Contents

HISTORY
INTRODUCTION
Various Methods
Advantages
Choice of Method
Lab Compaction Test
Field Compaction Test
Compaction Control Test
Dynamic Compaction
Application
Introduction
Why we use
Advantages and Disadvantages
Practical Considerations
Important parameters
Limitations
Suitability of Deposits
Design Steps
Quality Control

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HISTORY
Load Compaction of Trestle Fills - In the early days large embankments
were constructed by side-dumping rail cars or wagons from temporary
wooden trestles, as shown at left. Engineers assumed that, after placement
and infiltration by rain, the soil would compact under its own dead load.
The first sheepsfoot rollers- The first sheepsfoot roller was built in Los
Angeles in 1902, using a 3-ft diameter log studded with railroad spikes
protruding 7 inches, distributed so the spikes were staggered in alternate
rows. This layout was soon modified to increase weight and efficiency,
initially by increasing its length to 8 ft.
The rollers weight was then increased to about 5000 lbs by filling them
with sand and water (drained when moved). The 7-in spikes were
enlarged to a contact of area of 4 sq inches. This increased the load bearing
on each spike to 300 lbs, or about 75 psi contact pressure

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 Fitzgerald Rollers 1906-23 : The roller was patented by John W. Fitzgerald
in 1906, who worked for Walter and Harbert Gillette, owners of the
Petrolithic Paving Co. of Los Angeles It was modified with a counter-
balanced tow frame and hemispherical fender, is was manufactured by the
Killefer Mfg. Co. of Los Angeles and marketed nationally as the Fitzgerald
Roller. The number of spikes was reduced to either 10 or 11 per row, to
bring the contact pressure up to 100 psi. It was first used to compact an
embankment dam by Bent Bros Construction in El Segundo, CA in 1912.
Thoughtful imitations soon appeared, and when the patent expired in
1923, it was not renewed.
First dams compacted with sheepsfoot rollers: The first earth
embankments compacted with sheepsfoot rollers were the Lake Henshaw
Dam in southern California in 1920-23 for the Vista Irrigation District in San
Diego County, shown at left. This was followed in 1926 by Philbrook Dam
for PG&E by R.G. Letourneau, and the Puddingstone Dam for the LACoFCD
in 1925-27, using a new roller patented by contractor H.W. Rohl that
employed ball-shaped heads. The first earth dam compacted by
sheepsfoot roller for a federal agency was Echo Dam in Utah for the Bureau
of Reclamation in 1928. The sheepsfoot rollers narrow spikes induced
kneeding compaction, critical for densifying clayey soils.
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 First compaction test procedure (1929) :

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 Ralph Proctor of the Proctor Compaction Test
Ralph Proctor was the resident engineer for the ill-fated St. Francis Dam
during its construction in 1924-26. This led to his role in developing a method
for evaluating soils compaction as the resident engineer for the Bouquet
Canyon Dams.

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Introduction
What is compaction?
A simple ground improvement technique, where the soil is densified
through external compactive effort.

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ADVANTAGES
Advantages of Compaction
1.Increases shear strength
2.Reduces compressibility
3.Reduces permeability
4.Reduces liquefaction potential
5.Controls swelling and shrinking
6.Prolongs durability Strategies for compaction process are
In the case of constructed fills, specify placement conditions (water content, density,depth of
layers, etc.)
Select appropriate equipment (roller compactor, tamping) and method of operation (number
of passes, patterns of tamping,etc.).
Set up adequate control procedures (type and number of tests, statistical evaluation,etc.).

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Mechanical Methods
Compaction, Impact, Dynamic
Vibro-flotation and Vibro-replacement
Stone Column
Explosives

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MECHANICAL METHODS
Choice of Method
Purpose
Compaction
Shallow Surface Compaction
Deep Compaction
- Dynamic Consolidation
- Vibro Compaction
- Vibro replacement
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 CHOICE OF METHOD
- Type & degree of improvement required
- Type of soil, geological structure
- Cost
- Available equipment
- Time
- Damage to adjacent structures
- Durability (whole life considerations)

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 - to obtain the compaction curve and define the optimum water
content and maximum dry density for a specific compactive effort.

