Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
OBJECTIVES
General:
To determine different types of fuel gases and its uses
To determine the raw materials and manufacturing process involved in
making different types of fuel gases
Specific:
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INTRODUCTION
Fuels are any materials that store potential energy in forms that can be
practicably released and used as heat energy. It is originally applied to the materials
that stores chemical energy that can be released through combustion in particular,
but nowadays, the heat energy can also be in the form of nuclear energy via nuclear
fusion and non-combustion/oxidation, like in fuel cells.
Fuel has three types: solid fuel, liquid fuel, and fuel gas. Any fuel that is
usually composed of hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, hydrogen, or their
combinations, and is gaseous in ordinary conditions is called a fuel gas. The
hydrocarbons mentioned can be methane or propane. Usually, it is transported
directly from its manufacturing plant to the corresponding place of consumption.
Some, however, are liquefying it first for transport.
Fuel gases has its advantages because of its form, this is because it can
avoid the difficulty of transporting solid fuel and the dangers of spillage inherent in
liquid fuels. But on the other hand, it also has its disadvantages, since fuel gases
cannot be detected and collected in certain areas. This can lead to the risk of gas
explosions. To stop this, odorizers are added to most fuel gases so that they can be
detected by a distinct smell.
A. DEFINITION OF TERMS
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B. BRIEF HISTORY
Natural gas was actually known by the ancients, but it was considered
by them to be a supernatural manifestation. Noticed only when ignited, it appeared
as a mysterious fire bursting from fissures in the ground. The use of gas was
mentioned in China about 900 B.C. Apparently, natural gas was unknown in Europe
until its discovery in England in 1659. However, even though this discovery occurs,
the natural gas still remained unpopular.
France's first gas company was also promoted by Frederick Winsor after
he had to flee England in 1814. Unfortunately, the company had failed. To continue
the operation of using manufactured gas as a source of illumination, the government
of France, which was also interested in promoting the industry, commissioned
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Chabrol de Volvic to study the technology and build a prototype plant in 1817, also
in Paris. The plant provided gas for lighting the hpital Saint Louis, and the
experiment was judged successful. This result to a public company that provides
manufactured gas in 1818. Private companies soon followed, and by 1822, when the
government moved to regulate the industry, there were four in operation in the
capital.
Up until 1824, manufactured gas was used as a source of heat and light
and in other industrial companies. The natural gas came in 1824, as one attempts to
harness the natural gas for economic use occurred in Fredonia, New York. This led to
the formation of the first natural gas company in the United States, the Fredonia Gas
Light Company, in 1859. Toward the latter part of the nineteenth century large
industrial cities began to use natural gas.
Soon enough, in 1840, LPG was used for a portable fuel source, and its
use has expanded and developed dramatically ever since. Liquefied petroleum gas is
primarily and widely used in rural areas where piped natural gas is not available. A
large oil company introduced LPG to France in the mid 1930's. And a large gas
company built a bottling plant in Italy, near Venice, in 1938. By the early 1950's,
companies were producing LPG cylinders for household use and these were being
marketed elsewhere under license.
These two broad types of fuel gases are based on their corresponding
sources.
1. Found Naturally
a. Natural Gas
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NATURAL GAS
INTRODUCTION
The Malampaya Deep Water Gas-to-Power project represents the largest and
most significant industrial investment in the history of the Philippines. It heralds the
birth of the countrys natural gas industry that will enable the supply of clean,
environment-friendly fuel slated to provide 2,700 megawatts of power to Luzon for a
period of 20 years starting January 2002. This meets 30% of the whole countrys
power generation requirements (Bayquen, 2007).
Natural gas is a fossil fuel made up of 80% to 95% methane and varying
amounts of ethane, propane, butane and other hydrocarbon compounds and a lesser
percentage of carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and hydrogen sulfide. There will always be
some condensate and/or oil associated with the gas. In its natural state, the gas is
colorless, odorless and lighter than air. It occurs naturally in underground structures
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similar to those containing crude oil. Natural gas has been dubbed the fuel of the
future or green fuel due to its clean qualities relative to other fossil fuels like oil
and coal.
Natural gas possesses remarkable qualities. Among the fossil fuels, it has the
lowest carbon intensity, emitting less CO2 per unit of energy generated than other
fossil fuels. It burns cleanly and efficiently, with very few non-carbon emissions.
Unlike oil, natural gas generally requires limited processing to prepare it for end use.
