CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
The device used to implement the transfer of heat/exchange of heat/thermal energy
(enthalpy) from one medium to another/solid medium which are at different temperature
are called heat exchanger. In order to prevent mixing of fluid solid wall may be used to act
as separators or they may be in direct contact. In aeronautical, space heating, petroleum
refineries, sewage treatment, food processing, power plants, natural gas processing,
petrochemical plants, refrigeration, chemical plants, and air conditioning heat exchanger
are commonly used [1].

In industries and for domestic application etc. heat exchangers are widely used for the
exchange of heat between flowing fluids. It is necessary to construct the heat exchanger by
using the efficient method to transfer the heat from one medium to another, by direct or
indirect contact. Basic principle involved in heat transfer are conduction, convection and
radiation. In comparison with conduction and convection heat transfer, radiation may not
be taken into consideration for heat exchange as it is negligible in compared to those
conduction and convection. Flow of heat between the substances which are in direct contact
with each other known as conduction. Flow of heat from one place to another with the
movement of fluid is known as convection. Heat transfer is more in case of forced
convection than with natural convection [2].

In industrial, domestic and commercial application the process of heat exchange involves
in utilization and recovery of energy. A lots of research and developments of heat transfer
enhancement techniques are conducted these methods are known as intensification or
augmentation technique. The various augmentation techniques are generally used to
improve the conventional heat exchanger [3]. Generally, there are 3 categories in heat
transfer enhancement techniques namely Active techniques, Passive techniques and
Compound technique [4].

Active Techniques: In this active techniques, for enhancement of heat transfer some
external source is used as input.

Example: Jet impingement, Fluid vibrations, Surface vibrations and Mechanical aids.

Passive Techniques: In this passive techniques, for enhancement of heat transfer external
source is doesnt require as input. Special surface geometry or surface modifications on to

1
the flow area and also with the present inserts or fluid additives like utilizing nanofluids or
additional devices.

Example: Rough surfaces, extended surfaces, turbulators.

Compound Techniques: In this compound techniques, in order to enhance the heat

transfer both passive and active techniques are been included simultaneously and it is
greater than any of those techniques separately and hence it is also termed as compound
enhancement.

1.1 Classification of heat exchangers

Due to more number of heat exchanger configurations, an exchanger classification is based
upon the basic operation, construction features, transfer processes, number of working
fluids, flow arrangements etc. [5].

1.1.1 Classification according to basic operation

Recuperative/Recuperator

Regenerative/Regenerator

Recuperative/Recuperator

In this type of heat exchanger fluid on either side of the separating wall transfer the heat.

Advantages

Construction is easier
As the construction cost is lower it is more economical
Surface area for heat transfer is more
It is suitable for stationary plant
Disadvantages:
heat transfer coefficient is less
Less generating capacity
Soothing problems
Regenerative/regenerator

In this type of heat exchanger thermal storage medium is used to transfer the heat from hot
fluid is intermittently stored in it before it is transferred to cold fluid.
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Advantages

Pressure drop is reduced due to higher surface area for given volume.

More economical due to its materials and manufacturing

It reduces the stream side fouling and corrosion by using matrix surface as it has a
self-cleaning characteristics.

Disadvantages

Some mixing of fluid streams

Constant heating and cooling increase stress in the component which cause
cracking/breaking of materials

1.1.2 Classification according to transfer processes

Direct contact

Indirect contact

Direct contact type exchange of heat and mass transfer takes place by direct contact of
two fluids, and are then separated. Phase change normally rises the heat transfer rate
compared to indirect contact

1. Rise heat transfer rates can be achieved,

2. Construction cost of exchanger less, and

3. Fouling problem doesnt occur, because absence of a heat transfer surface (wall) between
the two fluids.

Applications are limited to cases when two fluid streams are in direct contact [6]. These
exchangers may be further classified as follows.

Immiscible Fluid Exchangers.

GasLiquid Exchangers.

LiquidVapor Exchangers

3
Indirect contact type

In this type of heat exchanger due to the presence of separating wall between the fluids,
there is no direct mixing of two fluids to transfer heat. It is also known as surface heat
exchanger. It is further classified as follows.

Direct-transfer type

Storage type

Fluidized-bed exchangers

1.1.3 Classification according to geometry of construction

Heat exchangers are usually characterized by constructional features. NTU and LMTD
methods are similar [7]

Double pipe

Shell and tube

Plate

Shell-and-Tube Exchangers.

Normally, heat exchanger consists of cylindrical shell where the bundles of tubes are placed
in parallel to the axis of shell. In that one fluid flows inside the tube while other fluid flows
over the tubes. The major components of this exchanger are tubes (or tube bundle), shell,
frontend head, rear-end head, baffles, and tube sheets, and are as shown in fig 1.1

A number of different internal constructions are used depending upon the effective heat
transfer, reduced thermal stresses, easy for cleaning and pressure drop performance etc.
There are three most common types of shell-and-tube exchangers are

fixed tube sheet design,

U-tube design, and

Floating-head type.

4
 Fig 1.1 Shell and tube exchanger

Double-Pipe Heat Exchangers.

DPHEs normally consists of two concentric pipes with the inner pipe plain or finned, as
shown in Fig. 1.2 each pipe carries one fluid. Direction of fluid flow may be co-current or
countercurrent flows. Countercurrent flows gives the highest performance for the given
surface area. However, if the application requires a constant wall temperature, the fluid is
made to flow in parallel flow direction. Double pipe heat exchanger is a simplest heat
exchanger due to easy of cleaning by disassembling, flow distribution.

Fig 1.2 Double pipe heat exchanger

Plate-Type Heat Exchangers

This heat exchanger consist of a series of thin plates see fig 1.3 either smooth or corrugated,
the hot and cold fluids flow in alternate flow passages, thus each section of cold fluid is covered
hot fluid sections, hence results heat transfer effectively. Also the capacity of heat transfer can
be enhanced by placing more plates in series. These are most suitable liquid to liquid heat
transfer applications.

5
 Fig 1.3 Plate heat exchanger

1.1.4 Classification according to number of fluids

Two fluid

Three fluid

N- fluid (N>3)

Two fluid exchanger

Heat exchanger involving in exchange of heat between two fluids know as two fluid heat
exchanger. Heating, cooling, heat recovery, and heat rejection which uses two fluids.
Therefore two-fluid heat exchangers are common.

Three fluid exchanger

Exchanger involving in the exchange of heat between the three fluids is known as three
fluid heat exchanger. They are widely used in cryogenics and some chemical processes

Example: a heliumair separation unit, air separation systems, ammonia gas synthesis,
purification and liquefaction of hydrogen.

N-fluid exchanger

Heat exchanger involving in transfer of heat between 3 or more than 3 fluid known as N-
fluid heat exchanger/multi fluid heat exchanger. The design theory of these three and multi
fluid heat exchangers is very complex

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1.1.5 Classification according to flow arrangements
Counter flow

Parallel flow

Crossflow

Hybrids such as Cross Counter flow

Counter flow

Fig 1.4 shows a counter flow exchanger, it involves two fluids flow in opposite direction.
Thus this arrangement gives us the highest temperature change in each fluid compared to
any other two-fluid flow arrangements and for a given surface area it as maximum heat
transfer rate.

Fig 1.4 Countercurrent flow

Parallel flow

In this type of flow the fluid is allowed to flow parallel to each other as in fig 1.5 with the
same directions. It provides more uniform wall temperature and hence, it is less efficient
than counter flow

Fig 1.5 Countercurrent flow

Crossflow
In this type of heat exchangers, arrangements are made in such a way that two fluids (hot
and cold) is allowed to cross one another at right angles as in fig 1.6.

7
 Fig 1.6 Crossflow

Cross counter flow

Hybrids of counter flow, parallel flow and cross flow are used.

Examples combined crossflow/counter flow and multi pass flow heat exchangers. (See fig
1.7)

Fig 1.7 Cross/counter flow

From the past decade development in the heat transfer technology for limited space with
higher heat flux, reducing size and cost of it, is the mission for research in heat transfer
enhancement [8]. Where authors found that with the use of passive techniques helps in the
improvement on heat transfer which is more commercially [9].

Therefore in my project the double pipe heat exchanger with the flow additives (nanofluid)
and perforated disk inserts are used to see how the heat transfer takes place with varying
the particle concentration with Reynolds number.

