Chapter16

PowerandPolitics

Objectives:

Tounderstand:

Theconceptofpower

Sourcesofpower

Interdepartmentalpower

Illusionofpower

Politicalstrategiesandtactics

Ethics,powerandpolitics

Usingpowertomanageeffectively.

Powerisapervasivepartoforganizationallife,usedbymanagerstoaccomplishgoalsandtostrengthen
theirownpositions.Managersmanipulatepowertoaccomplishgoalsandstrengthentheirown
positions.Successorfailureinusingpowerdependsonunderstandingwhatitis,howandwhentouse
it,andunderstandingitsconsequences.

TheConceptofPower

Powerandinfluence.

Everyinteractionandsocialrelationshipinanorganizationcanbeinterpretedasanexerciseof
power.InfluenceisatransactioninwhichpersonBisinducedbypersonAtobehaveinacertainway.
PersonAhaspoweroverpersonBtotheextentAcangetBtodosomethingthatBwouldotherwisenot
do.

Thedifferencebetweenpowerandinfluenceis:PowerrepresentscapabilitywhileInfluenceisthe
exerciseofthatcapability.Powerisnotanattribute;itisanaspectofarelationship.

ContrastingLeadershipandPower
Leadershipfocusesongoalachievement.Itrequiresgoalcompatibilitywithfollowersandfocuses
influencedownward.

Powerisusedasameansforachievinggoals.Itrequiresfollowerdependency.Itisusedtogainlateral
andupwardinfluence.

Usingpower.

Obtaining,maintaining,andusingpowerareallessentialtoinfluencingbehavior.Dependencyisthe
extenttowhichsomethingpersonAwantscanbeeffectedbypersonBdeterminesA'sdependenceon
B;B'spoweroverAdependsonhowmuchAneedswhatBcontrols.

WhereDoesPowerComeFrom?

A.InterpersonalpowerFrenchandRaven'sfivepowerbases:

1. Legitimatepowerreferstotheabilitytoinfluenceothersbecauseofthepositiononeholdsin
the organization. It is also called authority, or the right to command. Characteristics of organizational
authorityare:I.Itisinvestedinaperson'sposition.

ii.Itisacceptedbysubordinates.iii.Authorityisusedvertically;flowsfromthetopdown.

Zone of indifference possessing formal power, or authority, does not mean that all orders will be
followed.Orderswillbefollowediftheyareacceptabletothesubordinate.Theyliewithinthezoneof
indifference. Unacceptable orders, outside the zone of indifference, will not be readily followed. The
zoneofindifferencemaybewiderornarrower,dependingonsourcesofpowerotherthanauthority.It
maybeshapedbyculturalfactors.

2. Rewardpowerbasedonaperson'sabilitytorewardafollowerforcompliance.Itoccurswhen
someonepossessesaresource thatanotherpersonwantsand willexchangethatresourceforcertain
behavior.Itsupportslegitimatepower.

3. Coercive powerthe power to punish. It is based on fear. It can come from legitimate. It can
comeinformally,e.g.,fearofrejectionbycoworkers.

4. Expert powerbased on an individual's special and valued expertise. The lower the
substitutabilityoftheexpertise,thegreatertheexpert'spower.

5. Referentpowerbasedonanindividual'scharisma(behavioralstyle).

Legitimate, reward, and coercive power come from the organization; expertise and referent power
resideintheindividualandarederivedfrompersonalcharacteristics.Oneormoreofthefivebasesof
powercanbeusedincombination.Theuseofthetypecanaffecttheotherpowerbases(e.g.,theuseof
coercivepowercanreduceanindividual'sperceivedreferentandlegitimatepower).Researchsuggests
that legitimate and reward powers are positively related; coercive power is negatively related to
legitimateandrewardpower.


B.PowerinGroups:

1. Coalitions:areClustersofindividualswhotemporarilycometogethertoachieveaspecific
purpose.Itseekstomaximizetheirsizetoattaininfluence.Coalitionseeksabroadanddiverse
constituencyforsupportoftheirobjectives.Itoccursmorefrequentlyinorganizationswithhightask
andresourceinterdependencies.italsooccurmorefrequentlyiftasksarestandardizedandroutine.

2. SexualHarassment:UnequalPowerintheWorkplace.Unwelcomeadvances,requestsforsexual
favors,andotherverbalorphysicalconductofasexualnature
inaworkenvironmentreasonablyperceivedashostileorabusive.

