculation of hydraulics of Cidanau Weir intake to the
sandtrap due to sedimentation of the river. The result shows that during 11 years of sedimentation in
Cidanau River, instead of decreasing, the intake flow increased about 10 to 40 l/s. Therefore, the
dredging of Cidanau Rivers base is not necessary for the time being. Although there is no river
maintenance required, the intake is recommended to be opened 25% to 26% of the gates height,
which are equal to 40 to 41.6 cm. This consideration has also taken into account the seasonal
changing of the river discharge.
Keywords : weir hydraulics, sedimentation, Cidanau Watershed, industrial water
1.INTRODUCTION
Headwork can be defined as complex of structures that is designed along a river or stream
with purpose to divert water to canal network to be utilized for irrigation or other uses. It can
lower sedimentation and can be used for measuring the quantity of water flow through it.
Headwork consists of weir with energy dissipator, one or two intakes, flushing duck, stilling
basin, etc. Intake has function to control quantity of water taken into canal and prevent solids
and coarse material from entering the canal.
When a weir is constructed, its efficiency and life-span can be determined based on the
prediction of generation of sediment. The longer the operation of a weir, sediment
accumulation at the weir structure will increase. Thus, the river will become shallower and its
capacity decreases. When this occurs, with the same discharge of water, the velocity of the
flow will increase and causes more erosion of the river walls which worsen the sedimentation.
Sediment in water is a problem to companies who use river water as their raw water. Water
treatment will be required to lower sediment concentration in the water. Moreover river
environment should be well managed to minimize sedimentation. The increasing of water
flow rate means more sediment get into the intake and consequently the cost of water
treatment will increase.
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The objective of this study is to analysis and to evaluate the hydraulics of Cidanau Weir to the
sandtrap that is affected by sediment transported by river water from the upstream. In this
case the proper intakes gate opening height is to be determined to assume ideal water inflow.
2. MATERIAL AND METHODS
The study was carried out as a joint work with Raw Water Office (Dinas Air Baku) Krakatau
Industrial Water Company which operated Cidanau weir. Intake work evaluation of Cidanau
weir was done following two stages which are data collection and then the data analysis.
Required data that was collected includes the information that will be used for analysis which
are river bed topography year 2001 and 2012 and the Cidanau river hydraulics.
Evaluation of the intakes hydraulics was carried out by using HEC RAS (USACE, 2010)
software. The program simulates the flows form of Cidanau water entering the intake. HEC
RAS can be used for calculation of permanent flow water level profile, non permanent flow
profile, sediment transport calculation and water quality calculation. At first, Cidanau River
flows profile was simulated, starting with reproduction of the rivers geometry, followed by
reproduction the river hydraulics and data extraction from the simulation results.
Figure. 1. Simulation of Cidanau River with HEC RAS
After computer simulation was completed, sandtrap planning was carried out. Information of
technical drawing of the river and its surrounding, as well as weir design, flushing duct
design, discharge data, sediment load and transport capacity. Sandtrap had been planned and
designed based on Guidemce of Construction and Building (Pedoman Konstruksi dan
Bangunan (Pd T-15-2004-A)). The sandtrap includes the design of sedimentation rate,
sedimentation bed, sandtrap dimension, perencanaan dimensi sandtrap, matching of calculated
dimension and actual dimension; and designed flow rate in the sandtrap.
The Last step of the evaluation is to calculate the intakes hydraulics, where the discharge and
velocity of water that flows through the intakes gate in a unit time is to be determined.
Generally, the evaluation of intakes hydraulics is shown in the following flowchart (Fig. 2)
IV - 182
Figure 2. Hydraulics evaluation flowchart of Cidanau Weirs intake
3.1 Current condition of Cidanau Headwork and the Complimentary Building
Cidanau Weir, located at about 30 km from the city of Cilegon directing to Labuhan city, is
a headwork structure at Cidanau to increase the water level as so water can be flown to water
treatment plant (WTP) and/or Krenceng Dam in Cilegon, which is managed by Division of
Operation PT Krakatau Tirta Industri (PT. KTI).
Figure 3. Cidanau Weir and the complimentary structures.
Cidanau headwork was established on 1976, having total width of 30 meter and height of 5
meter, which is complimented by intake, flushing duct and sandtrap built at the right side of
the weir. The intake is situated at 600 m from the estuary and has maximum discharge load
3.5 m3/s. Water flow through the intake is managed by using gate which is operated from
pump station office. Sandtrap has function as sedimentation pond, located between the inlet
and bypass canal to sump pump. It divided into 2 chambers which only one of them are used
each time.
IV - 183
3.2. HEC RAS and Rating Curve
Hydrological data was analyzed using HEC-RAS application. Data input of the river
geometry and hydraulics are required. Geometry of the river was reproduced for the
condition in year 2001 and 2012 with objective to estimate the sediment addition to the
riverbed during the period. Geometric reproduction was only carried out for 200m length
with the centrizoid is Cidanau Weir so as the reproduction has 100m of upstream part and the
same length for doswnstream part. Fig. 4 shows this reproduction which also includes intake
and sandtrap.
(a) (b)
Figure 4. Geometric reproduction of Cidanau River (a) year 2001, (b) year 2012
As also presented in the first part of this study, river hydraulics is reproduced starting with
inputing river discharge data. Data input was repeated 60 times due to uncertainty of actual
discharge, started with 1 m3/s up to 60 m3/s. As for river boundary condition reproduce, water
level at downstream of the river was assumed 2 m and at intake downstream was 1.5 m.
Table 1. Calculation result of water level and water flow with HEC RAS
Water Level (m) Water flow (m/s) Water

Discharge level
(m3/s) Year 2001 Year 2012 Year 2001 Year 2012 increase
(m)
1 3.49 3.50 0.04 0.05 0.01
2 3.53 3.54 0.08 0.09 0.01
4 3.58 3.60 0.13 0.15 0.02
6 3.62 3.64 0.17 0.19 0.02
8 3.66 3.69 0.21 0.24 0.03
10 3.70 3.73 0.25 0.28 0.03
20 3.85 3.90 0.40 0.45 0.05
30 3.98 4.03 0.53 0.58 0.05
40 4.08 4.15 0.63 0.70 0.07
50 4.18 4.26 0.73 0.81 0.08
60 4.29 4.37 0.84 0.92 0.08
IV - 184
4.45
4.25
Elevation (m)
4.05
3.85 2001
3.65 2012
3.45
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Discharge (m3/s)
Figure 5. Rating curve of Cidanau River by using HEC RAS
Table 1 shows that the increase of water level between 1 to 8 cm had been occurred caused by
topographic changes during 11 years. As maximum observed discharge was 30 m 3, according
to Table 1. After period of 11 years, there had been increase of water level up to 5 cm.
3.3. Sandtrap Design Analysis
Analysis was done following the national standard guidance of hydrological and hydraulic
planning for river structures (SNI 03-1724-1989), guidance of general planning for dam (SNI
03-2401-1991), and standards of irrigation (KP 02). Design analysis aims to determine the
eligibility and suitability of the structures to the standard
First step of analysis is to find the value of settling velocity (ws) in the sandtrap, which is
affected by size of the sediments granules (D), shape of the granules, fluid temperature and
the existence of other particles within the flow which are observed as sediment concentration
(c). As coarse sand or higher density fraction (sands density (s) = 2.650 kg/m3) are not to be
transported to WTP network, the analysis the value of D = 0,074 mm was choosen. Water
temperature was assumed at T = 30o C as the site is situated in tropical country. Following
Stokes law, the settling velocity of sediments particle is 5.55 x 10-3 m/s.
The sediment is not composed by only one type of particles which will affect the rate of
sedimentation of sand. If the concentration of non-sand particles concentration (c) was
assumed as 0.2 %, actual settling velocity of sand was calculated 4.98 x 10-3 m/s. Using this
value the effective settling basin area was analized. According to operation and maintenance
guide book for Cidanau Headwork, Qdesign of the intake is 3.5 m3/s and thus the effective
L
area of settling basin is 701.47 m2 . Regarding the criteria of B 8, L was determined 74.91 m
and B is 9.3 m. Comparing this result to real dimension it can be concluded that there is no
misdesign of Cidanau weirs the sandtrap.
Table 2. Comparison of sandtrap dimension
Calculated Measured
Length 74.91 meter 77 meter
Width 9.3 meter 6.5 meter
Sedimentation process will be effective if the waterflow is not greater than permitted value.
Calculation shows the flow shall not be greater than 0,2071 m/s.
IV - 185
3.4. Hydraulic Evaluation of Intake dan Sandtrap
Hydraulic evaluation of intake dan sandtrap was differed into three stages which are
determination of intake charge, water level and water flow. Intake charge was determined
using data from HEC RAS calculation. This was done for year 2001 and 2012s river
topography. The following Table 3 shows the calculation results assuming the intakes gate
was opened 30%.
Table 3. Intake charge calculated with year 2001 data (intakes gate opened 30%)
River Discharge Water

Flow (m/s) V12/2g Qintake (m3/s)
(m3/s) Surface (m)
1 3.49 0.04 0.00009 2.47
4 3.58 0.13 0.00099 2.53
8 3.66 0.21 0.00258 2.59
12 3.73 0.28 0.00460 2.64
16 3.79 0.34 0.00678 2.68
20 3.85 0.40 0.00938 2.72
24 3.90 0.45 0.01187 2.75
25 3.91 0.46 0.01240 2.76
Table 4. Intake charge calculated with year 2012 data (intakes gate opened 30%)
River
Water
Discharge Flow (m/s) V12/2g Qintake (m3/s)
Surface (m)
(m3/s)
1 3.50 0.05 0.00015 2.48
4 3.60 0.15 0.00132 2.55
8 3.69 0.24 0.00338 2.61
12 3.76 0.31 0.00563 2.66
16 3.83 0.38 0.00846 2.70
20 3.90 0.45 0.01187 2.75
24 3.95 0.50 0.01465 2.78
25 3.97 0.52 0.01585 2.80
According to data in Table 3 dan Table 4, decrease in Cidanau river capacity did not radically
affect the water discharge to intake. Sedimentation caused increase of discharge between 0.01
0.04 m3 or 10 - 40 l after 11 years period.
Water level determination was based of Manning equation, starting with plotting a chart on
the relation between Mannings AR2/3 and y, followed by finding the curves equation for
intake and sandtraps cross-sectional width 2.65 m and 6.5 m. Both were input into the
curves equation to obtain water level yn.
IV - 186
Table 5. Calculation result of water level and flowrate in intake and sandtrap
Width = 2,65 m Width = 6,5 m

Qintake
(m3/s) V1 V2
nQ/(s0.5) h1 (m) A1 (m2) nQ/(s0.5) h2 (m) A2 (m2)
(m/s) (m/s)
1.50 1.48492 0.86204 2.28442 0.65662 7.93725 1.26190 8.20235 0.18287
1.75 1.73241 0.97157 2.57466 0.67970 9.26013 1.38040 8.97261 0.19504
2.00 1.97990 1.07639 2.85244 0.70115 10.58301 1.57663 10.24813 0.19516
2.25 2.22739 1.17651 3.11776 0.72167 11.90588 1.72403 11.20617 0.20078
2.50 2.47487 1.27193 3.37060 0.74171 13.22876 1.86582 12.12782 0.20614
2.55 2.52437 1.29044 3.41968 0.74568 13.49333 1.89351 12.30778 0.20719
2.00 3.500
y = -0.038x2 + 0.566x + 0.106
y = -0.001x2 + 0.147x + 0.195
2.800
1.50
2.100
1.00
y
y
1.400
0.50 0.700
0.00 0.000
AR2/3 AR2/3
(a) (b)
Fig. 6. Comparison curves of y and AR2/3
(a) width = 2,65 m (b) width = 6,5 m
Table 5 suggests intakes discharge should not exceed 2.5 m3/s in order to have an effective
settling of sediment as the permitted flowrate in sandtrap is 0.2071 m/s. Minimum discharge
required by the company is 2.0 m3/s and regarding above result, maximum discharge allowed
is 2.5 m3/s, and thus readjustment of intakes gate opening should be done. Assuming 30% of
intake gate is opened the previous condition will only fulfilled with river discharge of 1-2
m3/s as shown in Table 4. In this case new appropriate opening should be considered. New
intake opening calculation effort is shown in Table 6.
Table 6. Hasil pencarian bukaan pintu intake yang baru
Debit Water Qintake (m3/s) at opening