These favorable characteristics have enabled natural gas to penetrate many markets,
including domestic and commercial heating, multiple industrial processes and
electrical power. Natural gas also has favorable characteristics with respect to its
development and production. The high compressibility and low viscosity of natural
gas allows high recoveries from conventional reservoirs at relatively low cost, and also
enables natural gas to be economically recovered from even the most unfavorable
subsurface environments, as recent developments in shale formations have
demonstrated.
MANUFACTURING PROCESS
The Malampaya Deep Water Gas to Power project delivers gas from an off-shore
gas field to three power plants near the city of Batangas (100 kilometers south of
Manila) in the Philippines. The project consists of an off-shore production platform, a
504 km subsea pipeline, and an on-shore gas treatment plant.
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Malampaya Development
The offshore field contains recoverable natural gas reserves of some 2.7 trillion
cubic feet and 85 million barrels of condensate. The gas is extracted from 2,200
meters below the seabed, which is at a water depth of 830 meters. This project to
extract natural gas deposits from over 3,000 meters below sea level and transport
this to a market over 500 kilometers away posed one of the greatest deep-water
challenges in the world and required the use of the latest in gas technology and
skills.
Gas from five subsea wellheads is transported via two 30 km flow lines to a
production platform that sits in shallow water. On the platform the condensate is
removed from the gas and stored for retrieval by tankers using a catenary anchored
leg mooring (CALM) buoy. Then the gas is compressed for export to the gas treatment
plant through the 504 km pipeline.
For the off-shore platform Yokogawa has delivered all safety systems, including
an inherent safe high integrity pressure protection system (HIPPS) that contains SIL4
loops and two PLCs controlling the emergency shutdown (ESD) and fire & gas (F&G)
functions. As it was a requirement of Shell to standardize on one safety PLC type, the
safety functions of the Cooper Rolls gas compressors (2x) and the solar turbines (3x)
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For the on-shore gas plant, Yokogawa has again delivered all safety systems,
including an inherent safe HIPPS that contains the SIL4 loops, two PLCs for the ESD
and F&G functions, and four safety systems for burner management control. The
safety functions of the solar turbines (2x) are also implemented on Yokogawa
ProSafe-PLC. All Yokogawa safety systems are integrated into one redundant safety
network. The EWS includes a FAST/TOOLS application for maintenance override
scheduling. Via a redundant MULCOM interface, data is transferred via the OPC
protocol to the local DCS.
Three combined-cycle gas turbine power plants are being supplied with the
processed gas to generate power: the 1,000 MW Sta. Rita power plant, the 500 MW
San Lorenzo power plant and the 1,200 MW Ilijan power plant. The National Power
Corporation (NAPOCOR), a government-owned power distribution company, owns the
Ilijan power plant, while First Gas Power Corporation and FGP Corporation are the
developers and operators of the Sta. Rita and San Lorenzo power plants.
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PROCESS FLOW
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Summary
This involves the extraction of gas from a reservoir located 3,000 meters below
sea level. The gas will flow through five sub-sea wellheads to a manifold in 820-meter
water depth, through two 30-kilometer pipelines to a shallow water production
platform where the gas is dried. The dried gas is then transported through a 504-
kilometer sub-sea pipeline from the platform in offshore Palawan to the on-shore gas
plant in Batangas where gas is further processed with the removal of hydrogen
sulfide and finally delivered to three combined-cycle gas turbine power plants.
This natural gas will be used as fuel for three power plants in Batangas, which
can provide up to 2,700 MW of electricity, representing 30% of the installed capacity
of the Luzon grid.
OBJECTIVES
INTRODUCTION
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LPG is highly inflammable and must therefore be stored away from sources of
ignition and in a well-ventilated area, so that any leak can disperse safely.
Another reason why care should be taken during storage is that LPG vapour is
heavier than air, so any leakage will sink to the ground and accumulate in low lying
areas and may be difficult to disperse.
USES
LPG which is otherwise known as Liquefied Petroleum Gas, has many industrial as
well as domestic uses. Some of its uses are:
1. Motor Fuel - The top most use of LPG is to use as the main fuel for vehicles. It
burns better than diesel or petrol and hence, the top most use for LPG is to
use it as ignition fuel. It is also more energy efficient and is said to leave lesser
damaging impact on the atmosphere and the environment. When LPG is used
to fuel internal combustion engines, it is often referred to as auto gas or auto
propane.