C.PowerinOrganization

1. StructuralPower.Powerisfrequentlydeterminedbyorganizationalstructure.Structureisthe
controlmechanismbywhichtheorganizationisgoverned.Structureallocatesdecisionmaking
discretiontovariouspositions,affectsthepatternsofcommunicationandtheflowininformationwithin
asystem.Structurecreatesformalpowerbyspecifyingcertainindividualstoperformspecificjobtasks
andmakecertaindecisions.

Otherformsofstructuralpowerexistbecauseof:

a. ResourcesPowerstemsfromaccesstoresources,informationandsupportandtheabilitytoget
cooperationindoingnecessarywork.Atopmanagerhaspoweroveralowerlevelmanagerbecause
he/shecontrolsthelowerlevelmanager'sresources.

b. Decisionmakingpowerhowmuchanindividualorsubunitinfluencesdecisionmakingaffects
theamountofpoweracquired.

c. Informationpowerpoweraccruestothosewithaccesstoimportantinformation(thebasisfor
decisions).

2. InterdepartmentalpowerSubunits/departmentscangainpowerbycontrollingstrategic
contingencieseventsthatarecriticalinaccomplishingorganizationalgoals.Relevanttostrategic
contingencies,subunitpowerisinfluencedbysubunitabilitytocopewithuncertainty,anditscentrality
andsubstitutability.

Copingwithuncertaintythethreetypesofcopingactivitiesare:

a. Copingbypreventionreducingtheprobabilitythatsomeproblemwillarise.

b. Copingbyinformationusinginformation(e.g.,forecasting)topredictif,when,andimpactof
uncertainties(makingthemmorecertain).
c. Copingbyabsorptiondirectlydealingwithuncertaintyasitimpactsthesubunit.

Centralitythedegreetowhichasubunitiscentraltotheorganization'sworkflow(oftenmeasuredby
thedegreetowhichthesubunit'sworkcontributestotheorganization'sfinaloutput).Researchshows
centralitycanbeasignificantsourceofsubunitpower.Subunitswithcentralitysubstantiallyaffectother
units.

Substitutabilitytheabilityofothersubunitstoperformtheactivitiesofaparticularsubunit.The
loweraunit'ssubstitutability,thegreateritspower.

3. EmpowermentCongerandKanungodefineitas"aprocessofenhancingfeelingsofselfefficacy
amongorganizationalmembersthroughtheidentificationofconditionsthatfosterpowerlessnessand
throughtheirremovalbybothformalorganizationalpracticesandinformaltechniquesofproviding
efficacyinformation."

Brownwellnotesfivereasonswhyempowermentisnotuniversallyembraced:

Managersfearthelossofpower,control,andauthority.

Employeesarenotabletomakeresponsibledecisions.

Empoweringemployeeswasattemptedbeforeanditfailed.

Sharingproprietaryinformationmeansleakingideas,plans,andknowledgetocompetitors.

Noteveryonewantstobeempowered.

Stagesofempowerment

a. Identifyingorganizationalconditionsthatleadtomembers'feelingsofpowerlessness.

b. Implementationofempowermentstrategies,e.g.,participativemanagement,andmeritpay.

c. Providinginformationtosubordinatestocreatefeelingsofselfefficacy.

d. Feelingsofempowermentbyorganizationmembers.

e. Empowermentfeelingstranslateintobehaviors.

Empowermentinselfmanagedteams.

EmpowermentisfosteredtwowaysinSMTs:

i. Decisionmakingcontrolisdelegatedtotheteam.

ii. Teammembersacquireadditionalskills,knowledge,andexperiences.


PowerTactics

Waysinwhichindividualstranslatepowerbasesintospecificactions

InfluenceTactics

Legitimacy

Rationalpersuasion

Inspirationalappeals

Consultation

Exchange

Personalappeals

Ingratiation

Pressure

Coalitions

PreferredPowerTacticsbyInfluenceDirection

Upwardinfluencerationalpersuasion

Downwardinfluencerationalpersuasion,inspirationalappeals,pressure,
consultation,ingratiation,exchange,legitimacy

Lateralinfluencerationalpersuasion,consultation,ingratiation,exchange,legitimacy,personalappeals,
coalition

FactorsInfluencingtheChoiceandEffectivenessofPowerTactics

SequencingoftacticsSoftertohardertacticsworkbest

Skillfuluseofatactic

RelativepowerofthetacticuserSometacticsworkbetterwhenapplieddownwardorupward

ThetypeofrequestattachingtothetacticIstherequestlegitimate?Howtherequestis
perceived?Istherequestconsistentwiththetargetsvalues?
 ThecultureoftheorganizationCultureaffectsuserschoiceoftactic

CountryspecificculturalfactorsLocalvaluesfavorcertaintacticsoverothers

IllusionofPower

Someindividualscanbeperceivedashavingmorepowerthantheyreallydo.Theycreateanillusionof
power.Individualsperceivedtobepowerfulcouldsubstantiallyinfluenceothers.