Kecepatan 2
Sungai Surface V1 /2g
(m/s) 0.1 0.25 0.26 0.27
(m3/s) (m)
1 3.50 0.05 0.00015 0.83 2.06 2.15 2.23
5 3.62 0.17 0.00169 0.85 2.13 2.22 2.30
10 3.73 0.28 0.00460 0.88 2.20 2.28 2.37
15 3.82 0.37 0.00802 0.90 2.25 2.34 2.43
20 3.90 0.45 0.01187 0.92 2.29 2.38 2.48
25 3.97 0.52 0.01585 0.93 2.33 2.42 2.52
Here, intake gate opening is suggested between 25-26% or equal 40.0 41.6 cm.
IV - 187
4. CONCLUSIONS
Hydraulics of Cidanau Headworks intake was evaluated using HEC-RAS based on
hydrological, design and river topographyc information. The result suggests the sedimentation
during 11 years period was not significantly affect discharge to the intake. It was found that
intake discharge approximately had increased 10 - 40 liter/s. However, the opening of intakes
gate should be adjusted with recommended value is 25% or 26% which are equal to 40 cm
dan 41.6 cm. The method of hydraulics analysis that has been demonstrated in this study can
be an alternative solution for evaluating water infrastructures especially weir, barrage or dam
before physical action is to be carried out.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This study is an outcome of the joint research and activity between Bogor Agricultural University
(IPB) and Krakatau Industrial Water Company (KTI). The authors express their gratitude to IPB and
KTI for the support.
REFERENCES
Chow, Ven Te. 1959. Open Channel Hydraulics. USA: McGraw-Hill Book Company Inc.
Departemen Pekerjaan Umum Direktorat Jenderal Pengairan. 1986. Standar Perencanaan
Irigasi Kriteria Perencanaan Bagian Bangunan Utama KP-02. Jakarta: PU.
Departemen Permukiman dan Prasarana Wilayah. 2004. Perencanaan hidraulik, operasi dan
pemeliharaan bangunan penangkap pasir tipe PUSAIR. Jakarta: PU.
PT. Krakatau Tirta Industri. 2012. Pedoman Operasi dan Pemeliharaan Bendung Cidanau.
POPBC. 1(1). 1-9.
USACE. 2010. HEC-RAS River Analysis System Hydraulic Reference Manual. Washington:
Institute For Water Resources.
IV - 188
Study on Water Quality Assessment and Eutrophication

Countermeasures of the Panjiakou-Daheiting Reservoir
HU Zuoliang
Haihe RiverWater Conservancy Commission of Ministry of Water Resources, Tianjin 300170, China
huzuoliang@hwcc.gov.cn
ABSTRACT:
Panjiakou-Daheiting reservoir is a large water supply system for inter-basin water transfer. The
water quality and eutrophication of reservoirs were studed in this paper. The results showed that
water quality of Panjiakou reservoir and Daheiting reservoir were class . Both reservoirs were
in the state of eutrophication and were mild and moderate in flood and non-flood season
respectively. The high concentration of TN was one of the major factors of eutrophication. The
dominant algae species was Pseudanabaena belonging to blue-green algae. The dominant algae
has changed from diatom to blue-green algae in the past 20 years. Microcystin-LR concentration
was very low(<0.02 ppb). In order to control eutrophication state of the reservoirs, water resource
protection area should be delineated, cage culture should be banned in the reservoirs and soil
erosion and non-point pollution should be controled.
Key words: Panjiakou reservior; Daheiting reservoir; Water quality assessment; Eutrophication;
Countermeasures
1. INTRODUCTION
Water quality refers to the chemical (inorganics and organics), physical (such as color,
turbidity, odor, etc.) and biological (bacteria, microbes, plankton, and benthos)
characteristics of water. Water quality is evaluated according to the biotic species or human
needs, and often assessed by the reference of a certain set of standard. The most common
standards used to assess water quality relate to health of ecosystems, safety of human
contact and drinking water. In order to evaluate water quality conditions, China has also
developed a series of water quality parameters and quality standards [1-3]. Water quality
evaluation is not only to enable people to know the water quality, to make people
understand main pollution factors, but also provides scientific basis support for the
efficient use of water resources.
Eutrophication is the enrichment of an ecosystem with chemical nutrients, typical
IV - 189
compounds contain nitrogen, phosphorus and other nutrient salts accumulated gradually.
Eutrophication can be a natural process in lakes developing gradually as they age through
geological time, and human activities can accelerate the process of it. Eutrophication
usually causes algae and other plankton multiplying rapidly; it leads to aquatic biological
diversity and stability reduction, transparency decline, dissolved oxygen decrease and
water quality degradation [4]. Eutrophication not only affects the water supply and water
landscape, but also causes "water blooms" which usually releases toxins and odor
substances that threaten human health and damage the ecological balance.
With the rapid socioeconomic development, large amounts of urban sewage and industrial
and agricultural waste water produced, water eutrophication has become a major water
pollution problem all over the world nowadays. More than 75% of the world's closed water
bodies exists eutrophication problems [5]. Panjiakou-Daheiting Reservoir, the major
drinking water source for the city of Tianjin and Tangshan, also face the threat of
eutrophication[6]. The water quality and eutrophication status of Panjiakou-Daheiting
Reservoir were analyzed in this paper based on water monitoring data. The result provides
important reference for the sustainable utilization of water resources and harmonious
development of natural eco-environment and social economy in Tianjin and Tangshan
2. STUDY AREA
Panjiakou-Daheiting Reservoir is located in northern Hebei Province within the Luanhe

River basin, which is one of the several major watersheds under the administration of the
Haihe River Water Conservancy Commission under the Ministry of Water Resources.
Construction of the Panjiakou Reservoir began in 1975 and it started to store water from
1979. Hydroelectric power generation began in 1984. The length of the Panjiakou dam is
1039m and with a maximum height of 107.5 m. The total storage capacity of Panjiakou
Reservoir is 2.93 109m3. The total surface area of the reservoir, if full, would be 70 km2,
but usually is 40 km2. Construction of Daheiting Reservoir began in 1973 and it started to
store water from 1979. The Daheiting reservoir has a total storage capacity of 0.337
109m3 of water. The total surface area of the Daheiting Reservoir is 25 km 2. The
Daheiting Reservoir receives most of its water from the Panjiakou Reservoir, but a few
tributaries, such as the Sa He River, also contribute water. The Luanhe River is the major
source of water for the Panjiakou Reservoir. Other important tributaries contributing flow
include the Liu He River, and the Bao He River. The reservoirs are located in mountain
canyon of mixed lithology that includes carbonate and metamorphic rocks. The upstream
watershed has a mix of land uses including agriculture, forest, and one large urban center.
The reservoirs have a primary use for storage of drinking water and partially supply
Tianjin City with its annual needs by inter-basin water transfer-Yinluan project. Secondary
uses include flood control, agricultural irrigation, aqua culture (fish cages). By the end of
2012, Panjiakou-Daheiting Reservoir has supplied 35.7109m3 of water for Tianjin,
Tangshan. The reservoirs have made significant contribution for economic construction,
social stability and sustainable development of the region.
Since the mid-1980s, urban industrial and domestic waste water has discharged into
Luanhe River increasingly with the socioeconomic development year by year according to
IV - 190
the Panjiakou Reservoir upstream pollution monitoring data analysis. The amount of
sewage discharged into the river Luan River Basin in 2003 was trebled than in 1985.
Agriculture might have a significant impact on the water quality of reservoir because of the
large amounts of fertilizers used in the region. Soil erosion in the upstream and around
reservoir is also a serious pollution for the reservoir. Since 1990s, with the increasing of
aquaculture intensity and scale, more and more fish cages have been installed, and large
amount of fish feed increased the load of nitrogen, phosphorus and other nutrients in the
reservoir. The reservoir currently being assessed for its eutrophication status and may be in
a trend of exacerbation [7-8]. According to a research of benthos community of Luan River
Basin, the density of Oligochaeta (pollution tolerant species) has increased significantly,
and this represent trend of pollution increasing [9-10].
3. METHODS
Surface water samples were collected from 20 cm depth monthly from two stations of dam
for one year since January 2013 to December 2013. Surface water temperature, pH,
electrical conductivity (EC), dissolved oxygen (DO) and Chlorophyll-a(Chl-a) were
measured in situ by using YSI (6610) portable. Transparency was measured by Behcet's
plate. Total phosphorus(TP), Total nitrogen(TN), Permanganate index(IMn),
ammonia(NH3-N), Volatile phenol(VP), Arsenic(AS), Chromium(Cr), Cuprum(Cu),
Plumbum(Pb), Zinc(Zn), Cadmium(Cd), Hydrargyrum(Hg), Cyanide(CN), fecal
coliform(FC), Chlorides(Cl) and Fluorides(F) were measured by Water and Wastewater
Monitoring and Analysis Methods[11].
The water quality of the reservoir was classified by the standard surface water quality of
China-"Surface Water Quality Standards" [3]. Water quality is divided into 5 categories in
the standard, and water only above third category is suitable for household consumption
after being properly treated. All the analysis was finished by the water quality laboratory of
Haihe river basin Water Quality Monitoring Center. The evaluation parameters were
consists of water temperature (WT), pH, dissolved oxygen(DO), permanganate index,
ammonia, volatile phenol, arsenic, chromium, cuprum, Plumbum, zinc, cadmium, mercury,
cyanide, fecal coliform, chloride and fluoride (Table 1). Total phosphorus and Total
nitrogen were usually not referred in the assessment because of high concentration.
Table1 Water quality evaluation standard

Unit: mg/L
Water quality category
parameter
Environmental temperature change caused by human
temperature () should be limited to: weekly average
WT()
maximum temperature rise1, the maximum weekly average
temperature drop2
pH dimensionle 6-9
IV - 191
ss
DO 7.5 6 5 3 2
IMn 2 4 6 10 15
NH3-N 0.05 0.5 1.0 1.5 2
VP 0.002 0.002 0.005 0.01 0.1
As 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.1 0.1
Pb 0.00005 0.00005 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001
Cd 0.001 0.0005 0.0005 0.0005 0.01
Cu 0.01 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
Zn 0.01 1.0 1.0 2.0 2.0
CN 0.005 0.05 0.2 0.2 0.2
Cr(VI) 0.01 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.1
Pb 0.01 0.01 0.05 0.05 0.1
FC 200 2000 10000 20000 40000
F 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.5 1.5
Cl 250
Eutrophication was evaluated basing on the standard of "Technical Regulations of Surface