1.2 Nanofluid
The particle which falls in the size of nanometer range are called as nanoparticles. These
particles are suspended in the base fluid forming a colloidal fluid known as nanofluid. The
8
particles may be metals like aluminum, nickel, copper etc. and nonmetals like metal oxides,
different allotropes of carbon (graphene, CNT) etc., they are dispersed in the base fluid like
water, oil, ethylene glycol etc., which form metallic nanofluid and nonmetallic nanofluid
respectively shows high thermal conductivity and fast response to the heat transfer.
Nanofluids can be of two kinds such as

Metallic nanofluids and

Nonmetallic nanofluids

1.3 History and development of nanofluids

As the time runs the improvement in the technology has been seen many improvements in
the industry. One the subject called by the name nanoscience and technology as becoming
famous during these new trends in the country. The name nanotechnology is first used the
scientist Norio Taniguchi in 1974. In the past year 1959 micro machines concept are
proposed by the noble prize winner Richard Feynman. Later in the year 1995 preparation
of nanofluid was successfully developed by the scientist Choi. After this landmark given
in the field of nanoscience, as seen from the fig 1.8 [10] the nanofluid as created the hype
in the researches which lead to the use of nanofluid in many industrial applications.

Fig 1.8 Year wise publication on nanofluids

1.4 Potential features of nanofluids

Thermal conductivity of the fluids increases

Heat transfer ability is fast.

9
 It has greater stability than other colloids.

Reduction of erosion and clogging in micro channels.

Reduction in pumping power

Friction coefficient is reduced.

It act has good lubrication

1.5 Preparation of nanofluids

Nanofluids preparation are the initial step to the experimental studies of nanofluids. There
are two common methods used to prepare nanofluids.

Single-step preparation process and

Two-step preparation process.

1.5.1 Single-step method

To reduce aggregation of nano sized particles, single step method is used. As the name
indicates the preparation consists of only one-step, with the use of this process
simultaneously making and dispersing particles in a fluid and the particles can be stably
suspended in the base fluid. Eastman et.al, [11] used one-step physical vapor condensation
method for preparing Cu / ethylene glycol nanofluids. In this method, the steps of drying,
storing, transporting and dispersing the nanoparticles are avoided, aggregation of the
nanoparticles is minimized, and the stability of the fluid is improved. With the one-step
physical method, nanofluids cannot be synthesized on a large scale and cost is high, so the
one-step chemistry method is rapidly developing.

Lo et al. [12] developed a process called vacuum based submerged arc for the synthesis of
nanoparticle to from the metal and metal oxide nanofluids with various dielectric liquids.
Due to its high cost, this process used lesser. Various techniques have been arrived for the
preparation of nanofluid in single step method like VEROS (vacuum evaporation onto a
running oil substrate), chemical process.

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1.5.2 Two-step method
Two step method is widely used in synthesis of nanofluids by mixing base fluid and Nano
powder available from the different technique namely mechanical, physical and chemical
routes like mechanical, physical and chemical routes. Then this mixture is stirred in the
Ultra sonicator/vibrator which helps in proper mixing of particles in the base fluid.

Advantages

heat transfer rate will increase

friction factor coefficient will decrease

thermal conductivity of the working fluid will increases and

increase in viscosity

Disadvantages

Pumping power increases due to greater pressure drop

Potential clogging of flow passage and long term fluid settling

Damage to flow passage by erosion

High cost of nanoparticle suspensions

Poor to sustain flow boiling

Highly viscous and denser

Low specific heat

Applications

It is used in heat-transfer application like nuclear reactor, industrial cooling etc.

Used as a coatings for materials

It can be used in automotive application like brake fluid, lubrication, coolant etc.

Medical nanofluids (drug delivery and functional tissuecell interaction).

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1.6 Stability of nanofluids
Due to its proneness to coagulation which effects the heat transfer by nanofluid. Therefore
stability test is unavoidable which helps us in determine the influential factor to the stability
of such suspensions [13].

1.7 Stability evaluation methods

1.7.1 Zeta potential analysis
The difference in potential between dispersion medium and the stationary layer of fluid
which is attached to the particle is known as zeta potential. This potential difference
indicates the repulsive force between adjacent equally charged particles in the fluid as
shown in fig 1.9. Therefore the fluid with high potential difference (positive/negative) are
electrically stable while the fluid with low the potential difference starts to sediment. For
the excellent stability of the fluid the potential difference must be in the range 40-60mV.

Fig 1.9 Zeta potential

1.7.2 Sedimentation method

The most basic method which uses an external force for the initiation of sedimentation of
nanoparticles in the nanofluid is called as sedimentation method. The stability of nanofluid
is determined by volume/weight of sediment, general stability check is by the concentration
of supernatant particles remains same/constant with time.

1.7.3 Centrifugation method

The development of this method is due the long time period of observation for the
sedimentation method which consumes more time. In this type of stability evaluation
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method the denser and larger particle in the suspension sediment at faster rate, then over
the period of time different sizes or densities particles in the nanofluid will sediment at
different rates by the application of centrifugal force to the nanofluid as shown in fig 1.10.

Fig 1.10 Centrifugation

1.7.4 Spectral analysis method

Evaluating the stability of nanofluids by the spectral analysis method with the use of
spectrophotometer, which gives the quantitative results with respect to the concentration of
nanofluids. The full fill/complete the stability test process the above mentioned three
methods can be used.

1.8 Stability enhancement procedures

1.8.1 Addition of surfactants
To stabilize the nanofluid the commonly employed method is the additions of surfactants
or dispersant. The addition of chemical compound (surfactant) to the base fluid increase
the immersion of the particles in the base fluid and with lowering the surface tension of
liquids. Several authors have shown in the literature that by adding the surfactant into the
base fluid with nanoparticles. Prevents the sedimentation of nanoparticle in the base fluid.
Some important surfactant are Poly vinyl pyrrolidone (PVP), Salt and oleic acid, Hexadecyl
trimethyl ammonium bromide (HCTAB), Dodecyl trimethyl ammonium bromide (DTAB),
Sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS), Gum Arabic etc. this technique cannot be apply to the
working fluid which is exposed to the high temperature because of breaking of the bond
between the particle and chemical compound. Additional chemical compound leads to
foam while heating and effects the heat transfer, furthermore addition leads to minimize

13
the thermal conductivity by increasing the thermal resistant between the base fluid and
particle.

1.8.2 pH control of nanofluids

Electro-kinetic properties of nanofluid directly relates the stability of the fluid. By
controlling the pH value of the fluid the stability of the nanofluid can be increased due to
the repulsive force of particles, note that every nanofluid has its own optimized pH value
for the stabled nanofluid.

1.8.3 Ultra sonication

Agglomeration can occur even after the preparation of nanofluid over the period of time
this causes the fast sedimentation of particle due to the gravitational force. Therefore in
order to maintain the stability of nano fluid periodic sonication must be done.

1.9 Stability Mechanisms

Stability plays the main role which can minimizes/eliminates the sedimentation of particles.

Particle aggregation because of sum of repulsive and attractive forces of particles. If

attractive forces dominates the repulsive forces of particles, the particle in the fluid will
sediment. Therefore to increase the stability of nanofluid enhancement of repulsive force
over the attractive force prevent the sedimentation. Electrostatic stabilization and steric
stabilization are the two mechanisms which are adopted to enhance the stability.

1.9.1 Electrostatic stabilization

Kinetic stability of particle is the presence of an electric charge on the surface of particle.
The columbic repulsion force between the particles is created by adsorption of ions on to
electrophilic metal particle surface, this creates an electrical double/multi-layer as shown
in the fig 1.11 which stables the particles in the suspension and this method is sensitive to
pH therefore it is of limited use.

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 Fig 1.11 Electrostatically stable nanoparticle

1.9.2 Steric stabilization

Repulsive force of nanoparticle is increased by using the steric stabilization where attaching
(grafting or chemisorption) macromolecules like surfactants/polymers over the surface of
nanoparticle as shown in fig 1.12. This provides a large steric barrier to prevent molecule
coming in contact which each other results in the stabilization of nanofluid.

Fig 1.12 Sterically stabilized nanoparticle

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CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Overview of concentric tube heat exchangers
Mozely [14] done the earliest researches on DTHEs, in which they studied and predict
dynamic characteristics of DTHEs with two automatic control methods by numerically and
experimentally. These two methods are totally based on passive electrical analogs and
mathematical models. The results concluded that numerical results are in a good adoptable
with the experimental results. Cohen and Johnson [15] studied the dynamic characteristics
of DTHEs. In this numerical and experimental study, equations of dynamic characteristics
was derived for simple system and it is also observed that these datas were closer to the
experimental results.

Furthermore experimental study made by Aicher and Kim [16] examine the effect
of counter flow direction in nozzle section of a DTHEs. It showed that a great effect on
heat transfer characteristics and pressure drop for the counter flow in a nozzle section and
with this they also gave an experimental correlations in order to predict the heat transfer
rate in turbulent flow.