Politics:PowerinAction

PoliticalBehavior

Activitiesthatarenotrequiredaspartofonesformalroleintheorganization,butthatinfluence,or
attempttoinfluence,thedistributionofadvantagesordisadvantageswithintheorganization

LegitimatePoliticalBehaviorNormaleverydaypolitics

IllegitimatePoliticalBehaviorExtremepoliticalbehaviorthatviolatestheimpliedrulesofthegame

PoliticsIsintheEyeoftheBeholder(someexamples)

Political label Effective management label

Blaming others Fixing responsibility

Kissing up Developing working relationship

Apple polishing Demonstrating responsibility

Passing the buck Delegating authority

Covering your rear Documenting decisions

Source:BasedonT.C.Krell,M.E.Mendenhall,andJ.Sendry,DoingResearchintheConceptualMorass
ofOrganizationalPolitics,paperpresentedattheWesternAcademyofManagementConference,
Hollywood,CA,April1987.

FactorsthatInfluencePoliticalBehaviors

Individualfactorshighselfmonitors,internallocusofcontrol,highMachpersonality,Organizational
investment,perceivedjobalternatives,expectationofsuccess

Organizationalfactorsreallocationofresources,promotionopportunities,lowtrust,roleambiguity,
unclearperformanceevaluationsystem,zerosumrewardpractices,democraticdecisionmaking,high
performancepressures,selfservingmanagers.

Politicalbehaviourleadstofavourableoutcomelikerewardsandavertedpunishments.
EmployeeResponsestoOrganizationalPolitics

Perceptionoforganizationalpoliticsleadstodecreasedjobsatisfaction,increasedanxietyandstress,
increasedturnoverandreducedperformance.

PoliticalStrategiesandTactics

Politicallyorientedbehavior(oftenengagedinbyindividualsandsubunits):

1. Usuallyliesoutsidethelegitimatepowersystem.

2. Isdesignedtobenefitanindividual/subunitoftenattheorganization'sexpense.

3. Isintentionalanddesignedtoacquire/maintainpower.

ResearchonPower

Inastudyofpoliticalbehaviorof142purchasingagents,fourprimarypoliticaltacticswereidentified:

a. Ruleevasionevadingtheformalpurchasingprocedures.

b. Personalpoliticalusingfriendshipstofacilitateorinhibittheprocessingofanorder.

c. Educationalattemptingtopersuadeengineeringtothinkinpurchasingterms.

d. Organizationaltryingtochangetheformal/informalinteractionpatternsbetweenengineering
andpurchasing.

InastudyofpoliticalbehaviorintheCaliforniaelectronicsindustry,87managerswerequestionedabout
organizationalpoliticalbehavior.13characteristicswereidentifiedasimportantofwhichArticulateness,
sensitivity,andsocialadeptnessweretheleadingfactors.Thoughagreementwasfairlyhighamong
managers,thereweresomedifferencesdependingontheirlevelintheorganization,probablybecause
oftheirdifferentperspectives.AmbitiousnesswasseenasmoreimportantbyCEOsthanbystaffand
managers.BeinglogicalwasseenasmoreimportantbystaffandmanagersthanbyCEOs.

Playingpoliticspoliticsandpoliticalbehaviorexistineveryorganization.

GameplayingAccordingtoMintzberg,manyindividualsareadeptatplayingpoliticalgames.Mintzberg
identifies13typesofpoliticalgamesplayedbymanagersandnonmanagerstoaccomplishvariousgoals:

i. Toresistauthority(theinsurgencygame).

ii. Tocountertheresistancetoauthority(thecounterinsurgencygame).

iii. Tobuildpowerbases(thesponsorshipgameandcoalitionbuildinggame).

iv. Todefeatrivals(thelineversusstaffgame)andbringaboutorganizationalchange(thewhistle
blowinggame).
Theinsurgencygameplayedtoresistauthority(e.g.,orderedtoreprimandanemployee,aforeman
doesitineffectively).