Standard Proctor: Modified Proctor:

hamme
r
3 layers 5 layers

25 blows per layer 25 blows per layer

2.7 kg hammer 4.9 kg hammer

300 mm drop 450 mm drop

1000 ml compaction
mould
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DETAIL STANDARD MODIFIES
COMPACTION COMPACTION

MOULD VOL,CC 1000 1000

DIA,MM 105 105
HEIGHT,MM 115.5 115.5
RAMMER DIA,MM 50 50
DROP,MM 300 450
MASS,KG 2..7 4.9
NO OF LAYERS 3 5
BLOWS/LAYER 25 25
ENERGY INPUT,KJ/M3 597 2703
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Variation of Dry Density With Water

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 Soil grains densely packed
Dry density (d)

- good strength and stiffness

d, max - low permeability

optimum water content Water content

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 Dry density (d)
D - corresponds to 100% saturation
R
Y
D Zero air void curve (S=100%)
E
Gs w
N Eq : d =
S 1 + wGs
I S<100%
T
Y
S>100% (impossible)

All compaction points should lie to the

left of ZAV curve

Water content
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Dry density (d)
Increasing compactive
effort results in:
Lower optimum
water content
E2 (>E1) Higher maximum dry
density

E1

Water content
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Dry density (d) Compaction curves for
different efforts

Line of optimum

Water content
18 18
 Filed Compaction
Different types of rollers (clockwise
from right):
Smooth-wheel roller
Vibratory roller

Pneumatic rubber tired roller

Sheepsfoot roller

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20
 Compaction Control Test
d Compaction
specifications
Compare!
d,field = ?
w
wfield = ?

compacted ground

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 Dynamic Compaction

Pounder (Tamper)
Mass = 5-30 tonne
Drop = 10-40 m
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 In-Situ Improvements
Dynamic Compaction

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 Dynamic Compaction
- pounding the ground by a heavy weight
Suitable for granular soils, land fills
and karst terrain with sink holes.

solution cavities in
Pounder (Tamper) limestone

Crater created by the impact

(to be backfilled)

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 Dynamic Compaction
Existing surface or near surface soil is poor
Repeatedly dropping heavy weight
From high distance
Wrecking ball or designed mass weight
Typical weight range:
2 to 20 ton or higher
Typical dropping distance:
10 to 40 meters
Heavier the weight greater the dropping distance and
greater the compaction effort
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DEEP COMPACTION TECHNIQUES

Dynamic Compaction Applications

- Reduce foundation settlements
- Reduce seismic subsidence
- Permit construction on fills
- Densify garbage dumps
- Improve mine spoils
- Induce settlements in collapsible soils

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 Dynamic Compaction
Used for cohesive and cohesionless soils
Compacting buried refuse
Not done by dropping weight randomly
Closely spaced grid pattern
Preliminary work done to determine:
Grid spacing
Weight
Height
Number of drops (typ. 5 to 10 drops per grid point)
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 Dynamic Compaction
Applicable
Loose sands, fills, mine refuse, collapsible soil and sanitary
landfills
Up to depths of 40-feet
Not typically used in urban areas
25-50 meters clearance to any structure
GWT > 6 below grade or 2 below bottom of craters

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 Dynamic Compaction

Advantages
Relatively inexpensive
Disadvantages
Extremely invasive
Multiple passes required / progressive consolidation
Granular fill to stabilize loose surface soils
Too many drops may cause adjacent heave
Requires careful monitoring

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 Dynamic Compaction

Practical Considerations
Drops from 10-40 meters
Weight 40(+) tons; shape doesnt matter
Stratographic profiling for tamping pattern
Max economic limit = 10 drops/location
Requires horizontal pumps or drains
Vibration sensitivity analysis recommended
Crane Safety Program
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31
 Important terms
Effective depth-max depth of ground improvement
Zone of major densification-About upper 2/3 of effective depth
Energy level-Energy per blow (weight times drop height)
Energy intensity factor- Involves energy level,spacing, no of blows

Typical Dynamic Compaction Program involves

- Weight of 10 to 30 tons
- Drop heights of 17m to 35 m
- Impact grids of 2.5*2.5m to 7*7 m

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Important Dynamic Compaction Geotechnical
Parameters
Soil Conditions
Groundwaterlevel
Relative density
Degree of saturation
Permeability
Important Dynamic Compaction
Construction Conditions
- Min 35-50 m clearance from any structure
- Review site for vibration sensitivity
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34
Limitation

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Suitability of Deposits for Dynamic
Compaction

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Dynamic Compaction Design Steps
Perform site investigation
Development influence diagrams
Develop initial dynamic compaction program
Develop numerical performance prediction
Develop QA/QC plans

Dynamic Compaction Performance Prediction Requires

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Depth of influence of dynamic
compaction

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40
Dynamic Compaction Quality control
Crater depths (map)
Surface elevation monitoring
Decrease in depth of weight penetration with successive drops pore
pressure
Geophysical monitoring
DYNAMIC COMPACTION ACCEPTANCE TESTING
- large scale load test(where CPT &SPT are unreliable
- SPT
- CPT
- Pressuremeter test(PMT)
- Dilatometer Test(DMT)
- Shear-wave velocity profile
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