Water Quality Evaluation"[1]. Parameters used for the evaluation include chlorophyll-a,
total phosphorus, total nitrogen, permanganate index and transparency. Method for
evaluating eutrophication status of lake and reservoir is shown in Table 2. Eutrophication
status index (EI) was calculated by interpolation method. Calculation formula
N
was EI En / N , EI: Eutrophication score, En: evaluated scores of the parameters
n 1
assigned scores; N: evaluate the number of parameters.
Table 2 Lakes, reservoirs nutritional status evaluation standard and classification method
Unit: mg/ L
Parameter Permang
chloroph Transpar
item score TP TN anate
ylla ency
En index
Oligotrophic 10 0.001 0.020 0.0005 0.15 10
0EI20 20 0.004 0.050 0.0010 0.40 5.0
Mesotrophy 30 0.010 0.10 0.0020 1.0 3.0
20<EI50 40 0.025 0.30 0.0040 2.0 1.5
IV - 192
50 0.050 0.50 0.010 4.0 1.0
Mild
eutrophic
60 0.10 1.0 0.026 8.0 0.5
ation
50<EI60
Moderate 70 0.20 2.0 0.064 10 0.4
eutro eutrophic
phicat ation 80 0.60 6.0 0.16 25 0.3
ion 60<EI80
Severe 90 0.90 9.0 0.40 40 0.2
eutrophic
ation
100 1.3 16.0 1.0 60 0.12
80<EI10
0
4. RESULTS
4.1 Water Quality Assessment
Flood season is from June to September in Haihe River basin, and other months are
non-flood season. Water quality data of flood season and non-flood season of 2013 were
analyzed (shown in Table 3).
Table 3 Water quality data of Panjiakou-Daheiting Reservoir

Unitmg/L
Panjiakou Reservoir Daheiting Reservoir
flood season non-flood season flood season non-flood season
WT() 21.45 6.08 21.65 8.36
pH 8.3 7.94 8.03 7.99
DO 7.3 8.8 9.1 11.2
IMn 4.63 3.68 5.2 3.9
NH3-N 3.1 -- 2.15 --
VP 0.4 0.42 0.44 0.4
As <DL <DL <DL <DL
Pb 0.0006 0.0004 0.0006 0.0005
Cd <DL <DL <DL <DL
Cu 0.0168 0.0093 0.0168 0.013
Zn <DL <DL <DL <DL
CN <DL <DL <DL <DL
Cr(VI) 0.55 0.54 0.47 0.39
Pb <DL <DL <DL <DL
FC <DL <DL <DL <DL
F 172 20 -- --
IV - 193
Cl 0.55 0.54 0.47 0.39
Temperature varied within the range of 0-25.7 in the two reservoirs. The maximum
occurred in July and August, which contribute to the growth of algae and other aquatic
ecosystem components. The mean water temperature of flood season was higher than that
in non-flood season. The pH value varied within the range of 6.2-9.4 and it showed the
value in flood season was higher than that in non-flood season. Because algae consumes
large amount of CO2 in water in the summer, which leads to a rise of pH value, The pH
and the chlorophyll-a showed a significant positive linear correlation, so pH values was
slightly higher in algae growth season [12]. Dissolved oxygen value in non-flood season was
higher than that in flood season in the two Reservoirs. Dissolved oxygen value was related
with water disturbance process, algae oxygen releasing, organic degradation, and aquatic
organisms respiration etc. Low dissolved oxygen in flood season may be due to cage
aquaculture, the fish feed of which consumes too much oxygen. Water quality of Panjiakou
Reservoir was class while Daheiting Reservoir was class when evaluated by
dissolved oxygen.
Permanganate index value in flood season was higher than non-flood season in the two
reservoirs. The growth of algae in flood season increased the biomass in water, which may
cause a higher Permanganate index value. Both of two Reservoirs water quality evaluation
was class III when evaluated by Permanganate index. Transparency values varied within
the range of 1.1-8.5 m. The highest value of transparency appeared in June when the
dominant algal species changed from diatoms and dinoflagellates to blue-green algae and
green algae.
Ammonia concentration varied within the range of 0.20-0.79 mg/L and the water quality
measured up to class . Volatile phenols concentration was under detected level(<DL)
and the water quality measured up to class . Arsenic concentration varied within the
range of 0.0001-0.001 mg/Lin the two reservoirs and Water quality measured up to class
. Hydrargyrum, Plumbum, Plumbum, Cuprum, Zinc and Cyanide were not detected in
the two reservoirs (<DL), and Water quality measured up to class . Hexavalent
Chromium concentration varied within the range of 0-0.023 mg/L and water quality
measured up to class . Fecal coliforms concentration varied within the range of 0-540
cfu/L and Water quality measured up to class . Fluoride concentration varied within the
range of 0.26-0.7 mg/L and water quality measured up to class . Chloride concentration
varied within the range of 0.26-0.59 mg/L and did not exceed the standard limit (below
250 mg/L).
The general water quality of Panjiakou Reservoir and Daheiting Reservoir were class .
There were seven months (including flood season) with water quality class , and two
months with water quality class in Panjiakou Reservoir and Daheiting Reservoir in
2013.
4.2 Eutrophication Evaluation
The water trophic state index (EI) of flood and non-flood season of Panjiakou-Daheiting
reservoir in 2013 was shown in Table 4. Trophic state index (EI) of flood and non-flood
IV - 194
season of Panjiakou reservoir was 52.11 and 62.09 respectively. And it was showed that
eutrophication state was mild and moderate in flood and non-flood season in Panjiakou
reservoir. Trophic state index (EI) of flood and non-flood season of Daheiting reservoir
was 54.85 and 64.71 respectively. And it was showed that eutrophication state was also
mild and moderate in flood and non-flood season in Daheiting reservoir.
Table 4 Panjiakou - Daheiting water quality eutrophication value

Nutritio
Transpa chlorop nal
IMn TP TN Means
rency hylla status(E
n)
Floo
Mild
d
51.56 46.6 76.55 29.63 56.19 52.11 eutrophi
Panjiak seaso
cation
ou n
Reserv Non- Moderat
oir flood e
48.375 59.75 78.16 -- -- 62.09
seaso eutrophi
n cation
Floo
Mild
d
53 52.5 78.75 35.67 54.33 54.85 eutrophi
Daheiti seaso
cation
ng n
Reserv Non- Moderat
oir flood e
49.5 66.65 78.00 -- -- 64.71
seaso eutrophi
n cation
Both of two reservoirs were in the state of eutrophication. The eutrophication state was
very serious and we should pay attention to it. The eutrophication state in flood season was
slightly better than in non flood season. The high concentration of total phosphorus, total
nitrogen and permanganate index which resulted in higher scores of trophic state index
(EI). In particular, the concentration of total nitrogen was higher than 4 mg/L and it greatly
increased the trophic state index (EI).
The trophic state index (EI) of the reservoir changed from oligotrophic in the early period
after was built to light or moderate eutropher now [13]. Total nitrogen concentration has
exceeded the severe eutrophication state, and total phosphorus concentration was between
mild eutrophication to moderate eutrophication state. Comparison of the normalized
phosphorus loading and chlorophyll-a response of this system to other reservoirs
throughout the world indicate a level of eutrophication that will require up to an
approximate 5-10-fold decrease in annual phosphorus load to bring the system to a more
acceptable level of algal productivity [14].
4.3Algae Analysis
IV - 195
Through the algae investigation in Panjiakou-Daheiting reservoir in recent years, there
were 62 genera belonging to 34 families in 8 phyla of algae. In summer and autumn, the
algal density value was high and dominate species was blue-green algae and green algae
[15]
. Panjiakou-Daheiting reservoir was mesotrophy to moderate eutrophication by
evaluation of biological indicators of lake algae and the community structure was
"cyanobacteria, green algae, diatoms, Cosmarium" type[16]. Algae cell density reached to
3107 cells/L in the peak of the algae growth. Pseudanabaena was dominant genus in
summer and autumn.
Dominate algae species for the past 20 years in the reservoirs were shown in Table 5.
Cyclotella was dominant specie in May and September in late 1980s and the community
structure was diatom type [17]. Ceratium and Nitzschia were dominant specie in
September of 2001 and Dinobryon, Asterionella and Navicula in May of 2002. Synedra,
Cyclotella and Pseudanabaena were dominate specie in May and were Pseudanabaena,
Scenedesmus and Chlamydomonas in September of 2009. The algae community structure
has changed from diatoms type to blue-green algae and green algae type. The algae density
increased by nearly 20 times.
Table5 Dominant genera change in recent years

year Dominant species in May Dominant species in
september
1987-1989 Cyclotella Cyclotella
2001-2002 DinobryonAsterionellaNavicula NitzschiaCeratium
SynedraCyclotella PseudanabaenaScenedesmus
2009
Pseudanabaena
Microcystin-LR was detected in the water of Panjiakou Daheiting reservoirs in 2010 [19].
But the concentration was very low (<0.02 ppb) and did not exceed allowable limits (1 ppb)
of "standards for drinking water quality".
5.COUNTERMEASURES
5.1 Delineation of Water Source Protection Area