2.2 Geometry change

Yang and chiang [17] studied the heat transfer characteristics in DTHE containing
periodic varying curvature inner tube with the working fluid (water) effect of heat transfer
rate, Reynolds and Prandtl number and also studied the pressure drop coefficient. It was
observed that Nusselt number and friction coefficient increased about 100 and 40 percent
respectively in comparison with smooth tube. In other experimental study, Rennie and
Raghavan [18] conducted experiment on DTHE for a both cocurrent and counter flow
configuration in which heat transfer rate of inner tube and annulus were calculated by
Wilson plots. It was found that heat transfer regarding to the counter flow configuration
was higher than its cocurrent flow which was due to higher temperature difference. Dizaji
et.al. [19] Studied the effect of heat transfer and pressure drop of corrugated tubes in
DTHE. In which inner and outer tube were corrugated in a concave and convex shape.
Working fluids as hot and cold water flowed in inner and outer tube DTHE respectively.
The result showed that higher effectiveness was obtained in the case when inner tube with
a convex and outer tube with a concave corrugated configuration. Naphon [20] conducted
experiment on horizontal DTHE with and without twisted tape inserts, studied
16
experimentally the effect of heat transfer and pressure drop the twisted tapes were made up
of aluminum with 1mm thickness. Working fluids as hot and cold water in tube and annulus
respectively. The results indicated that twisted tapes inserts had a great effect on heat
transfer rate and also pressure drop in the DTHE. Finally correlation of heat transfer and
pressure drop were derived which matches the experimental results.

2.3 Heat transfer enhancement method

EL-Maghlany et al. [21] experimentally investigated DTHE with rotating inner tube. The
determined results were based on the influence of flow configuration (parallel/counter
flow), hot and cold fluids and also inner rotating tube speed on NTU (number of transfer
units) and effectiveness of heat exchanger. From this experiment its clearly indicated that
heat transfer rate effectiveness and NTU increased with increase in a speed of inner tube.

Other thermal enhancement method which was conducted numerically by using ribs
as a turbulators in DTHE which is explain by Al-Kayien and EL-Rahman [22] one of the
other heat transfer enhancement method which is used mostly in shell and tube heat
exchanger using baffles. The study on baffles are carried out numerically by Targui et al.
[23]

2.4 Nanofluid in a concentric tube heat exchanger

Rohit S. Khedar et al. [24] performed an experiment on concentric tube heat exchanger
for basefluid to nanofluid (Al2O3) and observed heat transfer by varying concentration of
nanoparticles into basefluid. This paper mainly concentrated on enhancement of thermal
conductivity and overall heat transfer coefficient. Experimentally determined and found
that there was 16% of higher overall heat transfer coefficient than the water and also
thermal conductivity enhancement observed. Shriram S. Sonawane et al. [25] studied the
heat transfer characteristics of Al2O3 to basefluid (water) as heat transfer fluid in concentric
tube heat exchanger. It is observed that average heat transfer coefficient of nanofluid as
heat transfer fluid are higher than water and also found there was increase heat transfer
capacity of fluid with increase of concentration of nanoparticles. 17% increment in overall
heat transfer capacity for higher temperature and higher fluid flow (3LPM) and less than
6% for lower hot fluid flow rate. A.A abbasian et al. [26] in this research investigated the
convective heat transfer characteristics with fully developed turbulent flow of TiO2 to water
nanofluid. For the different volume concentration of nanoparticles the effect of size of
17
nanoparticles on convective heat transfer and pressure drop was studied. There was not
significant increase in pressure drop of nanofluid compared to distill water and found the
maximum thermal performance factor of 1.9 with use of 0.02% volume concentration of
TiO2 to water nanofluid, 47000 Reynolds number and 20nm nanoparticle diameter. A.A.
Rabienataj Darzi et al. [27] observed the variations and effects of pressure drop, heat
transfer and thermal performance of double tube heat exchanger and also the effect of
viscosity of nanofluid at different temperature ranging from 27C to 55C. The experiment
carried out at different Reynolds numbers ranging from 5000 to 20000. Thermal
performance increases at 1% volume concentration of Al2O3 nanoparticles and also result
indicated that pressure drop and heat transfer increases with increase in volume
concentration of nanoparticles. Mohammad hemmat et al. [28] experimentally studied
the heat transfer characteristics and thermo physical properties of Mgo-water nanofluid in
turbulent flow condition. The results obtained were compared with existing correlation and
showed that the thermal performance factor was greater than unity which indicates that
used nanofluid enhances the heat transfer without much use pumping power. Maximum
heat transfer coefficient was about 35.93% at volume concentration of 1.0% at Reynolds
number 7731. W.C williams et al. [29] effort has been made to know the preparation of
different nanofluids and their characterizations. In this paper revealed the many methods to
prepare the nanofluid. The characterization of nanoparticle includes concentration,
colloidal stability, size distribution and composition of elements. They found the effective
method to prepare the nanofluid by using ultrasonicator with better heat transfer
enhancement. D. Madhesh et al. [30] used the MWCNT nanoparticles for the preparation
nanofluid and also studied its characterization. In this study MWCNT nanoparticles were
prepared for 0.1 to 1.0% volume concentration. Thermal conductivity increases with
increase in concentration of nanoparticles and its temperature. Result proved that 23.5%
enhancement of thermal conductivity at 1.0% volume concentration. T. Srinivas A.Venu
Vinod [31] studied the effect of nanofluid on shell and helical coil heat exchanger and
compared with water. In this experiment shell and helical coil was investigated for three
water based nanofluids (Al2O3, TiO2 and CuO). The test were carried out for different
concentration nanofluids, stirrer speed and coil side flow rate. The effectiveness of heat
exchanger was increased with increase of concentrations, stirrer speed and flow rate at shell
side. Increment of 30.37%, 32.7% and 26.8% in effectiveness heat exchanger for Al2O3,
CuO and TiO2 / water nanofluids was observed when compared water which indicated the
increase of heat transfer.

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2.5 Aim
To investigate the heat transfer by using Fly ash-nanofluid in double pipe heat exchanger
with perforated disk inserts.

2.6 Objectives
To Design the double pipe/ concentric pipe heat exchanger.

To fabricate the designed model of Heat Exchanger.

To Prepare and analyze the Thermo-physical properties of Nano Fluid of different

volume concentration.

To analyze different parameters of thermal performance of Heat Exchanger.

2.7 Methodology
The heat exchanger model has been designed for the required specifications with
the minimum pressure drop for having the higher overall heat transfer rate. The
model can be design with the useful softwares like Solid edge, Catia, solidworks
etc.

The designed model double pipe is fabricated with the use of copper pipe for inner
pipe and Galvanized iron (GI) pipe for outer pipe, with the perforated disk inserts
placed alternate with the inner tube and outer tube and it is made up of copper of
suitable thickness. Insulation is made on the GI pipe to restrict the heat transfer to
the surrounding and thermocouples are placed at the different position to get the
temperature of the fluid.

For the preparation of nano fluid Distilled water acts as a base fluid to which the
Fly ash nanoparticles are added in calculated quantity for different volume
concentration of 0.1%, 0.125%, 0.25%, and 0.5%. Triton X-100 are added in
calculated concentration that acts as dispersant. Then the prepared mixture is blend
uniformly with the use of magnetic stirrer for 1hr and with Ultra-sonicator for 5hr.
Finally one of the volume concentration of nanofluid is selected as per the better
results of Thermo-physical properties of nanofluids.

19
 The prepared nanofluid is made to pass in the inner tube and the hot fluid is made
to pass in the outer tube and vice versa then the results are tabulated, thermal
performance of heat exchanger is calculated.

20
CHAPTER 3
EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
3.1 Design of heat exchanger
The design of heat exchanger consists of two pipe which are in concentric. Inner pipe
having 19.05 mm diameter and length of 2000mm is made up of copper and the outer pipe
of 50.8mm diameter and length of 1500mm is made up of galvanized iron. Baffles are
inserted in order to increase the turbulence of flowing fluid and also helps for increase in
heat transfer. Therefore the baffles are designed by considering with minimum pressure
drop and maximum heat transfer rate by making perforation on the disks/baffles (see fig
3.1). Baffles are placed inside of both pipe as in fig 3.2 (copper pipe and GI pipe). Where
four inner disks (Baffles) having 19.05 mm Outer diameter , Inner diameter of 9.53 mm
and 3mm of ten small holes on disk and are placed inside copper pipe. Three outer disk
with Outer diameter 50.8 mm, inner diameter 20.05 mm and 9 mm nine holes on disk and
are placed inside the annulus (In between Copper and GI pipe). Fig 3.3 shows the final
designed model of heat exchanger with the use of solid works softwares

Fig 3.1 Designed model of outer and inner disk inserts

Fig 3.2 Front and right Cross sectional view of Double pipe heat exchanger

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 Fig 3.3 Final designed model of double pipe heat exchanger

3.2 Fabrication of designed heat exchanger

Perforated disk inserts are fabricated with the help of CNC machine. The inner perforated
disk insert is attached to the inner diameter of copper tube at specified distance with the
help of brazing as shown in fig 3.4, outer perforated disk inserts is placed over the outer
diameter of copper pipe (see fig 3.5), reducer is attached to the extreme ends of the outer
pipe which help to hold the copper pipe in center with the G.I pipe and also act as end cover
for the G.I pipe, and inlet and outlet port is fixed to the G.I pipe in order to provide inlet
and outlet for the exchanger. The thermocouples are attached to the exchanger to know the
temperature distribution during working of heat exchanger. The final fabricated model
double pipe heat exchanger is as shown in fig 3.6.