Politicalinfluencetactics.

Politicaltactics:

a. Consultationseekssupportthroughparticipation.

b. Rationalpersuasionattemptstoshowa"logically"bestcourseofaction.

c. Inspirationalappealsappealstovaluesandideals.

d. Ingratiatingtacticsdesignedtomakeoneobligatedtoanother.

e. Coalitiontacticsseekshelpofotherstopersuadeyou.

f. Pressuretacticsusesdemands,intimidation,orthreatstogainsupport.

g. Legitimatingusedtogainsupportbyclaimingtheauthoritytoaskforyoursupport.

h. PersonalAppealsusedtoappealtoyourfeelingsofloyaltyandfriendshipinordertogainyour
support.

Exchangetacticspromisesthatcompliancewillleadtorewards.

Sometacticsworkbetterininfluencingupward,somedownward,andsomelaterally.Managersprefer
consultation,rationalpersuasion,andinspirationalappeals.Leastappealingwerepressuretactics,
upwardappeals,andexchangetactics.

DefensiveBehaviorsreactiveandprotectivebehaviourstoavoidaction,blameorchange

AvoidingAction

Overconforming

Buckpassing

Playingdumb

Stretching

Stalling

AvoidingBlame

Buffing
 Playingsafe

Justifying

Scapegoating

Misrepresenting

AvoidingChange

Prevention

Selfprotection

Impressionmanagementactiontakentocontroltheimpressionsthatotherformofanindividual.Itis
an universal phenomenon. Effective impression management can be useful, e.g., in an employment
interview. It does not necessarily imply that a false impression is being conveyed.Selfhandicapping
refers to any action taken in advance of an outcome that is designed to provide either an excuse for
failureoracreditforsuccess.Itdesignedtomakethebestofanasyetundeterminedoutcome,e.g.,the
quarterbackwhosayshehasasorearmpriortothegame.

SomeImpressionManagementTechniquesare:

Conformity Agreeingwithsomeoneelsesopinioninordertogainhisorherapproval.

ExcusesExplanationsofapredicamentcreatingeventaimedatminimizingtheapparentseverityofthe
predicament.

Apologies Admittingresponsibilityforanundesirableeventandsimultaneouslyseekingtogeta
pardonfortheaction.

Acclamations Explanationoffavorableeventstomaximizethedesirableimplicationsforoneself.

FlatteryComplimentingothersabouttheirvirtuesinanefforttomakeoneselfappearperceptiveand
likable.

FavoursDoingsomethingniceforsomeonetogainthatpersonsapproval.

Association Enhancingorprotectingonesimagebymanaginginformationaboutpeopleandthings
withwhichoneisassociated.

Ethics,Power,andPolitics

Criteriatobeconsideredinmakingethicaldecisions:

1. Utilitarianoutcomesthegreatestgoodforthegreatestnumber.
2. Individualrightsrespectrightsoffreeconsent,freespeech,freedomofconscience,privacy,
anddueprocess.

3. Distributivejusticebehaveequitablyandfairly,notarbitrarily.

Whenapotentialbehaviorcannotpassthethreecriteriatest,itmaystillbeethicalifitpassesthe
criterionofoverwhelmingfactors:justifybehaviorsby:1.Overwhelmingfactorsinthenatureofthe
situation.2.Conflictswithinthecriteria3.Incapacitytoemploythefirstthreecriteria.

UsingPowertoManageEffectively

A. Recognizingthattherearemultipleinterestsinvirtuallyeveryorganization.

B. Knowingwhatpositionrelevantindividualsandgroupsholdwithrespectto
issuesimportanttooneself.

C. Understandingthattogetthingsdoneonemusthavepower,andinthecaseof
thosewhooppose,onemusthavemorepowerthantheydo.

D.Recognizingthestrategiesandtacticsthroughwhichorganizationalpoweris
developandused.
Questions

1. Discusstheconceptofpower.Whatarethesourcesofpowerinanorganizationdiscusswith
examples.

2. Whatispolitics?Whatarethefactorsthatinfluencepoliticalbehaviour?ElaboratethePolitical
strategiesandtacticsprevalentinorganization.

3. DiscusstherelationbetweenEthics,powerandpolitics.Howcanpowerbeusedtomanage
effectively?

4. Writeshortnoteson(a)Defensivetechniques(b)ImpressionManagement.