Ministry of Water Resources and Haihe River Water Conservancy Commission have
designated Panjiakou-Daheiting as water source protection areas. Water resource was used
by the people of Tianjin, but the Reservoirs are located in Hebei province. Although water
users hoped that the water resources should be effectively protected, the local government
and people only cared about the economic development and thought little about the water
resource protection. The reservoirs have not been effectively protected in its surrounding
areas and upstream.
Due to the exacerbated industrial and urban pollution in the upstream, amount of
Ammonia-N and chemical oxygen demand (COD) increased year by year in the rivers. The
discharge amount of COD and ammonia-N of the upstream of main Luanhe River were
140,000 t and 4 000 t respectively in 2005. The concentration of nitrogen, phosphorus of
IV - 196
Reservoirs continued to rise, resulting in higher nutrition loads of the reservoirs [20].
Comparing with the investigation of 1980s, the concentration of total phosphorus and total
nitrogen has increased by 1.41 times and 3.63 times respectively [15]. Eutrophication of
Panjiakou-Daheiting Reservoir has becoming more aggravated. Eutrophication status of
the Reservoir decreased from oligotrophic to the current mild eutrophication and water
category dropped significantly [21].
It is suggested that the local government of Hebei Province should issue the policy for
water protection of Luan River and delineate drinking water source protection areas in
Panjiakou-Daheiting Reservoir as soon as possible, so as to against harmful water activities
and behaviors in the region. It should also accelerate the progress of construction of
centralized sewage treatment plant of upstream and around the reservoirs.
5.2 Cage Culture Control
Cage culture water pollution is mainly from the delivery of feed, fertilizers,
pharmaceuticals and fish excrement, sediment release and other aspects [7, 22-24]. Studies
show that the impact of cage culture on the water environment is great and becomes one of
the main reasons of eutrophication [25-26].
Cage culture began in the late 1980s. Due to huge economic benefits, the reservoir area of
fish cage culture expanded year by year. According to recent statistics, there are more than
50,000 cages in the reservoirs now [20-21]. Cage culture area accounts for more than
17.0 surface area of Panjiakou Reservoir. In Daheiting reservoir, cage culture leads to
nitrogen and phosphorus load, about 30% of the total pollution load.
Cage culture should be banned in the two reservoirs, and then the pollution sources can be
reduced. It needs strong measures from national and local governments and establishes
compensation mechanism.
5.3 Soil Erosion and Non-point Pollution Control
Soil erosion of the upstream of the Panjiakou reservoir was very serious. According to the
survey, the existing soil erosion area of Chengde City in the Panjiakou reservoir upstream
was 20,000 km2 [22]. Soil erosion caused 90.3% of the total nitrogen loads of Panjiakou
reservoir non-point pollution and 95.7% of total phosphorus. So the soil erosion is one of
the main causes of non-point pollution to the reservoir [21, 23].
Small watershed management project should be launched to control plane pollution source.
Fertilizer use in farmland should be reduced gradually. And sloping fields up than 25
degrees should be returned to forest and grassland [6].
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The Research was supported by international science & technology cooperation program
of China (Grant No. 2013DFA71340).
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Water Quality Assessment, China Water Power Press, Beijing, China.
IV - 197
[2]The ministry of health of the People's Republic of China and Standardization
Administration of China. (2006), Standards for drinking water quality, China
Standard Press, Beijing, China.
[3] Ministry of Environmental Protection and General Adminstration of Quality
Supervision, inspection and quarantine. (2002), Surface water quality standards,
China Standard Press, Beijing, China.
[4] Freedman, B. (2002), Environmental Ecology, Academic Press, San diego.
[5]KONG, F.X. and GAO, G. (2005): Hypothesis on cyanobacteria bloom-forming
mechanism in large shallow eutrophic lakes, Acta Ecologica Sinica, 25:3, pp. 589-595,
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[6]Wang, L.Q. and Song, Q.B. (2007), Research on protection countermeasure of drinking
water source of Panjiakou Reservoir and Daheiting Reservoir, Haihe Water
Resources, 2007, 4, pp. 21-23, 27, Haihe Water Resources Press, Tianjin, China.
[7]Wang, L.M. and Liu, D.W. (2008), Influence of Cage Culture on Water quality in
Panjiakou Reservoir, Hebei Fisheries, 6, pp. 42-44, Hebei Fisheries Press,
Shijiazhuang, China.
[8]Wang, S.M., Xing, H.Y. and Wang, L.M. (2003), Analysis of Water Quality Variation
Trends in Panjiakou Reservoir and Daheiting Reservoir, Water Resources Protection,
2, pp. 25-27, Water Resources Protection Press, Nanjing, China.
[9]Ji, B.C., Wang, X.H., Qin, B.P. and Sun, R. (2002), Study on zoobenthos and
bio-assessment of water quality in yinluan project, Acta Scientiarum Naturalium
University Nankaiensis, 35:2, pp. 106-112, Naikai University Press, Tianjin, China.
[10]Zhu, L.J., Fan, L.C. and Lin, C. (2009), Temporal and spatial variation of water
quality for water diversion project from Luanhe River to Tianjin City, Water
Resources Protection, 25:2, pp. 15-17, 54, Water Resources Protection Press, Nanjing,
China.
[11]Ministry of Environmental Protection and Water and wastewater monitoring and
analysis methods editorial board. (2002), Water and Wastewater Monitoring and
Analysis Methods, China Environmental Science Press, Beijing.
[12]Ruan, X.H. Shi, X.D. Zhao, Z.H. Ni, L.X. Wu, Y. and Jiao, T. (2008), Correlation
between chlorophyll-a concentration and environmental factors in shallow lakes in
plain river network areas of Suzhou, Journal of Lake Science, 20:5, pp. 556-562,
Science Press, Beijing, China.
[13]Wang, S.M. Han, S.L. and Guo, Y. (2008), Waters resource protection and
sustainable utilization of Luanhe River Diversion Project, Journal of Tianjin
University, 41: Suppl, pp. 99-103, Nankai University Press, Tianjin, China.
[14] Joseph, D., Lin, C. and Luo, Y. (2007), Eutrophication study at the
Panjiakou-Daheiting Reservoir system, northern Hebei Province, People's Republic
of China: Chlorophyll-a model and sources of phosphorus and nitrogen, Agricultural
Water Management, 94: pp. 43-53, The National Academies Press, Washington, DC.
USA.
[15]Zhou, X.S., Lin, C. and Luo, Y. (2010), Temporal and Spatial Variability Analysis of
Phytoplankton at the Luanhe River Reservoir System in North China, Journal of
Agro-Environment Science, 29:10, pp. 1884-1891, Journal of Agro-Environment
IV - 198
Science Press, Tianjin. China.
[16]Kuang, Q.J., MA, P. M. and Hu, Z.Y. (2005), Study on the evaluation and treatment of
lake eutrophication by means of algae biology, Journal of Safety and Environment,
5:2, pp. 87-91, Beijing Institute of Technology Press, Beijing, China.
[17]Ministry of Water Resources Engineering HWCC Luanhe Authority. (1989), Water
Quality Management Planning Report for Panjiakou-Daheiting Reservoir, Haihe
River Water Conservancy Commission, Tianjin, China
[18]Wang, X.H., Ji, B.C. and Li, M.D. (2004), Phytoplankton and bio-assessment of water
quality in upper waters of Yinluan Project, Research of Environmental Science, 17:4,
pp. 18-24. Research of Environmental Science Press, Beijing, China.
[19]Zhou, X.S. Zhang, S.L. Xu, W. and Luo, Y. (2011), Review of Microcystin monitoring
in surface water, Haihe Water Resources, 4, pp. 39-40, Haihe Water Resources Press,
Tianjin, China.
[20]Xu, S.Z. (2009), Promoting water source protection of Panjiakou-Daheiting Reservoir
for the development of society and economy in Peking, Tianjin and Tangshan region,
Haihe Water Resources, 4, pp. 6-7, 9, Haihe Water Resources Press, Tianjin, China .
[21]Wang, S.M. Han, S.L. Fan, L.C. and Yu, Y.P. (2009), The research on eutrophication
control in inter-Basin water diversion Valley Reservoir, Haihe Water Resources, 3, pp.
19-23, Haihe Water Resources Press, Tianjin, China.
[22]Zhang, Z.G. (2000), Study on Water Quality and measures for water quality protection
of the Panjiakou Reservoir, Haihe Water Resources, 6, pp. 12-13, Haihe Water
Resources Press, Tianjin, China.
[23]Feng, X.Y., Zhao, G.Y. and Dai, X.M. (2004), Water quality assessment and protection
countermeasures research of Panjiakou Reservoir, Hebei Fisheries, 6, pp. 22-23,
Hebei Fisheries Press, Shijiazhuang, China.
[24]Liu, J.S. Cui, Y.B. and Liu, J.K. (1997), Advance in studies on the effect of cage culture
on the enviroment, Acta Hydrobiologica Sinica, 21: 2, pp. 174-184, Acta
Hydrobiologica Sinica Press, Wuhan, China.
[25]Lin, Y.T., Zhang, Q. and Liu, J.K. (1995), Study on the effect of cage culture in
Heilongtan Reservoir, Reservoir Fisheries, 6, pp. 6-10, Hebei Fisheries Press,
Shijiazhuang, China.
[26]Jia, H.B., Wen, Y.M. and Xie, J. (2005), Self-pollution status of cage culture in Yaling
Bay, Marine Environmental Science, 24:2, 5-7, Marine Environmental Science Press,
Dalian, China.
IV - 199
Sedimentation Effect on Daily Inflow Calculation

in Run of River Dam Type PLTA Bakaru
Wahyu Jatmika Hadi, ST.
Assistant Engineer System Owner PT PLN (Persero) Sektor Pembangkitan Bakaru
wahyu.jatmika@pln.co.id
ABSTRACT:
Based on measurement held by LPPM Unhas in 2010, sedimentation rate in PLTA Bakarus dam
has reached 700,000 m3/year from its basic design calculation as 133,000 m3/year. It straightly
affects daily dams volume change. The annually measurement from 1991 2010 results a wide
range of fluctuation in dam volume at 615,50 m above sea level from 6,919,900 m3 in 1991 to
564,579 m3 in 2004. On the other side, sedimentation reductions emanate from mechanical
dredging and flushing out or sluicing when flood come. Since PLTA Bakaru dam type is run of
river which its daily operation highly depends on inflow, it fazes directly to the choosing of the
right volume table data for operational dam gate guidance which is clarified by Gate Operating
Number (GON). Unsuitable dam volume table will heighten the risk when significant inflow
alteration in relatively short time happened.
The best alternative parameter which can be used to monitor inflow is water level measured in
telemetering station Silei located 6 km away before dam. Based on data recorded, inflow can be
predicted more than 45 m3/sec when it reaches more than 100 cm. But it has to be recalculated
since the sedimentation which attains river near Silei will heighten the measured water level.
Direct inflow determination using non contact sensor for water flow rate and reconstructing the
bridge across the river for better water quantity calculation in this location as CSR can be best
alternative solution.
Keywords: sedimentation, volume, inflow, measurement, Bakaru.
1. INTRODUCTION
PLTA Bakaru began its commercial operation in 13 May 1991 with maximum output
power 126 MW. This run of river type dam was designed to receive 6,919,900 m3 of water
with 133,000 m3/years sedimentation rate. During the last 10 years, the head area of
Mamasa river i.e. Kabupaten Mamasa started to be a new county. Transformation from
forest into living place and roads brings some materials away along the river. Since there is
no check dam or other water catchment from Mamasa to Bakaru, the materials stop in
Bakarus dam and switch into sediment. The more alteration from forest into land, the
more sediment caught in the dam. The last measurement held by LPPM Unhas in 2010
results the sedimentation rate is rapidly increased to be 700,000 m3/years or more than
526% from its basic design.
IV - 200
Since calculation of inflow is based on dam volume, PLTA Bakaru builds correlation table
between dam capacity and dam water elevation regularly to get the exact volume. By the
change of sediment quantity, the volume table has been revised several times.
2. FLUCTUATION OF DAM VOLUME
A change of dam volume is affected by two factors, i.e. abating dam volume by sediment
arriving into dam and adding it by mechanical dredging and flushing out or sluicing when
flood come
2.1. Sedimentation
Determining quantity of sediment is carried out by measuring dam base profile lying
across the dam. The water depth is counted every 10 meters in some location across the
main stream according to ponds peg (GN) lighted in dam side. The result of measurement
is presented in Table 1.
Table 1. Measurement of Sediment

Dam Sediment
Sediment Total
Volume Volume
No Measurement Date Volume Sediment
at above
at 615.50 Volume
615.50 m 615.50
1. NEWJEC inundating 30 Sep 1990 6,919,900
2. PLN Sektor Bakaru Feb 1994 4,469,697 2,450,203
3. PLN Pusat Oct 1995 3,250,000 3,669,900
4. PLN Sektor Bakaru Sep 1996 2,310,498 4,609,402
5. PSL Unhas Oct 1997 2,165,506 4,754,394
6. PSL Unhas Apr 1999 902,265 6,017,635
7. PLN Sektor Bakaru Mar 2000 1,335,563 5,584,300
8. PSL Unhas Nov 2000 1,245,210 5,674,690
9. LPPM Unhas Apr 2001 923,249 5,996,651
10. PLN Sektor Bakaru Dec 2001 846,908 6,072,992
11. PLN Sektor Bakaru Dec 2002 983,469 5,936,431 965,424 6,901,855
12. LPPM Unhas May 2004 564,579 6,355,321 1,741,070 8,096,391
13. PLN Sektor Bakaru Jun 2005 588,500 6,331,400 1,926,700 8,528,100
14. LPPM Unhas Jun 2010 1,355,604 5,564,296 1,363,600 6,927,896
2.2. Mechanical dredging and flushing
Continuous program from PLN to increase dam volume is mechanical dredging by

excavating sediment. The main target is redesign the main river stream so the sediment
wont be achieved to intake. The sediment dissolved in water entering turbine causes
turbine and its auxiliary abrasion and cooling pipes clogged up. Quantity of sediment
successfully fetched by mechanical dredging is shown in Table 2.
Table 2. Sediment Fetched by Mechanical Dredging