Fig 3.4 Image of perforated disk inserts, copper pipe and attachment of inner disk for ID of copper
pipe

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 Fig 3.5 Image of Brazed outer disk for OD of copper tube

Fig 3.6 Image of Final fabricated model of double pipe heat exchanger

3.3 Experimental Setup

Fig 3.7 Experimental setup

Fig 3.7 shows the Experimental setup for counter flow concentric type heat exchanger in
horizontal position. Closed flow loop are equipped for two working fluid circulations
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including both hot fluid and cold fluid. Either the fly ash nanofluid may be hot or cold is
passed in the inner pipe and cold water or hot water is passed in annulus respectively.
Similar flow condition is maintained for Distilled water passed in the inner pipe. Two Tanks
are kept on either side of the HE model to circulate and collect the two circulating fluids
separately. The fluids have been pumped by two centrifugal pumps for two different section
of heat exchanger (Pipe and Annulus). Rotameters are fixed to adjust/measure the flow
rates of fly ash nanofluid and water. U-tube manometer is used to measure the pressure
drop of the test section. K type thermocouples are fixed at 9 different position of heat
exchanger to measure the both fluid temperature. The thermocouples are attached to data
logger to record the reading simultaneously at different log rates.

3.4 Preparation of fly ash-water nanofluid

In this preparation two step method was adopted. In this process, Fly ash nanoparticles were
suspended in distilled water for variable volume concentrations: 0.1%, 0.125% and 0.5%
by weight. Mass of Fly ash Nanoparticles for different volume fraction is given in Table
3.2. In this preparation, dispersant Triton X-100 (see fig 3.8) was added to the solution in
the weight ratio 1:1 to the nanoparticles. The mixture is dispersed into 1000 ml distilled
water (Base fluid). This solution was first stirred in magnetic stirrer for an hour (see fig)
and then vibrated using ultra sonication method for about 5 hours as shown in Fig 3.9. The
obtained Fly-ash nanofluid sample was analyzed for various Thermo-physical properties
such as density, specific heat, viscosity and thermal conductivity for volume concentrations
as mentioned above.

Fig 3.8 Triton X-100

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 Fig 3.9 Nanofluid stirred in magnetic stirrer

Fig 3.10 Ultra sound bath type sonicator

Table 3.1 Properties of base fluid

Properties Base fluid (water)

Density 1000 kg/m3

Thermal Conductivity 0.6078 W/m-K

Specific Heat 4178 J/kg-K

Viscosity 0.000888385 Pa-Sec

The Table 3.1 shows the specifications of base fluid (water) used in the present nanofluid
preparation.

The amount of Fly-ash Nano particle to be added in the base fluid for different volume
fraction is calculated using equation.

25



=
100 eq. 1

+

Table 3.2 Mass of Fly-ash nanoparticles for different volume fraction

Quantity of
Volume Mass of Fly-ash
base fluid
concentration nanoparticles Triton X-
(Distilled water)
in % in grams 100 ratio
in liter

1 0.1 0.785 1:1

1 0.125 0.981 1:1

1 0.5 3.925 1:1

3.5 Experimental Procedure

The purpose of this experiment is to know heat transfer in the exchanger by using Fly ash-
water nanofluid. Hence, the test was carried out in two conditions, heat absorption and heat
rejection. In first condition the cold nanofluid was made to flow through the pipe (varied
from 120LPH to 320LPH) and hot water flows through the annulus (400LPH) in counter
flow direction (see fig 3.7).

Fig 3.11 heat absorption by nanofluid from hot water

26
 Similarly in second conditions the hot nanofluid flows through the tube mean while
the cold water flows through the annulus in counter flow direction by keeping flow rate in
same condition as above (see fig 3.8). Inlet and outlet temperature, manometer readings are
tabulated for the both fluids flowing in the exchanger and is used further for calculating
heat transfer characteristics and performance of heat exchanger.

Fig 3.12 heat rejection to the water by hot nanofluid

27
CHAPTER 4
NANO CHRACTERIZATION
4.1 Fly ash nanoparticle
About 75% of Indias energy supply is from Coal burning power plants that produce large
amounts of fly ash which are collected by the electrostatic precipitator or bag houses. This
fly ash is the largest produced industrial waste in the world because of the global
dependability on the coal powered plants. Fly ash Nano powder was selected for its good
Thermo-physical properties that were found to be better among the other available Nano
powders. Adnan Sozen et.al conducted the experiments on fly ash Nano fluid to
enhancement the heat transfer with 0.01 weight percentage of Nano particle dispersed in
the base fluid with the dispersant. Now we are making the samples of 0.1%, 0.125% and
0.5% volume concentration of nanofluid and check the Thermo-physical properties of
nanofluid and conduct the experiment and comparing the results for those concentration.
The fly ash Nano particle we are using is 99% pure and it is in gray color as shown in fig
3.8, and the composition and properties of fly as shown in table 4.2 and 4.1 respectively.

Fig 4.1 Fly ash Nano particle

Table 4.1 Properties of Fly ash nanoparticle

PROPERTIES VALUE

Avg. Particle Size <100 nm

Purity 99%

Color Grey- Black

Specific Gravity 2-2.9

Boiling Point >1000C

pH 6.8

28
 Table 4.2 Composition of Fly ash nanoparticle

COMPOSITION PERCENTAGE

SiO 60.90

AlO 31.40

FeO 3.60

SO 2.5

TiO 2.40

NaO 0.45

KO 0.85

LOI 0.32

Magnesia 0.12

NaO 0.4

Cu 0.0088

Co 0.0023

Ni 0.0063

Pb 0.0019

Zn 0.0223

Ag 0.0001

Mn 0.0147

Cr 0.021

Ca 0.0803

Mg 0.0361

29
 Fig 4.2 SEM image of fly ash Nano particle

Fig 4.3 SEM machine

SEM is a scanning electron microscope as seen in fig 4.3. The beam of electrons are focused
in order to scan the surface of the sample which gives us an image of better resolution than
1 nanometer. The common SEM mode is the detection of secondary electrons which gets
excited and emitted by the atoms with beam of electrons focused on the sample. A special
detector are used to collect these secondary electrons during the SEM scanning , an image
displaying the surface topography of the nanoparticle as presented in fig 4.2.

30
 [4], d=1.8196(5), 2-th
250

[1], d=4.2557(19), 2-t

[2],

[3], d=2.695(4), 2-thet

Meas. data:FLY ASH_Theta_2-Theta
Calc. data:FLY ASH_Theta_2-Theta

Intensity (counts)
200

150

100

50
0
1 2 3 4
Q (1/ang.)

250 Meas. data:FLY ASH_Theta_2-Theta

200
Intensity (counts)

150

100

50
0
1 2 3 4
Q (1/ang.)

Fig 4.4 XRD image of fly ash Nano particle

Fig 4.5: XRD machine

In order to get the information of unit cell dimension for a crystalline material XRD
technique has been practically used as it identifies the compounds based on diffraction
pattern. XRD machine seen in fig 4.5 X-ray are been generated in a cathode ray tube

31
because of heating the filament, to produce electrons and directed towards the sample and
bombarding with it by accelerating the electrons by the rise in voltage. This sufficient
energy dislodge the inner shell electrons of sample. Characteristics X-rays spectrum has
been produced, these are filtered by using monochrometers of foil in order to analyze the
X-ray diffraction pattern. Constructive interference with a peak intensity occurs and are
recorded by using detectors, these detectors process and converts that into signal count rate
as seen in fig 4.4 and then it displaced on the computer.

4.2 Effective Density

The effective density of nanofluid is calculated by equation (2) given by Pak and Cho [32]

= (1 ) eq. 2
Density of nanofluid at different volume concentration

Table 4.3 Density of nanofluid at different volume concentration

Fly ash volume concentration in % Density in kg/m3

0.1 999.785

0.125 999.731

0.5 998.92

4.3 Effective Specific heat

Xuan and Roetzel [33] represented an equation to find the effective specific heat of the
nanofluid. Thermal equilibrium between the nanoparticles and base fluid assumed by this
correlation.