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3. Cooking Fuel - The other main use of LPG is as domestic fuel or what we
know as cooking fuel. LPG gas is a combination of propane and butane. Even
these individual components have many domestic uses. Like propane is used
in portable stoves as well as barbeques and butane is used in deodorants and
even gas lighters used to light gas ovens in the kitchens and even cigarettes.
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COMPOSITION
The normal components of LPG are propane and butane. Small concentrations of
other hydrocarbons may also be present. The percentage composition of liquefied
petroleum gas is as follows:
COMPONENT PERCENTAGE
0.20%
Ethane
57.30%
Propane
41.10%
Butane
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1.40%
Pentane
COMPANIES
Solane LPG
PR Gaz
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Liquigaz
PROCESS FLOW
LPG is produced during the oil refining process or is extracted during the
natural gas production process. In the production of liquefied natural gas or LNG,
petroleum gas is one of the by-products. It is separated from the gas stream for
further processing. While in the oil refining process, petroleum gas is one of the
many products that could be produced. The process flow of the production of LPG is
as follows:
DRILLING
EXTRACTION
DISTILLATION
DESULFURIZATION
BOTTLING
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PRODUCTION PROCESS
1. Drilling - A drilling rig drills unto the ground until the oil reservoir is clear of
obstruction and can be extracted using the oil rig.
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2. Extraction - An oil rig extracts the oil from the ground using a stainless rod.
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Hydrogen desulfurized
HYDROTREATER
5. Bottling - The petroleum gas is bottled into what is commonly called LPG tanks or
propane tanks. Because of the pressure inside the tank, the gas liquefies.
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Producer gas
Water gas
Syngas
Coal gas
Wood gas
Blast furnace gas
Biogas
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The reaction is endothermic so the fuel must be continually re-heated to keep the
reaction going. In order to do this, an air stream, which alternates with the vapor
stream, is introduced for the combustion of carbon to take place.
The following table provides a typical range for the composition of syngases. This will
be dependent upon the specific chemical composition of the feedstock to the gasifier.
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CH4 0-15
N2 2-5
d. Coal Gas
Coal gas is a gaseous mixture of mainly hydrogen, methane, and carbon monoxide
and formed by the destructive distillation (i.e., heating in the absence of air) of
bituminous coal and used as a fuel. Sometimes steam is added to react with the
hot coke, thus increasing the yield of gas. Coal tar and coke are obtained as by-
products. (Encyclopedia Britannica, 2008)
e. Wood Gas
Wood gas is a syngas fuel which can be used as a fuel for furnaces, stoves and
vehicles in place of gasoline, diesel or other fuels. During the production
process biomass or other carbon-containing materials are gasified within the oxygen-
limited environment of a wood gas generator to produce hydrogen and carbon
monoxide. These gases can then be burnt as a fuel within an oxygen rich
environment to produce carbon dioxide, water and heat. In some gasifiers this
process is preceded by pyrolysis, where the biomass or coal is first converted to char,
releasing methane and tar rich in polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.
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It is pointed out, that the gas composition is strongly dependent on the gasification
process, the gasification medium (air, oxygen or steam) and the fuel moisture. Steam-
gasification processes typically yield high hydrogen contents, downdraft fixed bed
gasifiers yield high nitrogen concentrations and low tar loads, while updraft fixed bed
gasifiers yield high tar loads.
g. BioGas
Biogas typically refers to a gas produced by the anaerobic digestion or fermentation
of organic matter including manure, sewage sludge, municipal solid waste,
biodegradable waste, energy crops or any other biodegradable feedstock. Biogas is
comprised primarily of methane and carbon dioxide.
One main advantage of biogas is the waste reduction potential. Biogas production by
anaerobic digestion is popular for treating biodegradable waste because valuable fuel
can be produced while destroying disease-causing pathogens and reducing the
volume of disposed waste products.
Biogas burns more cleanly than coal, and emits less carbon dioxide per unit of
energy. The carbon in biogas was recently extracted from the atmosphere by
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photosynthetic plants. Releasing it back into the atmosphere adds less total
atmospheric carbon than burning fossil fuels.
Thus, biogas production kills two birds with one stone: it reduces waste and
produces energy. In addition, the residues from the digestation process can be used
as high quality fertilizer. This closes the nutrient cycle.
Characteristics
Typical composition of
biogas
Methane 50-80 %
Carbon dioxide 25-50 %
Nitrogen 0-10 %
Hydrogen 0-1 %
Hydrogen
0-3 %
sulphide
Use
In addition, biogas can be cleaned and upgraded to natural gas quality. The final
product is biomethane, which has methane content between 95 and 100%. This
biomethane is suitable for all natural gas applications: for instance, it can be fed into
the natural gas grid or used for transport in vehicles.