Sediment
No. Company Name Dredging Date
Volume (m3)
1. PT. Brantas Abipraya 15 Nov 2005 22 Apr 2006 80,000
2. PT. Buminata Aji Perkasa 29 Dec 2006 5 Sep 2007 696,220
3. PT. Aneka Jasa Sorowako 28 Dec 2007 22 Nov 2008 700,000
IV - 201
Table 2. Sediment Fetched by Mechanical Dredging (continued)
Sediment
No. Company Name Dredging Date
Volume (m3)
4. PT. Aneka Jasa Sorowako 31 Dec 2008 24 Apr 2010 1,400,000
5. PT. Delima Mas Gasindo 29 Dec 2011 27 Dec 2012 725,000
When the flood comes or inflow reaches more than 300 m3/sec, operator controls the gate
opening to optimize the stream scrapes off sediment settled as much as possible. The
longer duration and higher inflow, the more sediment swept away. As shown in Fig. 1
below, the biggest number of sediment vanished by flushing is 1,269,640 m3 done in two
times during 2007.
Sediment Disposed by Flushing

1,400,000.00
1,269,640.00
1,200,000.00
1,000,000.00
893,500.00 863,284.41
Sediment Volume (m3)
800,000.00
600,000.00 543,429.00
444,562.00
400,000.00
266,984.81
205,970.40
200,000.00 162,000.00
102,045.65
-
2000 2001 2002 2005 2007 2008 2009 2012 2013
Figure 1. Sediment disposed estimation by flushing
3. INFLOW CALCULATION
Dam inflow calculation based on its volume is shown in Eq. 1 below.
= + ( ) 1 (1)
According to this formula, inflow calculation is straightly influenced by dam volume

estimation while discharge can be directly read by digital instrument and outflow can be
measured separately using GON table. PLN Sektor Bakaru has released six different table
contains correlation between dam water elevation and its equivalent volume. The variation
of those tables can be seen in Fig.2 below. Operator decided the right table by selecting
nearest dam volume at the last measurement and observing how the volume table impacts
to inflow calculation. The selected table used by now is 2006 table.
IV - 202
Dam Volume Table
1,600,000
1,400,000
1,200,000
Dam Volume (m3)
1,000,000
800,000
600,000
400,000
200,000
0
615.60
615.50
615.40
615.30
615.20
615.10
615.00
614.90
614.80
614.70
614.60
614.50
614.40
614.30
614.20
614.10
614.00
613.90
613.80
613.70
613.60
613.50
613.40
613.30
613.20
613.10
613.00
612.90
612.80
612.70
612.60
612.50
612.40
612.30
612.20
612.10
612.00
Elevation (m)
2000 2002 2005 2006 2009 2010
Figure 2. The variation of dam volume tables
The effect of choosing different table in a single time can be shown in Fig.3 and 4. For
example, the chosen data record in 30 December 2013 all day long is used and the dam
volume estimation is simulated using 2006 and 2010 table. It is clearly shown that inflow
calculation result is dissimilar.
Dam Volume Calculation Comparison (30 Dec 2013)

1,600,000 617.00
1,400,000
616.50
1,200,000
1,000,000
Dam Elevation (m)
Dam Volume (m3)
616.00
800,000
615.50
600,000
400,000
615.00
200,000
0 614.50
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Hour
2006 2010 Elevation (m)
Figure 3. Dam volume calculation using 2006 and 2010 table
IV - 203
Inflow Calculation Comparison (30 Dec 2013)
60.00
615.5
55.00
615.3
50.00
Inflow (m3/s)
Elevation (m)
615.1
45.00
614.9
40.00
35.00 614.7
30.00 614.5
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Hour
2006 2010 Elevation (m)
Figure 4. Different inflow calculation result
Although the fluctuation trend is similar the number of inflow is different. The 2010 table
gives higher inflow fluctuation than 2006 table. The consequence to daily dam operation
can be seen in Fig. 5 shown discharge correlated to inflow prediction. The maximum
output power uses approximately 42 m3/s turbine discharge.
Inflow vs Discharge (30 Dec 2013)

90.00 45.00
40.00
80.00
35.00
70.00
30.00
Inflow Calculated (m3/s)
Discharge (m3/s)
60.00 25.00
50.00 20.00
15.00
40.00
10.00
30.00
5.00
20.00 0.00
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Hour
2006 2010 Discharge
Figure 5. Inflow versus turbine discharge
The decision of increasing or decreasing output power is based on inflow calculation. The
different decision in the first five hour can be happened as illustrated below. Using 2006
IV - 204
table, operators evaluate the inflow raise is quietly small so they decide to decrease output
power and maintain it while rising dam elevation for morning peak
load preparation. While using 2010 table, operators probably retain the load at maximum
until morning since inflow is monitored rising more than 45 m3/s. It means power plant
take the chance of producing full power output all day long.
4. DIRECT INFLOW MEASUREMENT FOR ALTERNATIVE
Perceiving distinction of inflow results by different volume table, the alternative choice is
direct inflow measurement. Since the precise direct measurement needs supporting
infrastructure such as tunnel with exact dimension, stream velocity measurement, and
water level gauge, it means a sizing station near the tunnel in dam upstream is required.
Telemetry station in Silei shown in Fig. 6 is selected for this purpose. The advantages are:
a. It is located around 6 km from dam and no more tributary river between the station
and dam.
b. It is a water level and rainfall gauge station.
c. It has a hanging bridge near the water level gauging location which can be modeled
as tunnel as shown in Fig.7. The tunnel modeling means foundation reinforcement
in both sides of bridge which can be considered as CSR program.
Figure 6. Hanging bridge and water level gauging in Silei
width
Figure 7. Hanging bridge modeled as tunnel with exact dimension
IV - 205
The direct inflow measurement needs a non contact current meter addition and modeled
hanging bridge to fulfill the debit equation Eq. 2 where Q is debit, w is tunnels width, h is
water level, and v is stream velocity.
= (2)
Since Silei is remote station powered by solar cell, maintain power usage is a must. To
make the data sending more efficient, microcontroller collects all data and store it into its
internal memory every 5 minutes. After an hour, radio transmits the gathered data to
master station in Dam Control Center (DCC). By this scenario, the biggest power needed
for transmitting data via radio is done hourly. The detail scheme is shown in Fig. 8.
FLOATING TYPE ULTRASONIC

WATER LEVEL WATER FLOW
SENSOR SENSOR
REAL TIME PLC TIMER

WATCH INFLOW FORMULA 5 MINUTES
TIME
WATER LEVEL
WATER FLOW
INFLOW
SEND
EVERY 1 HOUR RAINFALL
Figure 8. Collecting and sending data from Silei to DCC
5. CONCLUSION
Considering the fluctuation of dam volume affected by sediment arriving, mechanical

dredging, and flushing influences the decision making of operational planning by inflow
determined, direct inflow measuring combines bridge foundation reinforcing as CSR
program will be the best solution.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The author is thankful to Suprianto, Bambang Dwi Purnomo Putro, Afip Nurul Hudah from Sektor
Bakaru for sharing and providing necessary facilities for preparation of this paper.
REFERENCES (12PT BOLD AND ALL CAPS)
LPPM Unhas. (2010): Laporan Pengukuran Pendangkalan/Sedimentasi dan Kualitas Air

Waduk PLTA Bakaru, LPPM Unhas, Makassar, Indonesia.
LPPM Unhas. (2010): Analisa Hubungan Elevasi Air dengan Volume Waduk, pp. 1-12,
LPPM Unhas, Makassar, Indonesia.
PLTA Bakaru. (2013): Laporan Pengoperasian Pusat Pengendali Bendungan Bulan
Desember 2013, PLTA Bakaru, Bakaru, Indonesia.
IV - 206
Peer Study between Sediment Distribution Pattern in Reservoir Using

Empirical Method and Estimation of Reservoir Real Life Time
Lily Montarcih Limantara, Aniek Masrevaniah, and Mohammad Bisri

Department of Water Resources, Faculty of Engineering, University of Brawijaya, Malang, East Java of Indonesia
lilymont2001@gmail.com; masrevani.13@gmail.com; mohammadbisri@ub.ac.id
ABSTRACT
Generally, the assumption on reservoir design is that the form of sedimentation is relative plain
and fulfilling the reservoir bed under the certain elevation. However, the real sedimentation in
reservoir is not like that. Sediment will distribute on the whole of reservoir bed and part of them is
on the reservoir upstream of effective storage. This paper intended to implement the peer study
between sediment distribution pattern and estimation of real life time of reservoir. The study was
conducted in Karangkates Reservoir and the analysis used empirical method. Result showed that
sediment measurement in Karangkates Reservoir indicated thatimennt 70% of sediment total
loaded in the upstream of reservoir such as in effective storage. Sedimentation in the upstream of
reservoir will give advantage by increasing reservoir life time but there is the storage capacity
decreasing of sediment volume. In addition, the process of sediment consolidation is paralel with
the duration of sedimentation. Therefore, sediment will reduce and it will increase the resrvoir life
time.
Keywords: sediment distribution, life time, reservoir
INTRODUCTION
The main problem on development of a dam is the more sediment that is occurred in
reservoir (Bisri, 2011a and 2011b). This case is indicated by the frequent appearance of pro
and contra in building dam which is related with the quantity of sediment that is settled in
reservoir. The quantity of sediment will determined the economic value of reservoir
development (Bisri, 2011b). Generally, the used assumption on design of a reservoir is that
design sediment will directly fills the dead storage of reservoir. However, the sediment
deposit that is happened is not like that (Priyantoro and Masrevaniah, 2012).
Process of sediment deposit in reservoir is generally competed by the process of
erosion (Andawayanti, 2010) in the watershed and the river itself. Then, the erosion
material is transported into the river together with the run-off. For the next, sediment in
river upstream will be transported to the downstream by river flow and by the end it is
deposited in reservoir bed. This process is continuously happened and it will be developed
by the sediment distribution pattern (Andawayanti, 2010) due to the characteristic of
sediment material and reservoir that will more influence the deposition process.
However, the sediment formerly settles in reservoir upstream and part of it will
gradually flow towards the reservoir downstream or on the dead storage of reservoir. This
condition is indicated by Karangkates reservoir on the measuring of sediment on 1982.
After 10 years of operation, the reservoir bed in front of intake was still far under the
IV - 207
intake such as on the elevation of +210. However, on the assumption of basic design, the
reservoir has reached the elevation of +230. Result of the measuring indicated that 70% of
sediment deposited in reservoir upstream. This study intended to apply the empirical
method in reservoir and to compare the results with the result of sediment measuring
directly in Karangkates Reservoir.
Hasil pengukuran menunjukkan bahwa 70% jumlah sedimen mengendap di hulu
waduk. Kajian ini bertujuan untuk menerapkan metode empiris sedimen di waduk dan
membandingkan hasil tsb dengan hasil pengukuran sedimen secara langsung di waduk
Karangkates.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
This study is conducted in Karangkates Reservoir. Location of study and reservoir

was as in Figure 1 and 2. Technical data of Karangkates Reservoir are as follow: number
area of watershed is 2,050 km2, Flood Water Level (FWL) is +275.5 m, Normal Water
Level (NWL) is +272.5 m, Low Water Level (LWL) is +246.0 m, deposit area number on
NWL is 15.0 km2, capacity of bruto storage is 343x106 m3, and capacity of effective
storage is 253 x 106 m3..
Figure 1 Lokasi Waduk Karangkates
IV - 208
Figure 2 Karangkates Reservoir
Method of Moodys Modification Area Reduction (Brabben, 1979; Daril, 1976;