()
+(1)()

eq. 3

Specific heat of nanofluid at different volume concentration

32
 Table 4.4 Specific heat of nanofluid at different volume concentration

Fly ash volume concentration in % Specific heat Cp in J/kg-K

0.1 4184.27

0.125 4183.59

0.5 4173.36

4.4 Effective Dynamic viscosity

The effective dynamic viscosity of the nanofluid could be estimated with the existing
relations for the two phase mixture given by Einsteins equation [34]. This formula is
applicable to spherical particles in volume fraction less than 5vol% and is as follows

= (1 + 2.5) eq. 4
Dynamic viscosity of nanofluid at different volume concentration

Table 4.5 Dynamic viscosity of nanofluid at different volume concentration

Fly ash volume concentration in % Dynamic viscosity in Ns/m2

0.1 0.000890605

0.125 0.000891161

0.5 0.000899489

4.5 Effective Thermal Conductivity

To determine the effective thermal conductivity or thermal conductivity of liquid -solid
suspensions Maxwell model [35] is used. This model is statistically applicable to
homogeneous and low volume concentration solid-liquid suspension. Thermal conductivity
of nanofluid determine by the equation (5)
+2+2()

)

+2
(


eq. 5

=
Thermal conductivity of nanofluid at different volume concentration as shown in table 4.6

33
 Table 4.6 Thermal conductivity of nanofluid at different volume concentration

Fly ash volume concentration in % Thermal conductivity in W/m-K

0.1 0.6094

0.125 0.6098

0.5 0.6158

34
CHAPTER 5
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
5.1 Effective Density of Fly ash-water Nanofluid at various volume
concentration

Density v/s volume concentration

1000
Density in kg/m

999.8
999.6
999.4
999.2
999
998.8
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6

volume concentration in %

Fig 5.1 Density of fly ash nanofluid for various volume concentration

The figure 5.1 shows the density variation of Fly ash-water nanofluid for various volume
concentration of nanoparticles. Density of nanofluid decreases with rise in nanofluid Nano
particle concentration because of the bulk density of nanoparticle in fluid lesser than the
base fluid. The variation of density is mainly due to size of the particle, shape/geometry, it
is not clearly explained by the classical theories.

5.2 Effective Specific Heat of Fly ash-water Nanofluid at various volume

concentration

Specific heat v/s volume conentration

Specific heat in J/kg-K

4186
4184
4182
4180
4178
4176
4174
4172
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
volume concentration in %

Fig 5.2 Specific heat of fly ash nanofluid for various volume concentration

35
The figure 5.2 shows the Specific heat variation of Fly ash-water nanofluid for various
volume concentration of nanoparticles. Specific heat of nanofluid decreases with rise in
nanofluid concentration because of the lower specific heat of nanoparticle in base fluid
results in decrease of specific heat in nanofluid with increasing concentrations.

5.3 Effective Dynamic Viscosity of Fly Ash-water Nanofluid at various

volume concentration

Dynamic viscosity v/s volume concentration

0.0009
Dynamic viscosity in N-s/m

0.000898

0.000896

0.000894

0.000892

0.00089

0.000888
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
volume concentration in %

Fig 5.3 Dynamic viscosity of fly ash nanofluid for various volume concentration

The figure 5.3 shows the Dynamic viscosity variation of Fly ash-water nanofluid for
different volume concentration of nanoparticles. Dynamic viscosity of nanofluid increases
with rise in nanofluid concentration because nanoparticles are highly viscous compared to
the base fluid hence the by adding nanoparticle into the base fluid water increases the
viscosity with increase in particle concentrations.

36
5.4 Conductivity of Fly ash-water Nanofluid at various volume
concentration

Thermal conductivity v/s volume concentration

0.617
Thermal conductivity in W/m-K
0.616
0.615
0.614
0.613
0.612
0.611
0.61
0.609
0.608
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
volume concentration in %

Fig 5.4 Thermal conductivity of fly ash nanofluid for various volume concentration

The figure 5.4 shows the variation of Thermal conductivity of Fly ash-water nanofluid for
different volume concentration of nanoparticles. Thermal conductivity of nanofluid
increases with rise in nanofluid concentration because of the liquid layer formation.
Layered Nano molecules arranged in intermediate physical state between the fluid and
solid. Hence the molecule present in the layers increases the thermal conductivity of fluid.

5.5 Heat absorption

Cross sectional area of pipe
2
eq. 6
4

=
D2 = OD of outer pipe

D1 = ID of inner pipe

D = ID of inner pipe

37
 Table 5.1 Velocity, Reynolds number for different flow rate in pipe side

Flowrate Flowrate Q Velocity

Area (m) Re
Q (LPH) (m/s) V (m/s)

120 0.1178 2521.05

3.36105 2.85 104
160 0.157 3359.97
4.48105 2.85 104
200 0.1964 4203.17
5.6105 2.85 104
240 0.2357 5044.24
6.72105 2.85 104
280 0.275 5885.3
7.84105 2.85 104
320 0.3143 6726.37
8.96 104 2.85 104

Cross sectional area of annulus

2 2
(2 1 )
eq. 7
4

=
Table 5.2 Velocity, Reynolds number for annulus side flow rate

Flowrate Flowrate Velocity

Area (m) Re
Q (LPH) Q (m/s) V (m/s)

400 0.0654 7994.77

4 3
1.12 10 1.71110

Thi = 70C

Tci = 25C

38
 Table 5.3 Readings of thermocouples temperature with varying flow rate for different volume
concentration of nanofluids and distilled water

Flow rate
0.1 vol% 0.125 vol% 0.5 vol% Water
Q in LPH

Tho=66C Tho =66C Tho =66C Tho =67C

120LPH
Tco=27C Tco =26C Tco =27C Tco =26C

Tho =64C Tho =65C Tho =64C Tho =66C

160LPH
Tco =29C Tco =27C Tco =28C Tco =27C

Tho =61C Tho =62C Tho =61C Tho =63C

200LPH
Tco =30C Tco =29C Tco =29C Tco =28C

Tho =56C Tho =58C Tho =57C Tho =60C

240LPH
Tco =33C Tco =30C Tco =32C Tco =29C

Tho =53C Tho =55C Tho =54C Tho =58C

280LPH
Tco =36C Tco =32C Tco =35C Tco =31C

Tho =51C Tho =52C Tho =51C Tho =55C

320LPH
Tco =38C Tco =34C Tco =37C Tco =33C

5.5.1 Formulaes
Heat transfer rate to nanofluids (from hot water)

= ( ) eq. 8
Heat transfer rate of hot water

= ( ) eq. 9
Average heat transfer rate
+
eq. 10

=
Equivalent diameter
2 2

39

2
1

eq. 11

1

40
Discharge (flow rate)

= eq. 12
Cross sectional area for annulus side
2 2
(2 1 )
eq. 13
4

=
Cross sectional area for pipe side
2
eq. 14
4

=
Reynolds number

eq. 15
Heat transfer surface for pipe side

= eq. 16
Heat transfer surface for annulus side

= eq. 17
Heat transfer coefficient

=
(
) eq. 18
Tube wall temperature
+
eq. 19

= 2
Bulk mean temperature
+
eq. 20
2

=
Nusselt number
eq. 21

=

Theoretical friction factor for nanofluids

40
= 0.961
0.052
0.375 eq. 22
Theoretical friction factor for normal fluids

= 0.448
0.275
eq. 23

= (2 1) Taken for annulus side pressure drop and friction factor calculation

40
D taken for pipe side pressure drop and friction factor calculation

Experimental friction factor

= [ 2 ] eq. 24
2
Practical Pressure drop calculation by knowing differential head of manometer readings

= eq. 25
Thermal performance factor
1
3
) (
= ( )
eq. 26

5.5.2 Calculation for 120 LPH flow rate with 0.1 Vol% nanofluid
Qnf = 0.03364184.27 (27-25)

= 281.18 W

Qwater = 0.1124.187 (70-66)

= 1875.77 W
281.18+1875.7
Qavg =
2
= 1078.47 W

A = 3.1420.019051.5

= 0.08977 m2 = 68C
70+66
Twall =
2 = 26C
25+27
Tb =
2
1078 . 47
h= 0.08977(6826)

= 286.042 W/mK
286.0420.01905
Nu =
0.6094
= 8.941

fnf = 0.9610.0010.0522521.05-0.375

41
 = 0.03557
0.035571.510000.1178
Pth =
20.01905
= 19.433 Pa

Pexp = 10009.812

= 19.62 Pa

5.5.3 Validation of the Experimental Results

The reliability and accuracy of the developed experimental set up to measure heat
transfer coefficient is validated with the experimental results conducted for pure distill
water with Dittus-Boelter correlation as shown in the figure.