Raw Materials
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from wood (lignin) because the bacteria in the plant are unable to process this
substance. There are seven categories of organic materials which are suitable
substrates:
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Process Lay-out
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Equipment Lay-out
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Plant Lay-out
Proper design of a mix tank prior to the digester can limit the introduction of
sand and rocks into the anaerobic digester itself. If the digestion processes
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requires a thick manure slurry, a mix tank serves a control point where water
can be added to dry manure or dry manure can be added to dilute manure.
The bacteria can digest any kind of biological material except solid biofuels
with a high quantity of lignin, such as wood.
The bacteria in the methane phase need a longer reproduction time than the
bacteria in the acid phase. Therefore the speed and scale of the fermentation
depend on the metabolism of the methane bacteria. On the other hand the
methane bacteria need the metabolism products from the acid bacteria. Thus,
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they are in symbiosis and the necessary conditions for both bacteria types are
imperative for a smooth flow.
Hydrolysis
In general, hydrolysis is a chemical reaction in which the breakdown of water occurs
to form H+ cations and OH- anions. Hydrolysis is often used to break down larger
polymers, often in the presence of an acidic catalyst. In anaerobic digestion,
hydrolysis is the essential first step, as Biomass is normally comprised of very large
organic polymers, which are otherwise unusable. Through hydrolysis, these large
polymers, namely proteins, fats and carbohydrates, are broken down into smaller
molecules such as amino acids, fatty acids, and simple sugars. While some of the
products of hydrolysis, including hydrogen and acetate, may be used by
methanogens later in the anaerobic digestion process, the majority of the molecules,
which are still relatively large, must be further broken down in the process of
acidogenesis so that they may be used to create methane.
Acidogenesis
Acidogenesis is the next step of anaerobic digestion in which acidogenic
microorganisms further break down the Biomass products after hydrolysis. These
fermentative bacteria produce an acidic environment in the digestive tank while
creating ammonia, H2, CO2, H2S, shorter volatile fatty acids, carbonic acids, alcohols,
as well as trace amounts of other byproducts. While acidogenic bacteria further
breaks down the organic matter, it is still too large and unusable for the ultimate goal
of methane production, so the biomass must next undergo the process of
acetogenesis.
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Acetogenesis
In general, acetogenesis is the creation of acetate, a derivative of acetic acid, from
carbon and energy sources by acetogens. These microorganisms catabolize many of
the products created in acidogenesis into acetic acid, CO2 and H2. Acetogens break
down the Biomass to a point to which Methanogens can utilize much of the
remaining material to create Methane as a Biofuel.
Methanogenesis
Methanogenesis constitutes the final stage of anaerobic digestion in which
methanogens create methane from the final products of acetogenesis as well as from
some of the intermediate products from hydrolysis and acidogenesis. There are two
general pathways involving the use of acetic acid and carbon dioxide, the two main
products of the first three steps of anaerobic digestion, to create methane in
methanogenesis:
While CO2 can be converted into methane and water through the reaction, the main
mechanism to create methane in methanogenesis is the path involving acetic acid.
This path creates methane and CO2, the two main products of anaerobic digestion.
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First, the biogas enters an input separator where the pressure is increased to 2
bars. If the biogas contained any water it will be condensed here together with
some contaminants. Then, the gas is compressed to 10 bars and injected into
the bottom of the scrubber while water is sprayed from the top of the column.
The gas leaving at the top of the scrubber needs to be dried. After this drying
step, the obtained CH4 purity is approximately 98%. The water used in the
process can be regenerated by decreasing the pressure to 1 bar.
The main advantage of high pressure water scrubbing is its simplicity. This
technique only requires water and an absorption column. This technique does
not need any expensive chemicals or equipment so it is also economical feasible.
The water scrubbing process has two main waste streams. The first one is the
air exhaust. This one mainly consists of air with higher than normal percentages
of CO2. But, the stream also contains some H2S which is poisonous and
therefore this stream needs to be treated.
The second waste stream is water that is been purged. The amount of H2S and
CO2 are that low that this stream does not need to be treated.
Companies
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A. Introduction
a. Definition
As mentioned above, there are three types of fuel, the solid, the liquid
and the gas. The fuel gas is further divided into two major divisions according to their
sources, the fuel gas that is found naturally and the fuel gas that is manufactured
from other materials. One type of manufactured fuel gas is the synthesis gas.