Robert and Ernest, 1982)
This method was developed by Borland and Miller that consisted of the area
reduction and as the mathematical approch which was based on the observation of
sediment distribution on some reservoirs in USA. Based on the observation that has been
carried out, reservoir was classified into 4 (four) types as described in Table 1. The base of
classification was the relation between depth and capacity of reservoir storage.
Table 1 Standard classification of reservoir type

Depth Type of reservoir Standard classificaiont
1.0 - 1.5 George IV
1.5 2.5 Bill III
2.5 3.5 Flood plain foot - hill II
3.5 -4.5 Lake 1
The sediment distribution has a trend to follow the four types of reservoir as above.
The general steps of using the area reduction method for estimating the sediment
distribution is as follow:
Classification of reservoir is determined into one of the available standard type.
Area number is determined by trial and error until it is obtained the volume of
analysis result (Vs) which is the same with observation result (Vs).
Based on the four types of reservoir standard as above, it is built the design curve of
sediment area number which is as the relation between relative sediment area number and
relative storage depth. Moody (1962) has developed the method by missing the trial and
error for making effort to obtain the new storage elevation with the base equation as follow
(Daril, 1976):
yo h
S = A dy + k.ap dy (1)
0 yo
Note:
S = total quantity of sediment in reservoir
IV - 209
0 = the initial bed elevation of reservoir
yo = the new reservoir bed elevation after sedimentation
A = area number of reservoir on the new bed elevation
H = elevation of normal water level
K = constant of relative and real area number
ap = relative area number
dy = addition of depth
By integrating the base equation as aboe, it is obtained as follow (Daril, 1976):
(1 - vo)/ao = (S vo)/(H . A0) .. (2)
Note:
vo = relative volume of reservoir on the new reservoir base elevation
ao = relative area number of reservoir on the new reservoir bed elevation
Ao = initial area number of reservoir on the new reservoir bed elevation
H = total of reservoir depth
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Empirical result of Area Reduction - Moodys Modification
The classification of reservoir standard type is carried out by plotting the depth
reservoir (feet) as the ordinate and the storage capacity (acre-feet) as the absis in
logarithmis paper. Based on the curve which the breaking line on the elevation of +225.00
will be obtained 2 types of line slope such as 5.03 and 4.10. Sediment deposit in reservoir
indicated that 70% of sediment was deposited on the area over the elevation of +225.00.
Therefore, the reservoir was classified as the standard type of I.
Analysis of the new reservoir bed elevation was presented as in Table 2. Then, by
plotting the analysis result on the semi logarithmis paper with P as the absis and h(p) as
the ordinate, it was obtained the meeting point with the curve of type I, and it was obtained
the absis value (relative depth): Po = 0.205. Therefore:
Depth of the new reservoir bed = 86.5 x 0.205 = 17.733 m
Elevation of new reservoir bed = +186.00 + 17.733 m = 203.73 ~ 204
Table 2 Analysis on elevation of the new reservoir bed

Reservoir Reservoir
Elevation Relative Area Storage S V (pH) H. A (pH) h(p)
(m) Depth (%) A (pH) V (pH) m3
(m2) (m3)
186 0 0 0 28,190,000 0 -
190 4.624 8,200 10,000 28,180,000 709,300 39.7293
195 10.405 11,220 60,000 28,130,000 970,530 28.9840
200 16.185 35,243 180,000 28,010,000 3,048,519 9.1881
205 21.965 103,000 500,000 27,740,000 8,872,305 3.1135
210 27.746 229,000 1,285,000 26,905,000 19,771,391 1.3585
215 33.526 800,000 4.500,000 23,690,000 69,200,000 0.3423
220 39.306 1,180,000 9.600,000 18,590,000 102,070,000 0.1821
225 45.087 1,700,000 18,500,000 9,690,000 147,050,000 0.0669
IV - 210
Table 3 presented the analysis result of area number and new reservoir due to the method
of Area Reduction Moodys Modification
Table 3 Analysis result of sediment distribution due to the Area Reduction Moodys Modification
Elevation Area number of Old storage Area number of New storage
(m) old reservoir reservoir new reservoir reservoir
2 3 2
(m ) m (m ) (m3)
186.0 0 0 0 0
190.0 6,200 10,000 0 0
195.0 11,220 60,000 0 0
200.0 35,243 180,000 0 0
204.0 90,000 399,000 0 0
205.0 103,000 500,000 16,630 13,600
210.0 229,000 1,285,000 89,914 235,649
215.0 800,000 4,500,000 609,448 2,625,306
220.0 1,180,000 9,600,000 391,198 6,626,048
225.0 1,700,000 18,500,000 1,390,647 14,132,683
230.0 2,300,000 28,500,000 1,928,486 22,432,944
235.0 3,250,000 42,300,000 2,816,611 34,223,520
240.0 4,400,000 61,0000,000 3,907,309 49,611,541
245.0 5,500,000 85,000,000 4,953,485 72,017,099
250.0 6,700,000 114,000,000 6,109,006 98,177,190
252.5 7,200,000 150,000,000 6,591,918 112,682,321
255.0 7,800,000 159,000,000 7,179,511 131,150,664
257.5 8,600,000 168,000,000 7,973,057 149,150,664
260.0 9,400,000 198,000,000 8,774,345 176,033,016
262.5 10,200,000 221,000,000 9,586,035 197,488,305
265.0 11,400,000 247,000,000 10,812,506 222,990,322
267.5 12,500,000 275,000,000 11,962,186 248,587,203
270.0 13,700,000 308,000,000 13,256,867 280,363,916
272.5 15,000.000 343,000,000 15,000,000 314,810,000
The base of comparing on applying the empirical method of sediment distribution

pattern in this study was the measuring result of sediment in Karangkates reservoir in
1982. This result has been represented into sediment distribution with the small relatively
of elevation interval. Table 4 presented the analysis of error square on the method of Area
Reduction Moodys Modification
Table 4 Analysis of error square on the method of Area Reduction Moodys Modification
Elevation Volume of sediment (103 m3) (VOB VOS) (VOB-VOS)2/VOB
3 3
(m) Survey 1982 Distribution (10 m ) (103 m3
(VOB) pattern
(VOS)
186 0 0 0 0
190.0 10 10 0 0
195.0 60 60 0 0
200.0 180 180 0 0
205.0 500 486.62 13.38 0.36
210.0 1,285 1,049.35 235.65 43.21
215.0 3,580 1,874.69 1,705.31 812.31
220.0 5,420 2,973.95 2,446.05 1,103.90
IV - 211
225.0 8,180 4,367.32 3,812.68 1,777.08
230.0 8,800 6,067.06 2,732.94 848.75
235.0 9.310 8,076.48 1,233.52 163.43
240.0 9,910 10,388.46 -478.46 23.10
245.0 10,340 12,982.90 -2,642.90 675.52
250.0 10,910 15,882.81 -4,912.81 2,212.26
252.5 12,000 17,317.68 -5,317.68 2,2356.48
255.0 13,920 18,849.34 -4,929.34 1,745.57
257.5 18,550 20,404.53 -1,854.53 185.41
260.0 22,530 21,966.18 563.82 14.11
262.5 23,450 23,511.70 -61.70 0.16
265.0 25,440 25,099.68 340.32 4.55
267.5 25,960 26,412.80 -452.80 7.90
270.0 27,660 27,636.08 23.92 0.01
272.5 28,190 28,190.00 0 0
Analysis of reservoir real life time
The end of reservoir life time was indicated by if the dead storage has been fully
filled by the sediment (Linsley et.al, 1985 and Priyantoro, 1987). The decreasing velocity
of reservoir life time is due to: 1) the quantity of sediment that is entered; 2) efficiency of
storage catchment; and 3) spesific gravity of deposited sediment.
The life time ending of Karangkates Reservoir was determined by the condition
which the sediment surface has reached the intake of hydropower such as on the elevation
of +233.2 m. Total of sediment deposit was calculated by using Moody;s Modification so
it was obtained the sediment surface on the elevation of +233 m. However, the pattern of
sediment distribution was analyzed by using the method of Area Reduction. From the
result of trial and error, it was produced total of sediment volume was 190,000,000 m3.
Analysis of sediment volume total and the distribution pattern was presented as in Table 5.
Table 5 Analysis of bed elevation on the end of Karangkates Reservoir life time
Elevation Relative Area Reservoir S V (pH) H. A (pH) H(p)
(m) depth number of storage (106 m3) (106 m3)
3
(%) reservoir V (pH), m
2
A (pH), m
215.0 33,526 800,000 4,500,000 185.500 69.200 2.6810
220.0 39.306 1,180,000 9,600,000 180.400 102.070 1.7674
225.0 45.088 1,700,000 18,500,000 171.500 147.050 1.1663
230.0 50.867 2,300,000 28,500,000 161.500 198.950 0.8118
235.0 56.647 3,250,000 42,300,000 147.700 281.125 0.5254
240.0 62.428 4,400,000 61,0000,000 129.000 380.600 0.3389
245.0 68.208 5,500,000 85,000,000 105.000 475.750 0.2207
250.0 73.988 6,700,000 114,000,000 76.000 579.550 0.1311
The depositing rate in estimating reservoir life time is carried out in every depositing of 5
million m3. Analysis of Karangkates Reservoir life time was presented as in Table 6.
Table 6 Analysis of Karangkates Reservoir life time

Annual sediment Sediment Time of
Reservoir Annual volume deposit in T T year Commulative
storage input (m3) year (year) time
6 3 6 3
(10 m ) (10 m ) (m3) (year)
IV - 212
158 2.211 3,432,462.02 5,000,000 1.7727 1.7727
163 2.211 3,207,798.64 5,000,000 1.8865 3.6592
168 2.211 3,088,712.37 5,000,000 1.9486 5.6078
173 2.211 3,009,233.28 5,000,000 1.9902 7,5980
178 2.211 2,950,303.80 5,000,000 2.0201 9,6181
183 2.211 2,903,845.87 5,000,000 2.0430 11.6611
188 2.211 2,865,707.84 5,000,000 2.0615 13.7226
193 2.211 2,833,497.83 5,000,000 2.0763 15.7989
198 2.211 2,805,707.73 5,000,000 2.0886 17.8875
203 2.211 2,781,327.56 5,000,000 2.0993 19.9868
208 2.211 2,799,657.74 5,000,000 2.1082 22.0950
213 2.211 2,740,185.22 5,000,000 2.1162 24.2112
218 2.211 2,722,539.93 5,000,000 2.1219 26.3331
223 2.211 2,706,413.14 5,000,000 2.1288 28.4619
228 2.211 2,691,582.73 5,000,000 2.1344 30.5963
233 2.211 2,677,869.52 5,000,000 2.1391 32.7354
238 2.211 2,665,124.99 5,000,000 2.1436 34.8790
243 2.211 2,653,230.12 5,000,000 2.1475 37.0265
248 2.211 2,642,085.47 5,000,000 2.1510 39.1775
253 2.211 2,631,606.04 5,000,000 2.1545 41.3320
258 2.211 2,621,722.49 5,000,000 2.1575 43.4895
263 2.211 2,612,374,07 5,000,000 2.1604 45.6499
268 2.211 2,603,509.52 5,000,000 2.1630 47.8129
273 2.211 2,595,084.19 5,000,000 2.1654 49.9783
278 2.211 2,587,058.20 5,000,000 2.1679 52.1462
283 2.211 2,579,398.44 5,000,000 2.1700 54.3162
288 2.211 2,572,074.79 5,000,000 2.1720 56.4882
293 2.211 2,565,060.34 5,000,000 2.1740 58.6622
298 2.211 2,558,331.52 5,000,000 2.1759 60.8381
303 2.211 2,551,667.03 5,000,000 2.1778 63.0159
308 2.211 2,545,648.67 5,000,000 2.1794 65.1953
313 2.211 2,539,659.29 5,000,000 2.1810 67.3763
318 2.211 2,533,883.28 5,000,000 2.1826 69.5589
323 2.211 2,528,307.02 5,000,000 2.1841 71.7430
328 2.211 2,522,917.78 5,000,000 2.1856 73.9286
333 2.211 2,517,704.21 5,000,000 2.1870 76.1156
338 2.211 2,512,655.99 5,000,000 2.1885 78.3039
343 2.211 2,507,763.22 5,000,000 2.1897 80.4936
80.4936
CONCLUSION
Based on the analysis as above, it was concluded as follow:

1. Based on the sediment measuring in reservoir, it indicated that estimation of
sediment deposit form and fulfil the bed under the certain elevation was not too
accurate. Sediment deposit has distributed in all of reservoir bed elevation and most
of them was happened in the upstream of reservoir such as in the bed of reservoir
on storage area of reservoir life time.
2. Based on the deposit pattern of design assumption, it was concluded as follow:
- Total of sediment deposit which could be stored until the intake of hydropower
(Elevation of +233 m) was 35,500,000 m3.
IV - 213
- Life time of Karangkates Reservoir which was analyzed based on the design
depositing (0.25 mm/year) was 69 years. However, based on the depositing rate
of measuring result on 1982 was 12.6 years.
3. Based on the analysis of sediment distribution pattern, it was concluded as follow:
- Total of sediment deposit which could be stored until the intake of hydropower
(Elevation of +233 m) was 190,000,000 m3.
- Life time of Karangkates Reservoir which was analyzed based on the
depositing rate of measuring result on 1982 and due to the consolidation factor
reached 80.5 years.
AKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors were very thankful to Nurhadi Alhuri as the undergraduate student of
Water Resources Department, Faculty of Engineering, University of Brawijaya, Malang,
Indonesia which has been supported the data of this study.
REFERENCES
Andawayanti, Ussy. (2010): Sediment Transport in Estuary. International Journal of
Academic Research, 2(5): 224-226
Bisri, Mohammad. (2011a): Estimation of Remaining Usage Age at Sutami Reservoir
Using Sediment Analysis, International Journal of Academic Research, 3(3): 497-500
Bisri, Mohammad. (2011b). Conservation Based on Erosion Sedimentation Spatially,
Journal of applied Sciences Research, 7(6): 732-736
Brabben, TE. (1979): Reservoir Sedimentation Study, Karangkates, Hydraulics Research
Station, Holling Ford, England.
Daril, B. Simon. (1976): Sediment Transport Technology, Water Resources Publication
Lithocrafters, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA.
Juwono, Pitojo Tri. (2011): Evaluation of Water Price Due to Sediment Dredging, 1(7):
764-769
Linsley, Ray K.; Max A., Kohler; and Joseph, L.H. Paulus. (1985): Hydrology for
Engineers, translated by Yandi Hermawan, Erlangga, Jakarta.
Priyantoro, Dwi. (1987): Technique of Sediment Transport. Department of Water
Resources, Faculty of Engineering, University of Brawijaya, malang, Indonesia.
Priyantoro, Dwi and Masrevaniah, Aniek. (2012): Sedimentation Evaluation at Water
Intake Gate of Grati PLTGU Jetty Blockade, 2(12): 34-48
Robert, I.S and Ernest, I.P. (1982). Reservoir Sedimentation, Division of Planning
Technical Services Engineering and Research Center, Denver, Colorado.
IV - 214
Emergency Response against Water Quality Accident

to Secure Safe Water Supply for Capital fffffjfjjfkkfjjj Area
S. Ojima & Y. Murakami
2(14pt) Japan Water Agency, Saitama, Japan
satoshi_ojima@water.go.jp)
ABSTRACT:
Japan is one of the countries where people drink tap water directly. Therefore, careful water
resources management is required especially in supplying drinking water. On May 17, 2012,
formaldehyde (HCHO in chemical formula), one of harmful substance, was detected as exceeding
the limit for drinking water regulation near capital area of Japan, and, eventually, water supply for
around 360 thousand houses was stopped in Chiba Prefecture, next to Tokyo metropolis.
Japan Water Agency (JWA) is in charge of operation of water resources management facilities in
major river basins in Japan such as dams, weirs and canals, etc. Therefore, JWA worked together
with river administrator against the water quality accident through emergency operation which
aimed at reducing consistency of causative substance of formaldehyde and to prevent expansion of
troubles. Emergency discharge from upstream dams, stopping water delivery through canals which
connects 2 river basins, etc. were implemented as emergency operation. Finally, most of water
supply service area didnt suffer from water quality accident. Through the experience of the water
quality accident and emergency operation, JWA learned importance of 1) appropriate information
sharing and 2) grasping the potential risk in the basin in advance. In addition, JWA reminded that
enhancing the capacity of risk management is essential to achieve the mission of to deliver safe
water stably since water quality accident are directly link to citizens daily lives and one trouble
can give negative impact into wide area through the network of rivers, canals and water supply
facilities.
Keywords: water quality accident, basin-wide response, emergency discharge, risk management,
1. ROLE OF JAPAN WATER AGENCY IN CAPITAL AREA ON WATER

RESOURCES MANAGEMENT
1.1. Water Resources Development in Tone and Ara River Basins
Tone River, one of Japans major large rivers, originates in Mt. Ohminakami on the north
boarder of Kanto Region. The river encompasses most of the Kanto Plain, collecting the
waters of numerous tributaries and empties into the Pacific Ocean with part of the flow
diverted at Sekiyado by the Edo River that enters Tokyo Bay (see Figure 1). The area of
Tone River basin is 16,840km2, the largest in Japan, and covers most of the prefectures of
Kanto Region, including some part of metropolis of Tokyo. The large river has long been
providing abundant water resources and enriching the soils, but has also been causing
floods and other great disasters. Between 1961 and 1964, serious drought generally
IV - 215
referred to as the Tokyo Olympics drought occurred, which had great influence on
subsequent water resources development policies in Japan.
Figure 1. Tone and Ara River basins
Ara River with headwaters in Mt. Kobushigatake locates western side of Kanto Plain runs
through a group of major cities in Saitama and Tokyo in the south of the Kanto Plain, and
reaches Tokyo Bay (see Figure 1). The basin occupies 2,940km2, next to Tone River basin.
Tone River basin and Ara River basin is connected by Musashi Canal, which is constructed
near Tone Barrage, to deliver water which is developed in Tone River basin to Ara River
basin (see Figure 1). The combined river basin of the Tone and Ara River Systems covers
an area of 19,780km2, which represents 66% of five prefectures and a metropolis. The
basin of both river systems is at the center of Japans political, economic and cultural
activities. Water use and flood control in the basin is therefore of great significance.
1.2. Role of Japan Water Agency
Japan Water Agency (JWA), based on the Basic Plan for Water Resources Development
Plan for Major seven river systems (Tone, Ara, Kiso, Yodo, Yoshino and Chikugo River
Systems) designated for water resources development, is working on construction,
operation, management and re-construction of water resources management facilities such
as dams, estuary barrages, facilities for lake and marsh development, and canals (see
Figure 2).
IV - 216
The seven river systems designated for water resources development where the plan above
mentioned is applied cover major areas in Japan. Although the area of these river basins is
only 16% of national land, the population and industrial shipments in value in the covered
area account for 51% and 47% of national totals, respectively. Most of major cities in
Japan are located in these cities. (e.g. Tokyo in Tone and Ara River basin, Kyoto and
Osaka in Yodo River basin, Nagoya in Kiso River basin)
Figure 2. Cover area of Japan Water Agency
JWA has constructed 4 dams in upstream of Tone River System and 2 dams in Ara River
System, and also a canal which connects Tone River and Ara River to deliver water
collected in Tone River basin, larger river basin, to Ara River which goes through
population concentrated area to meet water demand there. In addition, JWA worked on the
development of lakes, construction of barrages and canals in Kanto Plain. JWA has
completed and managing 18 projects in both river systems and, at present, implementing
construction of 6 facilities.
JWA manages 72% of water resources developed in both river basins which is worth for
drinking water for 14,000,000 people, provides agricultural water for 94,000ha, and
contributing industrial production of approximately 36 billion USD per year.
2. DETECTION OF HARMFUL SUBSTANCE IN PURIFIED WATER
On May 17, 2012, formaldehyde, one of harmful substance, was detected as exceeding
the limit for drinking water at a water purification plant in Saitama Prefecture, locating
next to Tokyo.
Formaldehyde is an organic compound with the formula CH2O or HCHO. It is the

simplest aldehyde, so that it exists everywhere in the world. However, it has toxicity and
IV - 217
volatility, exposure to formaldehyde is a significant consideration for human health. It is
known as a cancer-causing material in highest category of International Agency for
Research on Cancer under WHO. On the other hand, formaldehyde is commonly used as
industrial materials, construction materials, etc. because of its low price.
In Japan, ordinance by Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare on drinking water defines
formaldehyde as one of the 50 regulated items and if consistency of the items in water
exceeds their limits, water suppliers are not allowed to provide the water as drinking water.
Therefore, the fact that the consistency of formaldehyde in the treated water, which is to be
supplied for drinking use, exceeded the regulated value means quite serious situation
because water supplier cannot provide drinking water for its service area. Eventually, water
supply service for around 360,000 houses stopped because of excessive formaldehyde.
3. EMERGENCY OPERATION
3.1. Outline of Emergency Operation
The purification plant where formaldehyde was detected takes raw water from Tone River
through the intake gate placed at Tone Barrage. Detection of formaldehyde made relevant
organizations start emergency operation. The detection of formaldehyde at a plant which
takes raw water from Tone River raised following concerns.
a) The plant where formaldehyde was detected cannot provide drinking water, which
brings problems in water supply service in cover area.
b) Same problem can happen in other plants which take water from Tone River
In case formaldehyde is detected in other plants in capital area, it cause serious problem in
water supply service in the area which bring large negative impact for the lives of the
citizens there. Therefore, following actions should be implemented urgently.
a) Identifying causative substance and preventing contamination
b) Decision of stop or not to stop on water intake from Tone River at other
purification plants
c) Prevention of trouble expansion
For identification of causative substance and prevention of contamination were conducted

by Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare and local governments, and some days later, it
was announced that the hexamethylenetetramine (HMT) which was contained in the
effluent from waste disposer which is located in upper stream area was the causative
chemical substance of formaldehyde.
As for the decision of water intake from Tone River, Ministry of Land, Infrastructure,
Transport and Tourism (MLIT), as river administrator, implemented urgent water quality
tests along the Tone River and Edo River which diverted from Tone River repeatedly and
provided the result to relevant organizations. As a result, many purification plants stopped,
temporary, water intake from Tone River on May 19. One of them stopped water intake for
3 days
JWA contributed on prevention of trouble expansion. JWA implemented emergency

operation of facilities under the coordination with MLIT, river administrator.
IV - 218
3.2. Outline of Emergency Operation by JWA
JWA and MLIT implemented emergency operation of water resources management

facilities in Tone River System to prevent expansion of troubles, assuming the causative
substance is coming through Tone River.
3.2.1. Announcement of emergency response mode and stopping water delivery through
Musashi Canal
Receiving first report of detection of formaldehyde from Saitama Prefecture at 17:30, May
18, JWA Headquarters (JWA-HQ) and related branch offices announced emergency
response mode and implemented emergency operation under coordination with MLIT.
Assuming that the causative substance reached the purification plant through Tone River,
one of the significant emergency operations was stopping water delivery through Musashi
Canal.
Musashi Canal is the canal which connects Tone River and Ara River (see Figure 3). One
of the objectives of the canal is to deliver water developed in Tone River Basin which has
large area to Ara River which run through a group of major cities in Saitama and Tokyo for
effective water supply. The canal was constructed in 1967, and has been delivering 40% of
drinking water of Tokyo and 80% of Saitama through the canal of 14.5km.
Figure 3. Location of Musashi Canal and other major facilities in 2 river basins
If the causative substance reaches to Ara River from Tone River through the canal, water
supply in Tokyo and Saitama may be affected by significant impact. Since Musashi Canal
takes water from Tone Barrage, same place of troubled purification plant, stopping water
delivery through the canal was essential operation to prevent capital area from expansion
of serious troubles.
IV - 219
After the coordination with relevant organizations, JWA stopped Musashi Canal at 23:10
on May 18. The JWA-HQs emergency operation mode is changed to higher level at the
same time.
The operation was announced to public in the midnight, 24:00 with MLIT.
3.2.2. Emergency water discharge from dams