It is seen that there is good coincidence between obtained experimental results for different
Reynolds number and the calculated values with the use of prediction of the correlation
equation.

5.5.4 Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient and Nusselt Number

The fly ash/Water nanofluid with different volume concentration such as 0.1, 0.125 and
0.5% is dispersed into water in order to prepare three test samples to determine heat transfer
performance and pressure drop characteristics. Experiment was conducted with following
test conditions such as varying the nanofluid flow rate from 120LPH to 320LPH in which
Reynolds number of the nanofluid varies from 2500 to 9000 and hot water flowrate fixed
at 400LPH. The Temperature of hot fluid is maintained that 70C and cold nanofluid
temperature was at 25C. This experimental setup was used to determine rate of heat
absorption from hot water to nanofluid in terms of heat transfer coefficient and average
heat absorption rate. Similar experiment was carried out to investigate rate of heat rejection
from nanofluid to cold water at different Reynolds number which varies from 2500 to 9000.
During this experiment the temperature of nanofluid is 65C and cold water temperature at
25C. Figure shows the variation of experimental Nusselt number and heat transfer
coefficient of nanofluid with different nanoparticle concentration against various Reynolds
number. It is observed that heat transfer coefficient of all nanofluids are significantly higher
than those of the base fluid. The experimental results indicate the addition of small amount
of nanoparticle to distill water enhances the heat transfer coefficient. The suspended
42
nanoparticle increases the thermal conductivity of the mixture which causes chaotic
movement of this particle due to which acceleration of energy exchange process occurs
between the fluids. With the increase in nanoparticle concentration in water the heat
transfer coefficient for nanofluids were greater than that of water and showed a very weak
effect on heat transfer coefficient with increase in concentration. In this study it is
investigated that at low concentration of nanofluid the augmentation of heat transfer
coefficient could not be attributed to the increase of thermal conductivity.

Table 5.4 heat transfer co-efficient with Reynolds number variation

Flow rate heat transfer co-efficient in W/mK

Re
Q in LPH 0.1 vol% 0.125 vol% 0.5 vol% Water

120 2521.05 286.02 264.24 285.9 200.44

160 3359.97 496.19 364.99 464.08 298

200 4203.17 790.33 669.61 745.82 555.03

240 5044.24 1443.99 1073.21 1282.5 852.3

280 5885.3 2080.68 1528.43 1875.45 1175.36

320 6726.37 2647.33 2089.04 2529.46 1668.5

Heat transfer coefficient v/s Reynolds number

heat transfer coefficient in (W/mK)

3000

2500 0.1 vol%

2000
0.125 vol%
1500
0.5 vol%
1000
Water
500

0
2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000
Re

Fig 5.5 heat transfer coefficient at various particle volumetric concentration over water are compared
with Reynolds number variation
43
From the fig 5.5 at 0.1vol%, the enhancement range 29.7% to 43.5%. However the heat
transfer coefficient for volume concentration of 0.125% is smaller than that of 0.1%, but
still greater than distill water. It is also found that the enhancement of heat transfer
coefficient at .125vol% lies in the range of 17.11% to 24.14% and for 0.5vol% lies between
the ranges of 25.8% to 37.32%. From the obtained results the heat transfer coefficient was
maximum for 0.1% of volume concentration.

Table 5.5 Nusselt number with Reynolds number variation

Flow rate Nusselt number

Re
Q in LPH 0.1 vol% 0.125 vol% 0.5 vol% Water

120 2521.05 8.94 8.25 8.84 6.28

160 3359.97 15.51 11.4 14.35 9.35

200 4203.17 24.7 20.91 23.07 17.39

240 5044.24 45.13 33.52 39.67 26.71

280 5885.3 65.04 47.74 58.01 36.83

320 6726.37 82.75 65.26 78.24 52.29

Nusselt number v/s Reynolds number

90
80
0.1 vol%
70
60
0.125
50 vol%
Nu

40
0.5 vol%
30
20
Water
10
0
2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000
Re

Fig 5.6 Nusselt number at various particle volumetric concentration over water are compared with
Reynolds number variation

44
From the fig 5.6 it represents the Nusselt number of the fly ash/Water nanofluids versus
Reynolds number for various volume concentrations respectively. The Nusselt number
which was found maximum for 0.1 vol% of nanofluid compared to other volume
concentration like 0.125% and 0.5% and also with distill water. The enhancement of the
Nusselt number for nanofluid is particularly significant at their optimum nanoparticle
concentration (0.1% Nanofluid) and is higher than 36.8 % than water.

Validation of Nusselt number (water)

60

50

40
Water
Nu

30

20 water th

10

0
2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000
Re

Fig 5.7 Validation of Nusselt number for distilled water

Validation of Nusselt number (Nanofluid)

90
80
70
60
50 NF(0.1%)
Nu

40
30 NF(0.1%) Th
20
10
0
2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000
Re

Fig 5.8 Validation of Nusselt number for 0.1 vol% concentration of nanofluid

45
Validation of Nusselt number was performed by comparing with the correlation proposed
by Dittus-Boelter equation as shown below. From the fig 5.7 our experimental values
showed a good relation with the calculated ones

= 0.0230.80.4 eq. 27
Similarly Nusselt number of nanofluid is compared with the above equation (27) but the
results deviates with the calculated ones because the correlation doesnt contain the particle
concentration in to account therefore the new correlation as shown below. From the fig 5.7
and 5.8 experimental results are closer to the calculated ones.

= 0.065(0.65 60.22)(1 + 0.01690.15)0.542 eq. 28

5.5.5 Experimental Pressure drop
Table 5.6 Practical pressure drop with Reynolds number variation

Flow Head diffference in mm Practical Pressure drop in Pa

rate
Re 0.1 0.125 0.5 0.1 0.125 0.5
Q in Water Water
vol% vol% vol% vol% vol% vol%
LPH

120 2521.05 2 2 2 3 19.62 19.62 19.62 29.43

160 3359.97 3 3 4 5 29.43 29.43 39.24 49.05

200 4203.17 4 5 5 7 39.24 49.05 49.05 68.67

240 5044.24 6 6 7 10 58.86 58.86 68.67 98.1

280 5885.3 8 8 9 13 78.48 78.48 88.29 127.53

320 6726.37 10 10 11 16 98.1 98.1 107.97 156.96

46
 Practical pressure drop v/s Reynolds number
180
160

Practical pressure drop in Pa

140
120 0.1 vol%
100
0.125 vol%
80
60 0.5 vol%
40
20 Water
0
2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000
Re

Fig 5.9 Comparison of practical pressure drop at various particle volumetric concentration over
water with Reynolds number variation

It is important to measure the pressure drop of nanofluid rather than calculating heat transfer
performance, in order to use nanofluids in industrial applications. The pressure drop of
water and nanofluid was measured along the test section with manometers. The value of
pressure drop is calculated by using head difference in the manometer with the equation
(25).

Fig 5.9 illustrated that pressure drop increases with rise in Reynolds number. Pressure drop
of nanofluid is lower than the water because slight variation in viscosity and less density
value of nanofluids compared to the water. It is also found that increase in concentration of
nanoparticle there is increase in pressure drop because addition of nanoparticle into the
base fluid which causes fluid to be more viscous.

47
5.5.6 Theoretical Pressure drop
Table 5.7 Theoretical pressure drop with Reynolds number variation

Flow rate Theoretical Pressure drop in Pa

Re
Q in LPH 0.1 vol% 0.125 vol% 0.5 vol% Water

120 2521.05 19.43 19.657 21.126 28.398

160 3359.97 30.995 31.354 33.693 46.609

200 4203.17 44.586 45.118 48.489 68.58

240 5044.24 59.972 60.672 65.22 93.939

280 5885.3 77.054 77.947 83.782 122.578

320 6726.37 95.75 96.839 104.112 154.321

Theoretical pressure drop v/s Reynolds number

180
Theoretical pressure drop in Pa

160
140 0.1 vol%
120
100 0.125 vol%
80
0.5 vol%
60
40 Water
20
0
2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000
Re

Fig 5.10 comparison of theoretical pressure drop at various particle volumetric concentration over
water with Reynolds number variation

Theoretical pressure drop is calculated using equation 24 by knowing theoretical friction

factor, length of the test section, density of mixture, velocity of fluid and diameter of the
pipe.

By comparing both practical and theoretical pressure drop from fig 5.9 and 5.10, the
measured pressure drop agrees well to that of calculated theoretical pressure drop.