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b. Uses
Syngas is a very diverse product with many far reaching and potential
uses. Aside from being a fuel for transportation and other processes itself, it also acts
as an intermediate in creating different products such as:
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B. MANUFACTURING PROCESS
a. Layouts
Process Layout:
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Process Flowchart:
Feedstock
Dehydration Pyrolysis
Preparation
Combustion and
Purification Catalysis
Gasification
b. Raw Materials
Feedstock
Natural Gas
Feedstock
Biomass
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Feedstock
c. Product
d. Manufacturing Process
Chemical Reaction:
CO + H2O CO2 + H2
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subsequent gasification
reactions. The
gasification process
occurs as the char reacts
with carbon and steam to
produce carbon
monoxide and hydrogen.
Chemical Reactions:
For combustion: C + O2
CO2
For gasification: C + H2O
CO2 + H2
Purification The result of gasification CO2 Membrane (removal of
is a raw syngas that is carbon dioxide and
not yet clean enough to nitrogen)
use. A purification
process takes care of
impurities such as
carbon dioxide, water
vapor, methane, sulfur
compounds, tar and ash.
Sulfur is recovered in the
elemental form or as
sulfuric acid and both of
these can be marketed. If Amine Scrubber (removal
syngas contains a of sulphur)
considerable quantity of
nitrogen, the nitrogen
must be separated to
avoid production of nitric
oxides, which are
pollutants and contribute
to acid rain production.
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The gasifier systems mentioned above has three types, according to its
gasifier bed type. All of these types can be used in producing syngas and has the
same mechanism. The only difference between then is the addition of some raw
materials and how the individual process mentioned (dehydration, pyrolysis,
combustion and gasification) are achieved.
This gasifier has a pressurized (up to 2800 kPa) moving-bed system that
operates with either air or oxygen. The feedstock is fed at the top of the gasifier and
steam or oxygen are injected at the bottom. The temperature of gasification is lower
than with the other types of beds. As the feedstock gravitates downward and is
heated, devolatilization took place and, from a temperature of 620 to 760C upward,
devolatilization is accompanied by gasification of the resulting char. The crude gas
leaves the gasifier at temperatures between 370 and 575C, depending on the type of
feedstock.
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In this system, the fuel is fluidized in oxygen and steam or air. The
oxygen and steam is passed through the feedstock, which is granular in form, at high
enough velocities to suspend the solid and cause it to behave as though it were a
fluid. This will form the gas and the ash.
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This gasifier has the highest capacity per unit volume of the three
processes. It produces a gas free of tars and phenols. Also, the overall gas production
rates are higher than either the fixed bed or the entrained bed. However, it requires
high temperatures, to 1900C, and high amounts of oxygen.
In this gasifier, the pulverized feedstock, oxygen and steam are fed
together. The fuel particles must be much smaller than for other types of gasifiers.
This means the fuel must be pulverized, which requires somewhat more energy than
for the other types of gasifiers. The feedstock is then gasified in suspension. The
gasification reactions take place in a dense cloud of very fine particles.
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References
Austin, G. T. (1984). Shreve's Chemical Process Industries (5th ed.). (J. Zseleczky, &
R. Margolies, Eds.) United States of America: McGraw-Hill, Inc.
Clarke Energy. (n.d.). Clarke Energy. Retrieved February 25, 2014, from Syngas
Cogeneration / Combined Heat & Power: http://www.clarke-energy.com/gas-
type/synthesis-gas-syngas/
Gable, C., & Gable, S. (n.d.). about.com. Retrieved February 24, 2014, from What is
Gasification?:
http://alternativefuels.about.com/od/researchdevelopment/a/gasification.htm
Grabianowski, Ed. "How Liquefied Petroleum Gas Works." HowStuffWorks. N.p., n.d.
Web. 23 Feb. 2014.
Lwnertz, P. (2008). ChemRec: Energy to Succeed. Retrieved February 25, 2014, from
The Magic of SynGas:
http://chemrec.se/Syngas_the_link_from_feedstock_to_synthetic_product.aspx
"LPG - Liquefied Petroleum Gas." LPG - Liquefied Petroleum Gas. N.p., n.d. Web. 23
Feb. 2014.
"What Is LPG?" Origin News RSS. ORIGIN, n.d. Web. 24 Feb. 2014.
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