The other important emergency operations were to reduce the consistency of causative
substance in river flow and to wash causative substance into sea.
Through the consultation, JWA and MLIT decided to release water in reservoirs in
upstream area as emergency operation to achieve these missions.
At 1:30 on May 19, JWA started emergency water discharge at Shimokubo Dam, located
in upstream of Tone River, with the amount of 200m3/s in maximum.
Photo 1. Shimokubo Dam
200m3/s of water never releases from the dam except the case of flood. Such large amount
of water released from the dam as emergency operation. Normally, water users want to
save water in reservoir to prepare against drought. However, to avoid the situation of
closing intake gates of purification plants in downstream area, it is unavoidable option to
improve the situation. Also dams of MLIT started emergency water discharge as well.
The emergency water discharge has not only problem of preparation against drought, but
also technical problem. Rapid decrease of water level of reservoir may cause land slide
around reservoir if geological condition doesnt fit.
Therefore, emergency water discharge was implemented under careful observation of the
condition around the reservoirs as well as checking water quality test result of downstream
IV - 220
area to seek improvement of downstream condition and to avoid unnecessary trouble in
reservoir management.
Emergency water discharged from dams of MLIT and JWA in upstream area of Tone
River recorded 543m3/s, maximum in the emergency operation duration, at 5:00 on May
19.
On the other hand, many water purification plants along the Tone River and Edo River
stopped water intake from the rivers to check water quality test result, and after confirming
the safety of the water intake, they resumed taking water to their plants. Most of them
started with the interval less than half day. But one of the plants stopped for 3 days. During
the duration stopping water intake water from the river, the purification plants could
deliver water for some time utilizing stored water, however, water supply service to around
360,000 houses, around 870,000 people in population, stopped for half one day
eventually. On May 23, the last plant which kept stopping water intake for 3 days restarted
their operation.
3.2.3. Alternative operation against stopping water delivery through Musashi Canal
The emergency operation, stopping water delivery through Musashi Canal, to prevent
capital area from expansion of troubles raised another problem. Water volume in Ara River
which normally receives water through the canal reduces when canal stopped water
delivery. It may cause water shortage in Tokyo and Saitama Area.
Photo 2. Musashi Canal
Therefore, JWA carefully observed water discharge volume of the control points along Ara
River whether it fits water demand of the area, considering the condition of storaged water
volume of 2 dams in upstream of Ara River and the possibility of additional discharge as
alternative option of stopping water delivery of Musashi Canal to avoid unexpected water
shortage in capital area.
3.2.4. Finishing emergency operation
IV - 221
Considering water quality monitoring data, discharge volume of emergency operation from
dams was reduced gradually. Since no additional troubles in the purification plants
occurred, and consistency of formaldehyde was kept low than regulation value even after
the reduction of emergency water discharge volume, MLIT as river administrator decided
to stop emergency discharge of all the dams, and to restart water supply through Musashi
Canal. Emergency operation for 7 days finished at 15:00 on May 24. Series of major
emergency operation by JWA are shown in the table below.
Table 1. Emergency operation by JWA

Date Time Operation by JWA Remarks
May 18 17:30 Received first report of detection
of formaldehyde from Saitama
Prefecture
18:00 Announced emergency response
mode by JWA-HQ
23:10 Closed Musashi Canal which
normally delivers water from
Tone River to Ara River for water
use of major cities in Tokyo and
Saitama area
24:00 Press release on emergency
operation of Musashi Canal
May 19 01:30 Started emergency water Emergency discharge was
discharge from Shimokubo Dam continuously conducted from
which is located in upstream of reservoirs in upstream area
Tone River under coordination with
MLIT.
05:00 Emergency discharge from
reservoirs recorded 543m3/s in
total.
<maximum volume during the
emergency operation>
08:30 Stopped emergency water JWA kept standing by
discharge from Shimokubo Dam additional emergency
based on the coordination with discharge from dams in
MLIT upstream area.
22:30 Started emergency water
discharge from Yagisawa Dam
which is located in upstream of
Tone River
May 20 05:30 Stopped emergency water
discharge from Yagisawa Dam
May 21-24 Conducted several times of
emergency water discharge from
Yagisawa Dam
May 24 15:00 Restarted water delivery through JWA continued careful
Musashi Canal monitoring of water quality of
rivers and purification plants
until finishing emergency
response mode on June 8.
June 8 09:00 Finished emergency response
mode
IV - 222
After stopping emergency operation, JWA-HQ continued emergency response mode until
June 8 and conducted checking water quality of the rivers and plants to secure safety water
supply for water user organizations.
Causative substance was also identified by central and local government and announced to
public about the cause and process of the water quality accident.
3.2.5. Information Release

Since the water quality accident is directly linked to peoples daily life, prompt information
release is required to related organizations. Therefore, during the emergency operation,
JWA released information to public through website 6 times, and held press conference
together with MLIT 4 times, in addition to frequent information sharing with relevant
organizations on water resources management.
4. CONCLUSION
In general, troubles in water supply service are directly link to citizens daily lives and one
trouble may give impact into wide area in river basin because of installed water supply
network and rivers/canals.
In the case of emergency operation in May 2012, flexible facility operation of dams, canals,
etc. contributed a lot to avoid expansion of water quality trouble in capital area. However,
implementation of flexible facility operation was not so easy because it required proper
decision making which meets sudden changes in circumstances and which is to be
accepted by stakeholders.
Through the experience of water quality accident and emergency operation, JWA learned
importance of 1) appropriate information sharing and 2) grasping the potential risk in the
basin.
Appropriate information sharing means information sharing which is timely, including

necessary information for receivers, and contributing well to share the recognition of each
other, etc. and it is applied for information sharing between JWA and water user
organizations, as well as between JWA and MLIT, and among JWA-HQ and branch
offices in the Basin.
The characteristic of the trouble in this case was 1) trouble which directly link to citizens
lives, and 2) emergency operation was needed in large area of wide 2 river basins.
Therefore, information sharing and coordination among various stakeholders such as river
administrator, facility management authorities, water users, related ministries, etc. were
essential and significant. The important information for proper decision making for
emergency response in each organization should be delivered appropriately and
sufficiently beyond the wall of organizations in any case. It is a key for success in risk
management and information scheme and measures should be always reviewed and
improved.
In addition, JWA leaned importance of grasping potential risk in the river basin, such as
information of the companies who treat dangerous material, for the preparation of
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emergency response simulation against quality accident in advance. It helps a lot prevent
identifying source of accident and expansion of troubles.
Lastly, through the water quality accident, JWA reminded the importance of upgrading the
capacity of risk management as one of the organizations which is working in the field of
water supply service and water resources management under the mission of deliver safe
water to water users stably.
REFERENCES
Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism of Japan (2012): Press release
documents from May 18 to 24, 2012, (in Japanese), Tokyo, Japan
Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare of Japan (2012): Press release documents on June
7, 2012, (in Japanese), Tokyo, Japan
Wikipedia Formaldehyde: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formaldehyde
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INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON

Bali, Indonesia, June 1ST 6TH , 2014

Upper Gotvand Dam and Hydro Power Plant

D. Mahjoob Farshchi & A. Sadatifard

H. Hassani & A. Zia

Keywords: Karst, Halite, Salinity, Impounding.

Figure 1. Gachsaran Formation

3. NUMERICAL AND PHYSICAL MODELS

3.1 Numerical Model

3.2 Physical Model, Needs for Understanding and Prediction

Evaluating the dissolution rate,

4.1 Minimize the dissolution rate and salinity stratification management

4.1.2 Nano, polyurethane and asphaltic materials

4.1.3 Concrete blocks

4.1.4 Clay blanket

4.2 Filling the sinkholes

To reduce the area permeability, most of sinkholes were filled by slurry.

4.3 The additional intakes in the different levels

4.4 Preliminary impounding

4.5 Monitoring the reservoir and proportional operation scenarios

4.6 Complementary solution

Figure 4. Thermal stratification

6. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Bali, Indonesia, June 1ST 6TH , 2014

Integrated Approach for Environmental Management in Tenryu River

Tetuo MURAKAMI, Dr.

Keywords: Impacts on environmental condition; Multivariate and quantification analysis;

2. REPRODUCTION OF THE TENRYU RIVER

2.1. Outline of Tenryu River

Figure 1. Tenryu River system and target area

2.2. The Tenryu River Natural Resources Reproduction Committee

Figure 2. The Tenryu River Natural Resources Reproduction Committee

3. ENVIRONMENTAL CAPABILITY OF TENRYU RIVER

3.1. Environmental capability containing river ecology

3.2. Relevance of ayu fish productivity and environmental capability

Figure 3. Comparison of ayu fish productivity of 22 rivers in Japan

Figure 5. Position of 22 rivers with ayu fish productivity by principal component

3.3. Ayu fish productivity of Tenryu River

Figure 6. Estimation of ayu fish productivity by regression analysis (Tenryu River)

4.1. Structure of ecosystem, and improvement in fishes productivity

Figure 8. Structure of ecosystem in river system

4.2. Ayu fish productivity of Tenryu River

4.3. Production rate investigation

Figure 11. Change range of DO at downstream Figure 12. Daily change of DO at

The committee gives the importance of information dissemination, therefore the

Nakamura S. (1999) : Introduction of IFIM (United States Department of the Interior),

Bali, Indonesia, June 1ST 6TH , 2014

LIDAR ALS Application for Construction of the Digital Model

In hydrological studies of reservoirs, it is very important to define the morphometry. First

As far as the bathymetric measurements of water reservoirs are concerned, depth

4. BATHYMETRIC MEASUREMENTS ON THE EXAMPLE OF TRESNA

4.1. Measurement cross - sections

Figure 4. Automatic generation of the cross-section in a given place.

Figure. 5. Sample spatial analysis based on an integrated DTM.

NWL1-Normal Water Level (1.X.-31.V.), NWL2-Normal Water Level (15.VI.-15.IX.),

Figure 7. The capacity curve of the Tresna reservoir.

Bali, Indonesia, June 1ST 6TH , 2014

Comparative Study On Settling Rate Evaluation

Figure 1. Accumulated Sediment in Nibutani Dam

CA: Catchment Area

Figure 2. Location of Sampling Site

2.1. Measuring Method of Settling Rate Distribution

In case of conducting numerical simulation of sediment accumulation in reservoirs, it is