48
5.5.7 Experimental friction factor
Table 5.8 experimental friction factor with varying Reynolds number

Flow Experimental friction factor

rate Q Re
0.1 vol% 0.125 vol% 0.5 vol% Water
in LPH

120 2521.05 0.03591 0.03591 0.03591 0.05386

160 3359.97 0.03032 0.03032 0.04043 0.05054

200 4203.17 0.02583 0.03229 0.03229 0.04521

240 5044.24 0.02691 0.02691 0.03139 0.04485

280 5885.3 0.02635 0.02635 0.02965 0.04282

320 6726.37 0.02522 0.02522 0.02774 0.04032

practical friction factor v/s Reynolds number

0.06

0.05
Practical friction factor

0.1 vol%
0.04
0.125 vol%
0.03
0.5 vol%
0.02
Water
0.01

0
2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000
Re

Fig 5.11 comparison of practical friction factor at various particle volumetric concentration over
water with Reynolds number variation

The friction factor is obtained from measured pressure drop by using Colebrook equation
24. Variation of friction factor versus Reynolds numbers for the various volume
concentrations of nanoparticle are represented in the fig 5.11. Despite increasing the
pressure drop by Reynolds number due to getting thinner sub layer. The friction factor
reduces as the Reynolds number raises. It is due to increase in bulk velocity of working
fluid by Reynolds number and where the friction factor proportional to velocity by the
power of 2 in Colebrook equation.
49
5.5.8 Theoretical friction factor
Table 5.9 Theoretical friction factor with Reynolds number variation

Flow rate Theoretical friction factor

Re
Q in LPH 0.1 vol% 0.125 vol% 0.5 vol% Water

120 2521.05 0.03557 0.03598 0.03867 0.05198

160 3359.97 0.03194 0.03231 0.03472 0.04803

200 4203.17 0.02936 0.02971 0.03193 0.04516

240 5044.24 0.02742 0.02771 0.02982 0.04295

280 5885.3 0.02588 0.02618 0.02814 0.04117

320 6726.37 0.02462 0.0249 0.02677 0.03968

Theoretical friciton factor v/s Reynolds

number
0.06
0.05 0.1 vol%
friction factor

0.04 0.125 vol%

0.03
0.5 vol%
0.02
Water
0.01
0
2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000
Re

Fig 5.12 comparison of theoretical friction factor at various particle volumetric concentration over
water with Reynolds number variation

The experimental friction factor and theoretical friction factor values are compared using
Blasius equation. The results showed that theoretical friction factor values gives reasonably
acceptable agreement with the experimental friction factor datas.

50
5.5.7 Thermal Performance
Table 5.10 Thermal performance with Reynolds number variation

Flow rate Thermal performance

Re
Q in LPH 0.1 vol% 0.125 vol% 0.5 vol%

120 2521.05 1.63 1.5 1.61

160 3359.97 1.96 1.44 1.65

200 4203.17 1.71 1.34 1.48

240 5044.24 2 1.48 1.67

280 5885.3 2.07 1.52 1.78

320 6726.37 1.85 1.46 1.69

Thermal performance v/s Reynolds number

2.5
Thermal performance

2
0.1 vol%
1.5
0.125
1 vol%
0.5 vol%
0.5

0
2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000
Re

Fig 5.13 comparison of thermal performance at various particle volumetric concentration over water
with of Reynolds number variation

From the fig 5.13 thermal performance factor for various volume concentration of
nanofluid and distill water. It can be observed that thermal performance factor for all the
above mentioned cases are greater than unity which indicates that enhancement of heat
transfer is possible by using nanofluid without higher pumping power. In this study thermal
performance factor at 0.1% volume concentration is between 2 to 2.07at Reynolds number
5000 to 5900 and the maximum thermal performance factor obtained in between 5900 to

51
6000 Reynolds number. Similarly for volume concentration of .125% is 1.52 at 5900
Reynolds number and for 0.5% is 1.78 at 5900 Reynolds number.

The main reason for calculating thermal performance factor is due to the addition
of nanoparticle in the base fluid increases the viscosity and the thermal conductivity of base
fluid and also increasing with volume concentration. Enhancement Heat transfer increases
is done by increase of thermal conductivity whereas increase of viscosity leads to increase
in boundary layer thickness which reduces the heat transfer enhancement.

5.6 Heat rejection

Thi = 65C

Tci = 25C

Table 5.11 Readings of thermocouples temperature with varying flow rate for different volume
concentration of nanofluids and distilled water

Flow rate
0.1 vol% 0.125 vol% 0.5 vol% Water
Q in LPH

Tho=61.3C Tho =61C Tho =61.5C Tho =62C

120LPH
Tco=26C Tco =25.5C Tco =26C Tco =25.5C

Tho =57.5C Tho =60C Tho =58C Tho =61C

160LPH
Tco =27.5C Tco =26.5C Tco =27.5C Tco =26.5C

Tho =55.5C Tho =57C Tho =55.7C Tho =58C

200LPH
Tco =29.5C Tco =28C Tco =29C Tco =28C

Tho =51.2C Tho =54C Tho =52C Tho =55C

240LPH
Tco =32C Tco =29C Tco =31C Tco =28.5C

Tho =48.8C Tho =51C Tho =49.2C Tho =53C

280LPH
Tco =35C Tco =31C Tco =33C Tco =29.5C

Tho =47.3C Tho =49C Tho =47.5C Tho =52C

320LPH
Tco =36C Tco =32C Tco =34C Tco =31C

52
5.6.1 Convective heat transfer coefficient and Nusselt number
Table 5.12 Heat transfer co-efficient with Reynolds number variation

Flow rate heat transfer coefficient in W/mK

Re
Q in LPH 0.1 vol% 0.125 vol% 0.5 vol% Water

120 2521.05 146.29 117.55 141.6 95.48

160 3359.97 410.29 248.63 392.03 217.36

200 4203.17 731.88 529.7 676.26 485.06

240 5044.24 1347.83 851.45 1199.26 746.26

280 5885.3 2071.34 1374.91 1768.29 1061.15

320 6726.37 2561.08 1797.86 2241.3 1404.43

heat tranfer coefficient v/s Reynolds number

3000
heat transfer coefficient in (W/mK)

2500
0.1 vol%
2000
0.125
1500 vol%
1000 0.5 vol%

500 Water
0
2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000
Re

Fig 5.14 heat transfer coefficient at various particle volumetric concentration over water are
compared with Reynolds number variation

From the fig 5.14 at 0.1vol%, the enhancement range 33.7% to 48%. However heat transfer
coefficient for volume concentration of 0.125% is smaller than that of 0.1%, but still greater
than distill water. It is also found that the enhancement of heat transfer coefficient at
.125vol% lies in the range of 8% to 23% and for 0.5vol% lies between the ranges of 28%
to 39%. From the obtained results the heat transfer coefficient was maximum for 0.1% of
volume concentration.

53
 Table 5.13 Nusselt number with Reynolds number variation

Flow rate Nusselt number

Re
Q in LPH 0.1 vol% 0.125 vol% 0.5 vol% Water

120 2521.05 4.57 3.67 4.3 2.99

160 3359.97 12.82 7.76 12.2 6.81

200 4203.17 22.87 16.54 20.92 15.2

240 5044.24 42.13 26.6 37.09 23.38

280 5885.3 64.75 42.95 54.7 33.26

320 6726.37 80.06 56.16 69.33 44.02

Nusselt number v/s Reynolds number

90
80
0.1 vol%
70
60 0.125
50 vol%
Nu

40 0.5 vol%
30
20 Water
10
0
2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000
Re

Fig 5.15 Nusselt number at various particle volumetric concentration over water compared with
Reynolds number variation

From the figure 5.15 it represents the Nusselt number of the Fly ash-Water nanofluids with
Reynolds number for various volume concentrations respectively. The Nusselt number
which was found maximum for 0.1 vol% of nanofluid compared to other volume
concentration like 0.125% and 0.5% and also with distill water. The enhancement of the
Nusselt number for nanofluid is particularly significant at their optimum nanoparticle
concentration (0.1% Nanofluid) and is higher than 45% of water.

54
 Validation of Nusselt number (water)
50
45
40
35
Nu 30 Water
25
20
Water Th
15
10
5
0
2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000
Re

Fig 5.16 validation of Nusselt number for distilled water

Validation of Nusselt number (Nanofluid)

90
80
70
60 NF(0.1%)
Nu

50
40
NF(0.1%) Th
30
20
10
0
2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000
Re

Fig 5.17 Validation of Nusselt number for 0.1 vol% of nanofluid

Validation of Nusselt number was performed by comparing with the correlation proposed
by Dittus-Boelter equation 27. From the fig 5.16 and 5.17 our experimental values showed
a good relation with the calculated ones

Similarly Nusselt number of nanofluid is compared with equation 27 but the results deviates
with the calculated ones because the correlation doesnt contain the particle concentration
in to account therefore the new correlation equation 28 has been used. From the figure it is
observed experimental results are closer to the calculated ones.

55
5.6.2 Practical Pressure drop
Table 5.14 Practical pressure drop with Reynolds number variation

Flow Head Difference in mm Practical Pressure drop in Pa

rate
Res 0.1 0.125 0.5 0.1 0.125 0.5
Q in Water Water
vol% vol% vol% vol% vol% vol%
LPH

120 2521.05 2 2 2 3 19.62 19.62 19.62 29.43

160 3359.97 3 3 4 5 29.43 29.43 39.24 49.05

200 4203.17 4 5 5 7 39.24 49.05 49.05 68.67

240 5044.24 6 6 7 10 58.86 58.86 68.67 98.1

280 5885.3 8 8 9 13 78.48 78.48 88.29 127.53

320 6726.37 10 10 11 16 98.1 98.1 107.97 156.96

Practical pressure drop v/s Reynolds number

180
160
Practical pressure drop in Pa

0.1 vol%
140
120
0.125
100
vol%
80
60 0.5 vol%
40
20 Water
0
2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000
Re

Fig 5.18 comparison of practical pressure drop at various particle volumetric concentration over
water with Reynolds number variation

Figure 5.18 illustrated that pressure drop increases with increase in Reynolds number.
Pressure drop of distill water is higher than the three samples of nanofluid because slight
variation in viscosity of the fluid and less density value for nanofluids compared to the
water. It is also found that increase in concentration of nanoparticle because addition of
nanoparticle into the base fluid which causes fluid to be viscous hence increase in the
pressure drop of nanofluid.
56
5.6.3 Theoretical Pressure drop
Table 5.15 Theoretical pressure drop with Reynolds number variation

Flow rate Pressure drop theoretical in Pa

Re
Q in LPH 0.1 vol% 0.125 vol% 0.5 vol% Water

120 2521.05 19.43 19.657 21.126 28.398

160 3359.97 30.995 31.354 33.693 46.609

200 4203.17 44.586 45.118 48.489 68.58

240 5044.24 59.972 60.672 65.22 93.939

280 5885.3 77.054 77.947 83.782 122.578

320 6726.37 95.75 96.839 104.112 154.321

Theoretical pressure drop v/s Reynolds number

180
Theoretical pressure drop in Pa

160
140
0.1 vol%
120
100
0.125 vol%
80
60
0.5 vol%
40
20
0 Water
2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000
Re

Fig 5.19 comparison of theoretical pressure drop at various particle volumetric concentration over
water with Reynolds number variation

Theoretical pressure drop is calculated using equation 24 by knowing theoretical friction

factor, length of the test section, density of mixture, velocity of fluid and diameter of the
pipe.

By comparing both practical and theoretical pressure drop fig 5.18 and 5.19, the measured
pressure drop agrees well to that of calculated theoretical pressure drop.

57
5.6.4 Experimental friction factor
Table 5.16 Practical friction factor with Reynolds number variation

Flow Experimental friction factor

rate Q Re
0.1 vol% 0.125 vol% 0.5 vol% Water
in LPH

120 2521.05 0.03591 0.03591 0.03591 0.05386

160 3359.97 0.03032 0.04043 0.04043 0.05054

200 4203.17 0.02583 0.03229 0.03229 0.04521

240 5044.24 0.02691 0.02691 0.03139 0.04485

280 5885.3 0.02635 0.02635 0.02965 0.04282

320 6726.37 0.02522 0.02522 0.02774 0.04032

practical friction factor v/s Reynolds number

0.06

0.05
Practical friction factor

0.1 vol%
0.04
0.125 vol%
0.03
0.5 vol%
0.02
Water
0.01

0
2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000
Re

Fig 5.20 comparison of practical friction factor at various particle volumetric concentration over
water with Reynolds number variation

The friction factor is obtained from measured pressure drop by using Colebrook equation
(24).

Variation of friction factor with Reynolds numbers for the various volume concentration of
nanoparticle are represented in the fig 5.20. In spite of rise in the pressure drop by Reynolds
number due to getting thinner sub layer. The friction factor reduces as the Reynolds number

58
raises. It is due to increase in bulk velocity of working fluid by Reynolds number and where
the friction factor proportional to velocity by the power of 2 in Colebrook equation.

5.6.5 Theoretical friction factor

Table 5.17 Theoretical friction factor with Reynolds number variation

Flow rate Theoretical friction factor

Re
Q in LPH 0.1 vol% 0.125 vol% 0.5 vol% Water

120 2521.05 0.03557 0.03598 0.03867 0.05198

160 3359.97 0.03194 0.03231 0.03472 0.04803

200 4203.17 0.02936 0.02971 0.03193 0.04516

240 5044.24 0.02742 0.02771 0.02982 0.04295

280 5885.3 0.02588 0.02618 0.02814 0.04117

320 6726.37 0.02462 0.0249 0.02677 0.03968

Theoretical friction factor v/s Reynolds number

0.06

0.05 0.1 vol%

0.04
friction factor

0.125
vol%
0.03
0.5 vol%
0.02

0.01 Water

0
2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000
Re

Fig 5.21 comparison of theoretical friction factor at various particle volumetric concentration over
water with Reynolds number variation

The experimental friction factor and theoretical friction factor values are compared using
Blasius equation. The results showed that theoretical friction factor values gives reasonably
acceptable agreement with the experimental friction factor datas.

59
5.6.6 Thermal Performance
Table 5.18 Thermal performance with Reynolds number variation

Flow rate Thermal performance

Re
Q in LPH 0.1 vol% 0.125 vol% 0.5 vol%

120 2521.05 1.74 1.4 1.67

160 3359.97 2.23 1.35 1.91

200 4203.17 1.81 1.21 1.53

240 5044.24 2.13 1.34 1.78

280 5885.3 2.28 1.51 1.85

320 6726.37 2.12 1.49 1.78

Thermal performance v/s Reynolds number

2.5
Thermal performance

2 0.1 vol%
1.5
0.125 vol%
1
0.5 vol%
0.5

0
2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000
Re

Fig 5.22 comparison of thermal performance at various particle volumetric concentration over water
with Reynolds number variation

From the fig 5.22 thermal performance factor for various volume concentration of
nanofluid and distill water. It can be observed that thermal performance factor for all the
above mentioned cases are greater than unity which indicates that enhancement of heat
transfer is possible by using nanofluid without higher pumping power. In this study thermal
performance factor at 0.1% volume concentration is between 2.23 to 2.28 at Reynolds
number 3400 to 5900 and the maximum thermal performance factor obtained in between
3000 to 3500 Reynolds number. Similarly for volume concentration of .125% is 1.51 at
5900 Reynolds number and for 0.5% is 1.91 at 3350 Reynolds number.

60
CHAPTER 6
CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE OF WORK
6.1 Conclusion
The rate of heat transfer, heat transfer coefficient, Nusselt number, pressure loss, friction
factor and thermal performance characteristics of three samples of Fly ash nanofluids and
also with distilled water flowing in a double pipe heat exchanger with perforated disk
inserts for turbulent flow regime were investigated experimentally and validated by
theoretically.

The thermal conductivity and dynamic viscosity increases linearly with an increase
in Nanoparticle volume concentration

By adding a small quantity of Fly ash nanoparticles to the base fluid. Nano fluid
heat transfer coefficient as increased. In case of heat absorption by the nanofluid an
increase of 43.5% of heat transfer coefficient in compared with distilled water for
0.1% volume concentration of Fly ash nanofluid at a Reynolds number of 6700.
Similarly in the heat rejection by the nanofluid an 48% rise of heat transfer
coefficient in compared with distilled water for 0.1% volume concentration of Fly
ash nanofluid at a Reynolds number of 6700 had been observed

An increases in concentration of nanoparticle there is rise in pressure drop because

by adding of nanoparticle into the base fluid which causes fluid to be more viscous.
Also it has been observed that there is no significant rise in pressure drop by
increasing in particle concentration of nanofluid compared to the distilled water

Fly ash nanofluid friction factor increases with increasing in particle volume
fraction, with the increase of particle volume fraction the nanofluid becomes highly
viscous hence there is a rise in friction factor.

In case of heat absorption by nanofluid the maximum thermal performance factor

is 2.07 at a Reynolds number 5900 and in case of heat rejection by nanofluid is 2.28
at a Reynolds number for 0.1% volume concentration.

61
6.2 Future scope
The CFD analysis can be made for the same experimental test section and can
compare with the obtained experimental results.

The nanofluid can be examine in real application system such as Radiator, Engine
cooling and electronic microchip cooling system.

Ethylene glycol, oil, lubricants and propanol can be used as base fluid instead of
Demineralized water for the preparation of nanofluid and the test section can be
examine with these base fluid.

62
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